query: where are receptors for water soluble hormones located

pos: Hormone receptor the development of disease, like osteoporosis. Water-soluble hormones include glycoproteins, catecholamines, and peptide hormones composed of polypeptides, e.g. thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone and insulin. These molecules are not lipid-soluble and therefore cannot diffuse through cell membranes. Consequently, receptors for peptide hormones are located on the plasma membrane because they have bound to a receptor protein located on the plasma membrane. Water-soluble hormones come from amino acids and are located and stored in endocrine cells until actually needed. The main two types of transmembrane receptor hormone receptor are the G-protein-coupled receptors and the enzyme-linked receptors. These receptors generally function

pos: Steroid hormone receptor Steroid hormone receptor Steroid hormone receptors are found in the nucleus, cytosol, and also on the plasma membrane of target cells. They are generally intracellular receptors (typically cytoplasmic or nuclear) and initiate signal transduction for steroid hormones which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone receptors are members of the nuclear receptor subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for estrogen (group NR3A) and 3-ketosteroids (group NR3C). In addition to nuclear receptors, several G protein-coupled receptors and ion channels act as cell surface receptors for certain steroid hormones. Steroid

neg: Hormone hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, regulating the expression of certain genes, and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the plasma membrane. Hormones have the following effects on the body: A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals

neg: Hormone receptor via intracellular second messengers, including cyclic AMP (cAMP), cyclic GMP (cGMP), inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and the calcium (Ca)-calmodulin system. Steroid hormone receptors and related receptors are generally soluble proteins that function through gene activation. Lipid-soluble hormones target specific sequences of DNA by diffusing into the cell. When they have diffused into the cell, they bind to receptors (intracellular), and migrate into the nucleus. heir response elements are DNA sequences (promoters) that are bound by the complex of the steroid bound to its receptor. The receptors themselves are zinc-finger proteins. These receptors include those for glucocorticoids (glucocorticoid receptors), estrogens (estrogen receptors),

neg: GPER expression and poor prognosis, while other studies do not. GPER G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER), also known as G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "GPER" gene. GPER binds to and is activated by the female sex hormone estradiol and is responsible for some of the rapid effects that estradiol has on cells. The classical estrogen receptors first characterized in 1958 are water-soluble proteins located in the interior of cells that are activated by estrogenenic hormones such as estradiol and several of its metabolites such as estrone or estriol. These proteins

neg: GPER GPER G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER), also known as G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "GPER" gene. GPER binds to and is activated by the female sex hormone estradiol and is responsible for some of the rapid effects that estradiol has on cells. The classical estrogen receptors first characterized in 1958 are water-soluble proteins located in the interior of cells that are activated by estrogenenic hormones such as estradiol and several of its metabolites such as estrone or estriol. These proteins belong to the nuclear hormone receptor class of transcription

neg: Steroid hormone balance, development of sexual characteristics, and the ability to withstand illness and injury. The term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that duplicate the action for the naturally occurring steroids. The natural steroid hormones are generally synthesized from cholesterol in the gonads and adrenal glands. These forms of hormones are lipids. They can pass through the cell membrane as they are fat-soluble, and then bind to steroid hormone receptors (which may be nuclear or cytosolic depending on the steroid hormone) to bring about changes within the cell. Steroid hormones are generally carried in the

neg: Anabolic steroid with the cell’s surface receptors. However, as fat-soluble hormones, AAS are membrane-permeable and influence the nucleus of cells by direct action. The pharmacodynamic action of AAS begin when the exogenous hormone penetrates the membrane of the target cell and binds to an androgen receptor (AR) located in the cytoplasm of that cell. From there, the compound hormone-receptor diffuses into the nucleus, where it either alters the expression of genes or activates processes that send signals to other parts of the cell. Different types of AAS bind to the AAR with different affinities, depending on their chemical structure. Some AAS such

neg: Peptide hormone Peptide hormone Peptide hormones or protein hormones are hormones whose molecules are peptides or proteins, respectively. The latter have longer amino acid chain lengths than the former. These hormones have an effect on the endocrine system of animals, including humans. Most hormones can be classified as either amino acid–based hormones (amine, peptide, or protein) or steroid hormones. The former are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; the latter, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei. Like all peptides and proteins, peptide hormones

neg: Signal transduction nerves, by depolarizing the membrane of post-synaptic cells, resulting in the opening of voltage-gated ion channels. An example of an ion allowed into the cell during a ligand-gated ion channel opening is Ca; it acts as a second messenger initiating signal transduction cascades and altering the physiology of the responding cell. This results in amplification of the synapse response between synaptic cells by remodelling the dendritic spines involved in the synapse. Intracellular receptors, such as nuclear receptors and cytoplasmic receptors, are soluble proteins localized within their respective areas. The typical ligands for nuclear receptors are non-polar hormones like the steroid

neg: Relaxin family peptide hormones receptors of follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones (FSH and LH, respectively), and are the cognate receptors for RLN and INSL3 respectively in humans . On the other hand, RXFP3 and RXFP4 are related to somatostatin et al. and, in humans, are the cognate receptors for RLN3 and INSL5. There is evidence that some relaxin hormones may also be able to interact with glucocorticoid-type nuclear receptors, which are found floating freely between the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. Four RXFPs in humans are located in different linkage groups. Additionally there are two RXFP pseudogenes ("RXFP3-3" and "RXFP2-like") which have functional counterparts in other species.

