raw_transcripts/lecture_2.txt

Can you hear me?

Okay.

Hello?

Hello?

Can you hear me?

Seems to be.

Hello.

Good morning.

I'll start off from here.

I'm going to wear this mikes that we've been recording.

Lachica.

That seems to have worked.

Anything wrong with those who got backup lectures?

Any point and worry, we'll always have something to post

to Moodle.

If you can't make one of the lectures, there will

be clashes that will be strikethrough, these sorts of things.

So last week, Monday, not a week ago, we talked

about historical perspectives, the brain and behaviour.

Today we're going to look more intensively at neuroanatomy.

So this is a this is a much more intense

lecture than the previous one.

The sense of the material is is more factual.

It's more like if you're a medical student, you can

get this every day.

But the core idea here at this lecture I'm going

to run over these slides is to introduce you to

some of the key anatomical parts of the brain that

will keep cropping up.

In the lectures we talk through.

There'll be slides which are full of information because that's

what the information is, that I won't I work my

way through them.

I'll just highlight this worth being aware of these things

as opposed to being really detailed in knowledge.

Alongside these lectures on the moodle page, you the middle.

There's a guide to neurone estimate word document you should

download that guides and access the resource within.

It explains what it is.

I'll just see if that word control should take us

to the next website.

So it's like this word document would take you to

a website where you can train yourself on on learning

the images from the from this topic, and it's inside.

So go back to the end to remind you.

But this is the key way to learn about your

anatomy.

I'm going to talk to you about things, but it's

not the kind of material you can kind of go,

Oh yeah, I know this.

It's a bit more like you'll need to test, retest

yourself with that material.

If you've got a great ability to visualise by spatially,

imagine things in your head, you'll do well in this.

But if you don't, it's tricky.

A lot of this is looking at images of cuts

through the brain.

Let's get into my lecture.

Let me start by highlighting what we're going to learn.

Basic understanding.

It's not a detail is their basic understanding of brain

anatomy.

We can look at the basic divisions within the nervous

system, which we talked about in last Monday's lecture about

the red car and the nerves that go on and

so on.

We're going to talk about how you divide those up.

And at the end of it, after you've done the

material, you should be able to identify some of the

basic different structures of the brain by looking at images.

So if someone at the end of this lecture says,

Oh, where's the going, calories, you have some idea and

going, Oh, it's kind of there.

I don't want to know everything there is to know

about the group as colleges.

Just one example of lots of brain areas, but that's

the idea.

Let me start with three myths related to your anatomy.

One is that the adult brain doesn't grow any cells

that you're born with your brain cells, and they just

all die.

And that was the view held by scientists.

But it's not true or certain bits of your brain

to do with smell of memory for some reason that

do carry on growing throughout your whole life, a process

known as neurogenesis.

One this as well as you use 10% of our

brain.

You characterised recently by a best known film you where

the character unlocks the 90% of the brain they were

using.

And this is just nonsense.

We're constantly using all of our brain while I'm standing

here.

Neurones are doing different things that I needed to do.

Sure, you can train up to be a fantastic athlete

and use more of your brain for that.

But it's not.

Not what people have argued in the past that we

really aren't using the brain very much.

It's not true.

There's also the thing I was in a meeting with

somebody yesterday said, Oh, yes, you know, this thing or

that brain people who are really analytical and quite cold

and then you get these wonderful creative right brain types

who really write dominant and kind of big thinkers.

And this is kind of this is nonsense.

It's inaccurate with Paul Brooker.

And that because we thought that language appears to be

dominance in the left hemisphere and there is some evidence

for kind of more analytical prose, this thing in the

left in the last hemisphere and more visuospatial things in

the right dots.

There's no such creative types.

Analytical types based on brain hemispheres.

Studies is not everything when it comes to brains.

Sitting here with giant brains, you can look at a

spot or a mouse.

They've got a small brain.

Think we.

You certainly have very big brains compared to our bodies.

But if you compare our brain to a sperm whale,

ours is much smaller as the sperm whales brain cut

through giant and arguably it's not a lot cleverer than

we are.

It could do some amazing things.

Sperm whales can sink to the bottom of the ocean

and capture squid and pitch blood.

But it hasn't been to the moon.

Just one example of what humans can do.

So size isn't everything.

Okay, I said at the beginning of the lecture, learning

objective is to understand the divisions within the nervous system.

And this is.

That's right.

So here's it's in a very, very kind of simplistic

diagram of a human body in that you can see

this in the central nervous system, but it is protected

from the immune system, the immune system beyond and other

aspects.

And then there's the peripheral nervous system.

So the central nervous system, also known as the CNS,

if someone says, Oh yeah, we're studying, the CNS contains

the brain which we will spend all the current lectures

coming on and also the spinal cord.

