query: the failed 1961 us invasion of cuba us referred to as this

pos: Bay of Pigs Invasion Bay of Pigs Invasion The Bay of Pigs Invasion (Spanish: Invasión de Playa Girón or Invasión de Bahía de Cochinos or Batalla de Girón) was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military group (made up of mostly Cuban exiles who traveled to the United States after Castro's takeover, but also some US military personnel), trained and funded by the CIA, Brigade 2506 fronted the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) and intended to overthrow the increasingly communist government of Fidel Castro.

pos: Bay of Pigs Invasion "a serious threat to world peace," yet, 63 percent of Americans did not want the US to remove Castro. Bay of Pigs Invasion The Bay of Pigs Invasion (Spanish: Invasión de Playa Girón or Invasión de Bahía de Cochinos or Batalla de Girón) was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military group (made up of mostly Cuban exiles who traveled to the United States after Castro's takeover, but also some US military personnel), trained and funded by the CIA, Brigade 2506 fronted the

pos: Khrushchev: The Man and His Era Cuba, following a failed attempt by the US to overthrow the Cuban regime in the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Project. Khrushchev intended to place Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba, threatening nuclear holocaust and essentially deterring future invasion of the island by the US. In response, the US established a military blockade by air and sea, crippling the ability of the Premier to deliver the missiles to Cuba. During this time, Khrushchev and US President John F. Kennedy, along with United Nations Secretary-General U Thant reached an agreement, which ended the conflict. Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the offensive

pos: Orlando Bosch the Revolution, but rapidly became disillusioned, leaving Cuba in July 1960 after helping to organize a failed anti-Castro rebellion in the Escambray mountains. In his autobiography, Bosch wrote that he had refused to participate in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion because the US had refused to help the Escambray rebellion. Bosch was in contact with the CIA in 1962 and 1963, as the agency itself admitted, as recorded in the National Security Archive. At this time, Bosch was the General Coordinator of the "Movimiento Insurreccional de Recuperacion Revolucionaria" (Insurrectional Movement of Revolutionary Recovery, MIRR), which in 1967 became "Poder

pos: Pre-emptive nuclear strike resolution of ideological disputes through the use of military force, such as had been attempted during the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961. During the crisis, Fidel Castro wrote Khrushchev a letter about the prospect that the "imperialists" would be "extremely dangerous" if they responded militarily to the Soviet stationing of nuclear missiles aimed at US territory, less than 90 miles away in Cuba. The following quotation from the letter suggests that Castro was calling for a Soviet first strike against the US if it responded militarily to the placement of nuclear missiles aimed at the US in Cuba:

pos: Cuba under Fidel Castro Cuba and overthrow Castro; the plan resulted in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961. On 15 April, CIA-supplied B-26's bombed three Cuban military airfields; the U.S. announced that the perpetrators were defecting Cuban air force pilots, but Castro exposed these claims as false flag misinformation. Fearing invasion, he ordered the arrest of between 20,000 and 100,000 suspected counter-revolutionaries, publicly proclaiming that "What the imperialists cannot forgive us, is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses". This was his first announcement that the government was socialist. The CIA and Democratic Revolutionary Front had based a 1,400-strong

pos: Jorge Mas Canosa Miami in 1960, where he joined the Brigade 2506 and participated in the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961. He later graduated as Second Lieutenant in the U.S. Army at Fort Benning, Georgia, but ultimately left the army when it became clear that the US was not developing any plans to attack or invade Cuba. Mas Canosa then devoted himself to his business career. In Miami, Mas Canosa took jobs as a milkman, stevedore and shoe salesman, while also working energetically to build up the anti-Castro movement. "The New York Times" reported that he had raised money to

pos: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (the other two being the successful CIA-instigated 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba). Under the direction of Kermit Roosevelt Jr., a senior Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officer and grandson of former US President Theodore Roosevelt, the American CIA and British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) funded and led a covert operation to depose Mosaddegh with the help of military forces disloyal to the government. Referred to as Operation Ajax, the plot hinged on orders signed by Mohammad Reza to dismiss Mosaddegh as prime minister and replace him with General Fazlollah Zahedi, a choice agreed

pos: John Roselli international corporations that wanted Castro killed because of their lost gambling operations. Roselli introduced Maheu to two men he referred to as "Sam Gold" plus "Joe." "Sam Gold" was Giancana, "Joe" was Santo Trafficante, Jr., the Tampa, Florida boss and one of the most powerful mobsters in pre-revolution Cuba. The agency gave the mobsters six poison pills to murder Castro. For several months, anti-Castro Cubans tied to the Mafia tried unsuccessfully to put the pills into Castro's food. In 1961, after the failed CIA-sponsored Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, these assassination attempts, which included hit teams of snipers, trained

pos: Thomas C. Mann centrist initiative to support Latin American economies and stave off communism through moderate reform. Mann did not support the Bay of Pigs invasion, which had been planned by the CIA before Kennedy took office. He doubted the possibility of a popular uprising and, with Kennedy, opposed involvement by the US Air Force. He resigned his position at the State Department just weeks before the invasion took place in April 1961. In general, Mann felt that military action against Cuba would be too damaging for the US image. Instead, he supported economic sanctions to create suffering and dissatisfaction among the Cuban

pos: Cuba–Soviet Union relations be helped economically and politically, though there was no talk yet of military assistance. Washington's increasing economic embargo led Cuba to hurriedly seek new markets to avert economic disaster. Castro asked for help from the Soviets and in response Khrushchev approved the temporary purchase of Cuban sugar in exchange for Soviet fuel. This deal was to play a part in sustaining the Cuban economy for many years to come. Following the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961, Fidel Castro announced publicly that Cuba was to become a socialist republic. Khrushchev sent congratulations to Castro for repelling the invasion, but

pos: Humberto Sorí Marin Vera, a former revolutionary state security officer, and other members of the FRU continued to organize terrorist attacks, that included the El Encanto fire, and they also planned to rescue Sorí Marín and others from detention. Shortly before the Bay of Pigs Invasion, G-2 officers arrested many of the group. On 20 April 1961, after the invasion failed, Sorí Marín was executed by firing squad. Humberto Sorí Marin Humberto Sorí Marín (1915 in Cuba – 1961 in Havana, Cuba) was a Cuban revolutionary. After the Cuban Revolution in January 1959, he served as minister of agriculture, but resigned in May

