| { | |
| "paper_id": "R11-1024", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T15:03:46.668927Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "A Named Entity Recognition Method using Rules Acquired from Unlabeled Data", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Tomoya", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Iwakura", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "1-1, Kamikodanaka 4-chome, Nakahara-ku", | |
| "postCode": "211-8588", | |
| "settlement": "Kawasaki", | |
| "country": "Japan" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "iwakura.tomoya@jp.fujitsu.com" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "We propose a Named Entity (NE) recognition method using rules acquired from unlabeled data. Rules are acquired from automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer. These rules are used to identify NEs, the beginning of NEs, or the end of NEs. The application results of rules are used as features for machine learning based NE recognizers. In addition, we use word information acquired from unlabeled data as in a previous work. The word information includes the candidate NE classes of each word, the candidate NE classes of co-occurring words of each word, and so on. We evaluate our method with IREX data set for Japanese NE recognition and unlabeled data consisting of more than one billion words. The experimental results show that our method using rules and word information achieves the best accuracy on the GENERAL and ARREST tasks of IREX.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "R11-1024", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "We propose a Named Entity (NE) recognition method using rules acquired from unlabeled data. Rules are acquired from automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer. These rules are used to identify NEs, the beginning of NEs, or the end of NEs. The application results of rules are used as features for machine learning based NE recognizers. In addition, we use word information acquired from unlabeled data as in a previous work. The word information includes the candidate NE classes of each word, the candidate NE classes of co-occurring words of each word, and so on. We evaluate our method with IREX data set for Japanese NE recognition and unlabeled data consisting of more than one billion words. The experimental results show that our method using rules and word information achieves the best accuracy on the GENERAL and ARREST tasks of IREX.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Named Entity (NE) recognition aims to recognize proper nouns and numerical expressions in text, such as names of people, locations, organizations, dates, times, and so on. NE recognition is one of the basic technologies used in text processing such as Information Extraction and Question Answering.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "To implement NE recognizers, semisupervised-based methods have recently been widely applied. These methods use several different types of information obtained from unlabeled data, such as word clusters (Freitag, 2004; Miller et al., 2004) , the clusters of multi-word nouns (Kazama and Torisawa, 2008) , phrase clusters (Lin and Wu, 2009) , hyponymy relations extracted from WikiPedia (Kazama and Torisawa, 2008) , NE-related word information (Iwakura, 2010) , and the outputs of classifiers or parsers created from unlabeled data (Ando and Zhang, 2005) . These previous works have shown that features acquired from large sets of unlabeled data can contribute to improved accuracy. From the results of these previous works, we see that several types of features augmented with unlabeled data contribute to improved accuracy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 202, | |
| "end": 217, | |
| "text": "(Freitag, 2004;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 218, | |
| "end": 238, | |
| "text": "Miller et al., 2004)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" | |
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| { | |
| "start": 274, | |
| "end": 301, | |
| "text": "(Kazama and Torisawa, 2008)", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 320, | |
| "end": 338, | |
| "text": "(Lin and Wu, 2009)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
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| "start": 375, | |
| "end": 412, | |
| "text": "WikiPedia (Kazama and Torisawa, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| "start": 443, | |
| "end": 458, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2010)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 531, | |
| "end": 553, | |
| "text": "(Ando and Zhang, 2005)", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Therefore, if we can incorporate new features augmented with unlabeled data, we expect more improved accuracy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We propose a Named Entity recognition method using rules acquired from unlabeled data. Our method uses rules identifying not only whole NEs, but also the beginning of NEs or the end of NEs. Rules are acquired from automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer. The application results of rules are used as features for machine-learning based NE recognitions. Compared with previous works using rules identifying NEs acquired from manually labeled data (Isozaki, 2001) , or lists of NEs acquired from unlabeled data (Talukdar et al., 2006) , our method uses new features such as identification results of the beginning of NEs and the end of NEs. In addition, we use word information (Iwakura, 2010) . The word information includes the candidate NE classes of each word, the candidate NE classes of co-occurring words of each word, and so on. The word information is also acquired from automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 455, | |
