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The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) is an interdisciplinary research group dedicated to the study of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. It was established in 2009 as part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS), a constituent body of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). As of 2021, the research group features 37 members, with the physical geographer Simon Turner as Secretary and the geologist Colin Neil Waters as chair of the group. The late Nobel Prize-winning Paul Crutzen, who popularized the word 'Anthropocene' in 2000, had also been a member of the group until he died on January 28, 2021. The main goal of the AWG is providing scientific evidence robust enough for the Anthropocene to be formally ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) as an epoch within the Geologic time scale. Prior to the establishment of the Anthropocene Working Group in 2009, no research program dedicated to the formalization of the Anthropocene in the geologic time scale existed. The idea of naming the current epoch 'Anthropocene' rather than using its formal time unit, the Holocene, became popular after Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer published in May 2000 an article on the IGBP Global Change Newsletter called "The 'Anthropocene'." Later in 2002, Crutzen published a commentary on Nature titled "Geology of Mankind" where he further stressed the idea "to assign the term ‘Anthropocene’ to the present, in many ways human-dominated, geological epoch, supplementing the Holocene," with starting date in the late 18th century (at the onset of the Industrial Revolution). Soon after Paul Crutzen published his influential articles, a debate over the beginning of the Anthropocene took place between supporters of the Early Anthropocene Hypothesis, a thesis originally promoted in 2003 by the palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman dating the beginning of the Anthropocene as far back as the Neolithic Revolution, and supporters of more recent starting dates, from European Colonization of the Americas, to the late 18th century, to the post-WWII Great Acceleration.The discussion over the beginning of the Anthropocene was crucial for the 'stratigraphic turn' that the Anthropocene debate took in the following years. In February 2008, Jan Zalasiewicz and other members of the Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London published a paper that considered the possibility to "amplify and extend the discussion of the effects referred to by Crutzen and then apply the same criteria used to set up new epochs to ask whether there really is justification or need for a new term, and if so, where and how its boundary might be placed." The article raised the possibility of studying the Anthropocene as a discrete geological unit—a possibility that later led to the establishment of the AWG. In 2009, the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy established an Anthropocene Working Group to "examine the status, hierarchical level and definition of the Anthropocene as a potential new formal division of the Geological Time Scale." Some authors have labelled this moment as 'stratigraphic turn' or 'geological turn', in that the establishment of the AWG acknowledged the Anthropocene as an object of geological interest in the scientific community. The AWG has been actively publishing ever since then. The first in-person meeting of the AWG took place in October 2014 at Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin (HKW), with several other work meetings at HKW to follow in subsequent years. The AWG became a close collaborator of the HKW's and Max Planck Institute for the History of Science's decade long Anthropocene Project. Within the framework of that project, HKW was able to acquired in 2018 financial support for a systematic assessment of potential candidates for the Anthropocene's Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) by the AWG through means of a special appropriation from the German Bundestag. In 2020, Colin Waters, previously secretary of the AWG, became the new chair, replacing the paleobiologist Jan Zalasiewicz who had previously been chair of the AWG from 2009 to 2020, while Simon Turner became the new secretary of the group. The Anthropocene Working Group is one of four workings groups part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (the other three being the Pleistocene:Holocene boundary working group, Middle/Late Pleistocene boundary working group, and Early/Middle Pleistocene boundary working group). The AWG members (including Paul Crutzen, who was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1995 for his researcher on ozone depletion; John McNeill, a pioneering researcher in the field of environmental history; and Naomi Oreskes, author of the book Merchants of Doubt) have diverse disciplinary backgrounds, ranging from international law, archaeology, and history to philosophy, natural science, and geography. Since no direct funding supports the research program, communication among members happens mostly through email, whereas meetings are usually founded by hosting institutions.As for most of the epochs in the Phanerozoic (the current Eon, starting 539 million years ago), determining the beginning of the Anthropocene by locating and agreeing upon its lower boundary is a necessary step in its process of formal recognition as a geochronological/chronostratigraphic unit. A lower boundary is defined by locating a GSSP (informally known as 'golden spike') in the stratigraphic section of a stage, the chronostratigraphic taxonomic equivalent of an epoch. Alternatively, if a 'golden spike' cannot be located, a GSSA can be agreed upon, although this methodology is usually implemented for Precambrian boundaries. There is a specific set of rules that a GSSP must fulfill in order to be recognized as a valid primary geologic marker. A central object of research for the AWG is establishing when, where, and how to locate the lower boundary of the Anthropocene. This means assigning a starting date to the Anthropocene (and an end to the Holocene), locating primary as well as auxiliary markers defining Anthropocene geologic record, and determining the proper methodology to implement in the overall process of formalization (GSSP or GSSA, what proxies to use as markers, etc.). Although debates on the taxonomical level of the Anthropocene in the chronostratigraphic chart / geologic time scale (Stage/Age, Series/Epoch, or System/Period) have occurred, the AWG has been considering the Anthropocene to best fit the requirements to be taxonomically recognized as an epoch. In January 2014, the Geological Society of London published A Stratigraphical Basis for the Anthropocene, a collection of scientific essays dedicated to assessing and analyzing the anthropogenic signatures defining the Anthropocene, and its requirements to be recognized as a distinct chronostratigraphic unit from the Holocene. The volume constitutes a landmark publication for the AWG, collecting a preliminary body of scientific evidence for the Anthropocene, and establishing research areas and trajectories retraced in the following years. In February 2019, the AWG published The Anthropocene as a Geological Time Unit: A Guide to the Scientific Evidence and Current Debate. It represents an extensive summary of evidence collected supporting the case of formalization of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. The synthesis comprehends evidence ranging from stratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, mineralogy, biostratigraphy, chemostratigraphy, to climatology, Earth system science, and archaeology. The monograph also links the Anthropocene to the question concerning anthropogenic climate change, and the role of human technology and the technosphere in impacting the functioning of the Earth system. In the first chapter, the authors also provide a genealogy of the term 'Anthropocene,' and a statement of the role of the AWG as a scientific research program. In May, 2019, the AWG completed a binding vote determining two major research questions: "Should the Anthropocene be treated as a formal chrono-stratigraphic unit defined by a GSSP?" "Should the primary guide for the base of the Anthropocene be one of the stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century of the Common Era?" Both questions received a positive response, with 29 votes in favor, 4 votes against, and no abstention (33 votes received out of 34 potential voting members). On July 11, 2023, the AWG proposed Crawford Lake, Canada as GSSP candidate site of the Anthropocene series in a joint press conference with the Max Planck Society. In 2016 seven prominent members of the AWG : Erle Ellis, John McNeill, Eric Odada, Andrew Revkin, Will Steffen, Davor Vidas and Jan Zalasiewicz : were interviewed in the feature documentary Anthropocene which showed on campuses and at film festivals worldwide and helped the term gain public attention. The documentary was the first feature-length film about the new epoch, and was described by Earth.com as one of the top ten documentaries to help raise environmental awareness. While the seven AWG members formed a broad consensus about the Anthropocene's history and the term's significance, they took contrasting views when invited by director Steve Bradshaw to consider the Anthropocene either as a tragedy : with extinctions and upheavals : or as a dark comedy.

Academic_disciplines_0

Academic_disciplines

Applied history is the effort to apply insights grounded in the study of the past to the challenges of the present, particularly in the area of policy-making. Applied history is closely associated with the field of public history, and the terms today are sometimes used interchangeably, though historically, public history has been a more encompassing term, engaging a broad range of audiences, subjects and methods, while applied history has been more narrowly focused on work associated with the development of domestic and foreign policy. The term "applied history" was coined in 1909 by political scientist and historian Benjamin Shambaugh (1871-1940). A founding member of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association (today the Organization of American Historians), Shambaugh edited its proceedings from 1909 to 1914 and served as its president in 1909-1910. In 1912, Shambaugh, then superintendent of the State Historical Society of Iowa, launched the publication Applied History, a series that ran until 1930. Shambaugh defined applied history as "the use of the scientific knowledge of history and experience in efforts to solve present problems of human betterment." Examples included legislative reference work and policy analysis, as well as the creation and stewardship of public archives, and the practice of state and local history.The Applied History series, and related efforts, lost funding during the Great Depression, and "applied history" as an enterprise receded until the 1970s, when it re-emerged in new contexts and forms. In 1974, Harvard University historian Ernest R. May published 'Lessons of the Past': The Use and Abuse Of History in American Foreign Policy, which argues that more substantive engagement with the discipline of history would improve policymaking. May together with Richard Neustadt taught courses in which students were invited to apply historical insight to contemporary social issues; in 1986 May and Neustadt published Thinking in Time: The Uses of History for Decision-Makers. In 1975, historians Joel Tarr and Peter Stearns launched an Applied History program at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh. This Ph.D. program aimed to prepare students for jobs in a variety of public and private educational institutions. In the 1980s, the program changed its name from "Applied History" to "History and Policy". Today there are a number of academic programs in applied history. Shippensburg University hosts a Center for Applied History, and there is an Applied History Project at Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. In Flanders, KU Leuven and the State Archives of Belgium host project Corvus, which uses its research in applied history to develop, test and evaluate different types of historical consultancy. In November 2018, Dutch Historians Harm Kaal (Radboud University) and Jelle van Lottum (Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands) founded the Journal of Applied History, published by academic publisher Brill Publishers.

Academic_disciplines_1

Academic_disciplines

Bolognese bell ringing is a tradition of ringing bells that developed in Bologna, present day Italy. A form of full circle ringing, it entails swinging bells to develop rhythmic patterns. During the 16th century there was a competitive spirit between Rome and Bologna. At that time the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna was still under construction, and was intended to be greater than St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Both cities were part of the Papal States, and both were considered capital cities of art and music.There was also competition between two teams of bell ringers; from Bologna's Basilica of San Petronio and from Rome's Santa Cecilia's Church. Eager to prove their skills, the Bolognese bell ringers devised a regular and accurate method of ringing: each bell would have to ring once per rotation. This method soon spread through the city and its many bell towers, and reached nearby cities such as Ferrara, Modena and Faenza. This bellringing system was originally designed for an ensemble of four or five bells. Nowadays it is also sometimes used for a set of six bells.The bells are never counterbalanced. They are mounted on a wooden structure called the castle, and flanked by a wooden support called the goat. The bells are not very heavy, as the rotation has to be fast. Generally, every bell that weighs less than 800 kg (16 cwt) is rung by one person. The heaviest bell used with this system is in Bologna Cathedral, and is called la Nonna ("the Granny") and weighs 3.3 tonnes. Thirteen people are needed to ring a scappata or a calata with it. In this method, the bell ringers have to be at the top of the bell tower, in contact with the bells. Mechanical devices are not allowed. Bell ringers can ring in two different positions: within the castle (in front of the bells), pulling the ropes and controlling the clapper above the castle, where they can help to raise the bell with their feet and then move it by pulling and pushing the goat. These ringers are called travaroli, because they stand on travi, girders. In Bolognese bell ringing, sets of bells are rung in four different techniques: scampanio ('chime'), doppio a cappio ('double loop'), tirate basse ('low pulls'), and doppio a trave ('double beam').In scampanio, the bells are hung stationary with the mouth facing downwards. The clappers are attached to ropes that the bellringer can control using both hands and feet. This enables the ringing of complex melodies and harmonies. A fundamental melody is martellata di Chiesa, which consists of variations to invoke themes of the 18th century. In doppio a cappio, a set of bells, beginning in the resting position with the mouth facing downwards, are swung using short ropes tied to the goat. The bellringers begin swinging the bells in, sometimes pushing or pulling the clapper to ring the bell when the rotation is not yet sufficient. Using increasingly wide swings, they gradually bring the bell into a "standing position" in which the bell is balancing at the top of its axis with the mouth facing upwards. At this point, the bellringers play a pezzo in piedi ('standing piece') : a rhythmic ringing pattern. At the end of the standing piece, the bells are then swung freely, gradually slowing until they return to the resting position. In tirate basse, the bells are swung continuously with a low enough amplitude that the clapper does not ring the bell. The bellringers rhythmically increase the amplitude of individual rotations to obtain a pattern of notes from the swinging bells. In doppio a trave, probably the oldest of the techniques, the bells are arranged with their mouths facing upwards and thrown into a full swing by the bellringers in a rhythmic pattern. They are caught following each full swing.

Academic_disciplines_2

Academic_disciplines

The Cylinder Audio Archive is a free digital collection maintained by the University of California, Santa Barbara Library with streaming and downloadable versions of over 10,000 phonograph cylinders manufactured between 1893 and the mid-1920s. The Archive began in November 2003 as the successor of the earlier Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Pilot Project. The pilot project began in 2002 to test the feasibility of digitizing cylinder recordings on a large scale for preservation and public access and explore issues related to the preservation and digitization of cylinder records. In 2003, the Institute for Museum and Library Services funded the Archive with a grant for $205,000 and between 2003 and 2005 UCSB library staff cataloged and digitized over 6,000 of the cylinder recordings in the library's collection using an archéophone, a modern electrical cylinder player designed in France by Henri Chamoux. The website was released to the public on November 16, 2005. Since outside project funding has ended a further 4,000 cylinders have been added to the archive.The Archive consists of a broad range of cylinder records manufactured between 1893 and the mid-1920s. The majority were produced by Edison Records in Orange, New Jersey, but the Archive also contains cylinders produced by the Columbia Phonograph Co., Indestructible Records and other companies. The majority of the cylinders feature music and include band recordings, popular songs, vaudeville, opera arias, and music for solo instruments such as banjo, violin and accordion, but the Archive also contains speeches, comedic monologues and home recordings.The Archive currently holds only the cylinders in the collection of the UCSB Libraries. Other libraries, including the Library of Congress and Bowling Green State University, have contributed cylinders for preservation and digitization, as have private collectors. The Archive accepts donations of cylinders but at present does not add digital files of cylinders from other collections, the one exception being cylinders in the collection of John Levin.