neg: Evolution of olfaction and vertebrates). Phylogenetic analysis has delineated two main types of olfactory receptor genes that are traced back to early vertebrate OR history: class I genes, responsible for encoding proteins that detect water-soluble odorants, and Class II genes, associated with the detection of airborne molecules. Both types serve as homologous structures in fish and tetrapods. In "Xenopus laevis", an amphibia, both class receptors are present, unlike fish or mammals. Their class I receptors are expressed on the lateral diverticulum (LD), a region specialized to respond to water-soluble odorants, and class II receptors are abundantly present in the medial diverticulum (MD) which

neg: Hormone (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei. Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs

neg: Hormone triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, described as signal transduction, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism. For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell. These receptors belong to the nuclear receptor family of ligand-activated transcription factors. To bind their receptors, these

neg: Metabolism are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface. These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins. A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into

neg: Hormone receptor Hormone receptor A hormone receptor is a receptor molecule that binds to a specific hormone. Hormone receptors are a wide family of proteins made up of receptors for thyroid and steroid hormones, retinoids and Vitamin D, and a variety of other receptors for various ligands, such as fatty acids and prostaglandins. There are two main classes of hormone receptors. Receptors for peptide hormones tend to be cell surface receptors built into the plasma membrane of cells and are thus referred to as trans membrane receptors. An example of this is insulin. Receptors for steroid hormones are usually found within the

neg: Signal transduction such as steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and thus cross the plasma membrane to reach nuclear receptors. In the case of steroid hormone receptors, their stimulation leads to binding to the promoter region of steroid-responsive genes. Not all classifications of signaling molecules take into account the molecular nature of each class member. For example, odorants belong to a wide range of molecular classes, as do neurotransmitters, which range in size from small molecules such as dopamine to neuropeptides such as endorphins. Moreover, some molecules may fit into more than one class, e.g. epinephrine is a neurotransmitter when secreted by the central

neg: Cell nucleus karyopherins interact directly with their cargo, although some use adaptor proteins. Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, as well as other small lipid-soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling, can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm, where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus. There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand; in the absence of a ligand, many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression. In animal cells, two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support: The nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork

neg: Steroid hormone bind them and increase the hormones' solubility in water. Some examples are sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), corticosteroid-binding globulin, and albumin. Most studies say that hormones can only affect cells when they are not bound by serum proteins. In order to be active, steroid hormones must free themselves from their blood-solubilizing proteins and either bind to extracellular receptors, or passively cross the cell membrane and bind to nuclear receptors. This idea is known as the free hormone hypothesis. This idea is shown in Figure 1 to the right. One study has found that these steroid-carrier complexes are bound by megalin, a

neg: Hormone of the stomach and exocrine pancreas (the amounts of gastric juice and pancreatic juice) become the input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone synthesis of gonadal hormones, adrenocortical hormones, and thyroid hormones is often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), -gonadal (HPG), and -thyroid (HPT) axes. Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid

neg: Endocrine system cells (paracrine signalling). Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood. Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid changes to the activity of existing proteins, or slower changes in the expression of target genes. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the

neg: Cytokine receptor has been attempted. (Such a classification, though seemingly cumbersome, provides several unique perspectives for attractive pharmacotherapeutic targets.) Cytokine receptors may be both membrane-bound and soluble. "Soluble cytokine receptors" are extremely common regulators of cytokine function. Soluble cytokine receptors typically consist of the extracellular portions of membrane-bound receptors. . Cytokine receptor Cytokine receptors are receptors that bind cytokines. In recent years, the cytokine receptors have come to demand the attention of more investigators than cytokines themselves, partly because of their remarkable characteristics, and partly because a deficiency of cytokine receptors has now been directly linked to certain debilitating immunodeficiency states. In

neg: Glucuronidation substances resulting from glucuronidation are known as glucuronides (or glucuronosides) and are typically much more water-soluble than the non-glucuronic acid-containing substances from which they were originally synthesised. The human body uses glucuronidation to make a large variety of substances more water-soluble, and, in this way, allow for their subsequent elimination from the body through urine or feces (via bile from the liver). Hormones are glucuronidated to allow for easier transport around the body. Pharmacologists have linked drugs to glucuronic acid to allow for more effective delivery of a broad range of potential therapeutics. Sometimes toxic substances are also less toxic

neg: Steroid hormone Steroid hormone A steroid hormone is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two classes: corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence "cortico-") and sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta). Within those two classes are five types according to the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids (corticosteroids), androgens, estrogens, and progestogens (sex steroids). Vitamin D derivatives are a sixth closely related hormone system with homologous receptors. They have some of the characteristics of true steroids as receptor ligands. Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water

neg: KDEL (amino acid sequence) KDEL signal sequence is recognized by receptors located on the membrane. The receptor and soluble protein are transported via COP1 coated vesicles back to the ER where the contents of the vesicle are released and the soluble protein dissociates from the receptor. The association of the protein in the cis-golgi and dissociation in the ER is mediated by pH, since a slightly acidic pH, found in the cis-golgi provides optimum binding conditions. The related sequence HDEL also functions to keep resident proteins in the ER. KDEL (amino acid sequence) KDEL is a target peptide sequence located on the C-terminal end

neg: Steroid hormone receptor extend through lipid bilayer membranes at the surface of cells and might be able to interact with hormones that remain outside cells. Steroid hormone receptors can also function outside the nucleus and couple to cytoplasmic signal transduction proteins such as PI3k and Akt kinase. A new class of steroid hormone receptors has recently been elucidated and these new receptors are found on the cell membrane. New studies suggest that along with the well documented intracellular receptors that cell membrane receptors are present for several steroid hormones and that their cellular responses are much quicker than the intracellular receptors. GPCR linked

neg: Cell signaling adjacent cells. While some receptors are cell surface proteins, others are found inside cells. For example, estrogen is a hydrophobic molecule that can pass through the lipid bilayer of the membranes. As part of the endocrine system, intracellular estrogen receptors from a variety of cell types can be activated by estrogen produced in the ovaries. A number of transmembrane receptors for small molecules and peptide hormones, as well as intracellular receptors for steroid hormones exist, giving cells the ability to respond to a great number of hormonal and pharmacological stimuli. In diseases, often, proteins that interact with receptors are aberrantly

neg: NCAA banned substances ability to perform tasks requiring concentration and coordination, such as driving a car, increased heart rate, potential cardiac dangers for those with preexisting heart disease, bloodshot eyes, dry mouth and throat, decreased social inhibitions, paranoia, hallucinations, impaired or reduced short-term memory, impaired or reduced comprehension, altered motivation and cognition, making the acquisition of new information difficult, psychological dependence, impairments in learning and memory, perception, and judgment, anxiety or panic attacks, and more. Peptide hormones are water-soluble hormones composed of a few amino acids that introduce a series of chemical reactions to change the cell's metabolism. Examples of peptide hormones and