If it was a neurology that you learn a lot

about spinal cords.

But because we're interested in cognition and psychology, we're not

very interested in the spinal cord.

Least I'm not.

The penis is the bit beyond which is the contains

a number of divisions.

The peripheral nervous system contains the somatic nervous system.

So that's going to you in your face.

You will be using your somatic nervous system to feel

that slap on your face.

All those tense moves on your own, the skin of

your body are being used to sense that everything in

your body, these sensations are passing down.

You can see those pink nerve fibres running all over

the body to detect what's not there.

More interesting to me, at least as a psychologist, is

that autonomic nervous system, this is the bit of the

body that's involved in dealing with threat and stress and

other aspects of behaviour.

We'll have a whole lecture by me coming up on

stress and how the autonomic nervous system operates.

It contains a sympathetic system and a part sympathetic system.

I will come back to those when we get to

our stress lecture.

Finally, there's an internal system which is in our guts.

It helps to digest things and does things related to

food processing, which again is a psychologist running a brand

of behaviour.

I'm not so interested in gut maturity.

Some of you might be fascinated by it.

That's not this course.

Next few slides, it's three or four slides rule about

orienting you.

So if you think about the planet Earth and where

we are now in London, we're quite close to the

Greenwich Meridian line, so there's always meridians running over the

surface of the earth.

Through are latitude and longitude and the prime meridian, this

gets all of these runs through Greenwich.

You can walk around probably 40 minutes or something.

You need the same sort of organisation to understand where

things are in the brain.

And anatomists have come up with the idea of labelling

things in two or three different ways.

One is to describe rostral bits in the brain towards

the front, caudal bits towards the back and things that

are towards the top is dorsal and ventral towards the

bottom.

So here's a rat's brain and here's a human brain

showing you, whereas rostral caudal, it gets a little confusing

with humans because our brains, as we we evolved, we

start standing up and our heads bent forward.

As you can see, the line axis of our eyes,

our relative to our spine is unusual amongst other species,

experienced in mammals, many other mammals.

But you know, there are kangaroos and other animals.

This is also true.

So this is one way of doing it.

Another way is to describe things that are superior towards

the top and inferior towards the bottom of the brain.

And we can also think about things that are towards

the front of your head about the anterior parts of

the brain that's towards above your eyes and the posterior

parts of your brain towards the back.

So if we think about posterior, except we'll get into

that.

So this is a very simple way of allocating that's

different.

We also need to think about when we get into

the middle of the brain versus going out in the

middle of the brain.

As we go towards the middle, we call that going

medial as we go out, we call that lateral just

because of terms from Latin to use.

Then once we get in, we're going to be showing

you some slices through the brain, some disgusting slices.

There's another disgusting image of the brain with its blood

vessels removed.

And if we're going to cut a slice through the

brain, you want to know what is that slice?

What are you looking at?

And there are a number of ways of describing that.

One of the most common ways of labelling that are

to describe one is the horizontal plane.

So if you think about the earth, the surface of

the earth, we're all standing on it.

Gravity's attracting us down.

If you cut a plane up from that, it's horizontal

to the surface of the earth, and that's what this

plane is.

If we cut through flights in the back of the

head forward, that's a horizontal cut.

If we cut butt into my eyes straight at me,

that's.

The sagittal plane.

You can see that there.

And if we cut like a cross down past your

ears from the top downwards, that's the coronial plane.

These are just anatomical terms you come across in these

lectures.

So if we cut through these things.

Here's a diagram.

I said, One drain to all three cuts.

You get images like this.

So you should be able to decide, is this a

is this a coronil slice or sagittal slice or a

horizontal slice?

And so you can kind of see how these are

mapped.

There's another word which is also described.

Coronil is also described as the transverse plane, not transverse

to the main axis of the of the brain.

And that, again, is slightly confusing because again, along the

axis, if I go back, you see that that's the

that's the axis of the brain running from the front

down to your bottom.

And therefore if you cut along that transverse, it becomes

a kind of bends round from the through the middle,

down through the spine in a different orientation.

So that's what the spinal cord looks like if you

cut transverse sections.

Right.

But really the key things to take away this is,

this is this transversal coronal section, the sagittal section and

a horizontal section.

So here's an example where there's a human body and

you cut through sagittal, coronal and axial, and we end

up with these three images.

So if you've been watching carefully and thinking about this

in your head, you should be able to guess what.

So if you have a little moment to think about

it, can you guess which of these images is which,

which is coronal, which is horizontal or axial is the

other word for this.

Just at that in there, which is the actual horizontal,

which is the sagittal one, which is the corona.

And if you're if you're good at this, you should

have got these answers.