pos: LGBT rights in Cuba visibility and gender transgressions themselves constituted a central part of the problem identified by the revolution. Even during the severest period of enforcement, Marvin Leiner reminds us, private homosexual expression was never the main target. Rather, "... the major concern, as it had always been, was with the public display of homosexuality." Many of the progressive LGBT persons who remained in Cuba became involved in counter-revolutionary activities, independently or through encouragement of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and were jailed. The 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, commando attacks from Florida bases, and internal CIA-sponsored subversion created in Cuba an increased

pos: Revolutionary Movement 13th November 13 revolt, however, was Ydígoras' decision to allow the United States to train an invasion force in Guatemala to prepare for the planned Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba. Ydígoras had not consulted the Guatemalan military about this decision and did not share with the military the payoff he received in exchange from the US government. The military just watched as unmarked US warplanes piloted by US-based Cuban exiles flew in large numbers over their country. The rebel officers were concerned about the loss of sovereignty for the country as the US established a secret air strip and training camp

pos: Bay of Pigs Invasion their neighbor. Previous to the events at Playa Girón the US government imposed embargoes that limited trade with Cuba. An article that appeared in "The New York Times" on 6 January 1960 called trade with Cuba "too risky" and about six months later in July 1960, the US reduced the import quota of Cuban sugar, which left the US to increase its sugar supply using other sources. Just following the Bay of Pigs invasion the Kennedy Administration considered complete trade restrictions with Cuba. Five months later the president was authorized to do so. After Cuba's declaration of Marxism, the Kennedy

pos: Counterculture of the 1960s states and capitalist states involved espionage and preparation for war between powerful nations, along with political and military interference by powerful states in the internal affairs of less powerful nations. Poor outcomes from some of these activities set the stage for disillusionment with, and distrust of, post-war governments. Examples included harsh Soviet Union (USSR) responses to popular anti-communist uprisings, such as the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Czechoslovakia's Prague Spring in 1968, and the botched US Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961. In the US, President Dwight D. Eisenhower's initial deception over the nature of the 1960 U-2 incident

pos: Latin America in 1960, the U.S. decided to support an attack on Cuba by anti-Castro rebels. The Bay of Pigs invasion was an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba in 1961, financed by the U.S. through the CIA, to overthrow Fidel Castro. The incident proved to be very embarrassing for the new Kennedy administration. President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America. The Alliance would provide $20 billion for reform in Latin America, and counterinsurgency measures. Instead, the reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack

pos: 26th of July Movement trade instead. The US responded by cutting all diplomatic ties to Cuba, and have had a rocky relationship ever since. In April 1961, a CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles and dissidents launched the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs Invasion against Cuba. The flag of the 26th of July Movement is on the shoulder of the Cuban military uniform, and continues to be used as a symbol of the Cuban revolution. 26th of July Movement The 26th of July Movement (; M-26-7) was a vanguard revolutionary organization then a party led by Fidel Castro that in 1959 overthrew the Fulgencio Batista dictatorship

pos: Operation 40 necessary some of your own members who were suspected of being foreign agents...We were concentrating strictly in Cuba at that particular time." The group sought to incite civil war in Cuba against the government of prime minister Fidel Castro. "In October 1960, they realize that this project has failed, and that is when Brigade 2506" was created, a CIA-sponsored group made up of 1,511 Cuban exiles who fought in the April 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion. On 17 April 1961, Vicente Leon Leon, with other members of Operation 40, landed at the Bay of Pigs via the CIA-chartered freighter "Atlantico".

pos: Ronald Hilton Ronald Hilton Ronald Hilton (July 31, 1911, Torquay, England – February 20, 2007, Palo Alto, California) was a British-American academic, reporter and think-tank specialist, specializing in Latin America and, in particular, Fidel Castro's Cuba. Ronald Hilton was educated at Oxford University and at the University of California at Berkeley and became a US citizen in 1946. He launched the Hispanic American Report in 1948. He was an academic expert on Latin America who helped to uncover the CIA’s clandestine preparations for the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in April 1961. He spent most of his long working life at

pos: Tad Szulc reporter for the Associated Press in Rio de Janeiro. In 1947 he moved from Brazil to New York City, and in 1954, he became a US citizen. His emigration had been sponsored by United States Ambassador John Cooper Wiley, who was married to his aunt. From 1953 to 1972, Szulc was a foreign correspondent for "The New York Times". On April 6, 1961, nine days before the CIA-supported Bay of Pigs invasion, Szulc wrote a "Times" article stating that an invasion of Cuba was "imminent." W Joseph Campell has disproved the legend that the "Times" killed the story after President

pos: Bay of Pigs Bay of Pigs The Bay of Pigs () is an inlet of the Gulf of Cazones located on the southern coast of Cuba. By 1910, it was included in Santa Clara Province, and then instead to Las Villas Province by 1961, but in 1976, it was reassigned to Matanzas Province, when the original six provinces of Cuba were re-organized into 14 new Provinces of Cuba. The bay is historically important for the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. Former Cuban president Fidel Castro owned a private island with twenty mansions, a helipad and yachts in the Bay of Pigs.

pos: Luis Tiant who was scouting for talent in Cuba. Avila recommended him to the Mexico City Tigers of the Mexican League. Tiant was signed for $150 a month, and for the next three years he divided his time between the Tigers and the Havana Sugar Kings in the International League. At the end of the summer of 1961, and under Avila's recommendation, Cleveland purchased Tiant's contract for $35,000. But with the rise of Fidel Castro's regime in his native Cuba—specifically, after heightened tensions following the US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion in April of that year—it was impossible for Tiant to return home.

pos: Robert F. Woodward 6, 1961. In the wake of the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, Kennedy nominated Woodward as Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs and Woodward held this office from July 17, 1961 through March 17, 1962. As Assistant Secretary led a successful effort to have Cuba suspended from membership in the Organization of American States. He was also the architect of the first meeting of the Alliance for Progress, a centerpiece of the Kennedy Administration's Latin America policy post-Bay of Pigs. Kennedy next named Woodward United States Ambassador to Spain, with Woodward serving from May 10, 1962

pos: Intelligence Star Leo Baker, were posthumously awarded the Intelligence Star for their actions in the Bay of Pigs Invasion leading to their capture and execution. The US-trained Cuban Brigade 2506 invaded Cuba on April 17, 1961. Ray, a pilot of the Alabama Air National Guard detailed to the CIA, and his co-pilot Baker were at the Puerto Cabezas air base of the Brigade in Nicaragua. The pilots returning from Cuba brought news that the soldiers of the Brigade were running out of ammunition. Each minute that went by, they were losing positions they had gained the first day when they had supplies.