| "end": 470, | |
| "text": "(Isozaki, 2001)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 518, | |
| "end": 541, | |
| "text": "(Talukdar et al., 2006)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" | |
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| "start": 685, | |
| "end": 700, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2010)", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We report experimental results with the IREX Japanese NE recognition data set (IREX, 1999) . The experimental results show that our method using rules and word information achieves the best accuracy on the GENERAL and ARREST tasks. The experimental results also show that our method contributes to fast improvement of accuracy compared with only using manually labeled ", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 78, | |
| "end": 90, | |
| "text": "(IREX, 1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This section describes our NE recognition method that combines both word-based and characterbased NE recognitions.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Japanese Named Entity Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Each NE consists of one or more words. To recognize NEs, we have to identify word chunks with their NE classes. We use Start/End (SE) representation (Uchimoto et al., 2000) because an SE representation-based NE recognizer shows the best performance among previous works (Sasano and Kurohashi, 2008) . SE representation uses five tags which are S, B, I, E and O, for representing chunks. S means that the current word is a chunk consisting of only one word. B means the start of a chunk consisting of more than one word. E means the end of a chunk consisting of more than one word. I means the inside of a chunk consisting of more than two words. O means the outside of any chunk. We use the IREX Japanese NE recognition task for our evaluation. The task is to recognize the eight NE classes. The SE based NE label set for IREX task has (8 \u00d7 4) + 1 = 33 labels such as B-PERSON, S-PERSON, and so on.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 149, | |
| "end": 172, | |
| "text": "(Uchimoto et al., 2000)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF18" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 270, | |
| "end": 298, | |
| "text": "(Sasano and Kurohashi, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "section": "Chunk Representation", | |
| "sec_num": "2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We classify each word into one of the NE labels defined by the SE representation for recognizing NEs. Japanese has no word boundary marker. To segment words from Japanese texts, we use MeCab 0.98 with ipadic-2.7.0. 1 Our NE recognizer uses features extracted from the current word, the preceding two words and the two succeeding words (5-word window). The basic features are the word surfaces, the last characters, the base-forms, the readings, the POS tags, and the character types of words within 5-word window size. The base-forms, the readings, and the POS tags are given by MeCab. Base-forms are representative expressions for conjugational words. If the base-form of each word is not equivalent to the word surface, we use the base-form as a feature. If a word consists of only one character, the character type is expressed by using the corresponding character types listed in Table 1 . If a word consists of more than one character, the character type is expressed by a combination of the basic character types listed in Table 1 , such as Kanji-Hiragana. MeCab uses the set of POS tags having at most four levels of subcategories. We use all the levels of POS tags as POS tag features.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 884, | |
| "end": 891, | |
| "text": "Table 1", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF0" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1029, | |
| "end": 1036, | |
| "text": "Table 1", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We use outputs of rules to a current word and word information within 5-word window size as features. The rules and the word information are acquired from automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer. We describe rules in section 3. We use the following NE-related labels of words from unlabeled data as word information as in (Iwakura, 2010) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 331, | |