So this is also horizontal.

The axial is the same as horizontal in this case.

So there we go.

That's just a way of thinking about orientations.

You can see the same in cats, frogs, fish, and

so on.

This just gives you another diagram to think about how

we're orienting ourselves because we'll start to talk about the

medial hypothalamus in the lateral hypothalamus.

After this slide, I have an idea.

Okay, We've got orientation.

We know where we're going in the brain.

Here's what's known as a mid sagittal, disgusting section.

Again, this is even more disgusting for the blood vessels.

That's the cut through the brain right here.

And this is known as a lateral view looking at

the left hemisphere and that area there.

Now, one of the first things you need to know

is if this fundamental fact of neuroanatomy, you should note,

is that there are four lobes in the human brain.

The very basic piece of knowledge that you should all

know.

Many of you may well have known this coming into

this lecture, but just to orient you is the frontal

lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe and occipital lobe.

And of course, as you can see, they're not actually

coloured like that.

It's just a diagram to illustrate them.

Now, here's a structural system.

We've got our brain and spinal cord and our central

nervous system, and they are all encased by bone.

Right?

My head, I knock it now.

It's got nice bone protecting me from damaging my brain.

You couldn't have boxing if you didn't have brains, the

skull protectors.

We would have died that long ago with the eyes.

But a spinal cord is also vertebrate, right?

So protected by the vertebra as well.

The peripheral nervous system is not protected by that.

It contains cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral ganglia.

And this is also these are encased in the vertical

column as well as these.

So these are these are other bits that we'll dive

into.

But it's just important to know these are we won't

be talking much about these will get onto the cranial

nerves in a bit.

And if you would, doctors training for medicine have lots

of lectures on the great nerves in detail, but we're

not.

Large part of the peripheral nervous.

System.

That's the good point.

So it's the it's these the the sort of the

the spinal cord has peripheral ganglia which encased by bone

in a virtual column.

We'll see a picture of that in a moment.

It's a good question.

Cranial nerves kind of come out.

So Queenslanders, as I'm speaking now, I'm moving my tongue

will be using a for combat.

Good question.

That's not as clear as it could be.

Thanks for that.

So do do prompt if there's something super unclear.

Very quickly answer that.

Now we're going to start seeing lines like this is

a bit of a detailed lecture and some I will

skip over for speed because they're more of the need

to know.

But there are two ways of dividing up into the

sections we're interested in.

Like I mentioned to give, you've got six sections through

the central nervous system, fluid just looking at the spine

in the brain.

So there are four sections to the spinal cord, the

sacral bent down at your bottom, the lumbar section, which

is most of the back thoracic at the top and

right at the top of the spinal cord is the

cervical section.

And again, we won't be dealing with this much in

our lecture, but there are interesting autonomic nervous system aspects

that you will come back to this.

And mostly we're not very interested.

Above these we get into the more you sort of

going up evolutionary from an evolutionary perspective here.

These are the simplest bits of your body that, as

we said, if you cut off the brain in a

frog as you go in, that you can still make

it do those fantastic reflex movements from these parts of

the spinal cord.

Above that, we come to the medulla.

So we're going to have a whole lot of the

medulla, the pons and the midbrain all form what's known

as the brainstem, both in this section, Pons and the

midbrain will form part of this brainstem area above them.

We now get into higher order bits of the brain

that are doing the things that we're interested in.

This course, mainly these include the dying stuff along and

the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebral hemispheres, the really clever bits

that make us human really did bits that expanded massively

in humans compared to, say, a mouse.

And you can see they're are all folded over to

cram in there.

But if we we're going to focus on those in

a bit, here's all these extra bits of things we'll

come back to.

But the distinction I'm trying to draw out with this

slide is this distinction between a brain stem, the dying

step along the cerebral hemispheres and below it the spinal

cord.

The dying step along here is composed of two regions,

the thalamus, a big central kind of organising structure in

the middle of your brain and the hypothalamus.

And we'll spend two lectures thinking about the hypothalamus because

it does fascinating things to do with paternal or maternal

behaviour.

Regulating your stress response, the thalamus, those magical things to

sleep.

You'll come back to that sleep lecture.

But down here we don't spend much time on the

fascinating nuclei within these brainstem areas to do.

Arousal.

So if a lion suddenly got into the room deep

down, glad you had all these nuclei to wake you

up and get you going to escape out of here

from the lion, the medulla again we wouldn't spend much

time on contains bits of your brain to do with

temperature regulation breathing.

So if you get a tiny stroke in your medulla,

that could be you dead because you stop breathing or

you just overheat.

You can't turn off your raising of temperature.

So it's a really crucial bit of the brain common

to all mammals and reptiles and something.