Academic_disciplines_3

Academic_disciplines

Drug education is the planned provision of information, guidelines, resources, and skills relevant to living in a world where psychoactive substances are widely available and commonly used for a variety of both medical and non-medical purposes, some of which may lead to harms such as overdose, injury, infectious disease (such as HIV or hepatitis C), or addiction. The two primary approaches to drug education are harm-reduction education and abstinence-based education. Abstinence-based drug education began with the anti-alcohol "temperance education" programmes of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union in the United States and Canada in the late 19th century. In many respects, the WCTU's progressive education agenda set the template for much of what has been done since in the name of drug education.Abstinence-based education programs aim to inform adolescents of illicit drug use in an effort to prevent illegal drug use while highlighting the dangers of problematic substance use and strongly emphasizing abstinence. Many studies have found that school-based abstinence education programs such as D.A.R.E. did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study discovered that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use. The Australian Government has implemented a range of drug education programs through the National Drug Education Strategy (NDES) by providing schools with effective drug education programs. The program aims to manage drug related issues and incidents within schools. The Australian Government Department of Health's Positive Choices portal, released in response to a National Ice Taskforce report, facilitates access to interactive evidence-based drug education resources and prevention programs for school communities. It builds on existing drug education resources developed by researchers at the National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre such as the Climate Schools (now called OurFutures ) programs that have been proven to reduce alcohol and drug related harms and increase student well-being. In addition to government-funded programs, a number of not-for-profit organisations such as Life Education Australia provide drug education programs to adolescents. These preventative programs aim to deliver a progressive approach that will motivate and encourage young people to make positive decisions in life. Emphasis within these programs is also placed in focusing on deterring peer pressure as a means of empowering adolescents and promoting autonomy. This approach reaches 750,000 primary and secondary students in Australia each year. The prevalence of abstinence-based programs declined throughout the early 21st-century following an uptick in substance use and the rise of the opioid epidemic. School-based drug education programs have declined alongside it. In a 2021 survey, only 60% of American 12-17 year-olds reported seeing drug and alcohol preventing messaging in school. D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a program in the United States implemented in 5th grade school classrooms to educate students on the effects of drugs and temptations they may encounter, particularly in later education. The police officers who administer the program can also serve as community models for students. There is no scientific evidence that preventive drug education such as D.A.R.E. is effective, and some evidence that it may actually increase substance use rates in suburban teenagers.Harm reduction education emerged as an alternative to abstinence-based education in the late 20th-century and early 21st-century. Rather than encouraging complete abstinence and aiming to completely eradicate drug use in society, harm reduction education accepts that drug use is inevitable in modern society. It aims to reduce the harms associated with drug use by providing individuals with comprehensive information about the nature of substance use. Harm reduction education aims to improve health, social, and economic measurements rather than aiming primarily to reduce the rate of drug consumption.In the late 1990s and early 2000s, websites dedicated to harm reduction education such as the educational database Erowid and the harm reduction forum Bluelight emerged. Erowid hosts information about hundreds of psychoactive plants and substances, while Bluelight is an online forum on which users discuss harm reduction and drug use. Both sites collectively host about 100,000 experience reports. By the early 2020s, many organizations such as the US government's SAMHSA had shifted from abstinence-based education to harm reduction-based education. A systematic review of abstinence-based school drug education published in 2003 found mixed results on its effectiveness.Many studies conducted in the early 2000s found that school-based abstinence education programs such as D.A.R.E. did not lead to a reduction in substance use, and one study concluded that suburban students who went through the D.A.R.E. program were actually significantly more likely to engage in drug use. A 2012 study published in the journal of Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy came to the conclusion that students aged 13 to 15 who completed a drug and alcohol prevention program were less likely to develop a drug or alcohol problem. Drug education can also occur through public campaigns rather than education programs. Examples include advertising campaigns focused on raising awareness such as the UK Government's FRANK campaign or the US "media campaign". In efforts to prevent substance abuse, drug education may counter-productively perpetuate myths and stereotypes about psychoactive substances and people who use them.Indirect drug education programs such as the UK government's Positive Futures Program may utilize activities such as sports and the arts to indirectly steer young people away from drug use. These programs aim to engage young people by relating to them and putting them in contact with positive role models (coaches/trained youth workers). After building a trusting relationship with a young person, these role models can gradually change attitudes towards drug use and steer the young person back into education, training and employment. This approach reaches young people who have dropped out of mainstream education. It also benefits local communities by reducing crime and anti-social behaviour. Past research into drug education has indicated that effective drug education must involve engaging, interactive learning strategies that stimulate higher-order thinking, promote learning and be transferable to real life circumstances.Studies on school-based programs indicated that professional training and support may be required to increase the effectiveness of teaching staff and the uniform implementation of drug curriculum. A study in 2017 on youth-targeted harm reduction education found that effective harm reduction programming must utilize relatable and meaningful approaches and be connected to youth's lived experience.

Academic_disciplines_4

Academic_disciplines

Environmental studies (EVS or EVST) is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Environmental studies connects principles from the physical sciences, commerce/economics, the humanities, and social sciences to address complex contemporary environmental issues. It is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built environment, and the relationship between them. The field encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and environmental science, as well as associated subjects such as ethics, geography, anthropology, public policy (environmental policy), education, political science (environmental politics), urban planning, law, economics, philosophy, sociology and social justice, planning, pollution control, and natural resource management. There are many Environmental Studies degree programs, including a Master's degree and a Bachelor's degree. Environmental Studies degree programs provide a wide range of skills and analytical tools needed to face the environmental issues of our world head on. Students in Environmental Studies gain the intellectual and methodological tools to understand and address the crucial environmental issues of our time and the impact of individuals, society, and the planet. Environmental education's main goal is to instill in all members of society a pro-environmental thinking and attitude. This will help to create environmental ethics and raise people's awareness of the importance of environmental protection and biodiversity. The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University established a BS in environmental studies degree in the 1950s, awarding its first degree in 1956. Middlebury College established the major there in 1965.The Environmental Studies Association of Canada (ESAC) was established in 1993 "to further research and teaching activities in areas related to environmental studies in Canada". ESAC was officially integrated in 1994, and the first convention for ESAC was held at the Learned Societies Conference in Calgary the same year. ESAC's magazine, A\J: Alternatives Journal was first published by Robert A. Paehlke on 4 July 1971. In 2008, The Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences (AESS) was founded as the first professional association in the interdisciplinary field of environmental studies in the United States. The AESS is also the publisher for the Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (JESS), which aims to allow researchers in various disciplinarians related to environmental sciences to have base for researchers to use and publish new information related to environmental studies. In 2010, the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE) agreed to advise and support the association. In March 2011, The association's scholarly journal, the Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (JESS), commenced publication. Environmental Studies in U.S. Universities In the United States, many high school students are able to take environmental science as a college-level course. Over 500 colleges and universities in the United States offer environmental studies as a degree. The University of California, Berkeley has awarded the most degrees in environmental studies for U.S. universities, with 409 degrees awarded in 2019. The universities in the United States that have the highest percentage of degrees awarded is Antioch University-New England, where nearly 35% of degrees awarded in 2019 were in environmental studies. Worldwide, programs in environmental studies may be offered through colleges of liberal arts, life science, social science, or agriculture. Students of environmental studies use what they learn from the sciences, social sciences, and humanities to better understand environmental problems and potentially offer solutions to them. Students look at how we interact with the natural world and come up with ideas to prevent its destruction.In the 1960s, the word "environment" became one of the most commonly used in educational discourse in the United Kingdom. Educationists were becoming increasingly worried about the influence of the environment on children as well as the school's usage of the environment. The attempt to define the field of environmental studies has resulted in a discussion over its role in the curriculum. The use of the environment is one of the teaching approaches used in today's schools to carry on the legacy of educational philosophy known as 'Progressive education' or 'New education' in the first part of the twentieth century. The primary goal of environmental studies is to assist children in understanding the processes that influence their surroundings so that they do not stay a passive, and often befuddled, observer of the environment, but rather become knowledgeable active mediators of it. The study of the environment can be considered to offer unique chances for the development and exercise of the general cognitive skills that Piaget's work has made educators aware of. Environmental studies are increasingly being viewed as a long-term preparation for higher environmental studies such as Sociology, Archaeology, or Historical Geography.

Academic_disciplines_5

Academic_disciplines

Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life (1765) is an educational treatise by the 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley. Dedicated to the governing board of Warrington Academy at which Priestley was a tutor, the treatise argues that the education of young people should anticipate their practical needs, something Priestley accused the current universities, Dissenting and Establishment alike, of failing to do. In Priestley's eyes, the contemporary focus on a traditional classical education prevented students from acquiring useful skills. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class businessmen. He proposed that students should study the English language and the modern languages instead of the classical languages, learn practical mathematics, read modern history rather than ancient history, and study the constitution and laws of England. He believed that these topics would prepare his students for the commercial middle-class life that most of them would live; he did not believe that the poor people should receive this same education, arguing "it could be of no service to their country, and often a real detriment to themselves."The board was convinced and in 1766 Warrington Academy replaced its classical curriculum with Priestley's liberal arts model.Some scholars of education have argued that this work and Priestley's later Miscellaneous Observations relating to Education (1778) (often reprinted with the Essay on Education) made Priestley the "most considerable English writer on educational philosophy" between the 17th-century John Locke and the 19th-century Herbert Spencer.

Academic_disciplines_6

Academic_disciplines

Legal archaeology is an area of legal scholarship "involving detailed historical reconstruction and analysis of important cases." While most legal scholars confine their research to published opinions of court cases, legal archaeologists examine the historical and social context in which a court case was decided. These facts may show what social and cultural forces were at work in a particular case. Professors can use legal archaeology to "sensitize students as to how inequality, specifically with regard to race, gender and class affects what occurs throughout the cases they study." A legal archaeologist may also research biographical material on the judges, attorneys, and parties to a court case. Such information may show whether a judge held particular biases in a case, or whether one party had superior legal representation that caused the party to prevail in a case.

Academic_disciplines_7

Academic_disciplines

Literary nonsense (or nonsense literature) is a broad categorization of literature that balances elements that make sense with some that do not, with the effect of subverting language conventions or logical reasoning. Even though the most well-known form of literary nonsense is nonsense verse, the genre is present in many forms of literature. The effect of nonsense is often caused by an excess of meaning, rather than a lack of it. Its humor is derived from its nonsensical nature, rather than wit or the "joke" of a punch line. Literary nonsense, as recognized since the nineteenth century, comes from a combination of two broad artistic sources. The first and older source is the oral folk tradition, including games, songs, dramas, and rhymes, such as the nursery rhyme "Hey Diddle Diddle". The literary figure Mother Goose represents common incarnations of this style of writing.The second, newer source of literary nonsense is in the intellectual absurdities of court poets, scholars, and intellectuals of various kinds. These writers often created sophisticated nonsense forms of Latin parodies, religious travesties, and political satire, though these texts are distinguished from more pure satire and parody by their exaggerated nonsensical effects. Today's literary nonsense comes from a combination of both sources. Though not the first to write this hybrid kind of nonsense, Edward Lear developed and popularized it in his many limericks (starting with A Book of Nonsense, 1846) and other famous texts such as "The Owl and the Pussycat", "The Dong with a Luminous Nose", "The Jumblies" and "The Story of the Four Little Children Who Went Around the World". Lewis Carroll continued this trend, making literary nonsense a worldwide phenomenon with Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871). Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky", which appears in the latter book, is often considered quintessential nonsense literature. In literary nonsense, certain formal elements of language and logic that facilitate meaning are balanced by elements that negate meaning. These formal elements include semantics, syntax, phonetics, context, representation, and formal diction. The genre is most easily recognizable by the various techniques or devices it uses to create this balance of meaning and lack of meaning, such as faulty cause and effect, portmanteau, neologism, reversals and inversions, imprecision (including gibberish), simultaneity, picture/text incongruity, arbitrariness, infinite repetition, negativity or mirroring, and misappropriation. Nonsense tautology, reduplication, and absurd precision have also been used in the nonsense genre. For a text to be within the genre of literary nonsense, it must have an abundance of nonsense techniques woven into the fabric of the piece. If the text employs only occasional nonsense devices, then it may not be classified as literary nonsense, though there may be a nonsensical effect to certain portions of the work. Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy, for instance, employs the nonsense device of imprecision by including a blank page, but this is only one nonsense device in a novel that otherwise makes sense. In Flann O'Brien's The Third Policeman, on the other hand, many of the devices of nonsense are present throughout, and thus it could be considered a nonsense novel.Gibberish, light verse, fantasy, and jokes and riddles are sometimes mistaken for literary nonsense, and the confusion is greater because nonsense can sometimes inhabit these (and many other) forms and genres.Pure gibberish, as in the "hey diddle diddle" of nursery rhyme, is a device of nonsense, but it does not make a text, overall, literary nonsense. If there is not significant sense to balance out such devices, then the text dissolves into literal (as opposed to literary) nonsense. Light verse, which is generally speaking humorous verse meant to entertain, may share humor, inconsequentiality, and playfulness with nonsense, but it usually has a clear point or joke and does not have the requisite tension between meaning and lack of meaning. Nonsense is distinct from fantasy, though there are sometimes resemblances between them. While nonsense may employ the strange creatures, other worldly situations, magic, and talking animals of fantasy, these supernatural phenomena are not nonsensical if they have a discernible logic supporting their existence. The distinction lies in the coherent and unified nature of fantasy. Everything follows logic within the rules of the fantasy world; the nonsense world, on the other hand, has no comprehensive system of logic, although it may imply the existence of an inscrutable one, just beyond our grasp. The nature of magic within an imaginary world is an example of this distinction. Fantasy worlds employ the presence of magic to logically explain the impossible. In nonsense literature, magic is rare but when it does occur, its nonsensical nature only adds to the mystery rather than logically explaining anything. An example of nonsensical magic occurs in Carl Sandburg's Rootabaga Stories, when Jason Squiff, in possession of a magical "gold buckskin whincher", has his hat, mittens, and shoes turn into popcorn because, according to the "rules" of the magic, "You have a letter Q in your name and because you have the pleasure and happiness of having a Q in your name you must have a popcorn hat, popcorn mittens and popcorn shoes". Riddles only appear to be nonsense until the answer is found. The most famous nonsense riddle is only so because it originally had no answer. In Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, the Mad Hatter asks Alice "Why is a raven like a writing-desk?" When Alice gives up, the Hatter replies that he does not know either, creating a nonsensical riddle. Some seemingly nonsense texts are actually riddles, such as the popular 1940s song Mairzy Doats, which at first appears to have little discernible meaning but has a discoverable message. Jokes are not nonsense because their humor comes from their making sense, from our "getting" it, while nonsense is funny because it does not make sense, we do not "get" it. While most contemporary nonsense has been written for children, the form has an extensive history in adult configurations before the nineteenth century. Figures such as John Hoskyns, Henry Peacham, John Sandford, and John Taylor lived in the early seventeenth century and were noted nonsense authors in their time. Nonsense was also an important element in the works of Flann O'Brien and Eugène Ionesco. Literary nonsense, as opposed to the folk forms of nonsense that have always existed in written history, was only first written for children in the early nineteenth century. It was popularized by Edward Lear and then later by Lewis Carroll. Today, literary nonsense enjoys a shared audience of adults and children.None of these writers is considered exclusively a "nonsense writer". Some of them wrote texts considered to be in the genre (such as Lear, Carroll, Gorey, Lennon, Sandburg), while others only use nonsense as an occasional device (such as Joyce, Juster). All of these writers wrote outside of the nonsense genre also.Bob Dylan wrote some lyrics that contain nonsense techniques, especially around the mid-1960s, in songs like "Bob Dylan's 115th Dream" and "Tombstone Blues".David Byrne, of the art rock/new wave group Talking Heads, employed nonsensical techniques in songwriting. Byrne often combined coherent yet unrelated phrases to make up nonsensical lyrics in songs such as: "Burning Down the House", "Making Flippy Floppy" and "Girlfriend Is Better". This tendency formed the basis of the title for the Talking Heads concert movie, Stop Making Sense. More recently, Byrne published Arboretum (2006), a volume of tree-like diagrams that are "mental maps of imaginary territory". He continues, explaining the aspect of nonsense: "Irrational logic : [...]. The application of logical scientific rigor and form to basically irrational premises. To proceed, carefully and deliberately, from nonsense, with a straight face, often arriving at a new kind of sense." Syd Barrett, founder of Pink Floyd, was known for his often nonsensical songwriting influenced by Lear and Carroll that featured heavily on Pink Floyd's first album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn. The cartoonist Glen Baxter's comic work is often nonsense, relying on the baffling interplay between word and image. The Tomfoolery Show was an American cartoon comedy television series based on the nonsense works of Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll, and others. Zippy the Pinhead, by Bill Griffith, is an American strip that mixes philosophy, including what has been called "Heideggerian disruptions", and pop culture in its nonsensical processes. Nick Kershaw unintentionally created a nonsensical riddle with his single "The Riddle". He originally wrote gibberish lyrics as a placeholder, but decided to keep them. After the release the public thought the lyrics contained a real riddle, and MCA marketing went along with it, creating widespread fruitless speculation.

