query: following the russian revolution the soviet union adopted a system that

pos: History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27) forcible seizure of agricultural surpluses. In the cities there were intense food shortages and a breakdown in the money system (at the time many Bolsheviks argued that ending money's role as a transmitter of "value" was a sign of the rapidly approaching communist epoch). Many city dwellers fled to the countryside – often to tend the land that the Bolshevik breakup of the landed estates had transferred to the peasants. Even small scale "capitalist" production was suppressed. The Kronstadt rebellion signaled the growing unpopularity of War Communism in the countryside: in March 1921, at the end of the civil war,

pos: Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic The last Soviet-era (before 1991) flag was adopted by the Russian SFSR in 1954. The flag of RSFSR was a defacement of the flag of the Soviet Union. The constitution stipulated: Like the flag of the Soviet Union, the hammer and sickle represented the working class; more specifically, the hammer represented the urban industrial workers and the sickle represented the rural and agricultural peasants. The red star represented the CPSU and Communism. The red in the flag represented the Russian Revolution and revolution in general. The blue stripe symbolized the wide Russian

pos: Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic the ideology of Communism. The first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922, the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR officially setting up of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The 1977 Soviet Constitution stated that "Union Republic is a sovereign [...] state that has united [...] in the Union" and "each Union Republic shall retain the right freely to secede from the USSR". On 12 June 1990, the Congress of People's Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, established separation of powers (instead of Soviet form of government), established citizenship of Russia and stated

pos: Feminism in Russia the Bolsheviks to power in the October Revolution, recognized the importance of women's equality in the Soviet Union (USSR) they established. "To effect [woman's] emancipation and make her the equal of man," he wrote in 1919, two years after the Revolution, following the Marxist theories that underlaid Soviet communism, "it is necessary to be socialized and for women to participate in common productive labor. Then woman will be the equal of man." In practice, Russian women saw mixed gains in their rights under Communism. Women's suffrage was granted, though voting meant little in Soviet society owing to the Communist Party's

pos: Anti-Russian sentiment to Sweden. Before World War I, traveling Russian saw filers were suspected of espionage by Swedish proponents of increased military spending. After the Russian Revolution in the spring of 1917 and the abdication of the Tsar, great hope was vested in the new provisional government, only to be replaced with despair after the so-called October Revolution. Old anti-Russian sentiments were compounded by a fresh element of anti-communism, to last for the duration of the existence of the Soviet Union. Many Swedes voluntarily joined the Finnish side in the Winter War between Finland and Soviet Union 1939–1940. When the Soviet state

neg: Law of the Soviet Union Law of the Soviet Union The Law of the Soviet Union was the law as it developed in the Soviet Union (USSR) following the October Revolution of 1917. Modified versions of the Soviet legal system operated in many Communist states following the Second World War—including Mongolia, the People's Republic of China, the Warsaw Pact countries of eastern Europe, Cuba and Vietnam. Soviet law was rooted in pre-revolutionary Russian law and Marxism-Leninism. Pre-revolutionary influences included Byzantine law, Mongol law, Russian Orthodox Canon law, and Western law. Western law was mostly absent until the judicial reform of Alexander II in 1864, five

neg: Obsolete Russian units of measurement Obsolete Russian units of measurement A native system of weights and measures was used in Imperial Russia and after the Russian Revolution, but it was abandoned after July 21, 1925, when the Soviet Union adopted the metric system, per the order of the Council of People's Commissars. The Tatar system is very similar to the Russian one, but some names are different. The system existed since ancient Rus', but under Peter the Great, the Russian units were redefined relative to the English system. Until Peter the Great the system also used Cyrillic numerals, and only in the 18th century did

neg: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union the 1917 Revolution. As early as 1907, Stalin wrote a letter differentiating between a "Jewish faction" and a "true Russian faction" in Bolshevism. Stalin's secretary Boris Bazhanov stated that Stalin made crude antisemitic outbursts even before Lenin's death. It's also possible that Stalin's attitudes towards Trotsky, a Ukrainian Jew, may have influenced his views of Jews in general. Stalin adopted antisemitic policies which were reinforced with his anti-Westernism. Since antisemitism was associated with Nazi Germany and was officially condemned by the Soviet system, the Soviet Union and other communist states used the cover-term "anti-Zionism" for their antisemitic policies. Antisemitism, as