pos: Anti-Americanism Nixon was almost killed by a raging mob as his motorcade drove from the airport to the city. In response, President Dwight D. Eisenhower assembled troops at Guantanamo Bay and a fleet of battleships in the Caribbean to intervene to rescue Nixon if necessary. Fidel Castro, the late revolutionary leader of Cuba, tried throughout his career to co-ordinate long-standing Latin American resentments against the USA through military and propagandist means. He was aided in this goal by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961, planned and implemented by the American government against his regime. This disaster ruined

pos: Cuban Missile Crisis upset when in September, the US Congress approved Joint Resolution 230, which expressed Congress's resolve to prevent the creation of an externally-supported military establishment. On the same day, the US announced a major military exercise in the Caribbean, PHIBRIGLEX-62, which Cuba denounced as a deliberate provocation and proof that the US planned to invade Cuba. The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and accept the missiles as a "fait accompli". On September 11, the Soviet Union publicly warned that a US attack on

pos: Cuban Missile Crisis carrying very long canvas-covered cylindrical objects that could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering. Defensive missiles could turn. The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed. The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. The first issue that led to a pause in reconnaissance flights took place on August 30, when a U-2 operated by the US Air Force's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake. The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized. Nine days later, a Taiwanese-operated U-2

pos: Félix Rodríguez (soldier) Special Activities Center in 2016 ). He clandestinely entered Cuba a few weeks before the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. Utilizing his familiarity with the country, he was able to gather critical intelligence that was used in the planning and preparation of the invasion. His colleagues in the CIA included David Atlee Phillips, David Morales, Ted Shackley, E. Howard Hunt, Frank Sturgis, and Porter Goss among others. In 1967, the CIA again recruited Rodríguez to train and head a team to hunt down Che Guevara, who was attempting to overthrow the US-backed government in Bolivia and replace it with a

pos: Anibal Escalante Fulgencio Batista gave it a skeptical public reputation. Largely sidelined in national politics, Escalante and the PSP took a backseat to Fidel Castro and his 26 July Movement. Following the Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961, Cuba appealed to the Soviet Union for military assistance. In exchange for aid, the PSP was merged with the 26 July Movement and the Revolutionary Directorate of 13 March into the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI), predecessor to the Communist Party of Cuba, and Escalante, who enjoyed support from Moscow, elevated to its secretary. According to Juanita Castro, some referred to this period as

pos: Latin America–United States relations tensions increased when the freighter "La Coubre" exploded in Havana harbor, killing over 75 people. Fidel Castro blamed the United States and compared the incident to the 1898 sinking of the USS "Maine", which had precipitated the Spanish–American War; he could provide no evidence for his accusation. That same month, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized the CIA to organize, train and equip Cuban refugees as a guerrilla force to overthrow Castro, which would lead to the failed 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion authorized by president John F. Kennedy. Every time the Cuban government nationalized US properties, the US government took

pos: United Fruit Company Fidel Castro. By April 1960 Castro was accusing the company of aiding Cuban exiles and supporters of former leader Fulgencio Batista in initiating a seaborne invasion of Cuba directed from the United States. Castro warned the U.S. that "Cuba is not another Guatemala" in one of many combative diplomatic exchanges before the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. One of the most notorious strikes by United Fruit workers broke out on 12 November 1928 near Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast of Colombia. On December 6, Colombian Army troops allegedly under the command of General Cortés Vargas, opened fire

pos: E. Howard Hunt exile leaders in the United States into a broadly representative government-in-exile that would, after the Bay of Pigs Invasion, form a pro-American Puppet state to take over Cuba. The failure of the invasion temporarily damaged his career. Hunt was undeniably bitter about what he perceived as President John F. Kennedy's lack of commitment in attacking and overthrowing the government of Cuba. In his semi-fictional autobiography, "Give Us This Day", he wrote: "The Kennedy administration yielded Castro all the excuse he needed to gain a tighter grip on the island of José Martí, then moved shamefacedly into the shadows and hoped

pos: Ulius Louis Amoss them.” In 1961 leaflets were airdropped over Cuba by anti-Castro Cuban exiles and their allies with close ties to the Central Intelligence Agency. The leaflets used the concept of Leaderless Resistance and called for the creation of “Phantom Cells” (Celulas Fantasmas). There was no apparent connection between Amoss and the leaflets, according to Michael Paulding, who is writing a book on an early OSS figure and has studied Amoss and his work. Amoss died in November 1961, a few months after the failed CIA-orchestrated Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. Amoss’s Leaderless Resistance essay is republished posthumously in 1962 in

pos: World War III "ABC Evening News" while reporting on the USS "Pueblo" incident in 1968. The Cuban Missile Crisis: a confrontation on the stationing of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, in response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion, is considered as having been the closest to a nuclear exchange, which could have precipitated a Third World War. The crisis peaked on 27 October, with three separate major incidents occurring on the same day, all of these incidents having been initiated by the US military. Despite what many believe to be the closest the world has come to a nuclear conflict, throughout the

pos: Cuban Missile Crisis colonies and European affairs but holding that the Western Hemisphere was in the US sphere of influence. The Kennedy administration had been publicly embarrassed by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in May 1961, which had been launched under President John F. Kennedy by CIA-trained forces of Cuban exiles. Afterward, former President Dwight Eisenhower told Kennedy that "the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do." The half-hearted invasion left Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and his advisers with the impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet adviser

pos: Cuba under Fidel Castro and its allies. Events such as the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, in which American-connected forces failed to topple Castro's administration, continue to attract attention from historians as well as laypeople worldwide. Castro died of natural causes in late 2016 in Havana. He had dealt with severe health problems for the past decade, remarking publicly about struggles with mobility and other issues. Even after his death, Castro's ideas continue to be the foundation of Cuban government. On February 16, 1959, Castro was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba, and accepted the position on the condition that the