neg: Bile acid secreted into the intestine. Bile acids have other functions, including eliminating cholesterol from the body, driving the flow of bile to eliminate certain catabolites (including bilirubin), emulsifying fat-soluble vitamins to enable their absorption, and aiding in motility and the reduction of the bacteria flora found in the small intestine and biliary tract. Bile acids have metabolic actions in the body resembling those of hormones, acting through two specific receptors, the farnesoid X receptor and G protein-coupled bile acid receptor/TGR5. They bind less specifically to some other receptors and have been reported to regulate the activity of certain enzymes and ion

neg: Nuclear receptor the application of nuclear hormones, such as changes in ion channel activity, occur within minutes which is inconsistent with the classical mechanism of nuclear receptor action. While the molecular target for these non-genomic effects of nuclear receptors has not been conclusively demonstrated, it has been hypothesized that there are variants of nuclear receptors which are membrane associated instead of being localized in the cytosol or nucleus. Furthermore, these membrane associated receptors function through alternative signal transduction mechanisms not involving gene regulation. While it has been hypothesized that there are several membrane associated receptors for nuclear hormones, many of the rapid

neg: Hormone receptor androgens (androgen receptors), thyroid hormone (T3) (thyroid hormone receptors), calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D) (calcitriol receptors), and the retinoids (vitamin A) (retinoid receptors). Receptor-protein interactions induce the uptake and destruction of their respective hormones in order to regulate their concentration in the body. This is especially important for steroid hormones because many body systems are entirely steroid dependent. For some of these classes, in any given species (such as, for example, humans), there is a single molecule encoded by a single gene; in other cases, there are several molecules in the class. Hormone receptor A hormone receptor is

neg: Endocrine gland of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors, within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind. Hormone receptors are dynamic structures. Changes in number and sensitivity of hormone receptors may occur in response to high or low levels of stimulating hormones. Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between secretion and degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products are excreted in urine and feces. Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to hormone. Interaction of

neg: Sex steroid Sex steroid Sex steroids, also known as gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate androgen or estrogen receptors. Their effects are mediated by slow genomic mechanisms through nuclear receptors as well as by fast nongenomic mechanisms through membrane-associated receptors and signaling cascades. The term sex hormone is nearly always synonymous with "sex steroid". The polypeptide hormones luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone are usually not regarded as sex hormones, although they play major sex-related roles. Natural sex steroids are made by the gonads (ovaries or testes), by adrenal glands, or by conversion from other sex

neg: Thyroid hormones iodine in "o"-position makes the phenolic OH-group more acidic, resulting in a negative charge at physiological pH. However, at least 10 different active, energy-dependent and genetically-regulated iodothyronine transporters have been identified in humans. They guarantee that intracellular levels of thyroid hormones are higher than in blood plasma or interstitial fluids. Little is known about intracellular kinetics of thyroid hormones. However, recently it could be demonstrated that the crystallin CRYM binds 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine in vivo. The thyroid hormones function via a well-studied set of nuclear receptors, termed the thyroid hormone receptors. These receptors, together with corepressor molecules, bind DNA regions called thyroid

neg: Cellular communication (biology) vesicular exocytosis. Inter-species and interkingdom signaling is the latest field of research for microbe-microbe and microbe-animal/plant interactions for variety of purposes at the host-pathogen interface. Reception occurs when the target cell (any cell with a receptor protein specific to the signal molecule) detects a signal, usually in the form of a small, water-soluble molecule, via binding to a receptor protein. Reception is the target cell's detection of a signal via binding of a signaling molecule, or ligand. Receptor proteins span the cell’s plasma membrane and provide specific sites for water-soluble signaling molecules to bind to. These trans-membrane receptors are able

neg: Hypothalamus periventricular area of the hypothalamus. After their release into the capillaries of the third ventricle, the hypophysiotropic hormones travel through what is known as the hypothalamo-pituitary portal circulation. Once they reach their destination in the anterior pituitary, these hormones bind to specific receptors located on the surface of pituitary cells. Depending on which cells are activated through this binding, the pituitary will either begin secreting or stop secreting hormones into the rest of the bloodstream. (Bear, Mark F. "Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary." Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2016. 528. Print.) Other hormones secreted from

neg: Bexarotene hence potentially altering its therapeutic effects. Bexarotene is a retinoid that selectively activates retinoid X receptors (RXRs), as opposed to the retinoic acid receptors, the other major target of retinoic acid (the acid form of vitamin A). By so doing it induces cell differentiation and apoptosis and prevents the development of drug resistance. It also has anti-angiogenic effects and inhibits cancer metastasis. The retinoic acid receptors (RARs) regulate cell differentiation and proliferation whereas RXRs regulate apoptosis. Bexarotene is a solid, white powder. It is poorly soluble in water; the solubility is estimated to be about 10-50 µM. It is soluble

neg: Hormone hormones, are lipid-soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand-protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones), while others are prohormones that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream, typically via fenestrated capillaries, whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby

neg: Adrenocortical hormone kidneys and glucose metabolism, respectively. Adrenocortical hormones are divided into three classes by function: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoid hormones are synthesized in the outermost layer of the adrenal cortex known as the zona glomerulosa. Their function is to regulate the concentration of electrolytes circulating in the blood. For example, aldosterone functions to raise blood sodium levels and lower blood potassium levels by targeting the kidneys. Specifically, it binds receptors of cells that comprise the distal tubules of the kidneys which then stimulate ion channels to conserve sodium and excrete potassium. Additionally, the ion gradient initiates conservation of water. The

neg: Steroid hormone receptor proteins most likely interact with steroid hormones through an amino acid consensus sequence traditionally thought of as a cholesterol recognition and interaction site. About a third of Class A GPCRs contain this sequence. The steroid hormones themselves are different enough from one another that they do not all affect all of the GPCR linked proteins; however, the similarities between the steroid hormones and between the receptors make plausible the argument that each receptor may respond to multiple steroid hormones or that each hormone could affect multiple receptors. This is contrary to the traditional model of having a unique receptor for

neg: Aconitine on its presence of this C18 carbonaconitum. It is barely soluble in water, but very soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform or diethyl ether. Aconitine is also soluble in mixtures of alcohol and water if the concentration of alcohol is high enough. Like many other alkaloids, the basic nitrogen atom in one of the six-membered ring structure of aconitine can easily form salts and ions, giving it affinity for both polar and lipophilic structures (such as cell membranes and receptors) and making it possible for the molecule to pass the blood-brain barrier. The acetoxyl group at the c8 position