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The M.E.M. (Master of Environmental Management) is a degree designed for students with primary interests in careers in environmental policy and analysis, stewardship, education, consulting, or management dealing with natural resource or environmental issues. The program requires course work in both the natural and social sciences, with a particular focus on the relationship among science, management, and policy. The ultimate purpose of the degree program is to prepare students to address ecological and social systems with scientific understanding and an ability to make sense of the complex underlying social and ecological context. The value of an interdisciplinary environmental degree is best espoused by Aldo Leopold, who obtained a Master of Forestry degree. "One of the requisites for an ecological comprehension of land is an understanding of ecology, and this is by no means co-extensive with 'education'; in fact, much higher education seems deliberately to avoid ecological concepts. An understanding of ecology does not necessarily originate in courses bearing ecological labels; it is quite as likely to be labeled geography, botany, agronomy, history, or economics. This is as it should be...". The "Big Four" Master of Environmental Management programs are: University of California, Santa Barbara - Bren School of Environmental Science and Management Duke University - Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth and Ocean Sciences University of Michigan - School of Natural Resources and Environment Yale University - School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Other programs include: Portland State University - College of Liberal Arts & Sciences University of San Francisco - Master of Science in Environmental Management University of Maryland University College - Master of Science in Environmental Management Western Colorado University - Master in Environmental Management University of Connecticut - Master of Energy and Environmental Management : Online Many of these schools also offer joint degrees, where the MEM is paired with an MBA, MPP, JD, or M.Div.

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Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. The field, which is mostly a sub-discipline of aesthetics, is defined by an interest in a set of problems, or an interest in central or foundational concerns in design. In addition to these central problems for design as a whole, many philosophers of design consider these problems as they apply to particular disciplines (e.g. philosophy of art). Although most practitioners are philosophers specialized in aesthetics (i.e., aestheticians), several prominent designers and artists have contributed to the field. For an introduction to the philosophy of design see the article by Per Galle at the Royal Danish Academy of Art.

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The Art Assignment is a PBS Digital Studios webseries focused on contemporary art that debuted in February 2014. The Art Assignment is hosted by Sarah Urist Green who was a curator of contemporary art for the Indianapolis Museum of Art from 2007 to 2013. Green's goal for this web series is to demystify the art making process and educate people on contemporary art and how it can be “accessible and social, rather than distant or intimidating”. Green travels the United States to meet and talk with various artists about their art; the artists then give an "assignment" to the audience. The series teaches its audience about contemporary art while providing historical context for the art. The audience is asked to participate by completing the "assignments" and continuing the conversation about art in the comments and on social media. The artists included in the series explore art history through the lens of the present with framing by Green. These artists include: Jesse Sugarmann, Alex Soth, Sonja Clark, Hope Ginsburg, Maria Gaspar, Molly Springfield, Michelle Grabner, Kim Beck, Jon Rubin, Jonn Herschend & Will Rogan, Allison Smith, Tameka Norris, Lee Boroson, Nina Katchadourian, Kate Gilmore, and Deb Sokolow. Green's husband John Green is executive producer of the series. There are over 50 videos in the Assignment Episodes playlist, and each one features one or more artists, their styles, and a brief biography of how they developed their particular aesthetic. Their assignments relate to either their style or a valuable topic to them. Each video features a clip called "Who's Done Stuff Like This Before" to examine the art history behind the ideas the contemporary artists present. The audience sees what the artists did as their assignment, from the methodology to the execution and final result. The artists often reflect on their choices and the trial and error process in the project. The final step in each assignment is to document the experience in any form, and upload it to any form of social media with the hashtag #TheArtAssignment, and it could be featured in the show.Episode 1: Meet in the Middle with Douglas Paulson and Christopher RobbinsThe first official Assignment in which Sarah Urist Green and John Green introduce artists Douglas Paulson and Christopher Robbins. The two artists have collaborated in the past, and the video mentions their previous work and how they met personally. The instructions are to pick a friend, and calculate the exact midpoint between the two participants. After participants decide on a date and time to meet, they don't communicate until then, and document the experience using any medium of their choice. Episode 2: Stakeout! with Deb Sokolow Green talks with the Chicago-based artist Deb Sokolow about her style and how she developed it over time. Her pieces are huge and layered with text, images, and diagrams to tangle and de-tangle stories. This assignment plays with the relationship between the observer and the observed. The instructions are to find an object, place it in a public spot so strangers can interact with it, and pick a location to observe. Similar to the first episode, people record their observations using any medium of their choice. This video series features various artists and art movements and delves into the impact and value they have in history. The narrator includes how the style of a movement or individual creators began and the following positive and negative reception. This segment covers artists from both past and present stemming from various ethnicities and nationalities. The videos cover a wide range of mediums, and the playlist includes minimalism, abstraction, and performance art and highlights creative minds such as Andy Warhol, Mark Rothko, Kanye West, Yoko Ono, and Ai Weiwei.Another playlist called Art Trip delves into the art history and culture in cities around the world. Currently the Art Assignment team has visited London, Tijuana, Los Angeles, Richmond, Washington D.C., the Twin Cities, and Chicago. The videos overview many national and local museums, current exhibits, and local artists.This playlist is a collection of miscellaneous topics and behind the scenes videos. Some deconstruct a bit of the mystery within the art world such as "What's a Curator?" and "How to Learn About Contemporary Art" while others give tips for art assignments and showcase a variety of artists like "Fierce Women of Art 1".This segment has an "art hotline" with an actual phone so viewers can call in their questions about art. The number is 901-602-ARTY (2789). The questions range from personal advice to opinions on current issues in the art world and much more.There are 24 assignment response videos which can feature over a hundred creations per video. The Phoenix New Times and Indianapolis Star both covered the show after the first episode aired on February 20, 2014. Despite its birth on the internet, The Art Assignment made it into real life with a physical exhibit in August 2016 that NUVO reviewed. It featured the work of three Indianapolis artists : Brian McCutcheon, Nathaniel Russel, and Lauren Zoll : who have previously given out assignments.

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The Problems of Genocide: Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression is a 2021 book by Australian historian A. Dirk Moses. The book explores what Moses sees as flaws in the concept of genocide, which he argues allows killings of civilians that do not resemble the Holocaust to be ignored. Moses proposes "permanent security" as an alternative to the concept of genocide. The book was described as important, but his emphasis on security is considered only one factor to be causing mass violence. A. Dirk Moses is an Australian historian, much of whose work has focused on genocide studies, including editing the Journal of Genocide Research. According to Moses, he decided to write the book in the mid-2000s to express his misgivings about the concept of genocide, in the form of "A non-teleological intellectual history... that exposed genocide’s problematic function in obscuring the logic of 'permanent security' in what I call the 'language of transgression'." The book draws on Moses' earlier work on settler colonialism, liberal imperialism, comparative genocide studies, and the history of violence. Moses is not the first to propose alternatives to genocide; historian Christian Gerlach coined the term "extremely violent societies" to broaden attention from genocide as a state crime. The book was published about the same time as Moses initiated the catechism debate, arguing that German Holocaust remembrance has shut down criticism of colonialism and racism.Moses argues that genocide is not just a problem because of the human suffering inherent in the phenomenon, but also how the concept of genocide, because of its position as the "crime of crimes", "blinds us to other types of humanly caused civilian death, like bombing cities and the 'collateral damage' of missile and drone strikes, blockades, and sanctions".Moses introduces the concept of "permanent security", which is distinguished from other security imperatives by being anticipatory and characterized by a paranoid threat perception. Moses distinguishes two types of permanent security, illiberal and liberal. Illiberal permanent security "entails preventative killing of presumed future threats to a particular ethnos, nation, or religion, in a bounded 'territoriality'". Liberal permanent security often develops in opposition to illiberal permanent security, and aims to secure the entire world in the name of humanity. Moses argues that permanent security underpins the three mass atrocity crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, because prejudice does not cause violence without the securitization of the other. He argues that permanent security should be criminalized. The third section of the book covers Holocaust memory and comparative genocide studies. Moses argues that the concept of genocide depoliticized earlier ways of talking about mass violence (the language of transgression), and the ongoing view of genocide as a depoliticized crime normalizes types of violence that cannot be analogized to the Holocaust. Sinja Graf praised the book as "written from an unrelenting concern for the sanctity of human lives" and "a landmark study that redefines perspectives on mass atrocities across political science, history, and international law". Syrian dissident Yassin al-Haj Saleh considers the book important and relevant for Syria and the Arab world, advocating translation into Arabic. However, he considers Moses' proposal to criminalize permanent security not feasible. Historian Taner Akcam calls the book "the most comprehensive critiqueproduced thus far on the concept of genocide" and a foundational work. Historian Omer Bartov described the book as "an erudite, complex, and in many parts quite fascinating read", but says that Moses fails to propose a viable alternative to the concept of genocide. Some Holocaust historians accused Moses of promoting a conspiracy theory by which Raphael Lemkin, a major supporter for the inclusion of genocide in international law, was a Jewish exclusivist and only concerned regarding the Jews under Nazi rule. However, according to Dan Stone, Moses' reading, although debatable, "is well within the norms of intellectual history"; furthermore, it is not the focus of the book. Security studies researcher Beatrice de Graaf says that the book is "crucially important in shattering consolidated legal, political scientific and historiographical positions on genocide, international law and security". Nevertheless, she is critical of Moses' conception of permanent security, arguing that he overlooks earlier work in historical and critical security studies exploring the totalizing instinct of state security in general, and his argument would be stronger if he covered the origins of the preventative security paradigm in Europe around 1800. According to reviewer Ulrike von Hirschhausen, Moses ignores recent research on how indigenous people used the "language of transgression" to resist colonialism, and flattens the complicated reality of historical empires by presenting them as totalizing, when in fact these empires attempted to manage difference, not wipe it out. Furthermore, Moses' focus on security has recognized as a significant factor in incidents of genocidal violence, but is a monocausal explanation that cannot explain genocidal violence by itself. Von Hirschhausen states, "In the age of nationalism however, both colonisers and the colonised turned ethnicity, not security, into the most effective means to mobilise intervention in favour of or against imperial rule." The obsession of Nazis and other antisemites with "racial hygiene" and the euthanasia killings cannot be explained through a securitization framework. Moses does not engage with the argument of Götz Aly that greed and acquisitiveness, both in terms of individual perpetrators enriching themselves and Germany's desire to dominate Europe and live on plunder, were among the primary motivators of Nazi criminality.

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The Sexual Contract is a 1988 non-fiction book by British feminist and political theorist Carole Pateman which was published through Polity Press. This book is a seminal work which discusses how contract theory continues to affirm the patriarchy through methods of contractual submission where there is ultimately a power imbalance from systemic sexism. The focus of The Sexual Contract is on rebutting the idea that a post-patriarchal or anti-patriarchal society presently exists as a result of the conception of a civil society. Instead, Pateman argues that civil society continues to aid feminine oppression and that the orthodoxy of contracts such as marriage cannot become equitable to both women and men. Pateman uses a feminist lens when rationalising the argument proposed in The Sexual Contract through the use of works by classic political and liberal philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and later interpreted by the Founding Fathers whom Pateman has before critiqued as being responsible for the development of modern rights and freedoms derived from archaic standards of contract that are deeply embedded within Western Spheres, particularly America, England and Australia, which are the focus areas for her work. Carole Pateman when writing The Sexual Contract used her previous background in political theory as support to substantiate a feminist commentary and critique on the nature of contracts as tools to control womanhood establishing how "the original contract constitutes men's freedom and women's subjection". Pateman writes within the confines of the Western Tradition which presents both how this tradition excludes women and how it fundamentally supported female oppression in western political and legal thought. Pateman elucidates how The Sexual Contract as a theory is rooted in how the period of enlightenment was essentially led by men for the liberation of men with the quote Liberté, égalité, fraternité excluding the liberation of women through language used within this period, effectively fashioning the beginnings of modern patriarchy. Pateman voices this in order to demonstrate her point that social contracts based upon these ideas of liberty are inherently skewed to favor the sex-right of men and the subordination of women to sustain social contract therefore becoming a sexual contract which inhibits the autonomy of women.The Sexual Contract is divided into eight chapters. Pateman utilizes 'feminist storytelling' structures to illustrate contract theory from its origins to its contemporary implications. Pateman displays how contracts affect womanhood in a multitude of ways such as economic and sexual capitalisation, that is exploited from women through marriage, prostitution and surrogacy. The Sexual Contract reveals the complications associated with contract theory and how "Feminists therefore cannot 'reform' those parts of political theory, they must start anew and from scratch".The articulation throughout the book is that contractarian theory cannot be amended in a progressive manner. Contracts always initiate a political right entailing an intrinsically dominant and subordinate party. Moreover, The Sexual Contract explores how the basis of Western society is built upon the contractual oppression of women in order to uphold a patriarchal regime, depicting how in the wake of social contract between enlightened men there exists "another contract, the sexual contract, by which men gain possession of women." Pateman pays close attention to the contract obligations associated with marriage: "Women are incorporated into society via the marriage contract but they may enter such a contract not as equal individuals but as natural subordinate". Marriage acts as a way to gain "sexual access" to a woman's body and the "labour" she provides as a wife." It is regarded as a major institution in society: "the institution of marriage gives each husband the capacity, if he so wishes, to ill-treat his wife." The institution of marriage is established as "legal prostitution", an entity comparable to a labour contract, wherein the master (husband) enters into this contract with the servant (housewife) as a subordinate. According to Thomas Hobbes' state of nature, the "conquering" of a woman within the marriage contract leads to the wife's submission as a sexual servant, rendering her the property of the husband who is recognised as the proper member of civil and contractual society. Pateman's issue with marriage begins with how institutionally becoming a 'husband' gives patriarchal right over the 'wife'.The example of prostitution is utilised by Pateman to explain how the patriarchy manages to create sexual capital off the sexual labour of women. Using the 'story' of the sexual contract, it becomes apparent that "prostitution is part of the exercise of the law of male sex-right" ensuring continued access to women's bodies. 'The prostitution contract' is outlined by Pateman to be an example of an 'original' sexual contract, becoming a precursor to the metaphorical prostituting of the worker for capital, within civil patriarchal society. Pateman deduces that contractarians defend prostitution as a form of labour explaining that prostitution contracts are similar to employment contracts. This, Pateman shows, is a rationale for enduring affirmation of male sex-right and the monetization of women's bodies, legitimising how prostitution affirms patriarchal status.Surrogacy as an example is used throughout The Sexual Contract to create a dialogue on how women's bodies have become legitimized capital in contemporary society. Pateman outlines how this is a result of the sexual contract imposed onto women similar to the contracts associated with prostitution. The surrogacy contract is another facet of the sexual contract providing a new form of access to women's bodies. The issue within the surrogacy contract is that its aspects are inherently class-based, that is, working-class women are attracted to the financial aspect of this contract, but are ultimately not equal to the party that benefits from the time and nature of the service they are providing. Pateman uses the words of John Locke as an example on the differences between a surrogacy contract and prostitution contract, where although men don't use direct sexual use of a woman's body for surrogacy, the 'mixing of the man's seed' with the 'woman's uterus' if performed 'faithfully' results in a child essentially owned by the male party. Patemans argues the intervention of women within civil society demonstrates how the surrogacy contract remains a part of a dependence on female sexuality and how it is not the discretion of the woman which is valued in the contract but instead her body which is used by society.The Sexual Contract concludes with Pateman stating how the original contract is a political fiction that belongs to modern patriarchy. There is no true origin to the original contract; instead, it exists as a progression to liberty but only the liberty of certain individuals. The crux of the issue as outlined by Pateman is that political and legal liberty need to be discussed and explored from a perspective different from a traditionalist one. Pateman seeks in her work to elaborate more thoroughly on the issues with civil society and how it cannot be established as equal because of its patriarchal origins. It instead must be dismissed and re-established to become equitable between the sexes. Women can never truly become individuals because their bodies cannot be forgotten by their male counterparts. A contract between men and women is influenced because of the ideal of embodied feminine beings which can never truly exist, as individuals like men can, with civil society.The Sexual Contract received the 2005 Benjamin E. Lippincott Award, sponsored by the American Political Science Association, 17 years after it was initially published. The book has been widely used as an example of work that transcends mainstream academic work being called a "challenging and thought-provoking" work, it has been cited in a number of journals on political theory and feminism and translated into Polish, French, Turkish, Portuguese, Spanish, Croatian and Slovak. The Sexual Contract has remained a relevant and valid addition to feminist theory and is still a work often referenced across many fields of discipline. Thirty years after its initial publication, an anniversary edition of The Sexual Contract was published to celebrate the impact it had on political and feminist theory with the addition of a new preface from the author.Pateman states how The Sexual Contract was written specifically with Anglo countries in mind, directly addressing the common-law traditions present within these spheres; however, it has become evident that Pateman's work speaks to a number of experiences from different cultures. An issue in criticisms directed at The Sexual Contract is a contextual problem from when Pateman was writing : the issue of essentialism, taking her nuanced arguments from specific portions of the work without concern for the uniting thread on how The Sexual Contract is most importantly a portrait on how "sexual difference as political difference" between the sexes, is based within the knowledge and works of classic theorists.The Sexual Contract has become an important work within the context of understanding the intersection between womanhood and political and legal theories with Pateman's work, becoming an entity which "challenges assumptions made in political theory and it has become a classic second-wave feminist text". Pateman's work manages to continue to establish how modern society continues to support the institutional contract which ultimately continues to oppress women. Even with the social change that has occurred over the past thirty years, the increase in migration and the radical changes in working-class industries such as mining and printing, The Sexual Contract with its subsequent theories endures the passage of time with relative ease. The Sexual Contract "has been informed by her [Pateman's] understanding of feminism as a call to keep focused on the big picture, speaking truth to power." Its impact on understandings of law and gender has reached beyond its initial 1988 release. It continues to be consistent with issues within modern movements such as the #MeToo movement which highlights the struggle of supported celebrity women, but skips over women unable to voice their experiences of harassment in case of retaliation from social and economic spheres. This is where Pateman's text supports the idea on how "the un-silencing of women in contemporary society is only partial."The criticisms of Pateman's argument have focused on her emphasis on the argument of the sexual contract, and the relationship this has with Hobbes' and Locke's views on contract theory, "making Hobbes more theoretically consistent and Locke less overtly patriarchal". Pateman also continually ignores the consensual entering of women into these contracts, or how "female sexual desire" fits into the dominating patriarchal society that Pateman outlines in her work. The Sexual Contract also lacks the nuances of how race and class intersect with social/sexual contract theory, particularly the lack of analysis on how this dynamic works between black individuals or how Pateman's exclusionary approach to sex, race and class threatens to defy the hegemonic narrative Pateman constructs.