pos: John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories not preclude the possibility that individual members may have been involved". With the 1959 Cuban Revolution that brought Fidel Castro to power, many Cubans left Cuba to live in the United States. Many of these exiles hoped to overthrow Castro and return to Cuba. Their hopes were dashed with the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, and many blamed President Kennedy for the failure. The House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that some militant Cuban exiles might have participated in Kennedy's murder. These exiles worked closely with CIA operatives in violent activities against Castro's Cuba. In 1979, the committee

pos: Antonio Veciana a 2-3 week course in psychological warfare and sabotage. After the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, Bishop directed Veciana to help organise an assassination attempt on Castro in Havana from an apartment rented in the name of Veciana's mother-in-law. Veciana left Cuba the day before the October 1961 attempt, his wife and children having already left some months earlier. The attempt, which involved a bazooka, failed. Veciana settled in Miami with his family, and after Bishop contacted him there, at Bishop's direction Veciana founded Alpha 66 in mid-1962, becoming its civilian chief and principal fundraiser, and recruiting

pos: The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead assassination of President John F. Kennedy, although one is heavily edited for US television broadcast and removes much of the more controversial material. The Kennedy reference is also made explicit by the image of a pig with a map of Cuba superimposed on it — a clear reference to the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion. They also briefly feature an actress dressed like Marilyn Monroe during the third verse. In addition, the uncensored video makes brief reference to Jesus Christ by flashing the words "three nails" and showing a crown of thorns. The lyrics "Peter Pumpkinhead was too good; Had

pos: 2006 Palestinian legislative election revolution there; the aborted 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, which gave Fidel Castro an excuse to solidify his hold on Cuba; and the contemporary tragedy in Iraq. The Jerusalem Post confirmed that the documents cited by Vanity Fair "have been corroborated by sources at the US State Department and Palestinian officials", and added: The original article was cited by the Irish Times, the Israeli historian and political analyst, Tom Segev, in an article entitled "Bay of Pigs in Gaza", and also by Suzanne Goldenburg of The Guardian, who added "A state department memo put the cost for salaries, training and

pos: Teofilo Ruiz from the revolution and was immediately imprisoned. Ruiz was eventually released after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) in order to make room for new prisoners of war. In 1961, Ruiz left Cuba for Miami with "only three changes of clothing, $45, a box of Cuban cigars to sell and a Spanish translation of Jacob Burckhardt's "A History of Greek Civilization"." By 1962, Ruiz and two cousins moved from Miami to New York City. He worked at various jobs including as a taxi driver for one year. Despite many obstacles, Ruiz finished his dissertation in the Graduate School of

pos: Radio Swan 6185 kHz. The station used a mailing address in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, and referred to itself as "La Primera Voz Democratica de Latinoamerica" ("The First Voice of Democracy in Latin America"). Since San Pedro Sula is located on the Honduran mainland, it is possible that these broadcasts originated there rather than on Swan Island, though no positive verification has been determined. During the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, which took place between April 15–19, 1961, it became obvious to all concerned that the purpose of the station was to assist in the landings. But following the abortive invasion,

pos: 2006–2008 Cuban transfer of presidential duties 1976. At the time of his operation in 2006, he was 79 years old, and he was the last governing communist leader from the Cold War era, feeling a personal sense to be strongly proud to have not only thwarted the Bay of Pigs Invasion, failed CIA attempts to kill him, and acts of Cuban exile violence, but also outlived the Cold War and the USSR, and using the power of persuasion to help the Cuban people brave the sometimes crippling effects of the US embargo against Cuba. While the radical left (especially Hugo Chavez and Evo Morales) praised Castro

pos: 1961 in Michigan Mayor of Detroit; (6) Chrysler Corporation's legal troubles arising from the removal of William Newberg as president and the ouster of L. L. Colbert as CEO; (7) "Tractors for Freedom", a Detroit-based campaign led by Walter Reuther, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Milton S. Eisenhower that raised money in May and June 1961 in an effort to trade 500 tractors to Cuba in exchange for the freedom of 1,214 rebel prisoners captured at the Bay of Pigs Invasion; (8) the proposal to create a national recreation area at Sleeping Bear Dunes; (9) the failed prosecution and trial of Gordon Watson and Nelle

pos: Luis Posada Carriles Posada to become an activist in open opposition to the new government. After a spell in a military prison, Posada sought political asylum in Mexico. By 1961, Posada had relocated to the United States where he helped to organize the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba. The rest of Posada's family remained in Cuba, and continued to support the Cuban revolution; Posada's sister eventually rose to the rank of Colonel in the Cuban army. When asked in a 1998 interview why he had opposed the Revolution, he stated "All communists are the same. All are bad, a form of

pos: Cuban Project Cuban Project The Cuban Project, also known as Operation Mongoose, was a covert operation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) that was commissioned in March 1960 during the final year of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. On November 30, 1961, covert operations against Fidel Castro's government in Cuba were officially authorized by President Kennedy and after being given the name Operation Mongoose at a prior White House meeting on November 4, 1961. The operation was led by United States Air Force General Edward Lansdale and went into effect after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. Operation Mongoose was a secret

pos: Guerrillero Heroico newspaper "Revolución", advertising a noon conference during which the main speaker was "Dr. Ernesto 'Che' Guevara." The conference was disrupted however, when 1,300 CIA-supported counter-revolutionaries stormed the beaches of Cuba, in what became known as the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. The image was thus republished a second time advertising the newly convened conference on April 28, 1961. Because of this fact, it seems very likely that in the context of both of these publications, that Che could have seen the photograph that would later contribute to his iconic status. The very first time Cubans on a large scale became

neg: JMWAVE Station". JMWAVE underwent its first major development when it was established as the operations center for Task Force W, the CIA's unit dedicated to "Operation Mongoose" - a US effort to overthrow President Fidel Castro's Communist government in Cuba. JMWAVE was also active in some form during the failed US-sponsored "Bay of Pigs" invasion of Cuba in April 1961. The JMWAVE operation grew out of an earlier fledgling CIA office in Coral Gables. The station's activities reached their peak in late 1962 and early 1963 - the period of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Under Ted Shackley's leadership from 1962 to

neg: Central Intelligence Agency Guatemala. Over 1,400 paramilitaries set out for Cuba by boat on April 13. Two days later on April 15, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban air fields. On the night of April 16, the main invasion landed in the Bay of Pigs, but by April 20, the invaders finally surrendered. The failed invasion strengthened the position of Castro's leadership as well as his ties with the USSR. This led eventually to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major embarrassment for US foreign policy. US President John F. Kennedy ordered a number of internal

neg: Latin America–United States relations revolution in Cuba after 1959 toward Soviet communism alienated Cuba from the United States. An attempted invasion failed and at the peak of the Cold War in 1962, the Cuban Missile Crisis threatened major war as the Soviet Union installed nuclear weapons in Cuba to defend it from an American invasion. There was no invasion, but the United States imposed an economic boycott on Cuba that remains in effect, as well as a broke off diplomatic relations, that lasted until 2015. The US also saw the rise of left-wing governments in central America as a threat and, in some cases,