neg: Catecholamine Catecholamine A catecholamine (; CA) is a monoamine, an organic compound that has a catechol (benzene with two hydroxyl side groups at carbons 1 and 2) and a side-chain amine. Catechol can be either a free molecule or a substituent of a larger molecule, where it represents a 1,2-dihydroxybenzene group. Catecholamines are derived from the amino acid tyrosine, which is derived from dietary sources as well as synthesis from phenylalanine. Catecholamines are water-soluble and are 50%-bound to plasma proteins in circulation. Included among catecholamines are epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine. Release of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the

neg: Very low-density lipoprotein percent of IDLs are recognized by receptors in the liver cells because of the apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) and apoE they contain and are endocytosed. The other 50% of IDL lose apoE; when their cholesterol content becomes greater than the content of triglyceride, they become LDL, with apoB-100 as the primary apolipoprotein. The LDL is taken into a cell via the LDL receptor via endocytosis, where the contents are either stored, used for cell membrane structure, or converted into other products such as steroid hormones or bile acids. Very low-density lipoprotein Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), density relative to extracellular water, is a

neg: Endocrine disruptor a fuller picture of the health and environmental impacts of endocrine disruptors. To improve global knowledge the team has recommended: Endocrine systems are found in most varieties of animals. The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones, and receptors that detect and react to the hormones. Hormones travel throughout the body and act as chemical messengers. Hormones interface with cells that contain matching receptors in or on their surfaces. The hormone binds with the receptor, much like a key would fit into a lock. The endocrine system regulates adjustments through slower internal processes, using hormones as messengers. The endocrine

neg: Hormone a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellular receptors. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway. Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) class of seven alpha helix transmembrane proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically

neg: Cytolysin first. Sometimes the producer organism needs to create a pore at its own membrane to release such cytolysins, like the case colicins produced by "Escherichia coli". Cytolysins are released as protein monomers in a water-soluble state in this step. Note that cytolysins are often toxic to its producing hosts as well. For example, colicins consume nucleic acids of cells by using several enzymes. To prevent such toxicity, host cells produce immunity proteins for binding cytolysins before they do any damage inward. In the second step, cytolysins adhere to target cell membranes by matching the ""receptors"'" on the membranes. Most receptors

neg: Anaerobic lagoon has been interest in technology which would capture methane produced from lagoons and sell it as energy. Contaminants that are water-soluble can escape from anaerobic lagoons and enter the environment through leakage from badly constructed or poorly maintained manure lagoons as well as during excess rain or high winds, resulting in an overflow of lagoons. These leaks and overflows can contaminate surrounding surface and ground water with some hazardous materials which are contained in the lagoon. The most serious of these contaminants are pathogens, antibiotics, heavy metals and hormones. For example, runoff from farms in Maryland and North Carolina are

neg: Stress in early childhood the receptors in the adrenal glands, which are located atop the kidneys, and this causes the release of cortisol. Cortisol enters the cytoplasm of cells in the body, including the brain. The hormone then reacts with receptors inside of the cell. The activated receptors reach the nucleus of the cells and regulate the transcription of genes. Eventually, the body experiences physiological and behavioral changes. Because cortisol hormone enters the cell’s nucleus, the effects of change take longer to occur, and last for a longer period of time, compared to the hormones of the SAM system. The effect of cortisol depends

neg: Etanercept receptors that are used to deactivate TNF and blunt the immune response. In addition, TNF receptors are found on the surface of virtually all nucleated cells (red blood cells, which are not nucleated, do not contain TNF receptors on their surface). Etanercept mimics the inhibitory effects of naturally occurring soluble TNF receptors, the difference being that etanercept, because it is a fusion protein rather than a simple TNF receptor, has a greatly extended half-life in the bloodstream, and therefore a more profound and long-lasting biologic effect than a naturally occurring soluble TNF receptor. Etanercept is made from the combination of

neg: Cannabinoid structure, but are most concentrated in the roots and flowers. Yangonin found in the Kava plant has significant affinity to the CB1 receptor. Tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins have an affinity for human cannabinoid receptors. A widespread dietary terpene, beta-caryophyllene, a component from the essential oil of cannabis and other medicinal plants, has also been identified as a selective agonist of peripheral CB-receptors, "in vivo". Black truffles contain anandamide. Perrottetinene, a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid, has been isolated from different "Radula" varieties. Most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but are soluble in lipids, alcohols, and other non-polar organic solvents.

neg: Intracrine Intracrine Intracrine refers to a hormone that acts inside a cell, regulating intracellular events. In simple terms it means that the cell stimulates itself by cellular production of a factor that acts within the cell. Steroid hormones act through intracellular (mostly nuclear) receptors and, thus, may be considered to be intracrines. In contrast, peptide or protein hormones, in general, act as endocrines, autocrines, or paracrines by binding to their receptors present on the cell surface. Several peptide/protein hormones or their isoforms also act inside the cell through different mechanisms. These peptide/protein hormones, which have intracellular functions, are also called intracrines.

neg: Sex steroid are also many synthetic sex steroids. Synthetic androgens are often referred to as anabolic steroids. Synthetic estrogens and progestins are used in methods of hormonal contraception. Ethinylestradiol is a semi-synthetic estrogen. Specific compounds that have partial agonist activity for steroid receptors, and therefore act in part like natural steroid hormones, are in use in medical conditions that require treatment with steroid in one cell type, but where systemic effects of the particular steroid in the entire organism are only desirable within certain limits. Sex steroid Sex steroids, also known as gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with

neg: Peptide hormone released into the blood. When a peptide hormone binds to a receptor on the surface of the cell, a second messenger appears in the cytoplasm, which triggers signal transduction leading to the cellular responses. Some peptide/protein hormones (angiotensin II, basic fibroblast growth factor-2, parathyroid hormone-related protein) also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism. Several important peptide hormones are secreted from the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary secretes three hormones: prolactin, which acts on the mammary gland; adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which acts on the adrenal cortex to regulate the secretion of glucocorticoids; and