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The Xanadu Houses were a series of experimental homes built to showcase examples of computers and automation in the home in the United States. The architectural project began in 1979, and during the early 1980s three houses were built in different parts of the United States: one each in Kissimmee, Florida; Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin; and Gatlinburg, Tennessee. The houses included novel construction and design techniques, and became popular tourist attractions during the 1980s. The Xanadu Houses were notable for their easy, fast, and cost-effective construction as self-supporting monolithic domes of polyurethane foam without using concrete. They were ergonomically designed, and contained some of the earliest home automation systems. The Kissimmee Xanadu, designed by Roy Mason, was the most popular, and at its peak was attracting 1000 visitors every day. The Wisconsin Dells and Gatlinburg houses were closed and demolished in the early 1990s; the Kissimmee Xanadu House was closed in 1996 and demolished in October 2005. Bob Masters was an early pioneer of houses built of rigid insulation. Before conceiving the Xanadu House concept, Masters designed and created inflatable balloons to be used in the construction of houses. He was inspired by architect Stan Nord Connolly's Kesinger House in Denver, Colorado, one of the earliest homes built from insulation. Masters built his first balloon-constructed house exterior in 1969 in less than three days during a turbulent snowstorm, using the same methods later used to build the Xanadu houses.Masters was convinced that these dome-shaped homes built of foam could work for others, so he decided to create a series of show homes in the United States. Masters's business partner Tom Gussel chose the name "Xanadu" for the homes, a reference to Xanadu, the summer capital of Yuan, which is prominently featured in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's famous poem Kubla Khan. The first Xanadu House opened in Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin. It was designed by architect Stewart Gordon and constructed by Masters in 1979. It was 4,000 square feet (370 m2) in area, and featured a geodesic greenhouse. 100,000 people visited the new attraction in its first summer. The most popular Xanadu house was the second house, designed by architect Roy Mason. Masters met Mason in 1980 at a futures conference in Toronto. Mason had worked on a similar project prior to his involvement in the creation of the Kissimmee Xanadu House — an "experimental school" on a hill in Virginia which was also a foam structure. Both Mason and Masters were influenced by other experimental houses and building concepts which emphasized ergonomics, usability, and energy efficiency. These included apartments designed by architect Kisho Kurokawa featuring detachable building modules and more significant designs including a floating habitat made of fiberglass designed by Jacques Beufs for living on water surfaces, concepts for living underwater by architect Jacques Rougerie and the Don Metz house built in the 1970s which took advantage of the earth as insulation. Fifty years before Xanadu House, another house from the 1933 Homes of Tomorrow Exhibition at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago introduced air conditioning, forced air heating, circuit breakers and electric eye doors.Mason believed Xanadu House would alter people's views of houses as little more than inanimate, passive shelters against the elements. "No one's really looked at the house as a total organic system", said Mason, who was also the architecture editor of The Futurist magazine. "The house can have intelligence and each room can have intelligence." The estimated cost of construction for one home was $300,000. Roy Mason also planned a low cost version which would cost $80,000, to show that homes using computers do not have to be expensive. The low cost Xanadu was never built. Approximately 1,000 homes were built using this type of construction. The Walt Disney Company opened Epcot Center in Florida on October 1, 1982 (originally envisioned as the Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow). Masters, fellow Aspen High School teacher, Erik V Wolter, and Mason decided to open a Xanadu House several miles away in Kissimmee. It eventually opened in 1983, after several years of research into the concepts Xanadu would use. It was over 6,000 square feet (560 m2) in size, considerably larger than the average house because it was built as a showcase. At its peak in the 1980s, under the management of Wolter, more than 1,000 people visited the new Kissimmee attraction every day. A third Xanadu House was built in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Shortly after the Xanadu Houses were built and opened as visitor attractions, tourism companies began to advertise them as the "home of the future" in brochures encouraging people to visit. By the early 1990s, the Xanadu houses began to lose popularity because the technology they used was quickly becoming obsolete, and as a result the houses in Wisconsin and Tennessee were demolished, while the Xanadu House in Kissimmee continued to operate as a public visitor attraction until it was closed in 1996. It was consequently put up for sale in 1997 and was sold for office and storage use. By 2001, the Kissimmee house had suffered greatly from mold and mildew throughout the interior due to a lack of maintenance since being used as a visitor attraction, it was put up for sale again for an asking price of US$2 million. By October 2005, the last of the Xanadu houses had been demolished, following years of abandonment and use by the homeless.The Kissimmee house was featured in the 2007 movie Urban Explorers: Into the Darkness. It showed the house in disrepair with doors wide open, mold growing everywhere and a homeless man living inside. The "explorers" walked through the house filming the decay firsthand as the homeless man slept in a chair on the main floor. At the end of the segment, the man wakes up and threatens the "explorers" telling them to leave his home. Construction of the Xanadu house in Kissimmee, Florida, began with the pouring of a concrete slab base and the erection of a tension ring 40 feet (12 m) in diameter to anchor the domed roof of what would become the "Great Room" of the house. A pre-shaped vinyl balloon was formed and attached to the ring, and then inflated by air pressure from large fans. Once the form was fully inflated, its surface was sprayed with quick-hardening polyurethane plastic foam. The foam, produced by the sudden mixture of two chemicals that expand on contact to 30 times their original volume, hardened almost instantly. Repeated spraying produced a five-to-six-inch-thick structurally sound shell within a few hours. Once the foam cured, the plastic balloon form was removed to be used again. Once the second dome was completed and the balloon form removed, the two rooms were joined by wire mesh which was also sprayed with foam to form a connecting gallery or hall. This process was repeated until the house was complete. Window, skylight, and door openings were cut and the frames foamed into place. Finally, the interior of the entire structure was sprayed with a 3⁄4 inch (1.9 cm) coating of fireproof material that also provided a smooth, easy-to-clean finish for walls and ceilings. The exterior was given a coat of white elastomeric paint as the final touch.A Xanadu House was ergonomically designed, with future occupants in mind. It used curved walls, painted concrete floors rather than carpets, a light color scheme featuring cool colors throughout, and an open-floor plan linking rooms together without the use of doors. It had at least two entrances, and large porthole-type windows. The interior of the house was cave-like, featuring cramped rooms and low ceilings, although it is not clear whether these accounts describe the same Xanadu House with a thirty-foot dome. The interiors used a cream color for the walls, and a pale green for the floor.The Xanadu house in Kissimmee, Florida used an automated system controlled by Commodore microcomputers. The house had fifteen rooms; of these the kitchen, party room, health spa, and bedrooms all used computers and other electronic equipment heavily in their design. The automation concepts which Xanadu House used are based on original ideas conceived in the 1950s and earlier. The Xanadu Houses aimed to bring the original concepts into a finished and working implementation. Inside the house, there was an electronic tour guide for the benefit of visitors, and the family room featured video screens that displayed computer-graphics art. These art displays were constantly changing, being displayed on video screens as opposed to static mediums. The home also featured fire and security systems, along with a master bath that included adjustable weather conditions and a solar-heated steam bath. At the center of the house was the "great room", the largest in the house. It featured a large false tree supporting the roof, and also acted as part of the built-in heating system. The great room also included a fountain, small television set, and a video projector. Nearby was the dining room, featuring a glass table with a curved seat surrounding it; behind the seats was a large window covering the entire wall. The family room featured walls covered with television monitors and other electronic equipment. The entertainment center in the family room was described as an "electronic hearth" by the home's builders. It was planned as a gathering place for family members and relatives along the same lines as a traditional hearth with a fireplace. The kitchen was automated by "autochef", an electronic dietitian which planned well-balanced meals. Meals could be cooked automatically at a set date and time. If new food was required, it could either be obtained via tele-shopping through the computer system or from Xanadu's own greenhouse. The kitchen's computer terminal could also be used for the household calendar, records, and home bookkeeping. The Xanadu homes also suggested a way to do business at home with the office room and the use of computers for electronic mail, access to stock and commodities trading, and news services. Computers in the master bedroom allowed for other parts of the house to be controlled. This eliminated chores such as having to go downstairs to turn off the coffee pot after one had gone to bed. The children's bedroom featured the latest in teaching microcomputers and "videotexture" windows, whose realistic computer-generated landscapes could shift in a flash from scenes of real places anywhere in the world to imaginary scenes. The beds at the right of the room retreated into the wall to save space and cut down on clutter; the study niches were just the right size for curling up all alone with a pocket computer game or a book. In the spa, people could relax in a whirlpool, sun sauna, and environmentally-controlled habitat, and exercise with the assistance of spa monitors. One of the advantages of using computers in the home includes security. In Xanadu House, a HAL-type voice spoke when someone entered to make the intruder think someone was home. An initial concern was that electricity costs would be excessive, since several computers would be operating continuously. Mason figured that a central computer could control the energy consumption of all the other computers in the house.

Academic_disciplines_14

Academic_disciplines

The Yessiey Awards formerly known as Yessiey Magazine Awards is an annual accolade presented by Yessiey Magazine to honour writers, actors, humanitarian, art, entrepreneurs, and journalists. The award recognizes exemplary contributions. Yessiey Awards is presented annually by Yessiey Magazine owned by Oluwaseun Olaegbe. To be considered for a Yessiey Award, a media piece or person must go through an entry process. The award also involves a voting process where nominees are selected, and winners are determined through public voting. The name Yessiey was coined from the slogan which states “YES! Stay Informed”. In 2022, the Award was renamed the Yessiey award and the Award is an annual awards ceremony celebrating achievements in the field of acting, writing, journalism, humanitarian, business and arts. The winners of each category were voted for by members of the public, and were announced at the awards ceremony.The Yessiey Awards also organizes the Yessiey Africa 100 Most Influential People award, which highlights individuals who have made impactful contributions to their fields and the wider community.

Academic_disciplines_15

Business

An application for employment is a standard business document that is prepared with questions deemed relevant by employers. It is used to determine the best candidate to fill a specific role within the company. Most companies provide such forms to anyone upon request, at which point it becomes the responsibility of the applicant to complete the form and return it to the employer for consideration. The completed and returned document notifies the company of the applicant's availability and desire to be employed as well as their qualifications and background so that a determination can be made as to the candidate's suitability to the position. From the employer's perspective, the application serves a number of purposes. These vary depending on the nature of the job and the preferences of the person responsible for hiring, as "each organization should have an application form that reflects its own environment". At a minimum, an application usually requires the applicant to provide information sufficient to demonstrate that they are legally permitted to be employed. The typical application also requires the applicant to provide information regarding relevant skills, education, and experience (previous employment or volunteer work). The application itself is a minor test of the applicant's literacy, penmanship, and communication skills. A careless job applicant might disqualify themselves with a poorly filled-out application.The application may also require the applicant to disclose any criminal record and to provide information sufficient to enable the employer to conduct an appropriate background check. For a business that employs workers on a part-time basis, the application may inquire as to the applicant's availability at specific times and/or days and preferences in this regard. Employers may be prohibited from asking applicants about characteristics that are not relevant to the job, such as their political view or sexual orientation. For white collar jobs, particularly those requiring communication skills, the employer will typically require applicants to accompany the form with a cover letter and a résumé. However, even employers who accept a cover letter and résumé will frequently also require the applicant to complete an application form, as the other documents may neglect to mention specific details of importance to the employer. In some instances, an application is effectively used to dissuade "walk-in" applicants, serving as a barrier between the applicant and a job interview with the person who has the authority to hire. For many businesses, applications for employment can be filled out online, rather than submitted in person. However, it is still recommended that applicants bring a printed copy of their application to an interview. Application forms are the second most common hiring instrument next to personal interviews. Companies will occasionally use two types of application forms, short and long. They help companies with initial screening and the longer form can be used for other purposes as well. The answers that applicants choose to submit are helpful to the company because they can potentially become an interview question for that applicant. The employment application is not a standardized form, so every company may create its own as long as regulations set by the government are adhered to.At a minimum, applications usually ask the applicant for their name, phone number, and address. In addition, applications may also ask for previous employment information, educational background, emergency contacts, and references, as well as any special skills the applicant might have.The three categories of information that application fields are very useful for discovering are physical characteristics, experience, and environmental factors. If the company has a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) to ask regarding a physical condition, they may ask questions about it. For example:The job requires a lot of physical labor. Do you have any physical problems that may interfere with this job? Experience requirements can be separated into two groups on an application: work experience and educational background. Educational background is important because it allows a potential employer to evaluate an applicants' performance in school as well as make determinations as to personality and intelligence. Work experience is important because it will inform a potential employer if the applicant meets their specific needs. Companies are usually interested when applicants were unemployed, when/why the applicant left their previous job and their highest position at their previous job.Companies may be interested in the applicant's social environment because it can inform them of their personality, interests, and qualities. For example, if they are extremely active within an organization, that may demonstrate their ability to communicate well with others. Being in management may demonstrate their leadership ability as well as their determination.Customs vary from country to country when it comes to the inclusion or non-inclusion of a photograph of the applicant. In many English-speaking countries, notably the United States, this is not customary, and books or websites giving recommendations about how to design an application typically advise against it unless explicitly requested by the employer. In other countries (for instance, Germany), the inclusion of a photograph of the applicant is still common, and many employers would consider an application incomplete without it.In France, the 2006 Equal Opportunities Act requires companies with more than 50 employees to request an anonymous application (CV anonyme).The job application is called Bewerbung in Germany and usually consists of three parts: the Anschreiben (cover letter), the Lebenslauf (curriculum vitae (CV)) and the Zeugnisse (references). The Anschreiben is used to convince the employer to submit an invitation for a job interview. It must be in paper size DIN A4, not exceed one page, have a handwritten signature, and be accompanied by a Lebenslauf and Zeugnisse. The Lebenslauf is documented in reverse chronological order and should give information on work experience, education and professional training as well as an applicant's skills. In Germany, the Lebenslauf usually includes a photograph called Bewerbungsfoto. Some employers, mainly governmental organisations, deliberately neglect the photograph to ensure a higher degree of objectivity in the course of assessment procedures. The Lebenslauf should be two pages long. In general, there are two options of submitting a job application in Germany: a job application folder (Bewerbungsmappe) or online (Onlinebewerbung). According to a study, the Onlinebewerbung was more favored in Germany than the Bewerbungsmappe by 2012.The CV is the most important part of the application and should not be longer than two to three pages. It is divided into three areas:In chronological order: Personal details (Informazioni personal) School and education (Studi e Formazione) In reverse chronological order: Additional capabilities/skills (Altre conoscenze) Experience (Esperienze professional). As a graduate, this section is omitted. Brief information on the application motivations may be mentioned here. The cover letter (La Lettera di accompagnamento al curriculum) is relatively short, polite and formal in Italian applications. Long versions and extensively explained motivations, as well as photos and copies of certificates, are presented only at the interview. In Spain, the application consists of two parts: the cover letter (Carta de Candidatura) and the CV. No work or training certificates are attached. The cover letter should be short and contain the reason for applying. The CV should be structured in a tabular form. In Spain, multiple job interviews with the same company are common.Job applications are known to be used by hackers to get employees to open attachments or links or connect USB sticks with malware. As companies typically have more financial resources than private individuals, they are often a target of cyberextortion. Ransomware such as "Petya" and "GoldenEye" were discovered to exploit job applications. Cyberespionage and attacks on critical infrastructure-related companies may be other reasons for such attacks and other than ransomware attacks may leave employees in the dark about their computer or network infection. The best method for mitigating such risks would be to have the HR department use a separate computer for job applications that is entirely disconnected from the internal network, on which no confidential or valuable information is stored and to which no portable devices such as USB sticks that may get connected to other computers of the company are connected.