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion April 1961. Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, assembled in Guatemala before setting out for Cuba by boat on 13 April 1961. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields and then returned to the US. On the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia. The Cuban Army's counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became

neg: Guatemalan Civil War military the payoff he received in exchange from the US government. The military was concerned about the infringement on the sovereignty of their country as unmarked US warplanes piloted by US-based Cuban exiles flew in large numbers over their country and the US established a secret air strip and training camp at Retalhuleu to prepare for its invasion of Cuba. The rebellion was not ideological in its origins. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) flew B-26 bombers disguised as Guatemalan military jets to bomb the rebel bases because the coup threatened US plans for the invasion of Cuba as well

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion to Havana in a closed truck. In May 1961, Fidel Castro proposed to exchange the surviving Brigade prisoners for 500 large farm tractors, valued at US$28,000,000. On 8 September 1961, 14 Brigade prisoners were convicted of torture, murder and other major crimes committed in Cuba before the invasion, five being executed and nine jailed for 30 years. Three confirmed as executed were Ramon Calvino, Emilio Soler Puig ("el Muerte") and Jorge King Yun ("el Chino"). On 29 March 1962, 1,179 men were put on trial for treason. On 7 April 1962, all were convicted and sentenced to 30 years in

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion he lampooned as that "superfree, superdemocratic, superhumane, and supercivilized city". Proclaiming that the US poor were living "in the bowels of the imperialist monster", he attacked the mainstream US media and accused it of being controlled by big business. It must be noted that, on the surface, the US was trying to improve its relationship with Cuba. Several negotiations between representatives from Cuba and the US took place around this time. Repairing financial international relations was the focal point of these discussions. Political relations were another hot topic of these conferences. The US stated that they would not interfere with

neg: Cuba place on 14 April 1961. About 1,400 Cuban exiles disembarked at the Bay of Pigs, but failed in their attempt to overthrow Castro. In January 1962, Cuba was suspended from the Organization of American States (OAS), and later the same year the OAS started to impose sanctions against Cuba of similar nature to the US sanctions. The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in October 1962. By 1963, Cuba was moving towards a full-fledged Communist system modeled on the USSR. During the 1970s, Fidel Castro dispatched tens of thousands of troops in support of Soviet-supported wars in Africa. He supported the MPLA

neg: History of Cubana de Aviación CIA plan to execute sabotage, assassinations, and to attack and invade Cuba with the objective of overthrowing its revolutionary government. This broad strategy of aggression and sabotage culminated in the failed, CIA-planned and executed April 1961 invasion of Cuba at Playa Girón (also known as the Bay of Pigs). When an aerial bombardment of several Cuban airports by CIA-piloted and owned U.S. B-26 bombers (using fake Cuban air force livery to confound defenders) occurred on 15 April 1961, Cubana was forced to discontinue all its operations. One of Cubana's Douglas DC-3 aircraft, registered CU-T138, that was parked at Santiago de

neg: Straits of Florida the Florida Keys from 1947 to 1962. Gulf Oil drilled three wells in federal waters south of the Florida Keys in 1960 and 1961. All the wells were dry holes. The boundary between the Exclusive Economic Zones of the US and Cuba is halfway between Cuba and Florida, as determined by a 1977 treaty between the US and Cuba. Cuba has three producing offshore oil fields within 5 km of its north coast opposite Florida. The US Geological Survey estimates that the North Cuba Basin contains of undiscovered petroleum liquids and 9.8 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, almost all

neg: Manuel Ray Rivero About a month after the failed invasion, on May 28, 1961, Ray gave a news conference in Miami announcing his break with the CRC. His reasons were that priority should have been given to underground fighters in Cuba, members of Batista's regime should not have been involved in the invasion, and he should have had a "say" about the military leaders of the invasion. He added that to overthrow Castro, it would be necessary to mobilize the discontented people in Cuba, to which he had more access than any of the CIA-selected leaders. In Puerto Rico, Ray began working as

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion Grayston Lynch, "we couldn't tell them from the Castro planes. We ended up shooting at two or three of them. We hit some of them there because when they came at us…it was a silhouette, that was all you could see." On 19 April 1961, at least seven Cubans plus two CIA-hired US citizens (Angus K. McNair and Howard F. Anderson) were executed in Pinar del Rio province, after a two-day trial. On 20 April, Humberto Sorí Marin was executed at Fortaleza de la Cabaña, having been arrested on 18 March following infiltration into Cuba with 14 tons of explosives.