neg: Insect diuretic hormones Insect diuretic hormones Insect diuretic hormones are hormones that regulate water balance through diuretic action. The insect excretory system, responsible for regulating water balance in the insect, comprises the Malpighian tubules and the hindgut (the ileum and rectum). Malpighian tubules secrete primary urine, most of which is passed into the hindgut where water, ions and essential metabolites are reabsorbed before the fluid is excreted. Excretion is under the control of diuretic and anti-diuretic factors, or hormones, comprehensively reviewed by Coast et al. (2002). These factors are produced in neurosecretory cells in the insect nervous system, and stored and released from

neg: Proteases in angiogenesis as membrane bound proforms which undergo proteolytic shedding for activation. The ephrins EPH receptor A2 and A3 are shed by ADAM10 creating cleaved soluble Eph receptors, which inhibit tumor angiogenesis in mice. Additional examples are the proteolytic shedding of soluble E-selectin, shedding of urokinase receptor (uPAR) by MMP-12 creating soluble uPAR which has chemotactic properties for leukocytes and progenitor cells, and the shedding of interleukin-6 receptors by ADAM10 and ADAM17 which facilitates interleukin-6 signaling in endothelial cells. Semaphorin 4D is cleaved from its membrane bound form by MT1-MMP (MMP-14) in tumor cells; it then interacts with plexin B1 on endothelial

neg: Blood plasma fractionation about 60% of the total protein in plasma and is present at concentrations between 35 and 55 mg/mL. It is the main contributor to osmotic pressure of the blood and it functions as a carrier molecule for molecules with low water solubility such as lipid-soluble hormones, enzymes, fatty acids, metal ions, and pharmaceutical compounds. Albumin is structurally stable due to its seventeen disulfide bonds and unique in that it has the highest water solubility and the lowest isoelectric point (pI) of the plasma proteins. Due to the structural integrity of albumin it remains stable under conditions where most other proteins

neg: Anabolic steroid the two gonadotropins, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). In adult males, LH stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone which is required to form new sperm through spermatogenesis. AAS consumption leads to dose-dependent suppression of gonadotropin release through suppression of GnRH from the hypothalamus (long-loop mechanism) or from direct negative feedback on the anterior pituitary to inhibit gonadotropin release (short-loop mechanism), leading to AAS-induced hypogonadism. The pharmacodynamics of AAS are unlike peptide hormones. Water-soluble peptide hormones cannot penetrate the fatty cell membrane and only indirectly affect the nucleus of target cells through their interaction

neg: Nuclear receptor two of them binding on DR1, one binding on DR4. Nuclear receptors are multifunctional proteins that transduce signals of their cognate ligands. Nuclear receptors (NRs) may be classified into two broad classes according to their mechanism of action and subcellular distribution in the absence of ligand. Small lipophilic substances such as natural hormones diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to nuclear receptors located in the cytosol (type I NR) or nucleus (type II NR) of the cell. Binding causes a conformational change in the receptor which, depending on the class of receptor, triggers a cascade of downstream events that

neg: Circadian rhythm in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. Circadian rhythmicity

neg: Neuropeptide molecule; neuropeptides are secreted from neuronal cells (primarily neurons but also glia for some peptides) and signal to neighboring cells (primarily neurons). In contrast, peptide hormones are secreted from neuroendocrine cells and travel through the blood to distant tissues where they evoke a response. Both neuropeptides and peptide hormones are synthesized by the same sets of enzymes, which include prohormone convertases and carboxypeptidases that selectively cleave the peptide precursor at specific processing sites to generate the bioactive peptides. Neuropeptides modulate neuronal communication by acting on cell surface receptors. Many neuropeptides are co-released with other small-molecule neurotransmitters. The human genome contains

neg: Relaxin family peptide hormones an example of vigorously diversified ligand-receptor systems in vertebrates. The number of peptides and their receptors is varied among vertebrates due to lineage specific gene loss and duplications For example, teleost fish have almost twice as many relaxin family peptide receptors compared to humans, which is attributable to the Fish-Specific Whole Genome Duplication and teleost-specific gene duplication. Relaxin family peptide hormones Relaxin family peptide hormones in humans are represented by 7 members: three relaxin-like (RLN) and four insulin-like (INSL) peptides. This subdivision into 2 classes (RLN and INSL) is based primarily on early findings, and does not reflect the evolutionary

neg: Salt (chemistry) components. The lattice energy, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For example, salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include ammonium hexachloroplatinate and potassium cobaltinitrite. Most nitrates and many sulfates are water-soluble. Exceptions include barium sulfate, calcium sulfate (sparingly soluble), and lead(II) sulfate, where the 2+/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar reasons, most alkali metal carbonates are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are: sodium

neg: Stress (biology) nucleus, release vasopressin and corticotropin releasing hormone, which travel through the hypophysial portal vessel where they travel to and bind to the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor on the anterior pituitary gland. Multiple CRH peptides have been identified, and receptors have been identified on multiple areas of the brain, including the amygdala. CRH is the main regulatory molecule of the release of ACTH. The secretion of ACTH into systemic circulation allows it to bind to and activate Melanocortin receptor, where it stimulates the release of steroid hormones. Steroid hormones bind to glucocorticoid receptors in the brain, providing negative feedback by reducing ACTH

neg: Estrogen-related receptor Estrogen-related receptor The ERRs are orphan nuclear receptors, meaning the identity of their endogenous ligand has yet to be unambiguously determined. They are named because of sequence homology with estrogen receptors, but do not appear to bind estrogens or other tested steroid hormones. There are three human estrogen related receptors: ERRs bind enhancers throughout the genome where they exert effects on gene regulation. The ERR family exhibit varying transcriptional activation capabilities and physically interact with the transcriptional co-activators PGC1-alpha and PGC1-beta, via their AF-2 domains and the leucine-rich nuclear receptor interacting motifs (LxxLL) present in the PGC-1 proteins, The ERR

neg: Activin type 1 receptors A ligand binds to a Type two receptor, which recruits and trans-phosphorylate a type I receptor. The type I receptor recruits a receptor regulated SMAD (R-SMAD) which it phosphorylates. The RSMAD then translocates to the nucleus where it functions as a transcription factor. Activin type 1 receptors The Activin type I receptors transduce signals for a variety of members of the Transforming growth factor beta superfamily of ligands. This family of cytokines and hormones include activin, Anti-müllerian hormone (AMH), bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and Nodal. They are involved in a host of physiological processes including, growth, cell differentiation, homeostasis, osteogenesis,