Okay, another way of thinking about this is to divide

up between the hind brain, brain and the forebrain with

just to understand the division of the nervous system.

So if someone says, Oh, we're going to look at

forebrain, they mean the cerebral cortex of the dinosaur got

the thalamus again in the midbrain is a particular bit

of the brain here that sits between these hind brain

areas.

And the main forebrain contains some key pathways that will

come onto intellectual sensation.

And again, down here of the structures at the back

of the brain is called the cerebellum.

It means that she the little brain, and it contains

half of all the neurones that you have in your

head.

And it's critical for timing.

Everything you're doing.

That pretty much involves timing, making sure you don't fall

over, hold a pen, speak lots and lots of things.

We're still, as neuroscientists, really trying to figure out how

much of the cerebellum is where we will be focusing

in these lectures, much on development.

It's a vast topic.

This institute you're sitting and having this lecture is an

institute of child health, but it's fascinated over these issues

around child development inside the womb before babies born.

This is its brain just before it pops that it

starts off this journey from a very simple looking brain

structure to a mouse to a chicken, and by the

end of a baby, developing in the mother's womb is

very different to any other animal on our planet.

You can see it's massively expanded.

The talons have long, which is another term for the

the cerebral hemispheres in development.

We have a dying step along with a mesons balloon

and a mess and stuff.

These are just distinctions during development.

Again, I'm just highlighting this as an important slide for

if you come on to thinking about brain development and

growth of the brain in the womb, these are the

kind of terms.

But again, just taking you through that is to say

we won't be returning to these topics much, but to

make you aware, there's a fantastic world out there.

The research on babies brains in the womb.

Okay, here's an adult brain and it's disgusting for cadaverous

state.

One of the key things to learn about when you

think about a brain like this is that there are

all these bumps and there are grooves that little gaps

in here, and these bumps that stick up are known

as gyri and the gaps in a soul kind.

So when anatomists label bits of the brain and say,

Oh, we're going to put an electrode in and stimulate

that, we often refer to it as a gyrus if

it's a bit sticking out or if they have to

get that electrode right deep into the brain, they'll be

going into the sulcus.

So there is some big cell guy.

So there's some really big ones too.

Here.

The temporal lobe is the frontal lobe and the temporal

lobe, the bit that separates the temporal lobe from the

frontal lobe is known as the sylvian picture for some

reason.

Look.

Okay, carry on.

Okay.

So that that's that is the maybe the general brain.

We're going to dive in and highlight some gyri.

Now, this is where these lectures start.

I was a student studying theories and go, Oh, gosh,

you showed us the lot of brain pictures.

Now I got to take it.

But as I said, this is a lecture where I'm

just introducing the terms.

If you go and study them at the level we're

highlighting here, it should it should all locked into place

this thought in the right hemisphere.

Over here.

We'll start here.

Let's go.

Here is probably the frontal lobe and there's all these

little clever bits here, the orbital triangular in a particular

part of the frontal lobe through part of a gyrus.

That is the Brockers area that we talked about, where

you get a bullet through that and you will lose

the ability in 90% of people to be able to

speak.

So if we look at the right hemisphere, one of

the key organisations goes back to wild open field and

favours various work.

But we have the central sulcus.

But there are all these okay in the brain, but

this is the most important, it's the central.

So because it divides the frontal lobe through the parietal

lobe, the central sulcus, and you can see it more

clearly in the left hemisphere, but here it is in

the right hemisphere and really unimaginatively very descriptively.

The gyri in front of it is known as the

pre central sulcus pre is ahead of it and the

one behind the post central sulcus sort of potential gyrus

these two gyri.

So if you split the electrode onto the pre central

gyrus, there's the hand area that makes them want flick

their hand around and.

You just move the electrodes backwards to the coast, then

to charge.

Don't start to feel an itch on their hands.

Yep.

So central focus is that.

You know, there's still been fissures tucked under.

What we're doing now is looking down a top of

the head.

So, Silvia Fisher, if I go back, is this fit

to separate the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe?

What we're going to do is now slip up and

look down.

It's a great question.

Thank you for asking that.

We're not looking at the top of someone's head.

The eyeballs would be under here.

So very useful questions to have.

So you got a frontal lobe here.

We've got this typical the not label, but just part

of this diagram is to highlight.

There are a number of names gyri like the angular

gyrus, the super marginal gyrus, a superior parietal lobe gets

a special name and there's an into parietal sulcus.

Now, this is me introducing it to you.

You have a whole lecture that focuses on what the

integrated sulcus is doing later in the course.

But there are all these gyri that come up in

lectures, But that's really where the organisation highlights and links

back to the previous lecture about the fundamentals of learning

about how the brain is organised for sensory systems and

motor systems.