| "end": 346, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2010)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Candidate NE labels: We use NE labels assigned to each word more than or equal to 50 times as candidate NE labels of words.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Candidate co-occurring NE labels: We use NE labels assigned to co-occurring words of each word more than or equal to 50 times as candidate co-occurring NE labels of the word.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Frequency information of candidate NE labels and candidate co-occurring NE labels: These are the frequencies of the NE candidate labels of each word on the automatically labeled data. We categorize the frequencies of these NErelated labels by the frequency of each word n; 50 \u2264 n \u2264 100, 100 < n \u2264 500, 500 < n \u2264 1000, 1000 < n \u2264 5000, 5000 < n \u2264 10000, 10000 < n \u2264 50000, 50000 < n \u2264 100000, and 100000 < n.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Ranking of candidate NE labels: This information is the ranking of candidate NE class labels for each word. Each ranking is decided according to the label frequencies.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "For example, we obtain the following statistics from automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer for Tanaka: S-PERSON was assigned to Tanaka 10,000 times, B-PERSON was assigned to Tanaka 1,000 times, and I-PERSON was assigned to words appearing next to Tanaka 1,000 times. The following NE-related labels are acquired for Tanaka: Candidate NE labels are S-PERSON and B-ORGANIZATION. Frequency information of candidate NE labels are 5000 < n \u2264 10000 for S-PERSON, and 500 < n \u2264 1000 for B-ORGANIZATION. The ranking of candidate NE labels are the first for S-PERSON, and second for B-ORGANIZATION. Candidate co-occurring NE labels at the next word position is I-PERSON. Frequency information of candidate co-occurring NE labels at the next word position is 500 < n \u2264 1000 for I-PERSON.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Word-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Japanese NEs sometimes include partial words that form the beginning, the end of NE chunks or whole NEs. 2 To recognize Japanese NEs including partial words, we use a character-unitchunking-based NE recognition algorithm (Asahara and Matsumoto, 2003; Nakano and Hirai, 2004) following word-based NE recognition as in (Iwakura, 2010) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 221, | |
| "end": 250, | |
| "text": "(Asahara and Matsumoto, 2003;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 251, | |
| "end": 274, | |
| "text": "Nakano and Hirai, 2004)", | |
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| }, | |
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| "end": 332, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2010)", | |
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| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Character-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our character-based NE recognizer uses features extracted from the current character, the preceding two characters and the two succeeding characters (5-character window). The features extracted from each character within the window size are the followings; the character itself, the character type of the character listed in Table 1 , and the NE labels of two preceding recognition results in the direction from the end to the beginning.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 325, | |
| "end": 332, | |
| "text": "Table 1", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Character-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In addition, we use words including characters within the window size. The features of the words are the character types, the POS tags, and the NE labels assigned by a word-based NE recognizer.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Character-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "As for words including characters, we extract features as follows. Let W (c i ) be the word including the i-th character c i and P (c i ) be the identifier that indicates the position where c i appears in W (c i ). We combine W (c i ) and P (c i ) to create a feature. P (c i ) is one of the followings: B for a character that is the beginning of a word, I for a character that is in the inside of a word, E for a character that is the end of a word, and S for a character that is a word. 3 We use the POS tags of words including characters within 5-character window. Let P OS(W (c i )) be the POS tag of the word W (c i ) including the ith character c i . We express these features with the position identifier P (c i ) like P (c i )-P OS(W (c i )). In addition, we use the character types of words including characters. To utilize outputs of a wordbased NE recognizer, we use NE labels of words assigned by a word-unit NE recognizer. Each character is classified into one of the 33 NE labels provided by the SE representation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
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| "start": 489, | |
| "end": 490, | |
| "text": "3", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| "section": "Character-based NE Recognition", | |
| "sec_num": "2.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We use a boosting-based learner that learns rules consisting of a feature, or rules represented by combinations of features consisting of more than one feature (Iwakura and Okamoto, 2008) . The boosting algorithm achieves fast training speed by training a weak-learner that learns several rules from a small portion of candidate rules. Candidate rules are generated from a subset of features called bucket. The parameters for the boosting algorithm are as follows. We used the number of rules to be learned as R=100,000, the bucketing size for splitting features into subsets as |B|=1,000, the number of rules learned at each boosting iteration as \u03bd =10, the number of candidate rules used to generate new combinations of features at each rule size as \u03c9=10, and the maximum number of features in rules as \u03b6=2.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 160, | |