neg: Neuropeptide Y receptor mammalian neuropeptide Y receptors designated Y through Y. Four neuropeptide Y receptors each encoded by a different gene have been identified in humans, all of which may represent therapeutic targets for obesity and other disorders. Neuropeptide Y receptor Neuropeptide Y receptors are a family of receptors belonging to class A G-protein coupled receptors and they are activated by the closely related peptide hormones neuropeptide Y, peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide. These receptors are involved in the control of a diverse set of behavioral processes including appetite, circadian rhythm, and anxiety. Activated neuropeptide receptors release the G subunit from the heterotrimeric

neg: Intracrine receptors are called endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine effects, depending on the origin of the hormone. The intracrine effect of some of the peptide/protein hormones are similar to their endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine effects; however, these effects are different for some other hormones. Intracrine can also refer to a hormone acting within the cell that synthesizes it. Examples of intracrine peptide hormones: There are several protein/peptide hormones that are also intracrines. Notable examples that have been described in the references include: Intracrine Intracrine refers to a hormone that acts inside a cell, regulating intracellular events. In simple terms it means that

neg: Arteriole to an increase in flow rate. Arterioles receive autonomic nervous system innervation and respond to various circulating hormones in order to regulate their diameter. Retinal vessels lack a functional sympathetic innervation. Further local responses to stretch, carbon dioxide, pH, and oxygen also influence arteriolar tone. Generally, norepinephrine and epinephrine (hormones produced by sympathetic nerves and the adrenal gland medulla) are vasoconstrictive acting on alpha 1-adrenergic receptors. However, the arterioles of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and pulmonary circulation vasodilate in response to these hormones when they act on beta-adrenergic receptors. Generally, stretch and high oxygen tension increase tone, and carbon dioxide

neg: Endocrinology combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues. Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three (in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to more than 200 (in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone) amino acid residues and can have a molecular mass as large as 30,000 grams per mole. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas. Steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens,

neg: Prairie vole bonding to take place, the male must stay one day with the female after they breed. Other species, such as the montane vole, do not show this pair bonding behavior. This uniqueness in the prairie vole behavior is related to the oxytocin and vasopressin hormones. The oxytocin receptors of the female prairie vole brain are located more densely in the reward system, and have more receptors than other species, which causes 'addiction' to the social behavior. In the male prairie vole, the gene for the vasopressin receptor has a longer segment, as opposed to the montane vole, which has a

neg: Maternal fetal stress transfer from the adrenal glands also has an effect on the fetus being carried in the womb. Cortisol is a steroid hormone, and, like all steroid hormones, the receptors for cortisol are located intracellularly. In other words, cortisol does not need an extracellular receptor in order to enter the nucleus of cells and affect their gene expression. Because of this feature of steroid hormones, cortisol diffuses directly across the placenta, the barrier that separates the fetus from the mother. Luckily, the fetus has a protective mechanism against the inundation of cortisol from a stressed mother. There is an enzyme in the

neg: Permissiveness (biology) Permissiveness (biology) In endocrinology, permissiveness is a biochemical phenomenon in which the presence of one hormone is required in order for another hormone to exert its full effects on a target cell. Hormones can interact in permissive, synergistic, or antagonistic ways. The chemical classes of hormones include amines, polypeptides, glycoproteins and steroids. Permissive hormones act as precursors to active hormones and may be classified as either prohormones or prehormones.It stimulate the formation of receptors of that hormone Thyroid hormone increases the number of receptors available for epinephrine at the latter's target cell, thereby increasing epinephrine's effect on that cell. Without

neg: Intracrine The term 'intracrine' is thought to have been coined to represent peptide/protein hormones that also have intracellular actions. To better understand Intracrine, we can compare to Paracrine, Autocrine and endocrine. Autocrine system deal with the autocrine receptors of a cell allowing for the hormones to bind, which have been secreted from that same cell. Paracrine system is one where nearby cells get hormones from a cell, and change the functioning of those nearby cells. Endocrine system refers to when the hormones from a cell affect another cell that is very distant from the one that released the hormone. Paracrine physiology

neg: Chromatophore The primary hormones involved in regulating translocation appear to be the melanocortins, melatonin, and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), that are produced mainly in the pituitary, pineal gland, and hypothalamus, respectively. These hormones may also be generated in a paracrine fashion by cells in the skin. At the surface of the melanophore, the hormones have been shown to activate specific G-protein-coupled receptors that, in turn, transduce the signal into the cell. Melanocortins result in the dispersion of pigment, while melatonin and MCH results in aggregation. Numerous melanocortin, MCH and melatonin receptors have been identified in fish and frogs, including a homologue of

neg: Nuclear receptor Nuclear receptor In the field of molecular biology, nuclear receptors are a class of proteins found within cells that are responsible for sensing steroid and thyroid hormones and certain other molecules. In response, these receptors work with other proteins to regulate the expression of specific genes, thereby controlling the development, homeostasis, and metabolism of the organism. Nuclear receptors have the ability to directly bind to DNA and regulate the expression of adjacent genes, hence these receptors are classified as transcription factors. The regulation of gene expression by nuclear receptors generally only happens when a ligand — a molecule that affects

neg: Melanocortin receptor MC and MC are widely expressed in the brain, and are also thought to be responsible for effects on mood and cognition. Melanocortin receptor Melanocortin receptors are members of the rhodopsin family of 7-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors. There are five known members of the melanocortin receptor system each with differing specificities for melanocortins: These receptors are inhibited by endogenous inverse agonists agouti signalling peptide and agouti-related peptide, and activated by synthetic (i.e. afamelanotide) and endogenous agonist melanocyte-stimulating hormones. Several selective ligands for the melanocortin receptors are known, and some synthetic compounds have been investigated as potential tanning, anti-obesity and aphrodisiac

neg: N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid N"-Methyl--aspartic acid or N"-Methyl--aspartate (NMDA) is an amino acid derivative that acts as a specific agonist at the NMDA receptor mimicking the action of glutamate, the neurotransmitter which normally acts at that receptor. Unlike glutamate, NMDA only binds to and regulates the NMDA receptor and has no effect on other glutamate receptors (such as those for AMPA and kainate). NMDA receptors are particularly important when they become overactive during withdrawal from alcohol as this causes symptoms such as agitation and, sometimes, epileptiform seizures. NMDA is a water-soluble synthetic substance that is not normally found in biological tissue. It