Okay, so we were looking from the top down previously.

There's the frontal lobe is the parietal lobe is where

the eyeballs would be and this is the highlight that

there are the division here is pretty clear as a

motor and a sensory system, but the actual division between

the parietal occipital and temporal lobes is very much an

argument made on a number of different criteria that businesses

don't agree with each other.

So histology is looking at the cells, the architecture, the

structure of the cells, the chemicals in the cells, the

how, the different bits, the brain are connected and what

they are doing.

Phineas Gauge agreed in lecture one lost his personality due

to frontal lobe damage that doesn't occur elsewhere.

So we have all these ways of dividing up these

lives, but they don't all agree.

I just described that issue just to give you another

way, a nice way of looking down previously, we've both

been from the side and we've got these areas that

I just described offhand.

So it's just thing if you put an electrode into

the brain, increase ventral sulcus, sorry, gyrus is the central

sulcus is the central gyrus, It will make the hand

move, move the electrode back, you'll feel the stimulation, tickling,

sensation, pointing fingers, face, lips, etc..

These are known as the primaries, the map of sensory

cortex.

When you feel it in primary motor cortex, where it

allows us to move at the back of the brain,

we have the primary visual cortex, which going back to

our hands and in the dark ages of 1008, argued,

is where vision is process to.

It's 10,000, 3000 years later, wouldn't that when I'm looking

at that in detail.

We also have a primary auditory cortex in our temporal

lobe.

So these are the areas where the information reaches the

higher order bits of your brain.

These are the primary bits.

And if I showed an example of a mouse, a

lot of its brain is taken up with those topics

of feeling, acting and hearing and seeing and the other

bits of today we're kind of putting these things together.

If you look at your brain, this is a diagram

of what your brain is doing as a lot of

brain area.

They're doing other things.

And that's a lot of the topic of this course

as we come forward.

We do more than just sense the world and move

in it.

We construct our internal understanding of it.

We have language to dive out into the middle of

the brain.

So this is a mid-size view into the brain.

You can see the nose, the tongue clipped someone's teeth

here.

But what we can see, there's a lot of labelled

sections here.

You can see the cerebellum and bits labelled the.

What are highlighting in this slide?

All right, a few things.

One is the corpus callosum to come back to another

diagram with that in the moment, which is the major

a pathway superhighway that connects your two hemispheres together.

There are two hemispheres in our brain and they're connected

by this superhighway for what's highlighted in blue.

You can see this disgusting cut through the skull and

the sap and the skin, but there's a little blue

section here running all the way round, and that is

a meninges part of your brain that saves you from

being hit on the head from catastrophic brain injury.

It's like a packing around your brain to protect you.

And they.

We'll come into the detail within those.

And there are also ventricles.

So ventricles we talked about with Vesalius and Descartes, they

thought that's where the soul came to our brain in

this deep in this anatomical diagram, we can see there's

a fourth ventricle here so invincible and there's no ventricle

One and two, there are two giant lateral ventricles.

I'll show you where they are in a moment.

So I'm going to go on and look at the

brain, what's going on in the spinal cord if we

cut through this and what that looks like and then

going back to these meninges.

So here is our spinal cord.

If I go back and imagine it's cut through the

human head, sliced out in the middle, like gone in

someone between their eyes and cut with a knife, this

person's dead, we assume.

But now we're going to take a knife and just

cut through this.

Just take this bit out and cut horizontally through it.

What do we see?

This is what we see.

So this is towards someone's chest and this is towards

their back.

This is the bone, is that vertebrae?

And inside it is the spinal cord.

And in there, the neurones that allow a signal to

go out.

To the to make you act like I want to

move my fingers.

I'm going to need to use one of those spinal

neurones in my spinal cord to do this, to make

my fingers move, but it still slaps my hands, tells

me to stop clicking.

That's annoying.

I'll need to sense that on my fingers.

And again, that will come back down a neurone into

the spot and back up the spinal cord is a

relay.

The neurones sending things out to act as sensory information

to come back and surrounding it.

It's sort of like spider's web of material.

It's form the these meninges.

They're easy to see on the spinal cord.

You can see this yellow stuff, this fat, disgusting stuff

that people like to see in certain cases.

But the the the this this material here is known

as the arachnoid structure.

There's a durable lack of the juror matter and a

protective matter.

So we'll look at these in the next slide.

These are the meninges.

So here is a sort of Halloween esque picture of

the brain and the skull looking into someone's head.

And we can see that it's the brain is all

the brain cells.

There are blood vessels and there's this arachnoid by spider

like layer with a juror and a plasma and arrange

the matter protects the brain and the juror matter creates

a tough substance on the top.