Business_0

Business

Blame in organizations may flow between management and staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Blame shifting may exist between rival factions. Maintaining one's reputation may be a key factor explaining the relationship between accountability and blame avoidance. The blame culture is a serious issue in certain sectors such as safety-critical domains. The flow of blame in an organization may be a primary indicator of that organization's robustness and integrity. Blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations, indicates organizational failure. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Blame coming from the top generates "fear, malaise, errors, accidents, and passive-aggressive sometimes actual aggressive responses from the bottom", with those at the bottom feeling powerless and lacking emotional safety. Employees have expressed that organizational blame culture made them fear prosecution for errors, accidents and thus unemployment, which may make them more reluctant to report accidents, since trust is crucial to encourage accident reporting. This makes it less likely that weak indicators of safety threats get picked up, thus preventing the organization from taking adequate measures to prevent minor problems from escalating into uncontrollable situations. Several issues identified in organizations with a blame culture contradicts high reliability organizations best practices. Organisational chaos, such as confused roles and responsibilities, is strongly associated with blame culture and workplace bullying. Blame culture promotes a risk aversive approach, which prevent from adequately assessing risks.When an accident happens in an organization, its reaction tends to favor the individual blame logic, focusing on finding the employees who made the most prominent mistake, often those on the frontline, rather than an organization function logic, which consists in assessing the organization functioning to identify the factors which favored such an accident, despite the latter being more efficient to learn from errors and accidents. A systematic review with nurses found similar results, with a blame culture negatively affecting the nurse's willingness to report errors, increase turnover and stress. Another common strategy when several organizations work together is to blame accidents and failures on each other, or to the last echelon such as the implementing actors. Several authors suggest that this blame culture in organizations is in line and thus favored by the western legal system, where safety is a matter of individual responsibility. Economic pressure is another factor associated with blame culture. Some authors argue that no system is error-free, and thus focusing efforts in blaming individuals can only prevent actual understanding of the various processes that led to the fault. A study found that the perception of injustice is influenced by both the individuals assertions of their morality domain, and by their identification to the organization: the higher one identifies with the organization, the less likely one will see the organization's actions as unjust. Individuals were also increasingly suspicious when observing their peers being affected by injustices, which is a behavior in line with deontic ethics. According to Mary Douglas, blame is systematically used in the micro politics of institutions, with three latent functions: explaining disasters; justifying allegiances, and stabilizing existing institutional regimes. Within a politically stable regime, blame tends to be asserted on the weak or unlucky one, but in a less stable regime, blame shifting may involve a battle between rival factions. Douglas was interested in how blame stabilizes existing power structures within institutions or social groups. She devised a two-dimensional typology of institutions, the first attribute being named "group", which is the strength of boundaries and social cohesion, the second "grid", the degree and strength of the hierarchy.According to Douglas, blame will fall on different entities depending on the institutional type. For markets, blame is used in power struggles between potential leaders. In bureaucracies, blame tends to flow downwards and is attributed to a failure to follow rules. In a clan, blame is asserted on outsiders or involves allegations of treachery, to suppress dissidence and strengthen the group's ties. In the 4th type, isolation, the individuals are facing the competitive pressures of the marketplace alone, in other words there is a condition of fragmentation with a loss of social cohesion, potentially leading to feelings of powerlessness and fatalism, and this type was renamed by various other authors into "donkey jobs". It is suggested that the progressive changes in managerial practices in healthcare is leading to an increase in donkey jobs. The group and hierarchy strength may also explain why healthcare experts, who often devise clinical procedures on the field, may be refractory to new safety guidelines from external regulators, perceiving them as competing procedures changing cultures and imposing new lines of authority. The requirement of accountability and transparency, assumed to be key for good governance, worsen the behaviors of blame avoidance, both at the individual and institutional levels, as is observed in various domains such as politics and healthcare. Indeed, institutions tend to be risk-averse and blame-averse, and where the management of societal risks (the threats to society) and institutional risks (threats to the organizations managing the societal risks) are not aligned, there may be organizational pressures to prioritize the management of institutional risks at the expense of societal risks. Furthermore, "blame-avoidance behaviour at the expense of delivering core business is a well-documented organizational rationality". The willingness of maintaining one's reputation may be a key factor explaining the relationship between accountability and blame avoidance. This may produce a "risk colonization", where institutional risks are transferred to societal risks, as a strategy of risk management. Some researchers argue that there is "no risk-free lunch" and "no blame-free risk", an analogy to the "no free lunch" adage.Blame culture is a serious issue in safety-critical domains, where human errors can have dire consequences, for instance in hospitals and in aviation. However, as several healthcare organizations were raising concerns, studies found that increasing regulatory transparency in health care had the unintended consequence of increasing defensive practice and blame shifting, for example by obfuscating errors reporting. Following rare but high-profile scandals, there are political incentives for a "self-interested blame business" promoting a presumption of "guilty until proven innocent" A literature review found that human resource management plays an important role in health care organizations: when such organizations rely predominantly on a hierarchical, compliance-based management system, blame culture is more likely to happen, whereas when employees involvement in decision making is more elicited, a just or learning culture is more likely.Blame culture has been suggested as a major source of medical errors. The World Health Organization, the United States' Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and United Kingdom's National Health Service recognize the issue of blame culture in healthcare organizations, and recommends to promote a no-blame culture, or just culture, in order to increase patients' safety, which is the prevention of errors and adverse effects to patients. Other authors suggest to also provide emotional support to help healthcare professionals deal with the emotions elicited by their patients. Yet others have pointed out the lack of nomination among healthcare staff as directors, so that those on the field are excluded from the decision processes, and thus lack intrinsic motivation to enhance patients safety processes. In the United Kingdom, a 2018 survey of 7887 doctors found that 78% said the NHS resources are inadequate to ensure patients safety and quality of services, 95% are fearful of making a medical error and that the fear has increased in the past 5 years, 55% worry they may be unfairly blamed for errors due to systems failings and pressures, and 49% said they practice defensively. A sizeable proportion of these doctors recognized the issue of bullying, harassment or undermining, 29% declaring it was sometimes an issue and 10% saying it was often an issue. Dozens of UK doctors under fitness-to-practice investigations committed suicide. In 2018, an investigation into the cases of 11 deaths in Gosport War Memorial Hospital led to the discovery of an institutionally-wide inappropriate administration of powerful painkillers without medical justification, leading to the death of hundreds of patients since the 1990s. This scandal is often described as an example of the consequences blame culture, with the NHS pressuring whistleblowers, which prompted officials to address more actively this issue to avoid seeing it repeated elsewhere. Aviation pioneered the shift from individual blaming to systems failure investigation, and incentivized it with the Aviation Safety Reporting System, a platform to self-report safety incidents in exchange of immunity from prosecution. Since 15 November 2015, the European Occurrence Reporting Regulation (EU Reg. 376/2014) exhorts the aviation industry to implement a just culture systematically.Blame avoidance is an often observed behavior in politics, which is worsened when meeting the doctrine of transparency, assumed to be key for good governance.When politicians shift blames under polarized conditions, the public sector organizations are often the target. For social workers, by emphasizing the professional as being autonomous and accountable, they are considered as individual workers with full agency, which occludes the structural constraints and influences of their organizations, thus promoting a blame culture on the individuals. This emphasis on individual's accountability is similarly observed in healthcare. In UK, blame culture prevented the adequate collaboration necessary between social workers and healthcare providers.

Business_1

Business

In the business sector, business architecture is a discipline that "represents holistic, multidimensional business views of: capabilities, end-to-end value delivery, information, and organizational structure; and the relationships among these business views and strategies, products, policies, initiatives, and stakeholders." In application, business architecture provides a bridge between an enterprise business model and enterprise strategy on one side, and the business functionality of the enterprise on the other side. It often enables the Strategy to Execution methodology. People who develop and maintain business architecture are known as business architects. The term "business architecture" is often used to mean an architectural description of an enterprise or a business unit, an architectural model, or the profession itself. The Business Architecture Working Group of the Object Management Group (OMG) (2010) describes it as "a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a common understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical demands." According to the OMG, a blueprint of this type describes "the structure of the enterprise in terms of its governance structure, business processes, and business information." As such, the profession of business architecture primarily focuses on the motivational, operational, and analysis frameworks that link these aspects of the enterprise together.The key characteristic of the business architecture is that it represents real world aspects of a business, along with how they interact. It is developed by an interdisciplinary practice area focused on defining and analyzing concerns of what business does, how it does it, how it is organized, and how it realizes value. Recent research by O'Higgins (2023) demonstrates the importance of aligning business architecture practices with organizational strategy to improve efficiency and service delivery, particularly in digital transformation contexts. It is used to design competitive structures and processes, leverage existing strengths, and identify potential investment opportunities that advance the business's objectives and drive innovation. Products of this business architecture efforts are used to develop plans, make business decisions and guide their implementations. In practice, business architecture effort is conducted on its own or as part of an enterprise architecture. While an enterprise architecture practice in the past had focused primarily on the technological aspects of change, the practice is quickly evolving to use a rigorous business architecture approach to address the organizational and motivational aspects of change as well. The alignment between business architecture and enterprise architecture is a natural architectural alignment of two related disciplines. Business architecture represents a business in the absence of any IT architecture while enterprise architecture provides an overarching framework for business and IT architecture. The history of business architecture has its origins in the 1980s. In the next decades business architecture has developed into a discipline of "cross-organizational design of the business as a whole" closely related to enterprise architecture. The concept of business architecture has been proposed as a blueprint of the enterprise, as business strategy, and also as the representation of business design.The concept of business architecture has evolved over the years. It was introduced in the 1980s as architectural domains and as activity of business design. In the 2000s the study and concept development of business architecture accelerated. By the end of the 2000s the first handbooks on business architecture were published, separate frameworks for business architecture were being developed, separate views and models for business architecture were further under construction, the business architect as a profession evolved, and an increasing number of businesses added business architecture to their agenda. By 2015 business architecture has evolved into a common practice. The business architecture body of knowledge has been developed and is updated multiple times each year, and the interest from the academic world and from top management is growing. In order to develop an integrated view of an enterprise, many different views of an organization are typically developed. Each "view" is typically a diagram that illustrates a way of understanding the enterprise by highlighting specific information about it. The key views of the enterprise that may be provided by business architecture address several aspects of the enterprise; they are summarized by the Object Management Group (2012) as follows:The Business Strategy view captures the tactical and strategic goals that drive an organization forward... The Business Capabilities view describes the primary business functions of an enterprise and the pieces of the organization that perform those functions... The Value Stream view defines the end-to-end set of activities that deliver value to external and internal stakeholders... The Business Knowledge view establishes the shared semantics (e.g., customer, order, and supplier) within an organization and relationships between those semantics (e.g., customer name, order date, supplier name)... The Organizational view captures the relationships among roles, capabilities and business units, the decomposition of those business units into subunits, and the internal or external management of those units. In addition to the above views of the enterprise, the relationships that connect the aforementioned views form the foundation of the business architecture implementation. This foundation provides the framework that supports the achievement of key goals; planning and execution of various business scenarios; and delivery of bottom-line business value. Further research from O'Higgins (2024) emphasizes that tailoring business architecture to factors such as industry sector, geographic region, and organizational size significantly enhances its effectiveness in achieving strategic goals. In the 2006 article "Business Architecture: A new paradigm to relate business strategy to ICT," Versteeg & Bouwman explained the relation between business strategy and business architecture. They wrote:Business Architecture is directly based on business strategy. It is the foundation for subsequent architectures (strategy embedding), where it is detailed into various aspects and disciplines. The business strategy can consist of elements like strategy statements, organizational goals and objectives, generic and/or applied business models, etc. The strategic statements are analyzed and arranged hierarchically, through techniques like qualitative hierarchical cluster analysis. Based on this hierarchy the initial business architecture is further developed, using general organizational structuring methods and business administration theory, like theories on assets and resources and theories on structuring economic activity. Versteeg & Bouwman further stipulated, that "the perspectives for subsequent design next to organization are more common: information architecture, technical architecture, process architecture. The various parts (functions, concepts and processes) of the business architecture act as a compulsory starting point for the different subsequent architectures. It pre-structures other architectures. Business architecture models shed light on the scantly elaborated relationships between business strategy and business design." The primary purpose of the Business Architecture Guild is "to promote best practices and expand the knowledge-base of the business architecture discipline." The Guild is a non-profit, international membership organization for practitioners and others interested in the developing the field of business architecture. With members on six continents, a strong Advisory Board and a growing number of business partners, the Guild positions itself as a focal point for the evolving practices and disciplines of business architecture.Founded in late 2010, the Guild opened up membership in the fall of 2011 based on the initial release of A Guide to the Business Architecture Body of Knowledge(R) (BIZBOK(R) Guide). BIZBOK(R), currently at version 13, is a "practical guide for business architecture practitioners and individuals who wish to use business architecture to address business challenges. This practical guide comes in the form of best practices, gleaned from numerous companies and business architecture leaders.". The Business Architecture Association started as a DePaul based organization where practitioners came together to share and explore new ideas around Business Architecture. It later formalized itself into a formal organization that looked to build local chapters where practitioners could gather and share their ideas around Business Architecture. In addition, to building a chapter based organization, the Business Architecture Association coalesced a group of strong practitioners to put together the first practitioner exam. Eventually, the Business Architecture Association formalized the exam and it became the beta version of certified practitioner exam. In 2014, the Business Architecture Guild and the Business Architecture Association, joined forces where the beta exam became cornerstone of the certification program of the Business Architecture Guild looking to solidify the practice of Business Architecture in the marketplace.The ASATE Group Business Capability Framework relies on business capabilities and the eight types of building blocks that make them up (processes, functions, organizational units, know-how assets, information assets, technology assets, brands and natural resource deposits) to model a business architecture. This framework was devised with five criteria in mind: (1) must be aligned with the ANSI/IEEE 1471-2000 standard definition of architecture; (2) must share an anchor point with business strategy, namely capabilities; (3) must rely on common business terms and definitions thereof; (4) must comprise all building block types necessary to model a complete business architecture; and (5) must not be burdened with unnecessary building blocks types.The Zachman Framework is a popular enterprise architecture framework used by business architects. The framework provides ontology of fundamental enterprise concepts that are defined from the intersection of six interrogative categories: What, How, Where, Who, When, Why, and six perspectives: Executive, Business Management, Architect, Engineer, Technician, and Enterprise. Typically, business architects are interested in the concepts associated with the top two perspectives: Executive and Business Management. The Executive perspective is concerned with the scope and context of the business. The Business Management perspective is concerned with business definition models. Modeling standards of the Object Management Group (OMG), including the Unified Modeling Language (UML), Model Driven Architecture (MDA), Business Motivation Model (BMM), Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Rules (SBVR) and the Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN), and the Decision Model and Notation (DMN) enable powerful visual design, execution and maintenance of software and other processes, including IT Systems Modeling and Business Process Management. Currently, OMG works on the Value Delivery Modeling Language (VDML), a standard modeling language for analysis and design of the operation of an enterprise with particular focus on the creation and exchange of valueThe Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) of The Open Group is a community-based standards effort for describing methods and tools used by architecture. It is being developed and continuously improved by the Open Group, a consortium of interested individuals and companies involved in information technology.According to TOGAF, Business Architecture "defines the business strategy, governance, organization, and key business processes". TOGAF refers to Business Architecture as one of the four architecture domains, which represent the subsets of the overall enterprise architecture with the other three architecture domains being Application Architecture, Data Architecture, and Technology Architecture. The key element of TOGAF, Architecture Development Method, identifies development of Business Architecture as necessary prerequisite for developing other architecture domains and provides guidance in regard to development steps and common artifacts. Industry reference models are frameworks or models that provide a best practice off-the-shelf set of structures, processes, activities, knowledge and skills. The Business Architecture Guild provides reference models for many industries, including government, financial services, insurance, transportation, and healthcare, as well as a common reference model. Other organizations are also beginning to develop complementary models for additional industries.Many additional business models exist that can be related to business architecture, but are derived from other approaches, such as operating models and lower-level process frameworks. Examples of these include:The Business Process Framework (eTOM), published by the TM Forum, describes the full scope of business processes required by a service provider in the telecommunications industry, and defines key elements and how they interact. Process Classification Framework (PCF), published by APQC, creates a common language for organizations to communicate and define work processes comprehensively and without redundancies. Organizations are using it to support benchmarking, manage content, and perform other important performance management activities. The Supply-Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) was a proprietary process reference model, published by Supply-Chain Council. Supply-Chain Council merged with APICS in 2014. OpenReference is an Open, editable reference for business terms, building towards a common language to describe business performance, processes, practices and terms. The reference is maintained by volunteers of the OpenReference Initiative.