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion and his wife Jacqueline attended a "welcome back" ceremony for Brigade 2506 veterans at the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida. The failed invasion severely embarrassed the Kennedy administration, and made Castro wary of future US intervention in Cuba. On 21 April, in a State Department press conference, President Kennedy said: "There's an old saying that victory has a hundred fathers and defeat is an orphan ... Further statements, detailed discussions, are not to conceal responsibility because I'm the responsible officer of the Government ..." The initial U.S. response concerning the first air attacks were of a dismissive quality. U.S. Ambassador

neg: Radio Swan on air as "Radio Swan, la Voz Internacional del Caribe", with its initial commercial programming coming on tape recordings from anti-Castro political groups in exile. Cuba responded to the broadcasts by setting up a jamming station to block the transmissions of Radio Swan and initiated La Voz de INRA, or "The Voice of INRA" which represented the National Institute of Agrarian Reform with an anti-American message. This action was followed on January 3, 1961, by a break in diplomatic relations between both countries that had been initiated by the US. Following this action, Cuba commenced broadcasting to the US and

neg: Jorge Luis García Pérez Barack Obama announced a blueprint for normalizing relations with Cuba on December 17, 2014, Antunez assailed the normalization plan as a capitulation to the Cuban government, echoing the views of Berta Soler and Oscar Elias Biscet that the US should have demanded democratic reforms in Cuba before contemplating a change in US policy towards Cuba. Jorge Luis García Pérez Jorge Luis García Pérez (known as Antúnez, born 10 October 1964, Placetas, Cuba) is a human rights and democracy activist in Cuba. Antúnez was jailed for 17 years from 1990 to 2007. Other dissidents have referred to Antúnez as Cuba's Nelson

neg: Fenian Young Irelander's rising) in 1848. In the face of nativist suspicion, it quickly established an independent existence, although it still worked to gain Irish American support for armed rebellion in Ireland. Initially, O'Mahony ran operations in the US, sending funds to Stephens and the IRB in Ireland, disagreement over O'Mahony's leadership led to the formation of two Fenian Brotherhoods in 1865. The US chapter of the movement was also sometimes referred to as the IRB. After the failed invasion of Canada, it was replaced by Clan na Gael. In Canada, "Fenian" is used to designate a group of Irish radicals,

neg: History of Cuba 20 April, the brigade surrendered and was publicly interrogated before being sent back to the US. Recently inaugurated president John F. Kennedy assumed full responsibility for the operation, even though he had vetoed the reinforcements requested during the battle. The invasion helped further build popular support for the new Cuban government. The Kennedy administration thereafter began Operation Mongoose, a covert CIA campaign of sabotage against Cuba, including the arming of millitant groups, sabotage of Cuban infrastructure, and plots to assassinate Castro. All this reinforced Castro's distrust of the US, and set the stage for the Cuban missile crisis. Tensions between

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion UN General Assembly. Only days earlier, the CIA had unsuccessfully attempted to entice Raúl Roa into defecting. In response to Roa's accusations before the UN, US ambassador to the UN Adlai Stevenson stated that US armed forces would not "under any conditions" intervene in Cuba, and that the US would do everything in its power to ensure that no US citizens would participate in actions against Cuba. He also stated that Cuban defectors had carried out the attacks that day, and he presented a UPI wire photo of Zúñiga's B-26 in Cuban markings at Miami airport. Stevenson was later embarrassed

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion in the Spanish–American War (1898). The US subsequently invaded the island, and forced the Spanish army out. Of note, a special operations attempt to land a group of at least 375 Cuban soldiers on the island succeeded in the Battle of Tayacoba of the Spanish-American War. On 20 May 1902, a new independent government proclaimed the foundation of the Republic of Cuba, with US Military governor Leonard Wood handing over control to President Tomás Estrada Palma, a Cuban-born US citizen. Subsequently, large numbers of US settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60% of rural properties were owned

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuba – the exceptions being medicines and certain foodstuffs – marking the start of an economic embargo. In retaliation, the Cuban National Institute for Agrarian Reform took control of 383 private-run businesses on 14 October, and on 25 October a further 166 US companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized, including Coca-Cola and Sears Roebuck. On 16 December, the US then ended its import quota of Cuban sugar. The US government was becoming increasingly critical of Castro's revolutionary government. At an August 1960 meeting of the Organization of American States (OAS) held in Costa Rica, the US

neg: Gypsy (musical) referred to Robbins' work as one of the most influential stagings of a musical in American theatrical history. The original production received eight Tony Award nominations, including Best Musical, Best Actress in a Musical, Best Featured Actor in a Musical, Best Featured Actress in a Musical, Best Scenic Design, Best Costume Design and Best Direction of a Musical, but failed to win any. When the show closed in March 1961, two national touring companies toured the US. The first company starred Merman and opened in March 1961 at the Rochester, New York Auditorium, and closed in December 1961 at the

neg: Bush–Aznar memo Nations Security Council. This "second resolution" would have followed Resolution 1441. Supporters of the resolution also referred to it as the "eighteenth resolution" in reference to the 17 UN resolutions that Iraq had failed to comply with. The memo provided insight into the run-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. It revealed that Saddam Hussein had offered to step down and leave Iraq if he were allowed to keep $1 billion. Some have suggested that this indicates that the war was avoidable. The memo also possible motivations for members of the United Nations Security Council to support US policy: he

neg: The Skies Belong to Us The Skies Belong to Us The Skies Belong to Us: Love and Terror in the Golden Age of Hijacking is a 2013 narrative nonfiction book by the American author Brendan I. Koerner. It is a history of the "golden age" of aircraft hijacking in the United States from the first incident in May 1961 through January 1973. Hijackings during this period took place as often as once a week, with about 160 incidents in total (most were to Cuba). The book looks at the causes of the epidemic, some of the more famous ones and follows in-depth the story of

neg: The Skies Belong to Us of the Year (2013). It was longlisted for the Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Nonfiction (2014). The Skies Belong to Us The Skies Belong to Us: Love and Terror in the Golden Age of Hijacking is a 2013 narrative nonfiction book by the American author Brendan I. Koerner. It is a history of the "golden age" of aircraft hijacking in the United States from the first incident in May 1961 through January 1973. Hijackings during this period took place as often as once a week, with about 160 incidents in total (most were to Cuba). The book looks at