So these are the meninges introducing you to things.

I'm not putting this slide up saying, right.

Can you memorise what number 29 is in this picture?

We will not be testing you like that in this

course.

What I'm doing this slide is to show one of

the main ways of dividing up the brain into more

detail, but still use to this day since the 1940s

is work done with the German anatomist Carl Brockman.

He divided up be looked at microscope images had lots

of different bits of the human brain and just divided

them up into about 42 regions, maybe 50 or so

just under that that number.

And there are key like the primaries, the multisensory cortex

is number one.

And number two is that there are various bits of

that system.

This is this is one way of dividing up the

brain labelled areas based on the cell types.

For example, the cells in areas for huge, the biggest

cells you have and these are the motor neurones that

come out if you to dissect the brain of a

giraffe to Giant because the giraffe needs to send a

signal from its brain to its toe and it needs

a big cell to do that.

So this is called Brockman's division of the nervous system.

You come back to this his later lectures.

So just to highlight how else can we divide up

the brain, another way is to look at the brain

and there are bits of the brain that are dark

and grey and there are the bits that are white

made of many of fat.

And so the way the cortex will talk is this

the bits we've been looking at, these bumps, it's all

kind gyri.

There are also subcortical structures.

We come to the moment and these are also grey,

these are all the grey.

That's the brain grape, it's the where the neurones sit

and you'll hear all about neurones next week on Monday.

But what bits, the connections, the pathways.

So much of your brain is taken up by the

white matter, which are the pathways between the neurones where

they send information.

And this inside is the corpus collective.

The superhighway will come to look at some more images

of us in a moment.

So we have a distinction between the areas with nuclei

and there is ganglia that just happens to be terms

anatomists use for clusters of groups of cells.

These are two other ways of staining the brain.

So you can see you can pick out the white

matter, which is confusing here because the white matter staying

dark, a dark colour and another classic lab use all

round, you will be using a missile stain to get

the grey matter in.

You can see colour, so there are different ways of

staining the brain and looking at white matter and grey

matter.

The next two slides were getting towards the end of

the kind of drugs big pictures in the brain.

There are two kind of core systems to pick out

your brain.

There's the limbic system and again, just I'm introducing them

now to come back to the limbic system.

When we go into emotions and memory inside the limbic

system, you can see some eyes here.

We have an area known as the hippocampus, the bit

that was removed in patient H.M. and to dense amnesia.

There's also an area known as that which sits.

He actually has one hippocampus in each hemisphere, the left

and right hippocampus.

There's the thalamus in the middle, and there's a brain

structure called the amygdala, which looks a bit like an

island.

And that's what the rat environment is, amygdala.

So the link to the nucleus contains cells that are

critical for emotional processing and fear.

There are patients out there that are just completely lost.

They damaged by laxity, their amygdala, and they will quite

happily pick up giant snakes to a pet, a tiger.

There's literally no fear in these patients.

This is absolutely critical for threat setting throughout the processing.

There other bits that are coming to the hypothalamus and

our lectures on stress and social bonding.

And again, just really briefly, I'm not expecting you to

take away this and walk through it in more details

in here.

Another bit of the brain, another circuit we have the

limbic system is another circuit in the brain called the

basal ganglia.

Again, if you a neurologist training medical school, you'd get

a lot of detail about the system.

For you.

It's really worth being aware that the basal ganglia contain

the caudate nucleus actually stamen and the globus paladins, and

they're arranged in this way, shown here, the nucleus, the

glow of asparagus and the potatoes and vitamins here, Globus

Palace.

And we have some other the sub nuclei.

We'll come back to these as we go through our

lectures.

When you get into movement, these are the brain areas

and in particular brain structure down here, the substantia nigra

will come on to that and that's the keep it

in the brain that goes wrong in Parkinson's disease.

Now we have a later lecture all about neurological diseases

and this goes to come back to these repeatedly.

Plot three that's just talking about what we look what

we're looking at here.

Here's the human brain from the outside.

Is it from the back?

And we're going to dissect this little bit shown here

in the shaded area.

So here is the thalamus.

This is all as if you've removed the three hemispheres.

We peeked inside the back of the brain and we

can see the cerebellum.

If we cut through here, through the midbrain, what we

see inside it are a number of areas.

So these do look a little bit colour.

They're really overly accentuated here, but this substantia nigra means

black substance and it is black.

There's a red nucleus which is a bit red, and

then there's a reticular formations is a little bit pale

blue ever so slightly.

And this is the area of the Perry aqueduct all

grey.

Now the other part is another bit, the superior molecular.

We'll talk about that later in vision.

I will talk about these when we get into the

stress fractures and neurological diseases.