neg: Adsorbable organic halides items that contain chlorinated compounds. The presence of any organic halides in natural water has been considered an indication of contamination with xenobiotics. Once in water, the naturally occurring fulvic acids and humic acids can lead to formation of mutagenic compounds such as halogenated furanone MX (Z-3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone). Consumption of these mutagenic compounds could cause several abnormalities in development and reproduction in humans through long half-lives and mimicking hormone receptors. For example, compounds like dioxins can inhibit the actions of sex hormones by binding to steroid receptors along with causing long lasting cell disruption in several tissues. Persistent organic pollutants such

neg: Caffeine caffeine with its stimulant effects; adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses activity in the central nervous system. Heart palpitations are caused by blockade of the A receptor. Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the blood–brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain. Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors (in other words, an agent that reduces the effects of adenosine). The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and is capable of binding to adenosine receptors on the surface of

neg: Peripheral membrane protein phosphatidylinositol, tocopherol, gangliosides, glycolipids, sterol derivatives, retinol, fatty acids, water, macromolecules, red blood cells, phospholipids, and nucleotides. These proteins are involved in electron transport chains. They include cytochrome c, cupredoxins, high potential iron protein, adrenodoxin reductase, some flavoproteins, and others. Many hormones, toxins, inhibitors, or antimicrobial peptides interact specifically with transmembrane protein complexes. They can also accumulate at the lipid bilayer surface, prior to binding their protein targets. Such polypeptide ligands are often positively charged and interact electrostatically with anionic membranes. Some water-soluble proteins and peptides can also form transmembrane channels. They usually undergo oligomerization, significant conformational changes, and associate

neg: Endocrine disruptor occur from low-dose exposure to exogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals such as bisphenol A. These chemical can bind to receptors for other hormonally mediated processes. Furthermore, since endogenous hormones are already present in the body in biologically active concentrations, additional exposure to relatively small amounts of exogenous hormonally active substances can disrupt the proper functioning of the body's endocrine system. Thus, an endocrine disruptor can elicit adverse effects at much lower doses than a toxicity, acting through a different mechanism. The timing of exposure is also critical. Most critical stages of development occur in utero, where the fertilized egg

neg: Releasing and inhibiting hormones Ca is achieved by the releasing hormone coupling and activating G protein coupled receptors coupled to the G alpha subunit, activating the IP3/DAG pathway to increase Ca. For GHRH, however, this is a minor pathway, the main one being the cAMP dependent pathway. Roger Guillemin and Andrew W. Schally were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding "the peptide hormone production of the brain"; these scientists independently first isolated TRH and GnRH and then identified their structures. Releasing and inhibiting hormones Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones are hormones whose main purpose is

neg: Melanocortin receptor Melanocortin receptor Melanocortin receptors are members of the rhodopsin family of 7-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors. There are five known members of the melanocortin receptor system each with differing specificities for melanocortins: These receptors are inhibited by endogenous inverse agonists agouti signalling peptide and agouti-related peptide, and activated by synthetic (i.e. afamelanotide) and endogenous agonist melanocyte-stimulating hormones. Several selective ligands for the melanocortin receptors are known, and some synthetic compounds have been investigated as potential tanning, anti-obesity and aphrodisiac drugs, with tanning effects mainly from stimulation of MC, while anorectic and aphrodisiac effects appear to involve both MC and MC. MC,

neg: Somatostatin receptor 2 locate adrenal gland tumors through scintigraphic imaging. A similar method may be utilized to carry and more accurately administer radioactive treatments to tumors. Octreotide and other analogs are preferred for this use due to their possessing of an extended half life compared to the naturally-occurring hormone allowing for more flexibility when used for such treatments. The association of somatostatin 2 receptors on tumors has also lead to the suggestion of possible alternatives to current tumor treatment methods. The binding of synthetic somatostatin hormones such as octreotide to receptors has been seen to reduce the production of hormones and is now

neg: Relaxin family peptide hormones the sense of appetite and stress regulation. Moreover, it has been shown that RLN3 stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and hence affects levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) in the blood. Data available on the functions of relaxin family peptides in vertebrates other than human are very fragmented. The receptors for the RLN/INSL peptides are collectively called “Relaxin family peptide receptors (RXFPs)”. There are two distinct families of RXFPs, all of which are cell membrane-associated and coupled to G-proteins (known as G protein-coupled receptors or GPCRs). In humans there are 4 RXFP receptors: RXFP1 and RXFP2 are evolutionarily related to the

neg: Reproductive toxicity disruptors. Endocrine disruptors change how hormones are produced and how they interact with their receptors. Endocrine disruptors are classified as estrogenic, anti-estrogenic, androgenic or anti-estrogenic. Each category includes pharmaceutical compounds and environmental compounds. Estrogenic or androgenic compounds will cause the same hormonal responses as the sex steroids (estrogen and testosterone). However anti-estrogenic and anti-andogenic compounds bind to a receptor and block the hormones from binding to their receptors, thus preventing their function. A few examples of the many types of endocrine disruptors are trenbolone (androgenic), flutamide (anti-androgenic), dieththylstilbestrol (estrogenic), Bisphenol A (estrogenic), tributyltin (anti-estrogenic). However, many substances which are toxic

neg: G protein-coupled receptor of nematodes. G protein-coupled receptor G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein–linked receptors (GPLR), constitute a large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate internal signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times. G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size

neg: G protein-coupled receptor G protein-coupled receptor G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein–linked receptors (GPLR), constitute a large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate internal signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times. G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small

neg: Monogamy vole indicate that the neuroendocrine hormones, oxytocin (in female prairie voles) and vasopressin (in male prairie voles) play a central role in the development of affiliative connections during mating. The effects of intracerebroventricular administration of oxytocin and vasopressin have been shown to promote affiliative behavior in the prairie vole but not in similar, but non-monogamous montane voles. This difference in neuropeptide effect is attributed to the location, density, and distribution of OT and AVP receptors. Only in the prairie voles are OT and AVP receptors located along the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway, presumably conditioning the voles to their mates odor