| "end": 187, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura and Okamoto, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Machine Learning Algorithm", | |
| "sec_num": "2.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The boosting algorithm operates on binary classification problems. To extend the boosting to multi-class, we used the one-vs-the-rest method. To identify proper tag sequences, we use the Viterbi search. To apply the Viterbi search, we convert the confidence value of each classifier into the range of 0 to 1 with sigmoid function defined as s(X) = 1/(1 + exp(\u2212\u03b2X)), where X is the output of a classifier to an input. We used \u03b2=1 in this experiment. Then we select a tag sequence which maximizes the sum of those log values.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Machine Learning Algorithm", | |
| "sec_num": "2.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "To obtain a fast processing and training speed, we apply a technique to control the generation of combinations of features (Iwakura, 2009) . This is because fast processing speed is required to obtain word information and rules from large unlabeled data. Using this technique, instead of manually specifying combinations of features to be used, features that are not used in combinations of features are specified as atomic features. The boosting algorithm learns rules consisting of more than one feature from the combinations of features generated from non-atomic features, and rules consisting of only a feature from the atomic and the non-atomic features. We can obtain faster training speed and processing speed because we can reduce the number of combinations of features to be examined by specifying part of features as atomic. We specify features based on word information and rules acquired from unlabeled data as the atomic features.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
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| "end": 138, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2009)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" | |
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| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Machine Learning Algorithm", | |
| "sec_num": "2.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This section describes rules and a method to acquire rules.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rules Acquired from Unlabeled Data", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Previous works such as Isozaki (Isozaki, 2001) , Talukdar et al., (Talukdar et al., 2006) , use rules or lists of NEs for only identifying NEs. In addition to rules identifying NEs, we propose to use rules for identifying the beginning of NEs or the end of NEs to capture context information. To acquire rules, an automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer is used. The following types of rules are acquired.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 31, | |
| "end": 46, | |
| "text": "(Isozaki, 2001)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 49, | |
| "end": 89, | |
| "text": "Talukdar et al., (Talukdar et al., 2006)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Types", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Word N-gram rules for identifying NEs (NE-W-rules, for short): These are word N-grams corresponding to candidate NEs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Types", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Word trigram rules for identifying the beginning of NEs (NEB-W-rules): Each rule for identifying the beginning of NEs is represented as a word trigram consisting of the two words preceding the beginning of an NE and the beginning of the NE.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Types", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Word trigram rules for identifying the end of NEs (NEE-W-rules): Each rule for identifying the end of NEs is represented as a word trigram consisting of the two words succeeding the end of an NE and the end of the NE.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Types", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In addition to word N-gram rules, we acquire Word/POS N-gram rules for achieving higher rule coverage. Word/POS N-gram rules are acquired from N-gram rules by replacing some words in N-gram rules with POS tags. We call NE-W-rules, NEB-W-rules and NEE-W-rules converted to Word/POS N-gram rules NE-WP-rules, NEB-WP-rules and NEE-WP-rules, respectively. Word/POS N-gram rules also identify NEs the beginning of NEs and the end of NEs To acquire Word/POS rules, we replace words having one of the following POS tags with their POS tags as rule constituents: proper noun words, unknown words, and number words. This is because words having these POS tags are usually low frequency words.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Types", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This section describes the method to acquire the rules used in this paper. The rule acquisition consists of three main steps: First, we create automatically labeled data. Second, seed rules are acquired. Finally the outputs of rules are decided.