But this is just to show you the main key

structures.

If you were to cut through the midbrain, just introducing

the various characters to play out as actors in our

story, to come to these lectures.

So ignore the giant arrow across this image and focus

on this arrow.

This is the corpus callosum, which is the highlight in

the middle of the brain.

This superhighway used all the brain, the grey matter grooves

of the gyri, and they're all connected to one hemisphere,

to the other through the corpus callosum.

And it means hard, durable substance.

If you cut through correctly, we saw this before.

Here's the superhighway.

So there are cells down here that will send a

message all the way to the cell over here through

your corpus callosum.

Okay.

So white matter.

We're just looking at pathways in the brain.

Just to orient you.

There are things called trapped, which mean it goes from

one bit to another.

Two verticals area.

To Brock area has a truck.

It connects these two brain areas together.

There are things called for Siculus for Nicholas Peduncle, a

break in the collections of nerve fibres that go to

different places.

Like a like a, like a sort of connecting highway.

The M25 takes cars to various places around it and

then the way little bits go to the sky.

In this case, these are sending fibres going up and

down.

They're just different types of white matter sitting in your

brain.

I mentioned previously the ventricles, these fluid filled spaces.

The Descartes thought was how your soul gave rise to

your whole conscious experience.

You have a lecture on consciousness.

This here in the course and deep learning will not

be, I think, talking much about the ventricles.

But you could.

You can ask him.

I talked about the fact there's a there's a fourth

ventricle right at the bottom.

There's a third ventricle, and then there's these lateral ventricles.

Let me highlight these here.

So these gaping holes here and here are the two

lateral ventricles.

And this is the core reflex that's this disgusting stuff

inside your head.

If you open up the brain that allows the this

fluid inside of this milky white fluid to maintain its

consistency and it bathes the brain, particularly powerful fluid that

is necessary for the optimal functioning of the neurones in

the cells that exist in your brain, unlike the rest

of your body.

But these are just to show with the length the

ventricles are.

What happens if you block these ventricles?

No doubt there have been many discussions in this building

of Institute of Child Health about this is that the

fluid builds up and up and they need to surgically

go in and put in a shunt.

The children that would really stretch skull huge heads.

Unfortunately, due to a condition known as hydrocephalus.

And so it's a really devastating condition.

But the cells are all there to someone's got this

huge damage, but the cells are still sitting there so

they can end up living fully functional, impressive lives.

They just suffer a few challenges of memory and executive

and things to do with the frontal cortex.

But it's amazing this can still work, but if it's

not treated, it can lead to death, of course.

Now, this is a very intense slide, and I'm putting

it up here just to say there are 12 cranial

nerves.

You'd have a whole lecture on the cranial nerves if

you were a neurologist trying to be or if you

were medical students.

You do not need to know this material in detail

other than the fact there are 12 of these to

go to the heart.

They deal with the eyes.

Visit this the nerve fibres for the the optic nerve.

We'll come back to that to pick up on some

of these cranial nerves in other lectures to do with

sentence in the world.

But they're really about the fact that I had for

moving my hands, The stuff I was talking about before

of my clicking my fingers goes to my spinal cords.

If I want to wiggle my tongue, it's above the

spinal cord.

I need a cranial nerve to wiggle my tongue.

And you can see there are tongue based cranial nerves

there.

They'll come out of the bottom bit of the brain.

So these are the cranial nerves.

So yeah, they.

They cover a range of different, different functions to do

with the head.

Now, this is a slide that will come back.

I'm introducing it now and we'll go back to it

again when we get onto stress, because this is the

autonomic nervous system.

We've been focusing in all the previous slides on this

bit of the topic of the brain where all thoughts

and memories and emotions and they're all gathered from from

this that our paternal or maternal behaviour, it's all there,

but our spinal cord has these incredible neurones embedded within

it, the not just the sensory and motor function, but

actually protecting us from the world out there.

So as we go through the world, as you've all

experienced by the point you've arrived here, there are stressful

things that they're even in our nicely protective world now.

I was a health service and we organised society and

we still have threats, get the stress of exams, for

example.

These are the bits of the brain that help you

get activated or allow you to calm down in that

sense.

So there's a range of different neurones up and down

the spine to go to.

Let me pick out one of the key ones here

is your heart.

So if a lion suddenly rushed into the lecture theatre,

you're not wanting to sit down, relax and read a

book who like to be the one person doing that

in the lion?

You kids right?

Hungry, alone.

Your brain needs to get you ready to get the

hell out of here, out of an expert.

And it does that by regulating your heartbeat.

So if your heart's running higher, you can pump more

blood, you can run faster, you can get to running

thoughts, you need more glucose for your muscles to get

you where you need to be.