Business_2

Business

Communities that support innovation have been referred to as communities of innovation (CoI), communities for innovation, innovation communities, open innovation communities, and communities of creation. Lim and Ong (2019) defined a community of innovation (CoI) as a group of people with a sense of camaraderie, belonging and a collective identity who are jointly facilitating innovation.CoIs are groups made up of motivated individuals working together towards a common goal because they are convinced of their common cause. Coakes and Smith (2007) defined communities of innovation (CoIs) as a form of communities of practice dedicated to the support of innovation. Sawhney and Prandelli (2000) proposed the model of communities of creation as a new governance mechanism for managing knowledge found in different companies for the purpose of innovation. In CoIs, intellectual property rights are considered to be owned by the entire community, although the community is governed by a central firm which acts as the sponsor and defines the ground rules for participation. This model lies between the closed hierarchical model and the open market-based model. Quoting Mintzberg (2009), Lim and Ong (2019) points out that managers need to re-discover the essence of communities in the organizations in order to appropriately manage people within the organizations, who are not simply an organizational resource to be exploited, but who are the very organization itself. In other words, employees who feel they are valued and fairly treated by their organizations will usually work generously and in times of need, sacrificially for the success of the organization of which they feel they are a part of. However, employees who perceive themselves as being exploited, or possibly next on the retrenchment list, will more often than not put in only minimal work for the organization.Stacey (1969) observed that the term ‘community’ has been used by some to connote social relations in a defined geographical area, and by others to stress the feeling of belonging to a group.Innovation is the development and implementation of a new idea (Van de Ven, 1986). Collaboration contributes to innovation (Pouwels and Koster, 2017). Lim and Ong (2019) observed three macro-processes, the first macro-process pertaining to having a relax and conducive environment for interaction and innovation, a second macro-process centering on the need for recognition and organizational resources to sustain the innovation process and a third macro-process of narrowing down the choices and implementation of the innovation. Building on the literature on innovation, they termed the first and third macro-processes the divergence (knowledge sharing, search activities, exploratory, and idea generation) and convergence (elimination of alternatives and narrowing down towards a choice, implementation, exploitation, and commercialization of ideas) macro-processes of community innovation. They termed the second macro-process the gateway macro-process (evaluation of new knowledge creation, selection, prioritization, control, idea screening and advocacy) as they observed that it consists of the critical processes which the organization uses to choose ideas to endorse for further development. It is the gateway through which informal communities of innovation may enter to become formal communities of innovation within the organization.The macro-process of divergence management begins with individuals within the community of innovation building trust, sharing and discussing ideas, agreeing to develop ideas together and to seek recognition or funding from their organization. The macro-process of gateway management then evaluates the preliminary results for recognition or funding with the outcome as either funding approved or not approved for the development of the new products or services. Finally, if the funding is approved, the group dynamics of the community of innovation then becomes formalized within the organization, bringing about the development and implementation of new products or services within the macro-process of convergence management. Lim and Ong (2019) observed that in contrast to communities of practice, communities of innovation may emerge by themselves or be cultivated; they usually exist for a narrower purpose of producing a new service or product over a shorter life span; they are made up of participants from either one or more functions; they require a higher level of trust between participants to be effective; there is a higher cost to their participants; and the potential benefit to the organization may be greater when they are successfully implemented. They also noted that a community of innovation (COI) may be specialized in one function like a community of practice (COP). An example is an innovation project which involves only staff from the engineering department. It is also possible for communities of innovation to be cross-functional (e.g. involving 2-3 functions). An example is an innovation project which involves staff from two functions, the business department and the environmental science department. In their research, they observed that cross-functional communities of innovation were able to consider problems from more perspectives and come up with more varied solutions. However, cross-functional communities of innovation usually require more time for discussions due to the difference in the members’ level of knowledge concerning different topics and their associated jargons. According to Etienne Wenger, a community of practice (CoP) is a group composed of people who are interested in the same topic and often interact with each other in order to increase their knowledge in this topic. CoPs are very similar to CoIs; however, the two differ in a number of critical ways. They can be easily confused between. A CoP is able to connect the attitudes and values of dissimilar organizations. For example, a researcher may have a similar skill-set as someone working at a corporation; however, they may have very different tacit knowledge and motivation. The formation of a CoP can bring these separate groups with different motivations to form a beneficial partnership. CoPs and CoIs share many traits and are closely related : so much so that a CoI can be deemed to be a type of CoP. CoIs are, however, different in certain critical ways not routinely addressed by CoPs, ways that are vital in the process of innovation. CoIs are focused on innovation, and while skills and processes can be transplanted across organizations, innovation processes and methods cannot, without significant customization and adaptation. Another element that separates a CoI is "inspiration to action", which refers to the relationships formed between kindred spirits : relationships providing support and inspiration for taking on the uphill battle of creating significant change and embarking on new possibilities. In contrast, this process of innovation and bringing about significant change : is not well integrated with corporate strategy. Drivers of organizational innovativeness include team processes and external knowledge (Rose et al., 2016) and networking (Lewis et al., 2018).Successful COIs increase innovations within an organization. They, therefore, have the potential to contribute to organizational ambidexterity, which refers to the organization's dual capabilities of managing the current business and being flexible and adaptable to meet future changes and demands.Examples of communities of innovation in history include the communities behind steam engines, iron and steel production, and textile machinery. The Pig Iron industry of Cleveland in the UK during 1850:1870 is a prime example of it.In recent decades, the software industry has exhibited the most significant presence of CoIs. 96% of software products developed in 2016 used open source software. Particularly, in software that runs the computing infrastructure of the internet, open source is ubiquitous. Prime examples of open source software created through communities of innovation include OpenOffice, Python, Blender, GIMP, GNOME, Apache, PostgreSQL and PHP, besides Linux. Traditionally, the company is the most efficient means of managing knowledge belonging to different people. The primary motivation is job security, career advancement and recognition. Lee and Cole (2003) argue for a community structure for knowledge creation that crosses firms boundaries. To substantiate their argument they put forth the case of how "thousands of talented volunteers, dispersed across organizational and geographical boundaries, collaborate via the Internet to produce a knowledge-intensive, innovative product of high quality": the Linux kernel (Lee and Cole 2003, p. 633). The Linux community has proved to be a very efficient mean of managing knowledge belonging to different people. The primary motivation is a value system, recognition, and potential career advancement or hop. Lee and Cole (2003) argue that research on knowledge management has to date focused on hierarchy and therefore has not adequately addressed the mobilization of distributed knowledge, the knowledge that is dispersed among many people. They note that, as illustrated by the Linux case, "the advent of the Internet and Web-based technologies has enabled specialized communities to convene, interact, and share resources extensively via electronic interfaces," even across firms' boundaries (Lee and Cole 2003, p. 633). People are able to contribute effectively outside their working hours. Coordination of the work (including feedback) is possible even when people are working from different locations. The catchment area is therefore much larger and the critical mass of software engineers required to develop and maintain the Linux project was therefore achievable.According to Henry Chesbrough, over the twentieth century, the closed innovation paradigm was overtaken by the theory of open innovation, which emphasizes the significantly higher importance of external resources : thanks to an increasing trend towards globalization, new market participants, and simultaneously shorter product life cycles with correspondingly increasing R&D costs.Innovation through CoIs has many benefits when compared to proprietary or closed-off product development. Particularly, individual innovators and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are expected to gain most from open innovation collaborations due to their inherently limited capabilities. When the most popular Open Source tools and applications : developed through collaboration among their respective communities of innovation (such as software like Linux, Apache Web Server, PostgresSQL and PHP) were compared with similar proprietary software, Gartner found that open source bested or equaled the quality of their proprietary cousins and that many open source developers and advocates are gainfully employed and at very little risk of losing future work prospects. Open source products development has proven to be an efficient way of exhibiting skills. According to the Technology and Innovation Management Review, open innovation generally provides the following benefits: Broader base of ideas, Technological synergy, Improvement of the internal learning capacity through the transfer of external knowledge and learning routines and Use of intellectual property as strategic assets. However, open innovation is also associated with a slow or delayed development Pace. Also, over time it has been proven : especially in the case of communities of innovation in the software industry : that due to the nature of patent and intellectual property law, the dream of open source software as advanced by its advocates : has failed. It was believed that democratization of software would result in shared ownership of its intellectual property, but that hasn't happened. Software built using open source software : is then patented and closed to external collaboration by wealthy companies, who profit much more from the results than the communities of innovation involved in developing the underlying technologies. This leads to greater wealth inequality, as opposed to social good. According to an article in Technology and Innovation Management Review, open innovation generally suffers from the following disadvantages: strong dependence on external knowledge; loss of key knowledge control; loss of flexibility, creativity, and strategic power. There is evidence that, contrary to the popular belief, communities of innovation such as those in open source software, are not a recent development. There are many examples in history in which innovators have used collective invention as in the cases of textile machinery, steam engines, and the production of iron and steel. In these cases, the innovators' behavior was largely dependent on public policy that accommodated knowledge sharing to foster cumulative innovation. Sometimes, knowledge sharing coexisted with patenting.Despite the historical precedent, today knowledge sharing among innovators is generally regarded as a modern development. The cost for information exchange has drastically decreased due, in a large part, to breakthroughs within the information and communication fields. According to Henry Chesborough (2003), modern open innovation is often seen as, "a sharp break from the paradigm of the early twentieth century when research labs were largely self sufficient : only occasionally receiving outside visitors, and researchers would seldom venture out to visit universities or scientific expositions". In history, the "heroic inventor" is shown greater consideration than the cooperation of innovators. Stories of innovative heroes were believed to be more fascinating than other narratives, such as the stories of often nameless farmers, who created and shared new types of wheat on the Great Plains. This demonstrates the cultural shift that caused the "heroic inventor" to be nationally celebrated in Britain and all Western countries. Knowledge sharing often occurred in the past, though there is not enough evidence to prove whether or not it occurs more frequently today. However, it is known that tension has existed for some time between the depth and scope of open knowledge sharing and the patent system. Among the foremost examples of collective innovation in the past is Cleveland's Pig Iron industry in the UK during 1850:1870. This industry experienced a "free exchange of information about new techniques and plant designs among firms in an industry". According to economic historian Robert Allen, the proliferation of knowledge sharing in the iron district had two plausible reasons. First, afterword traveled of a prosperous blast furnace design, the reputations of engineers grew to be more positive. This only increased profits and allowed engineers to improve their careers. Second, such disclosures could cause the value of the revealing party's assets to decrease. Improving the blast furnace designs, in turn, led to an increase in the values of iron ore deposits, because these Cleveland ore mines were often owned by the blast furnace firms. This possibly made revealing technical information freely a profitable activity from the individual firm's point of view. Similarities can be drawn to today's communities of innovation, where the primary motivation for participants is recognition and potential career advancement, and for participating firms is related profit. It is yet to be understood how the rivalry between firms and innovators (that caused knowledge sharing to exist) came to be, while which conditions actually lead to aggressive rivalry and patenting. Bessen and Nuvolari (2011) mention that "... as the technology matures, the nature of firms rivalry, their willingness to share knowledge and their use of patents correspondingly change. In particular, knowledge sharing is more likely to occur during the early phases of technology or where local innovation has little effect on worldwide prices."