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The first step prepares an automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer. The NE recognizer recognizes NEs from unlabeled data and generates the automatically labeled data by annotating characters recognized as NEs with the NE labels.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The second step acquires seed rules from the automatically labeled data. The following is an automatically labeled sentence.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "[ Tanaka/$PN mission/$N party/$N ] ORG went/ $V to/$P [U.K / $PN] LOC ...\" ,", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "where $PN (Proper Noun), $N, $V, and $P following / are POS tags, and words between \"[ and ]\" were identified as NEs. ORG and LOC after \"]\" indicate NE types.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The following seed rules are acquired from the above sentence by following the procedures described in previous sections: NE-W-rules: {Tanaka mission party \u2192 ORG}, NEB-W-rules: {went to U.K \u2192 LW=B-LOC}, NEE-W-rules: {party went to \u2192 FW=E-ORG}, NE-WP-rules: {$PN mission party \u2192 ORG}, NEB-WP-rules: {went to $PN \u2192 LW=B-LOC}, NEE-WP-rules: {$PN mission party \u2192 LW=B-ORG}, where FW, LW, B-LOC, and E-ORG indicate the first words of word sequences that a rule is applied to, the last words of word sequences that a rule is applied to, the beginning word of a LOCATION NE, and the end word of an ORGANIZATION NE, respectively. The left of each \u2192 is the rule condition to apply a rule, and the right of each \u2192 is the seed output of a rule. If the output of a rule is only an NE type, this means the rule identifies an NE. Rules with outputs including = indicate rules for identifying the beginning of NEs or the end of NEs. The left of = indicates the positions of words where the beginning of NEs or the end of NEs exist in the identified word sequences by rules. For example, LW=B-LOC means that LW is B-LOC.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The final step decides the outputs of each rule. We count the outputs of the rule condition of each seed rule, and the final outputs of each rule are decided by using the frequency of each output. We use outputs assigned to each seed rule more than or equal to 50 times. 4 For example, if LW=B-LOC are obtained 10,000 times, and LW=B-ORG are obtained 1,000 times, as the outputs for {went to $PN}, the followings are acquired as final outputs: LW=B-LOC RANK1, LW=B-ORG RANK2, LW=B-LOC FREQ-5000 < n \u2264 10000, and LW=B-ORG FREQ-500 < n \u2264 1000.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The LW=B-LOC RANK1 and the LW=B-ORG RANK2 are the ranking of the outputs of rules. LW=B-LOC is 1st ranked output, and LW=B-ORG is 2nd ranked output. Each ranking is decided by the frequency of each output of each rule condition. The most frequent output of each rule is ranked as first.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "LW=B-LOC FREQ-5000 < n \u2264 10000 and LW=B-ORG FREQ-500 < n \u2264 1000 are frequency information. To express the frequency of each rule output as binary features, we categorize the frequency of each rule output by the frequency of each rule output n; 50 \u2264 n \u2264 100, 100 < n \u2264 500, 500 < n \u2264 1000, 1000 < n \u2264 5000, 5000 < n \u2264 10000, 10000 < n \u2264 50000, 50000 < n \u2264 100000, and 100000 < n.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Acquiring Rules", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We define the rule application by following the method for using phrase clusters in NER (Lin and Wu, 2009) . The application of rules is allowed to overlap with or be nested in one another. If a rule is applied at positions b to e, we add the features combined with the outputs of the rule and matching positions to each word; outputs with B-(beginning) to b-th word, outputs with E-(end) to b-th word, outputs with I-(inside) within b + 1-th to e \u2212 1-th words, outputs with P-(previous) to b \u2212 1-th word, and outputs with F-(following) to e + 1-th word.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 88, | |
| "end": 106, | |
| "text": "(Lin and Wu, 2009)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Application", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "If a rule having the condition {went to $PN} is applied to {.... Ken/$PN went/$V to/$P Japan/ $PN for/$P ...}, the followings are captured as rule application results: b-th word is went, the word between b-th and e-th is to, e-th word is Japan, b \u2212 1-th is Ken, and e + 1-th is for.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Application", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "If the output of the rule is LW=B-LOC, the following features are added: B-LW=B-LOC for went, I-LW=B-LOC for to, E-LW=B-LOC for Japan, P-LW=B-LOC for Ken, and F-LW=B-LOC for for.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Rule Application", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We also apply a method to acquire word information (Iwakura, 2010) to the rule acquisition repeatedly. This is because the previous work reported that better accuracy was obtained by repeating the acquisition of NE-related labels of words. The collection method is as follows.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 51, | |