And so the the the the system, the sympathetic nervous

system also acts to stimulate the release of glucose from

your liver to get that going.

If it does everything it said, it dilates your pupils

to get more light, stops you sweating inhibits you salivating.

It does all these things that get your body ready

to escape that lion or that threat.

But imagine you just kept going and going.

Your heart rate goes higher and higher.

You don't ever salivate again.

You're just pumping out glucose around your body.

You die, you live overdriven your body to excess.

So once you're away from the line and you're safe,

you want to bring that all back down.

And there's a sort of it's a connected system.

You can see that while all this driving stuff's in

the spine.

All right.

The top here are these various descending nerve fibres or

at the bottom here, some that deal with that process

of dampening things, lowering your heart rate, halting the amount

of glucose coming home, stimulating things to do with eating

and digesting because you need to take time.

Digesting isn't instant.

Your body needs time and care to digest and take

things and to relax, you need to sleep as well.

For example, if this is all if your heart beats

going through the roof, it's very hard to sleep.

So again, all these things are allowing you to keep,

maintain a calm environment that allows you to do a

range of of the things that we need to biologically.

You know, you can see down here with things like

if you get really stressed out, people pee and they

lose the urine, but you don't want to do that

when you're relaxing.

So these are kind of some strange aspects of our

nervous system.

We share this autonomic nervous system at all of the

mammals and reptiles.

Another sapiens vertebrate is basically any animal from millions of

years back that developed a spinal cord has these autonomic

sympathetic for rising up a parasympathetic for dragging down.

So these are was an open our system will come

back to what these are doing when they link to

the brain later in the course for stress.

The last bit of today's lecture.

Yes, sir.

I'm speechless.

So that information comes first.

The response.

Is not.

Information.

Yes.

How did you.

Great question.

So how does the spinal cord know this aligner?

Right.

So you have to have your eyes and your ears

and maybe smell all these sensory bits of information that

gather information about the world, feed two parts of the

poor bits of the brain, then descend.

And you want to do that as fast as you

can so that are very fast route to get from

your visual system.

The threat of, say, a giant snake or lion is

just to draw.

That is one example down to your spinal cord to

do.

Another key thing to highlight here is this is called

the autonomic nervous system.

It's very hard for you.

You can start to think about stressful things, right?

And it'll start to raise your heart rate.

You'll get stressed by thinking about things, but you have

to actively do that, wait for it to respond.

You can't control directly.

You can't just go, I want to raise my.

Heart rate by so many beats go.

It doesn't work like that.

It's not a voluntary process.

It's autonomic.

It's automatic.

You can't stop but feel stressed, do certain things.

So, my friends, getting off on this.

Right.

To end today's lecture, I want to highlight there are

four different neurochemical circuits in your brain that again, this

is not a one off.

We keep going back to these circuits.

So I'm introducing them here as actors in our story

about threatening behaviour.

One of these is the the noradrenaline system.

You'll hear about this next week again.

And there's a particular nuclei in your brainstem called the

locus surrealists and it sends out fibres.

Here are the neurones.

They sit here and they send fibres, axons all the

way through the whole brain.

And this is part of our central activation systems that

get converts that line when you want to upregulate the

to activate the brain to take on an act, you

need a system.

Widespread power.

Enhance my vision.

I want to listen better.

I want to be able to focus.

You need you need a brain wide broadcasting system.

And that's what the noradrenaline system does.

Adrenaline, you may be aware of this is that this

is something you might treat some of it.

Anaphylaxis is something you might want to take an active

hand and inject adrenaline directly.

And this this drug is very similar, very, very similar.

The molecule to noradrenaline in the brain, adrenaline is doing

that in your body and noradrenaline is the activation molecule

in your brain.

Last bit talk the dopaminergic system which which is a

much more restricted section of the brain, this molecule dopamine,

we'll come onto that later also described as the desired

molecule and we'll get to that.

Finally, we have our choline molecules, both in sleep and

memory.

That comes from two particular nuclei and a bizarre nucleus,

right?

Peduncle, pontine nucleus.

We'll come back to these again.

Finally, we have serotonin, a molecule that gets involved in

the treatment of depression and mood disorders, and that comes

from a number of the RAF finding them again very

widespread.

So this is an example of a kind of question

you might get at the end of the course.

Which ventricle are we looking at here?

Is it the for the third or the lateral ventricles?

The way to learn that material is taking that resource.

I said that word document.

I'm playing with that and looking up because this image

is taken directly from that web tutorial.

So I've linked.

So if you go and explore that, you will learn

your your anatomy very well.

That's the resource here.

Do use my guide because it's more information you need.

I'll see you next post for you next week for

more on neurones and their structure.

Thank you.

Thank.