Business_3

Business

A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether natural, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specific, declared goals. Over time, companies have evolved to have the following features: "separate legal personality, limited liability, transferable shares, investor ownership, and a managerial hierarchy". The company, as an entity, was created by the state which granted the privilege of incorporation. Companies take various forms, such as: voluntary associations, which may include nonprofit organizations business entities, whose aim is to generate sales, revenue, and profit financial entities and banks programs or educational institutions A company can be created as a legal person so that the company itself has limited liability as members perform or fail to discharge their duties according to the publicly declared incorporation published policy. When a company closes, it may need to be liquidated to avoid further legal obligations. Companies may associate and collectively register themselves as new companies; the resulting entities are often known as corporate groups. A company can be defined as an "artificial person", invisible, intangible, created by or under law, with a discrete legal capacity (or "personality"), perpetual succession, and a common seal. Except for some senior positions, companies remain unaffected by the death, insanity, or insolvency of an individual member.The English word, "company", has its origins in the Old French term compagnie (first recorded in 1150), meaning "society, friendship, intimacy; body of soldiers", which came from the Late Latin word companio ("one who eats bread with you"), first attested in the Salic law (c. AD 500) as a calque of the Germanic expression gahlaibo (literally, "with bread"), related to Old High German galeipo ("companion") and to Gothic gahlaiba ("messmate").By 1303, the word company referred to trade guilds. The usage of the term company to mean "business association" was first recorded in 1553,and the abbreviation "co." dates from 1769. According to the Company Law of the People's Republic of China, companies include the limited liability company and joint-stock limited company which founded in the mainland China.In English law and in legal jurisdictions based upon it, a company is a body corporate or corporation company registered under the Companies Acts or under similar legislation. Common forms include:Private companies limited by guarantee Community interest company Charitable incorporated organisation Private companies limited by shares - the most common form of company Public limited companies - companies, usually large, which are permitted to (but do not have to) offer their shares to the public, for example on a stock exchange In the United Kingdom, a partnership is not legally a company, but may sometimes be referred to (informally) as a "company". It may be referred to as a "firm". In the United States, a company is not necessarily a corporation. For example, a company may be a "corporation, partnership, association, joint-stock company, trust, fund, or organized group of persons, whether incorporated or not, and (in an official capacity) any receiver, trustee in bankruptcy, or similar official, or liquidating agent, for any of the foregoing".A company limited by guarantee (CLG): Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company. This type of company is common in England. A company limited by guarantee may be with or without having share capital.A company limited by shares: The most common form of the company used for business ventures. Specifically, a limited company is a "company in which the liability of each shareholder is limited to the amount individually invested" with corporations being "the most common example of a limited company". This type of company is common in England and many English-speaking countries. A company limited by shares may be a publicly traded company or a privately held company. A company limited by guarantee with a share capital: A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist. A limited liability company: "A company—statutorily authorized in certain states—that is characterized by limited liability, management by members or managers, and limitations on ownership transfer", i.e., L.L.C. LLC structure has been called "hybrid" in that it "combines the characteristics of a corporation and of a partnership or sole proprietorship". Like a corporation, it has limited liability for members of the company, and like a partnership it has "flow-through taxation to the members" and must be "dissolved upon the death or bankruptcy of a member". An unlimited company with or without a share capital: A hybrid entity, a company where the liability of members or shareholders for the debts (if any) of the company are not limited. In this case, the doctrine of a veil of incorporation does not apply. Less common types of companies are: Companies formed by letters patent: Most corporations by letters patent are corporations sole and not companies as the term is commonly understood today. Royal charter corporations: In middle-ages Europe, before the passing of modern companies legislation, these were the only types of companies. Now they are relatively rare, except for very old companies that still survive (particularly many British banks), or modern societies that fulfill a quasi-regulatory function (for example, the Bank of England is a corporation formed by a modern charter). Statutory companies: Relatively rare today, certain companies have been formed by a private statute passed in the relevant jurisdiction. When "Ltd" is placed after the company's name, it signifies a limited company, and "PLC" (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held. In the legal context, the owners of a company are normally referred to as the "members". In a company limited or unlimited by shares (formed or incorporated with a share capital), this will be the shareholders. In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors. Some offshore jurisdictions have created special forms of offshore company in a bid to attract business for their jurisdictions. Examples include segregated portfolio companies and restricted purpose companies. However, there are many sub-categories of company types that can be formed in various jurisdictions in the world. Companies are also sometimes distinguished for legal and regulatory purposes between public companies and private companies. Public companies are companies whose shares can be publicly traded, often (although not always) on a stock exchange which imposes listing requirements/Listing Rules as to the issued shares, the trading of shares and future issue of shares to help bolster the reputation of the exchange or particular market of an exchange. Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares. In some jurisdictions, private companies have maximum numbers of shareholders. A parent company is a company that owns enough voting stock in another firm to control management and operations by influencing or electing its board of directors; the second company being deemed a subsidiary of the parent company. The definition of a parent company differs by jurisdiction, with the definition normally being defined by way of laws dealing with companies in that jurisdiction.

Business_4

Business

Desktop outsourcing is the process in which an organization contracts a third party to maintain and manage parts of its IT infrastructure. Contracts vary in depth and can range from Computer hard- and software maintenance to Desktop virtualisation, SaaS-implementations and Helpdesk operation. It is estimated, that 32% of U.S. and Canadian IT organisations make use of desktop outsourcing in 2014. Recent market reports suggest the adoption of BYOD policies to allow the end-user a free choice of devices in their working environment may increase this market share. Justification for desktop outsourcing could include shifting focus and energy to areas of core competency, reducing staffing costs, and the routine maintenance, upgrades, and repairs associated with managing multitudes of PC systems and servers. (Applegate et al. 2007). Managers may also seek desktop outsourcing as a method of simplifying organisational structures to cut costs associated with them. For smaller companies it might also be more viable financially to outsource their desktop at a set price per machine, rather than creating an entire internal IT department. Recent market growth can also be attributed to the decreasing price of hardware, making replacement more favourable than repairs. Possible risks when desktop outsourcing are ensuring continued support for old and unique systems the company depends on, specifically if any of the systems in question were internally developed. This may cause the contractor to be unable to fulfill their contractual obligations, as in the case of the US Navy outsourcing their IT systems to EDS in 2003.A 2012 TechNavio market report forecasts that the desktop outsourcing market will grow by 4.65% yearly, between 2012 and 2016. Atos, CSC, HP and IBM are considered the leading desktop outsourcing vendors for that time frame. A Gartner report from 2013, however, considers the desktop outsourcing market to be in decline, with growth only occurring on the Latin American and Asia/Pacific markets.While consolidating School Districts in 2003, New York City brought in Dell to assess and consolidate their IT systems. At the time it was unclear how many devices actually existed in the network. Being largely successful, this netted Dell a $20 million yearly contract to keep on managing the School Districts systems.NASA's Kennedy Space Center had its IT services, approximately 22,000 devices, outsourced in 1998 for $30 million a year on a 3-year contract. The US Treasury outsourced their 1643 desktop and 700 portable seats in 1999 for around $27 million yearly.

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Business

Global Entrepreneurship Week (GEW) is an international initiative that introduces entrepreneurship to young people in six continents. GEW emerged in 2008 as a result of Enterprise Week UK and Entrepreneurship Week USA 2007. Since its creation, more than 10 million people from roughly 170 countries have participated in entrepreneurship-related events, activities and competitions during GEW. This annual event occurs over the span of one week and includes the participation of millions of entrepreneurs, investors, policymakers, researchers, educators, entrepreneurship support organizations and interested individuals. Currently, 165 countries celebrate Global Entrepreneurship Week running national campaigns that generate approximately 35,000 events, activities and competitions. The Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation is a non-profit foundation based in Kansas City, Missouri, established in the mid-1960s by the late entrepreneur and philanthropist Ewing Marion Kauffman. The Kauffman Foundation’s mission is to create “a society of economically independent individuals who are engaged citizens, contributing to the improvement of their communities.” Their two main areas of focus are: advancing entrepreneurship and improving the education of children and youth.Enterprise Week UK is Enterprise UK's campaign to connect youth, women, homeworkers, people from ethnic minorities to entrepreneurial opportunities. It was founded in 2004 by the British Chambers of Commerce, the Confederation of British Industry, the Institute of Directors and the Federation of Small Businesses. Each country that participates in Global Entrepreneurship Week designates a host organization to lead the campaign (in rare instances, two or more organizations share this responsibility). Host organizations are responsible for galvanizing the momentum of their national GEW campaign—building a network of partner organizations to run events and activities during GEW and supporters to help promote the national campaign. Below is a list of participating countries, along with some of their past respective host organization(s).A global partner is any organization that agrees to host one or more activities during Global Entrepreneurship Week. These organizations include:Business Council for International Understanding (BCIU) Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, UK DECA Endeavor Junior Achievement Entrepreneurs' Organization National Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE) TechnoServe European Confederation of Young Entrepreneurs (YES for Europe) Youth Entrepreneurship and Sustainability (YES, Inc.) The Prince's Youth Business International 4th annual Race to Entrepreneurship: This event is held by the St. Louis Regional Entrepreneurship Educators (STLREE). Teams must “think like an entrepreneur” as they follow a packet of clues and use public transportation to locate and photograph entrepreneurial landmarks in St. Louis.NFTE students at Shaw High School in East Cleveland, Ohio compete in the GoVenture Lemonade Stand business simulation after-school. They record their scores after select "open days" and the top earners win a prize. University of Virginia Cup Entrepreneurial Concept Competition: Students submit a 3 page "business concept" and compete in the first round against students within their school or department. In the second round, the winners from each school or department compete against one another until a winning team receives the UVA Cup. Heads of schools can participate in a bet, the one who loses gets his/her head shaved on The Lawn. Additional competitions at UVA include YouTube video submissions, designs for the UVA Cup Trophy, and ideas for “game-changing”. Youth Lunch'N Learn: This event is hosted by the Asset Building Center. Local entrepreneurs share success stories and business-starting fundamentals to an audience of students. Youthpreneur: KooDooZ holds this program for 5th through 10th graders challenges them to make a social impact through tried methodologies. The students’ progress will be documented and interactive online webinars will be posted on KooDooZ's YouTube channel. The Global Cleantech Open Ideas Competition: A challenge created for green innovators. The goal of the competition is to produce clean technology ideas and collaborate with investors and CEO’s. The winning idea receives $100,000 in legal, marketing, and public relations support.551 Speednetwork the Globe: A networking event hosted by YES for Europe in which entrepreneurs meet and speak with others in timed intervals to brainstorm and share ideas. Mentoring Madness: An event sponsored by NYSE Euronext. Students posed their entrepreneurial questions to a panel headed by Snoop Dogg. Winners were awarded $25,000 in startup funds. The Global Innovation Tournament: An event targeted towards saving money. Teams were asked to create innovated ideas to make saving money fun. Ideas were judged on innovation and novelty of the idea, how fun it was, and whether the idea created a positive impact. The GEW logo is multi-colored compass with rounded typeface of ‘Global Entrepreneurship Week’ coming from the top right section. The color spectrum, which includes 26 colors, represents GEW’s international span. The compass shape adheres to the notion of navigation and the direction of entrepreneurship in the future. Many of GEW’s partners fuse their own logo with the compass in order to demonstrate a joint collaboration towards a global initiative.

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Business

News values are "criteria that influence the selection and presentation of events as published news." These values help explain what makes something "newsworthy." News values are not universal and can vary between different cultures. Among the many lists of news values that have been drawn up by scholars and journalists, some attempt to describe news practices across cultures, while others have become remarkably specific to the press of particular (often Western) nations. In the Western tradition, decisions on the selection and prioritization of news are made by editors on the basis of their experience and intuition, although analysis by Galtung and Ruge showed that several factors are consistently applied across a range of news organizations. Their theory was tested on the news presented in four different Norwegian newspapers from the Congo and Cuban crisis of July 1960 and the Cyprus crisis of March:April 1964. Results were mainly consistent with their theory and hypotheses. Johan Galtung later said that the media have misconstrued his work and become far too negative, sensational, and adversarial. Methodologically and conceptually, news values can be approached from four different perspectives: material (focusing on the material reality of events), cognitive (focusing on people's beliefs and value systems), social (focusing on journalistic practice), and discursive (focusing on the discourse). A discursive perspective tries to systematically examine how news values such as Negativity, Proximity, Eliteness, and others, are constructed through words and images in published news stories. This approach is influenced by linguistics and social semiotics, and is called "discursive news values analysis" (DNVA). It focuses on the "distortion" step in Galtung and Ruge's chain of news communication, by analysing how events are discursively constructed as newsworthy. Initially labelled "news factors," news values are widely credited to Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge. In their seminal 1965 study, Galtung and Ruge put forward a system of twelve factors describing events that together are used as defining "newsworthiness." Focusing on newspapers and broadcast news, Galtung and Ruge devised a list describing what they believed were significant contributing factors as to how the news is constructed. They proposed a "chain of news communication,"  which involves processes of selection (the more an event satisfies the "news factors," the more likely it is selected as news), distortion (accentuating the newsworthy factors of the event, once it has been selected), and replication (selection and distortion are repeated at all steps in the chain from event to reader). Furthermore, three basic hypotheses are presented by Galtung and Ruge: the additivity hypothesis that the more factors an event satisfies, the higher the probability that it becomes news; the complementary hypothesis that the factors will tend to exclude each other; and the exclusion hypothesis that events that satisfy none or very few factors will not become news.In 2001, the influential 1965 study was updated by Tony Harcup and Deirdre O'Neill, in a study of the British press. The findings of a content analysis of three major national newspapers in the UK were used to critically evaluate Galtung and Ruge's original criteria and to propose a contemporary set of news values. Forty years on, they found some notable differences, including the rise of celebrity news and that good news (as well as bad news) was a significant news value, as well as the newspaper's own agenda. They examined three tabloid newspapers. In a rapidly evolving market, achieving relevance, giving audiences the news they want and find interesting, is an increasingly important goal for media outlets seeking to maintain market share. This has made news organizations more open to audience input and feedback, and forced them to adopt and apply news values that attract and keep audiences. Given these changes and the rapid rise of digital technology in recent years, Harcup and O’Neill updated their 2001 study in 2016, while other scholars have analysed news values in viral news shared via social media. The growth of interactive media and citizen journalism is fast altering the traditional distinction between news producer and passive audience and may in future lead to a redefinition of what "news" means and the role of the news industry.A variety of external and internal pressures influence journalistic decisions during the news-making process, which can sometimes lead to bias or unethical reporting. Many different factors have the potential to influence whether an event is first noticed by a news organisation, second whether a story will be written about that event, third, how that story is written, and fourth whether this story will end up being published as news and if so, where it is placed. Therefore, "there is no end to lists of news criteria." There are multiple competing lists of news values (including Galtung & Ruge's news factors, and others put forward by Schlesinger, Bell, Bednarek & Caple), with considerable overlap but also disagreement as to what should be included.News values can relate to aspects of events and actors, or to aspects of news gathering and processing: Values in news actors and events: Frequency: Events that occur suddenly and fit well with the news organization's schedule are more likely to be reported than those that occur gradually or at inconvenient times of day or night. Long-term trends are not likely to receive much coverage. Timeliness: Events that have only just happened, are current, ongoing, or are about to happen are newsworthy. Familiarity: To do with people or places close to the target audience. Others prefer the term Proximity for this news value, which includes geographical and cultural proximity (see "meaningfulness"). Negativity: Bad news is more newsworthy than good news. Sometimes described as "the basic news value." Conversely, it has also been suggested that Positivity is a news value in certain cases (such as sports news, science news, feel-good tabloid stories). Conflict: Opposition of people or forces resulting in a dramatic effect. Events with conflict are often quite newsworthy. Sometimes included in Negativity rather than listed as a separate news value. Unexpectedness: Events that are out of the ordinary, unexpected, or rare are more newsworthy than routine, unsurprising events. Unambiguity: Events whose implications are clear make for better copy than those that are open to more than one interpretation, or where any understanding of the implications depends on first understanding the complex background in which the events take place. Personalization: Events that can be portrayed as the actions of individuals will be more attractive than one in which there is no such "human interest." Personalization is about whether an event can be contextualised in personal terms (affecting or involving specific, "ordinary" people, not the generalised masses). Meaningfulness: This relates to the sense of identification the audience has with the topic. "Cultural proximity" is a factor here—events concerned with people who speak the same language, look the same, and share the same preoccupations as the audience receive more coverage than those concerned with people who speak different languages, look different and have different preoccupations. A related term is Relevance, which is about the relevance of the event as regards the target readers/viewers own lives or how close it is to their experiences. Impact refers more generally to an event's impact, on the target audience, or on others. An event with significant consequences (high impact) is newsworthy. Eliteness: Events concerned with global powers receive more attention than those concerned with less influential nations. Events concerned with the rich, powerful, famous and infamous get more coverage. Also includes the eliteness of sources : sometimes called Attribution. Superlativeness: Events with a large scale or scope or with high intensity are newsworthy. Consonance: Events that fit with the media's expectations and preconceptions receive more coverage than those that defy them (and for which they are thus unprepared). Note this appears to conflict with unexpectedness above. However, consonance really refers to the media's readiness to report an item. Consonance has also been defined as relating to editors' stereotypes and their mental scripts for how events typically proceed. Values in the news process: Continuity: A story that is already in the news gathers a kind of inertia. This is partly because the media organizations are already in place to report the story, and partly because previous reportage may have made the story more accessible to the public (making it less ambiguous). Composition: Stories must compete with one another for space in the media. For instance, editors may seek to provide a balance of different types of coverage, so that if there is an excess of foreign news for instance, the least important foreign story may have to make way for an item concerned with the domestic news. In this way the prominence given to a story depends not only on its own news values but also on those of competing stories. Competition: Commercial or professional competition between media may lead journalists to endorse the news value given to a story by a rival. Co-option: A story that is only marginally newsworthy in its own right may be covered if it is related to a major running story. Prefabrication: A story that is marginal in news terms but written and available may be selected ahead of a much more newsworthy story that must be researched and written from the ground up. Predictability: An event is more likely to be covered if it has been pre-scheduled. Story impact: The impact of a published story (not the event), for example whether it is being shared widely (sometimes called Shareability), read, liked, commented-on. To be qualified as shareable, a story arguably has to be simple, emotional, unexpected and triggered. Engaging with such analytics is now an important part of newsroom practice. Time constraints: Traditional news media such as radio, television and daily newspapers have strict deadlines and a short production cycle, which selects for items that can be researched and covered quickly. Logistics: Although eased by the availability of global communications even from remote regions, the ability to deploy and control production and reporting staff, and functionality of technical resources can determine whether a story is covered. Data: Media need to back up all of their stories with data in order to remain relevant and reliable. Reporters prefer to look at raw data in order to be able to take an unbiased perspective. An alternative term is Facticity : the favouring of facts and figures in hard news. One of the key differences in relation to these news values is whether they relate to events or stories. For example, composition and co-option both relate to the published news story. These are news values that concern how news stories fit with the other stories around them. The aim here is to ensure a balanced spread of stories with minimal duplication across a news program or edition. Such news values are qualitatively different from news values that relate to aspects of events, such as Eliteness (the elite status of news actors or sources) or Proximity (the closeness of the event's location to the target audience). Conventional models concentrate on what the journalist perceives as news. But the news process is a two-way transaction, involving both news producer (the journalist) and the news receiver (the audience), although the boundary between the two is rapidly blurring with the growth of citizen journalism and interactive media. Little has been done to define equivalent factors that determine audience perception of news. This is largely because it would appear impossible to define a common factor, or factors, that generate interest in a mass audience. Basing his judgement on many years as a newspaper journalist Hetherington states that: "...anything which threatens people's peace, prosperity and well being is news and likely to make headlines."Whyte-Venables suggests audiences may interpret news as a risk signal. Psychologists and primatologists have shown that apes and humans constantly monitor the environment for information that may signal the possibility of physical danger or threat to the individual's social position. This receptiveness to risk signals is a powerful and virtually universal survival mechanism. A "risk signal" is characterized by two factors, an element of change (or uncertainty) and the relevance of that change to the security of the individual. The same two conditions are observed to be characteristic of news. The news value of a story, if defined in terms of the interest it carries for an audience, is determined by the degree of change it contains and the relevance that change has for the individual or group. Analysis shows that journalists and publicists manipulate both the element of change and relevance ('security concern') to maximize, or some cases play down, the strength of a story. Security concern is proportional to the relevance of the story for the individual, his or her family, social group and societal group, in declining order. At some point there is a Boundary of Relevance, beyond which the change is no longer perceived to be relevant, or newsworthy. This boundary may be manipulated by journalists, power elites and communicators seeking to encourage audiences to exclude, or embrace, certain groups: for instance, to distance a home audience from the enemy in time of war, or conversely, to highlight the plight of a distant culture so as to encourage support for aid programs. In 2018, Hal Pashler and Gail Heriot published a study showing that perceptions of newsworthiness tend to be contaminated by a political usefulness bias. In other words, individuals tend to view stories that give them "ammunition" for their political views as more newsworthy. They give credence to their own views. An evolutionary psychology explanation for why negative news have a higher news value than positive news starts with the empirical observation that the human perceptive system and lower level brain functions have difficulty distinguishing between media stimuli and real stimuli. These lower level brain mechanisms which function on a subconscious level make basic evaluations of perceptive stimuli, focus attention on important stimuli, and start basic emotional reactions. Research has also found that the brain differentiates between negative and positive stimuli and reacts quicker and more automatically to negative stimuli which are also better remembered. This likely has evolutionary explanations with it often being important to quickly focus attention on, evaluate, and quickly respond to threats. While the reaction to a strong negative stimulus is to avoid, a moderately negative stimulus instead causes curiosity and further examination. Negative media news is argued to fall into the latter category which explains their popularity. Lifelike audiovisual media are argued to have particularly strong effects compared to reading.Women have on average stronger avoidance reactions to moderately negative stimuli. Men and women also differ on average in how they enjoy, evaluate, remember, comprehend, and identify with the people in news depending on if the news are negatively or positively framed. The stronger avoidance reaction to moderately negative stimuli has been explained as it being the role of men in evolutionary history to investigate and potentially respond aggressively to threats while women and children withdrew. It has been claimed that negative news are framed according to male preferences by the often male journalists who cover such news and that a more positive framing may attract a larger female audience. However, other scholars have urged caution as regards evolutionary psychology's claims about gender differences.