| "end": 66, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2010)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Repeatedly Acquisition", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(1) Create an NE recognizer from training data.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Repeatedly Acquisition", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(2) Acquire word information and rules from unlabeled data with the current NE recognizer.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Repeatedly Acquisition", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(3) Create a new NE recognizer with the training data, word information and rules acquired at step (2). This NE recognizer is used for acquiring new word information and rules at the next iteration.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Repeatedly Acquisition", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(4) Go back to step (2) if the termination criterion is not satisfied. The process (2) to (4) is repeated 4 times in this experiment.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Repeatedly Acquisition", | |
| "sec_num": "3.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The following data prepared for IREX (IREX, 1999) were used in our experiment. We used the CRL data for the training. CRL data has 18,677 NEs on 1,174 stories from Mainichi Newspaper. In addition, to investigate the effectiveness of unlabeled data and labeled data, we prepared another labeled 7,000 news stories including 143,598 NEs from Mainichi Shinbun between 2007 and 2008 according to IREX definition. We have, in total, 8,174 news stories including 162,859 NEs that are about 8 times of CRL data. To create the additional labeled 7,000 news stories, about 509 hours were required. The average time for creating a labeled news story is 260 seconds, which means only 14 labeled news stories are created in an hour.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 37, | |
| "end": 49, | |
| "text": "(IREX, 1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Experimental settings", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For evaluation, we used formal-run data of IREX: GENERAL task including 1,581 NEs, and ARREST task including 389 NEs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Experimental settings", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We compared performance of NE recognizers by using the F-measure (FM) defined as follows with Recall (RE) and Precision (PR); FM = 2 \u00d7 RE \u00d7 PR / ( RE + PR ), where, RE = NUM / (the number of correct NEs), PR = NUM / (the number of NEs extracted by an NE recognizer), and NUM is the number of NEs correctly identified by an NE recognizer. The news stories from the Mainichi Shinbun between 1991 and 2008 and Japanese WikiPedia entries of July 13, 2009, were used as unlabeled data for acquiring word information and rules. The total number of words segmented by MeCab from these unlabeled data was 1,161,758,003, more than one billion words. 5", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Experimental settings", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We evaluated the effectiveness of the combination of word information and rules. Table 2 shows experimental results obtained with an NE recognizer without any word information and rules (NER-BASE, for short), an NE recognizer using word information (NER-W for short), an NE recognizer using rules (NER-R, for short), and an NE recognizer using word information and rules (NER-WR, for short), which is based on our proposed method", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 81, | |
| "end": 88, | |
| "text": "Table 2", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF1" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of Our Proposed Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We used word information and rules obtained with the NER-BASE, which was created from CRL data without word information and rules. We see that we obtain better accuracy by using word information and rules acquired from unlabeled data.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of Our Proposed Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The NER-WR shows the best average Fmeasure (FM). The average FM of the NER-WR is 3.6 points higher than that of the NER-BASE. The average FM of the NER-WR is 0.44 points higher than that of NER-W, and 2.78 points higher than that of the NER-R. These results show that combination of word information and rules contributes to improved accuracy. We also evaluated the effec- Table 3 : Experimental Results obtained with NE recognizers using word information and rules: G., A., and AV. indicate GENERAL, ARREST, and a micro average obtained with each NE recognizer at each iteration, respectively. 1 2 3 4 5 G. 85.35 88.43 88.22 88.20 88.31 A. 85.64 91.33 91.52 91.49 92.19 AV. 85.40 89.00 88.88 88.85 89.08 tiveness of the combination of rules for identifying NEs, and rules for identifying beginning of NEs or end of NEs. The micro average FM values for an NE recognizer using rules for identifying NEs, an NE recognizer using rules for identifying beginning of NEs or end of NEs, and the NE recognizer using the both types of rules are 85. 77, 84.19 and 86.22 . This result shows using the two types of rules are effective.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 608, | |
| "end": 704, | |
| "text": "85.35 88.43 88.22 88.20 88.31 A. 85.64 91.33 91.52 91.49 92.19 AV. 85.40 89.00 88.88 88.85 89.08", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1040, | |