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion region to find ways to undermine US influence. The invasion is often recognized as making Castro even more popular, adding nationalistic sentiments to the support for his economic policies. Following the air attacks on Cuban airfields on 15 April, he declared the revolution "Marxist-Leninist". After the invasion, he pursued closer relations with the Soviet Union, partly for protection, that helped pave the way for the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Castro was then increasingly wary of further US intervention, and more open to Soviet suggestions of placing nuclear weapons on Cuba to ensure its security. In March 2001, shortly before the

neg: Rationale for the Iraq War invasion of Iraq was conceived. Such an action would demonstrate the power of the US military, put US troops near to Saudi Arabia, and demonstrate that the US did not need Saudi allies to project itself in the Middle East. Despite these efforts to sway public opinion, the invasion of Iraq was seen by some including Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary-General, Lord Goldsmith, British Attorney General, and Human Rights Watch as a violation of international law, breaking the UN Charter (see Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq) especially since the U.S. failed to secure U.N. support for an invasion

neg: The Fog of War "you [United States] attack [Cuba] we're prepared to confront you with masses of military power." Llewellyn Thompson, a former US ambassador to Moscow, urged Kennedy to respond to the soft message. Thompson knew Khrushchev personally and believed that Khrushchev wanted only to be able to tell Cuba he stopped an invasion from the US. Kennedy eventually changed his mind to agree with Thompson. Lesson #2: Rationality alone will not save us. In the documentary, McNamara emphasized it was luck that prevented nuclear war. Rational individuals like Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro, came close to creating national destruction. McNamara states that the

neg: Cuban assistance to the Sandinista National Liberation Front America and the assistance they gave to the Contras. Following the more overt US invasion of Grenada, countries previously looking for support from Cuba saw that the United States government was likely to take violent action to punish this. The early years of the Nicaraguan Revolution were strongly influenced by Cuba. The Sandinista leaders acknowledged that the FSLN owed a great debt to the communist island. The relationship was made possible because of Cuba's commitment to the strategy of revolutionary guerrilla warfare. Once the Sandinistas assumed power, Cuba gave Nicaragua military advice, as well as aid in education, health care,

neg: Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy US ambassador to Ecuador. His support of Fidel Castro’s revolution in Cuba caused an ongoing conflict with Congress and the military. Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy (24 August 1919 – 5 March 2004) was Ecuadorian politician. Arosemena Monroy was elected as Vice President of Ecuador in 1960 and due to the ousting of President José María Velasco Ibarra, became President of Ecuador from 7 November 1961 to 11 July 1963. He was born in Guayaquil to Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola, a former president of Ecuador, and Laura Monroy Garaycoa. While in office, there were two failed attempts

neg: Cuban hip hop Cuban hip hop Hip hop music arrived in Cuba via radio and TV broadcasts from Miami. During the 1980s hip hop culture in Cuba was mainly centred on breakdancing. But by the 1990s, with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the onset of the Special Period, young "raperos" were seeking ways to express their frustrations. Initially hip hop was viewed with suspicion, not just by the government, but by many in the community as well. With raperos emulating US rappers' aggressive posturing and lyrical content, hip hop was seen as just another cultural invasion from the US, bringing with

neg: Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba commission released a second report on July 2006, which built on the findings of the first report. It also issued the "Compact with the Cuban People," which pledged that the US government would assist a transition government. Fidel Castro referred to Rice as a "mad" woman and to the US Chief of Mission in Havana, Michael E. Parmly, as a "little gangster" and a "bully." He insisted that in spite of the formation of the Commission, Cuba is itself "in transition: to socialism [and] to communism" and that it is "ridiculous for the U.S. to threaten Cuba now." Commission for

neg: Cuban Missile Crisis place because its intelligence had been convinced that the Soviets would never install nuclear missiles in Cuba. EXCOMM, of which Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was a member, quickly discussed several possible courses of action: The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full-scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba. Kennedy was skeptical: Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line" to conquer Berlin. Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy; Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Since the middle of the 18th century Cuba had been the crown jewel of the Spanish colonial empire. In the late 19th century, Cuban nationalist revolutionaries rebelled against Spanish dominance, resulting in three liberation wars: the Ten Years' War (1868–1878), the Little War (1879–1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). The United States government proclaimed war on the Spanish Empire, resulting

neg: Operation PBHistory worked in the US intelligence services since World War II. While preparations for Operation PBSuccess were underway, the US government issued a series of statements denouncing the Guatemalan government, alleging that it had been infiltrated by communists. On 18 June 1954 Carlos Castillo Armas, a Guatemalan army Colonel in exile since a failed coup in 1949, led an invasion force of 480 men into Guatemala. The invasion was supported by a campaign of psychological warfare, which presented Castillo Armas's victory as a "fait accompli" to the Guatemalan people. Worried by the possibility of a US invasion, the Guatemalan army refused

neg: Mercedes Gallego guerrillas in Guatemala, the political transition in Nicaragua, the devastation caused by hurricane Mitch in Honduras, and Che Guevara's funeral in Cuba, among other events of international relevance. During the Kosovo bombing in 1999, Gallego was reassigned to New York City as US Bureau Chief for Vocento Media Group. She witnessed the September 11 attacks in 2001, the invasion of Iraq in 2003, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, and Hurricane Sandy in 2012, aside from every US election since 2000. Gallego covered the 2003 invasion of Iraq as an embedded journalist. She was one of the

neg: United States involvement in regime change Sarit. It also deployed the CIA-sponsored Police Aerial Reinforcement Unit (PARU) to operations within Laos. With the help of CIA front organization Air America to airlift war supplies and with other U.S. military assistance and covert aid from Thailand, General Phoumi Nosavan's forces captured Vientiane in November 1960. The CIA orchestrated a force composed of CIA-trained Cuban exiles to invade Cuba with support and equipment from the US military, in an attempt to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro. The invasion was launched in April 1961, three months after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency in the United States.

neg: Cuban Missile Crisis on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev. Castro was especially upset that certain issues of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed. That caused Cuban–Soviet relations to deteriorate for years to come. On the other hand, Cuba continued to be protected from invasion. The worldwide US Forces DEFCON 3 status was returned to DEFCON 4 on November 20, 1962. General Curtis LeMay told the President that the resolution of the crisis was the "greatest defeat in our history"; his was a minority position.

neg: History of Cuba undefined until 1925, when the United States finally recognized Cuban sovereignty over the island. Estrada Palma, a frugal man, governed successfully for his four-year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued. The Second Occupation of Cuba, also known as the Cuban Pacification, was a major US military operation that began in September 1906. After the collapse of President Palma's regime, US President Roosevelt ordered an invasion and established an occupation that would continue for nearly four years. The goal of the operation was to prevent fighting between the Cubans, to protect North American