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Business

In business travel, a road warrior is a remote worker that uses mobile devices such as tablet computers, laptops, smartphones, and Internet access while traveling to conduct business. The term has often been used with regard to salespeople who travel often and who seldom are in the office. Today it is used for anyone who works outside the office and travels for business. Unlike digital nomads, road warriors do not necessarily choose to travel; it is part of their work duties. The term is believed to originate in the Mel Gibson movie Mad Max 2:The Road Warrior (1981).In the pre-mobile technology era, road warriors were people whose jobs required a lot of travel, either by car or plane. The majority of this group were salespeople and professionals that needed to be with clients such as accountants, consultants, etc. They typically would need to come back to their company's office for administrative duties. The office held limited resources (phones, fax machine, computers, etc.) that were best used by centralizing them. As both computer and telecommunication technologies became more portable and less expensive, the need for Road Warriors to come back to offices for use of limited and costly resources began to wane. The term Road Warrior has been credited to the 1981 movie Mad Max 2 sub-titled "Road Warrior" starring Mel Gibson. Its harsh road life in a post-apocalyptic world was used to symbolize the hardship of modern business travel.The 2009 movie "Up in the Air" starred George Clooney as a person who fully lives the Road Warrior life to the extreme. Road Warriors use mobile devices and laptop computers that connect to companies' information systems. Specialized applications from Software as a Service (SaaS) providers are often used in order to conduct their work duties.

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Business

Vanpools or vanpooling is an element of the transit system that allow groups of people to share the ride similar to a carpool, but on a larger scale with concurrent savings in fuel and vehicle operating costs and thus usually a lower cost to the rider. Vanpools have a lower operating and capital cost than most transit vehicles in the United States, but due to their relatively low capacity, vanpools often require subsidies comparable to conventional bus service. Vehicles may be provided by individuals, individuals in cooperation with various public and private support programs, through a program operated by or on behalf of an element of government, or a program operated by or on behalf of an employer. The key concept is that people share the ride from home or one or more common meeting locations and travel together to a common destination or work center. A number of programs exist (within the United States) to help lower the cost of that shared ride to the end user. Among these are traditional funding available to public agencies, public-private partnerships, and the Best Work Places for Commuters (Commuter Choice Programs). A tax benefit is available under 26 U.S.C. §132(f) Qualified Transportation Fringe Benefit allowances. These public transportation programs seek to reduce the number of cars on the road (with all the attendant environmental benefits). Additional benefits include: Speed: The van can use the HOV (High Occupancy Vehicle) lanes because normally more than 2-3 people ride. Fixed schedule (makes transit more predictable). Saving the cost of gasoline (in some cases, it is part of the program). Riders often can have significant reductions in the cost of personal automobile insurance (insurance for the rideshare component is usually provided as part of the vanpool program). Incentives from local/federal transportation authorities offset cost. In many cases, an employer may elect to subsidize the cost of the vanpool and the vehicles' maintenance. In some cases, the vehicles are provided and maintained by the municipality; in others, they are provided in partnership with or by a third-party provider. For example, UCLA operates an extensive network of vans in which faculty, staff, and students are eligible for discounted rates, although anyone commuting to the Westwood area is allowed to participate, with drivers receiving the highest discounts. The vans are centrally maintained, fueled, and cleaned. The King County Metro Vanpool Program is a successful demand responsive transport program in the Puget Sound area, specifically in King County, Washington. Other successful programs are operated by Pace in Illinois and Utah Transit Authority in Utah. Vanpooling was begun in the early nineteen seventies by a company called People’s Vans by founder Victor Paglia in 1972 to address the need for people to acquire affordable travel cross country. Reference May 14 article in the Travel section of the New York Times The oldest multi-employer vanpool program in the country is in Treasure Valley, Idaho. For over 30 years Ada County Highway District’s Commuteride Vanpools have been crisscrossing the Valley helping commuters go to and from work, with their numerous vanpool routes traveling throughout the Treasure Valley. The Vanpools also service the Military at Gowen Field and Mountain Home Air Force Base (MHAFB) with multiple routes to and from Ada and Canyon County. ACHD Commuteride serves the cities, Boise, Meridian, Kuna, Garden City, Eagle and Star as well as Ada County. Private firms operate vanpools for individuals, as well as in cooperation with employers or under contract. Another notable example is Swvl, a NASDAQ publicly held company, that is providing Vanpooling services in 18 countries.

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Communication

The automatic curb sender was a kind of telegraph key, invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin for sending messages on a submarine communications cable, as the well-known Wheatstone transmitter sends them on a land line. In both instruments, the signals are sent by means of a perforated ribbon of paper but the cable sender was the more complicated, because the cable signals are formed by both positive and negative currents, and not merely by a single current, whether positive or negative. Moreover, to curb the prolongation of the signals due to electromagnetic induction, each signal was made by two opposite currents in succession: a positive followed by a negative, or a negative followed by a positive. The aftercurrent had the effect of "curbing" its precursor. For some time, it was the only instrument delicate enough to receive the signals transmitted through a long cable. This self-acting cable key was brought out in 1876, and tried on the lines of the Eastern Telegraph Company.

Communication_0

Communication

In the study of the biological sciences, biocommunication is any specific type of communication within (intraspecific) or between (interspecific) species of plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and microorganisms. Communication means sign-mediated interactions following three levels of rules (syntactic, pragmatic and semantic). Signs in most cases are chemical molecules (semiochemicals), but also tactile, or as in animals also visual and auditive. Biocommunication of animals may include vocalizations (as between competing bird species), or pheromone production (as between various species of insects), chemical signals between plants and animals (as in tannin production used by vascular plants to warn away insects), and chemically mediated communication between plants and within plants. Biocommunication of fungi demonstrates that mycelia communication integrates interspecific sign-mediated interactions between fungal organisms, soil bacteria and plant root cells without which plant nutrition could not be organized. Biocommunication of Ciliates identifies the various levels and motifs of communication in these unicellular eukaryotes. Biocommunication of Archaea represents key levels of sign-mediated interactions in the evolutionarily oldest akaryotes. Biocommunication of phages demonstrates that the most abundant living agents on this planet coordinate and organize by sign-mediated interactions. Biocommunication is the essential tool to coordinate behavior of various cell types of immune systems. Biocommunication theory may be considered to be a branch of biosemiotics. Whereas biosemiotics studies the production and interpretation of signs and codes, biocommunication theory investigates concrete interactions mediated by signs. Accordingly, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of biocommunication processes are distinguished. Biocommunication specific to animals (animal communication) is considered a branch of zoosemiotics. The semiotic study of molecular genetics, can be considered a study of biocommunication at its most basic level.Interpreting stimuli from the environment is an essential part of life for any organism. Abiotic things that an organism must interpret include climate (weather, temperature, rainfall), geology (rocks, soil type), and geography (location of vegetation communities, exposure to elements, location of food and water sources relative to shelter sites).Birds, for example, migrate using cues such as the approaching weather or seasonal day length cues. Birds also migrate from areas of low or decreasing resources to areas of high or increasing resources, most commonly food or nesting locations. Birds that nest in the Northern Hemisphere tend to migrate north in the spring due to the increase in insect population, budding plants and the abundance of nesting locations. During the winter birds will migrate south to not only escape the cold, but find a sustainable food source. Some plants will bloom and attempt to reproduce when they sense days getting shorter. If they cannot fertilize before the seasons change and they die then they do not pass on their genes. Their ability to recognize a change in abiotic factors allow them to ensure reproduction. Trans-organismic communication is when organisms of different species interact. In biology the relationships formed between different species is known as symbiosis. These relationships come in two main forms - mutualistic and parasitic. Mutualistic relationships are when both species benefit from their interactions. For example, pilot fish gather around sharks, rays, and sea turtles to eat various parasites from the surface of the larger organism. The fish obtain food from following the sharks, and the sharks receive a cleaning in return.Parasitic relationships are where one organism benefits off of the other organism at a cost. For example, in order for mistletoe to grow it must leach water and nutrients from a tree or shrub. Communication between species is not limited to securing sustenance. Many flowers rely on bees to spread their pollen and facilitate floral reproduction. To allow this, many flowers evolved bright, attractive petals and sweet nectar to attract bees. In a 2010 study, researchers at the University of Buenos Aires examined a possible relationship between fluorescence and attraction. The study concluded that reflected light was much more important in pollinator attraction than fluorescence. Communicating with other species allows organisms to form relationships that are advantageous in survival, and all of these relationships are all based on some form of trans-organismic communication. Inter-organismic communication is communication between organisms of the same species (conspecifics). Inter-organismic communication includes human speech, which is key to maintaining social structures.Dolphins communicate with one another in a number of ways by creating sounds, making physical contact with one another and through the use of body language. Dolphins communicate vocally through clicking sounds and pitches of whistling specific to only one individual. The whistling helps communicate the individual's location to other dolphins. For example, if a mother loses sight of her offspring, or when two familiar individuals cannot find each other, their individual pitches help navigate back into a group. Body language can be used to indicate numerous things such as a nearby predator, to indicate to others that food has been found, and to demonstrate their level of attractiveness in order to find a mating partner, and even more. However, mammals such as dolphins and humans are not alone communicating within their own species. Peacocks can fan their feathers in order to communicate a territorial warning. Bees can tell other bees when they have found nectar by performing a dance when they return to the hive. Deer may flick their tails to warn others in their trail that danger is approaching. Intra-organismic communication is not solely the passage of information within an organism, but also concrete interaction between and within cells of an organism, mediated by signs. This could be on a cellular and molecular level. An organism's ability to interpret its own biotic information is extremely important. If the organism is injured, falls ill, or must respond to danger, it needs to be able to process that physiological information and adjust its behavior.For example, when the human body starts to overheat, specialized glands release sweat, which absorbs the heat and then evaporates. This communication is imperative to survival in many species including plant life. Plants lack a central nervous system so they rely on a decentralized system of chemical messengers. This allows them to grow in response to factors such as wind, light and plant architecture. Using these chemical messengers, they can react to the environment and assess the best growth pattern. Essentially, plants grow to optimize their metabolic efficiency. Humans also rely on chemical messengers for survival. Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone that is secreted during times of great stress. It binds to receptors on the surface of cells and activates a pathway that alters the structure of glucose. This causes a rapid increase in blood sugar. Adrenaline also activates the central nervous system increasing heart rate and breathing rate. This prepares the muscles for the body's natural fight-or-flight response. Organisms rely on many different means of intra-organismic communication. Whether it is through neural connections, chemical messengers, or hormones, these all evolved to respond to threats, maintain homeostasis and ensure self preservation. Given the complexity and range of biological organisms and the further complexity within the neural organization of any particular animal organism, a variety of biocommunication languages exists.A hierarchy of biocommunication languages in animals has been proposed by Subhash Kak: these languages, in order of increasing generality, are associative, re-organizational, and quantum. The three types of formal languages of the Chomsky hierarchy map into the associative language class, although context-free languages as proposed by Chomsky do not exist in real life interactions.

Communication_1