| "end": 1059, | |
| "text": "77, 84.19 and 86.22", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 373, | |
| "end": 380, | |
| "text": "Table 3", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of Our Proposed Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Then we evaluate the effectiveness of the acquisition method described in section 3.4. Table 3 shows the accuracy obtained with each NE recognizer at each iteration. The results at iteration 1 is the results obtained with the base line NE recognizer not using word information and rules. We obtained the best average accuracy at iteration 5. The results obtained with the NE recognizer at iteration 5 shows 4.76 points higher average Fmeasure than that of the NE recognizer at iteration 1, and 0.37 points higher average F-measure than that of the NE recognizer at iteration 2. Table 4 shows the results of the previous works using IREX Japanese NE recognition tasks. All the results were obtained with CRL data as manually labeled training data. Our results are Fmeasure values obtained with the NE recognizer at iteration 5 on Table 3 .", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 87, | |
| "end": 94, | |
| "text": "Table 3", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 578, | |
| "end": 585, | |
| "text": "Table 4", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 829, | |
| "end": 836, | |
| "text": "Table 3", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of Our Proposed Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We see that our NE recognizer shows the best F-measure values for GENERAL and ARREST. Compared with our method only using unlabeled data, most previous works use handcrafted resources, such as a set of NEs are used in (Uchimoto et al., 2000) , and NTT GOI Taikei (Ikehara et al., 1999) , which is a handcrafted thesaurus, is used in (Isozaki and Kazawa, 2002; Sasano and Kurohashi, 2008) . These results indicate that word information and rules acquired from large unlabeled data are also useful as well as handcrafted resources. In addition, we see that our method with large labeled data show much better perfor- Table 4 : Comparison with previous works. GE and AR indicate GENERAL and ARREST. GE AR (Uchimoto et al., 2000) 80.17 85.75 (Takemoto et al., 2001) 83.86 - (Utsuro et al., 2002) 84.07 - (Isozaki and Kazawa, 2002) 85.77 - (Sasano and Kurohashi, 2008) 87.72 - (Iwakura, 2010) 87 ", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 218, | |
| "end": 241, | |
| "text": "(Uchimoto et al., 2000)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF18" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 263, | |
| "end": 285, | |
| "text": "(Ikehara et al., 1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 333, | |
| "end": 359, | |
| "text": "(Isozaki and Kazawa, 2002;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 360, | |
| "end": 387, | |
| "text": "Sasano and Kurohashi, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 702, | |
| "end": 725, | |
| "text": "(Uchimoto et al., 2000)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF18" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 738, | |
| "end": 761, | |
| "text": "(Takemoto et al., 2001)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF16" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 770, | |
| "end": 791, | |
| "text": "(Utsuro et al., 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF19" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 800, | |
| "end": 826, | |
| "text": "(Isozaki and Kazawa, 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 835, | |
| "end": 863, | |
| "text": "(Sasano and Kurohashi, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 872, | |
| "end": 887, | |
| "text": "(Iwakura, 2010)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 615, | |
| "end": 622, | |
| "text": "Table 4", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of Our Proposed Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This section describes the performances of NE recognizers trained with larger training data than CRL-data. Figure 1 shows the performance of each NE recognizer trained with different size of labeled training data. The leftmost points are the performance of the NE recognizers trained with CRL data (1,174 news stories). The other points are the performances of NE recognizers trained with training data larger than CRL data. The size of the additional training data is increased by 500 news stories.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 107, | |
| "end": 115, | |
| "text": "Figure 1", | |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluating Effectiveness of Our Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We examined NE recognizers using our proposed method (semi), and NE recognizers not using our method (non-semi). In the following, semi-NER indicates NE recognizers using unlabeled data based on our method, and non-semi-NER indicates NE recognizers not using unlabeled data. Figure 1 shows that the semi-NER trained with CRL data shows competitive perfor-mance of the non-semi-NER trained with about 1.5 time larger training data consisting of CRL data and additional labeled 500 news stories. To create manually labeled 500 news stories, about 36 hours are required. 6 To achieve the competitive performance of the non-semi-NER trained with CRL data and the labeled 7,000 news stories, semi-NER requires only 2,000 news stories in addition to CRL data. This result shows that our proposed method significantly reduces the number of labeled data to achieve a competitive performance obtained with only using labeled data. Figure 1 also shows that our method contributes to improved accuracy when using the large labeled training data consisting of CRL data and 7,000 news stories. The accuracy is 90.47 for GEN-ERAL, and 94.30 for ARREST. In contrast, when without word information and rules acquired from unlabeled data, the accuracy is 89.43 for GEN-ERAL, and 93.44 for ARREST.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 275, | |