neg: Etaqualone Ethinazone were 350 mg tablets. Etaqualone is thought to act in a similar way to barbiturates and benzodiazepines by increasing the sensitivity of GABA receptors. Recreational effects include euphoria, relaxation, increased sociability and sexuality, reduction of short-term memory, and loss of coordination. Combination with other depressants has a potentiating effect and can cause overdose. Tolerance to benzodiazepines or alcohol will also reduce effects. Ethaqualone can be present as a free base, insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and nonpolar solvents, or as a water-soluble hydrochloride salt which is about 85% as potent as the freebase by weight. The most

neg: Signal transduction hormones testosterone and progesterone and derivatives of vitamins A and D. To initiate signal transduction, the ligand must pass through the plasma membrane by passive diffusion. On binding with the receptor, the ligands pass through the nuclear membrane into the nucleus, altering gene expression. Activated nuclear receptors attach to the DNA at receptor-specific hormone-responsive element (HRE) sequences, located in the promoter region of the genes activated by the hormone-receptor complex. Due to their enabling gene transcription, they are alternatively called inductors of gene expression. All hormones that act by regulation of gene expression have two consequences in their mechanism of

neg: Rhodopsin-like receptors GPCRs (this family), the secretin-like GPCRs, the cAMP receptors, the fungal mating pheromone receptors, and the metabotropic glutamate receptor family. There is a specialised database for GPCRs. The rhodopsin-like GPCRs themselves represent a widespread protein family that includes hormones, neurotransmitters, and light receptors, all of which transduce extracellular signals through interaction with guanine nucleotide-binding (G) proteins. Although their activating ligands vary widely in structure and character, the amino acid sequences of the receptors are very similar and are believed to adopt a common structural framework comprising 7 transmembrane (TM) helices. Rhodopsin-like GPCRs have been classified into the following 19 subgroups

neg: Oxidative phosphorylation passing electrons from donors to acceptors, and transporting protons across a membrane. These processes use both soluble and protein-bound transfer molecules. In mitochondria, electrons are transferred within the intermembrane space by the water-soluble electron transfer protein cytochrome c. This carries only electrons, and these are transferred by the reduction and oxidation of an iron atom that the protein holds within a heme group in its structure. Cytochrome c is also found in some bacteria, where it is located within the periplasmic space. Within the inner mitochondrial membrane, the lipid-soluble electron carrier coenzyme Q10 (Q) carries both electrons and protons by

neg: Steroid hormone blood, bound to specific carrier proteins such as sex hormone-binding globulin or corticosteroid-binding globulin. Further conversions and catabolism occurs in the liver, in other "peripheral" tissues, and in the target tissues. A variety of synthetic steroids and sterols have also been contrived. Most are steroids, but some nonsteroidal molecules can interact with the steroid receptors because of a similarity of shape. Some synthetic steroids are weaker or stronger than the natural steroids whose receptors they activate. Some examples of synthetic steroid hormones: Some steroid antagonists: Steroid hormones are transported through the blood by being bound to carrier proteins—serum proteins that

neg: Cell surface receptor Cell surface receptor Cell surface receptors (membrane receptors, transmembrane receptors) are receptors that are embedded in the plasma membrane of cells. They act in cell signaling by receiving (binding to) extracellular molecules. They are specialized integral membrane proteins that allow communication between the cell and the extracellular space. The extracellular molecules may be hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors, cell adhesion molecules, or nutrients; they react with the receptor to induce changes in the metabolism and activity of a cell. In the process of signal transduction, ligand binding affects a cascading chemical change through the cell membrane. Many membrane receptors are

neg: 5-HT receptor was being argued that, since these receptors were "a heterogeneous population of 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D and 5-HT7" receptors the classification was redundant. 5-HT receptor 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors or 5-HT receptors, or serotonin receptors, are a group of G protein-coupled receptor and ligand-gated ion channels found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. They mediate both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. The serotonin receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin, which acts as their natural ligand. The serotonin receptors modulate the release of many neurotransmitters, including glutamate, GABA, dopamine, epinephrine / norepinephrine, and acetylcholine, as well as many hormones, including oxytocin, prolactin, vasopressin, cortisol,

neg: Hormone healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful, though not without potentially adverse side effects. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoids to suppress inflammation. At the neurological level, behavior can be inferred based on: hormone concentrations; hormone-release patterns; the numbers and locations of hormone receptors; and the efficiency of hormone receptors for those involved in gene transcription. Not only do hormones influence behavior, but also behavior and the environment influence hormones. Thus, a feedback loop is formed. For example, behavior can

neg: Secretin receptor family Secretin receptor family Secretin family of 7 transmembrane receptors is a family of evolutionarily related proteins. This family is known as Family B, the secretin-receptor family or family 2 of the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). Many secretin receptors are regulated by peptide hormones from the glucagon hormone family. The secretin-receptor family GPCRs include vasoactive intestinal peptide receptors and receptors for secretin, calcitonin and parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related peptides. These receptors activate adenylyl cyclase and the phosphatidyl-inositol-calcium pathway. The receptors in this family have 7 transmembrane helices,<ref name="doi10.1038/nature22378">; </ref> like rhodopsin-like GPCRs. However, there is no significant sequence identity between these two GPCR

neg: Albumin is human serum albumin, and it normally constitutes about 50% of human plasma protein. Serum albumins are important in regulating blood volume by maintaining the oncotic pressure (also known as colloid osmotic pressure) of the blood compartment. They also serve as carriers for molecules of low water solubility this way isolating their hydrophobic nature, including lipid-soluble hormones, bile salts, unconjugated bilirubin, free fatty acids (apoprotein), calcium, ions (transferrin), and some drugs like warfarin, phenobutazone, clofibrate & phenytoin. For this reason, it is sometimes referred as a molecular "taxi". Competition between drugs for albumin binding sites may cause drug interaction by

neg: Red hair and hair, use the MC1R to recognize and respond to MSH from the anterior pituitary gland. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone normally stimulates melanocytes to make black eumelanin, but if the melanocytes have a mutated receptor, they will make reddish pheomelanin instead. MC1R also occurs in the brain, where it is one of a large set of POMC-related receptors that are apparently involved not only in responding to MSH, but also in responses to endorphins and possibly other POMC-derived hormones. Though the details are not clearly understood, it appears that there is some crosstalk between the POMC hormones; this may explain the link