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion US government, these companies refused. Castro responded by expropriating the refineries and nationalizing them under state control. In retaliation, the US canceled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most US-owned assets, including banks and sugar mills. Relations between Cuba and the US were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, the "Le Coubre", in Havana harbor in March 1960. The cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly insinuated that the US government were guilty of sabotage. On 13 October 1960, the US government then prohibited the majority of exports to

neg: Cuban Missile Crisis U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban antiaircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro. Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not then believe were there. Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using those nuclear weapons, even though Castro believed that every human in Cuba would likely die as a result. Khrushchev also knew but may not have considered the fact that he had submarines armed with nuclear weapons

neg: Luis Valdés Harvard University surgical pathology fellowship for one year at Harvard University Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital and Free Hospital for Women, Boston Massachusetts, 1951-52, sponsored by the US State Department. He was a student of Benjamin Castleman whom he greatly admired. He then returned to Cuba. In 1961, Dr. Valdes left Cuba permanently and became a political refugee in the US because of professional and personal harassment and persecution by the Communist Revolution of Fidel Castro. He immigrated to the United States found work as a Pathologist at a Veterans Affairs hospital and repeated his surgical residency at Vanderbilt University.

neg: Lyle Franklin Lane was designed by Harrison & Abramovitz architects and originally entered into service in 1953. When relations were broken in 1961, the building was occupied, and its contents safeguarded, by the Swiss Embassy personnel who handled US Interests in Cuba on behalf of the US Government as the protecting power until the arrival of the US staff in 1977. The Swiss staff included some of the Foreign Service national employees (Cuban citizens) who were working at the US Embassy when relations were broken. Sixteen years later, when the US Government resumed its presence, many of them remained and resumed their direct

neg: Revolutionary Movement 13th November at Retalhuleu to prepare for its invasion of Cuba. The rebellion was not ideological in its origins. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) flew B-26 bombers disguised as Guatemalan military jets to bomb the rebel bases because the coup threatened its plans for the invasion of Cuba as well as the Guatemalan regime it supported. The rebels fled to neighboring Honduras and formed the kernel of what became known as MR-13. In early 1962 they returned and on 6 February 1962 in Bananera they attacked the offices of the United Fruit Company (present day Chiquita Brands), an American corporation that

neg: Panama Truth Commission help improve the country's economy. When Barletta failed to do so, Noriega forced him out of power. At the time of this election Noriega was suspected of money laundering, gun trafficking, torture, murder and selling US intelligence to Cuba and Easter European governments. When approached by the US, Noriega denied all allegations and blaming US politicians of trying to undermine the Panama Canal treaties before its return to Panamanian control in December 1999. Noriega's support began to decline in 1987 when his former chief of staff stated that Noriega had fixed the 1984 elections and had Hugo Spadafora – a

neg: Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) The Republic of Cuba (Spanish: "República de Cuba") of 1902 to 1959, referred by the current Cuban government as the Neocolonial Republic (Spanish: "República Neocolonial"), and as Free Cuba (Spanish: "Cuba Libre") by Cuban dissidents, refers to the historical period in Cuba from 1902, when Cuba seceded from US rule in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War that took Cuba from Spanish rule in 1898, until communist revolutionaries took power in 1959. The official form of government was representative democracy though at times it was controlled by a military junta or otherwise unelected government. After becoming

neg: Imperial German plans for the invasion of the United States for supporting the fleet in a major engagement. Meanwhile, the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898, with the US in action in the Caribbean and the Pacific. In March 1899 when it was clear that the US was about to take control of the hoped-for Caribbean bases of Puerto Rico and Cuba, the Kaiser ordered the invasion plans redrawn by von Mantey. Rather than the reduction of important shipyards, the new plan involved a two-pronged land invasion of New York City and Boston. Some 60 warships and a massive train of 40 to 60 cargo and troopships carrying of coal,

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion the Castro regime. Also, President Kennedy persuaded his brother Robert to set up a covert operation against Castro which was known as "Operation Mongoose." This covert operation included sabotage and assassination plots. On 22 April 1961, President Kennedy asked General Maxwell D. Taylor, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Admiral Arleigh Burke and CIA Director Allen Dulles to form the Cuba Study Group, to report on lessons to learn from the failed operation. General Taylor submitted the Board of Inquiry's report to President Kennedy on 13 June. It attributed the defeat to lack of early realization of the impossibility of success

neg: Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end. Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958. Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) The Republic of Cuba (Spanish: "República de Cuba") of 1902 to 1959, referred by the current Cuban government as the Neocolonial Republic (Spanish: "República Neocolonial"), and as Free Cuba (Spanish: "Cuba Libre") by Cuban dissidents, refers to the historical period in Cuba from 1902, when Cuba seceded from US rule in the aftermath of

neg: History of communism Movement against the regime of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. It ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his regime with Castro's revolutionary government. Castro's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the present Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965. The United States response was highly negative, leading to a failed invasion attempt in 1961. The Soviets decided to protect its ally by stationing nuclear weapons in Cuba in 1962. In the Cuban Missile Crisis, the United States vehemently opposed the Soviet Union move. There was serious fear of nuclear war for a few days, but a compromise was reached

neg: Cuban Missile Crisis He had pressed for an immediate invasion of Cuba as soon as the crisis began and still favored invading Cuba even after the Soviets had withdrawn their missiles. Twenty-five years later, LeMay still believed that "We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time." Critics, including Seymour Melman, and Seymour Hersh suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis encouraged the United States' use of military means, such as the case in the later Vietnam War. U-2 pilot Anderson's body was returned to the US and was buried

neg: Bay of Pigs Invasion the mission after take-off. Other sources allege that heavy anti-aircraft fire scared the aircrews As night fell, "Atlantico" and "Caribe" pulled away from Cuba, to be followed by "Blagar" and "Barbara J". The ships were to return to the Bay of Pigs the next day to land more ammunition, but the captains of "Atlantico" and "Caribe" decided to abandon the invasion and headed out to the open sea out of fear of further air attacks by the FAR. Destroyers from the US Navy intercepted "Atlantico" about 110 miles south of Cuba, and persuaded the captain to return, but "Caribe" was

neg: Brinkmanship This was arguably an act of brinkmanship from the USSR, intimidating the US with weapons within the region. The US responded to the presence of the weapons by blockading Cuba. The Cuban blockade was also an act of brinkmanship since the US, instead of succumbing to the pressure from the USSR, decided to see how the Soviets would react to the US stopping their vessels from entering Cuba. It can be argued that Brinkmanship, in this case, went too far. Had the US attacked Cuba through an airstrike to eliminate the weapons, the USSR may have responded in Berlin where