| "end": 283, | |
| "text": "Figure 1", | |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF0" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 922, | |
| "end": 930, | |
| "text": "Figure 1", | |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluating Effectiveness of Our Method", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "To augment features, methods for using information obtained with clustering algorithms were proposed. These methods used word clusters (Freitag, 2004; Miller et al., 2004) , the clusters of multi-word nouns (Kazama and Torisawa, 2008) , or phrase clusters (Lin and Wu, 2009) . In contrast, to collect rules, we use an automatically tagged data with an NE recognizer. Therefore, we expect to obtain more target-task-oriented information with our method than that of previous works. Although there are differences between our method and the previous works, our method and previous works are complementary .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 135, | |
| "end": 150, | |
| "text": "(Freitag, 2004;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 151, | |
| "end": 171, | |
| "text": "Miller et al., 2004)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 207, | |
| "end": 234, | |
| "text": "(Kazama and Torisawa, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 256, | |
| "end": 274, | |
| "text": "(Lin and Wu, 2009)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Related Work", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "To use rules in machine-learning-based NE recognitions, Isozaki proposed a Japanese NE recognition method based on a simple rule generator and decision tree learning. The method generates rules from supervised training data (Isozaki, 2001) . Talukdar et al., proposed a method to use lists of NEs acquired from unlabeled data for NE recognition (Talukdar et al., 2006) . Starting with a few NE seed examples, the method extends lists of NEs. These methods use rules or lists of NEs for identifying only NEs. Compared with these methods, our method uses rules for identifying the beginning of NEs and the end of NEs in addition 6 We estimate the hours by using the average labeling time of a news story. The average time is 260 seconds per news story.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 224, | |
| "end": 239, | |
| "text": "(Isozaki, 2001)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 345, | |
| "end": 368, | |
| "text": "(Talukdar et al., 2006)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 627, | |
| "end": 628, | |
| "text": "6", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Related Work", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "to rules identifying whole NEs. Therefore, our methods can use new features not used in previous works.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Related Work", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This paper proposed an NE recognition method using rules acquired from unlabeled data. Our method acquires rules for identifying NEs, the beginning of NEs, and the end of NEs from an automatically labeled data with an NE recognizer. In addition, we use word information including the candidate NE classes, and so on. We evaluated our method with IREX data set for Japanese NE recognition and unlabeled data consisting of more than one billion words. The experimental results showed that our method using rules and word information achieved the best accuracy on the GEN-ERAL and ARREST tasks.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "http://mecab.sourceforge.net/", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For example, Japanese word \"houbei\" (visit U.S.) does not match with LOCATION \"bei (U.S)\".3 If \"Gaimusyouha\", is segmented as \"Gaimusyou (the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) / ha (particle)\", then words including characters are follows; W (Gai) = Gaimusyou, W (mu) = Gaimusyou, W (syou) = Gaimusyou, and W (ha)=ha. The identifiers that indicate positions where characters appear are follows; P (Gai) =B, P (mu) = I, P (syou) = E, and P (ha)=S.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We conducted experiments using word information and rules obtained from training data with different frequency threshold parameters. The parameters are 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50. We select 50 as the threshold because the parameter shows the best result among the results obtained with these parameters on a pilot study.", | |
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| "text": "Experimental results obtained with different size of training data. Each point indicates the micro average F-measure of an NE recognizer. mance than the other methods.", | |
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