neg: Military ranks of the Soviet Union of "Dyedovshchina" is usually pertains to soldiers in their first two-year obligatory tour in the armed forces, particularly in the Army. Military ranks of the Soviet Union The military ranks of the Soviet Union were those introduced after the October Revolution of 1917. At that time the Imperial Russian Table of Ranks was abolished, as were the privileges of the pre-Soviet Russian nobility. Immediately after the Revolution, personal military ranks were abandoned in favour of a system of "positional ranks", which were acronyms of the full position names. For example, "KomKor" was an acronym of "Corps Commander", "KomDiv" was an

neg: Military ranks of the Soviet Union Military ranks of the Soviet Union The military ranks of the Soviet Union were those introduced after the October Revolution of 1917. At that time the Imperial Russian Table of Ranks was abolished, as were the privileges of the pre-Soviet Russian nobility. Immediately after the Revolution, personal military ranks were abandoned in favour of a system of "positional ranks", which were acronyms of the full position names. For example, "KomKor" was an acronym of "Corps Commander", "KomDiv" was an acronym of "Division Commander", "KomBrig" stood for "Brigade Commander", "KomBat" stood for "Battalion Commander", and so forth. These acronyms have survived

neg: Universal health care wage earners, covering about one third of the population. The Russian Empire established a similar system in 1912, and other industrialized countries began following suit. By the 1930s, similar systems existed in virtually all of Western and Central Europe. Japan introduced an employee health insurance law in 1927, expanding further upon it in 1935 and 1940. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union established a fully public and centralized health care system in 1920. However, it was not a truly universal system at that point, as rural residents were not covered. In New Zealand, a universal health care

neg: Flag of the Soviet Union upper hoist quarter. The red flag was a traditional revolutionary symbol long before 1917, and its incorporation into the flag paid tribute to the international aspect of workers' revolution. The iconic hammer and sickle design was a modern industrial touch adopted from the Russian Revolution. The union of the hammer (workers) and the sickle (peasants) represents the victorious and enduring revolutionary alliance. The famous emblem is topped by a gold-bordered red star representing the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The first flag with the gold border star, hammer and sickle was adopted on 13 November 1923. In 1955, a

neg: State Anthem of the Soviet Union singer Roger Doucet insisted on performing the anthem with lyrics after consultations with Russian studies scholars from Université de Montréal and Soviet team officials. In 1977, to coincide with the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution, revised lyrics, earlier written in 1970 by original author Sergey Mikhalkov, were adopted. The varying refrains were replaced by a uniform refrain following all stanzas; the line praising Stalin was dropped, as were the lines referring to the Great Patriotic War. A notable change in the lyrics was the replacement of a line referencing the Flag of the Soviet Union to one mentioning the

neg: The Internationale was expanded into six stanzas. In 15 March 1944, the Soviet Union adopted the "Hymn of the Soviet Union" as its national anthem. Prior to that time, "The Internationale" served as the principal musical expression of allegiance to the ideals of the October Revolution and the Soviet Union (the "Internationale" continued to be recognized as the official song of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the post-1919 Soviet version is still used by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation). The full song is as follows: The traditional British version of "The Internationale" is usually sung in three

neg: Politics of the Soviet Union Politics of the Soviet Union The political system of the Soviet Union took place in a single-party socialist republic framework which was characterized by the superior role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only party permitted by the Constitution. "For information about the government, see Government of the Soviet Union." The Bolsheviks who took power during the October Revolution, the final phase of the Russian Revolution, were the first Communist Party to take power and attempt to apply the Leninist variant of Marxism in a practical way. Although they grew very quickly during the Revolution, from

neg: Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Republics Republic only replaced their own award system with the Soviet Union's after joining and therefore were issued to a later date. Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Republics The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which was founded after the October Revolution in the Russian Empire and very soon had to create an award system. The award systems of parallel Soviet states soon followed and they also created and issued awards of their own, mainly in a similar style to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. In 1924, the Union Of Soviet Socialist Republics started to award all-union Orders and

neg: Latinisation in the Soviet Union to isolate the Muslim inhabitants of the Soviet Union from the Arabic-Islamic world and religion, and eradicate illiteracy through simplification. They concluded the Latin alphabet was the right tool to do so, and after seizing power during the Russian Revolution of 1917, they made plans to realise these ideals. Although progress was slow at first, in 1926 the Turkic-majority republics of the Soviet Union adopted the Latin script, giving a major boost to reformers in neighbouring Turkey. When Mustafa Kemal Atatürk adopted the new Turkish Latin alphabet in 1928, this in turn encouraged the Soviet leaders to proceed. Almost all

neg: Passport system in the Soviet Union Passport system in the Soviet Union The passport system of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was an organizational framework of the single national civil registration system based upon identification documents, and managed in accordance with the laws by ministries and other governmental bodies authorized by the Constitution of the USSR in the sphere of internal affairs. The foundations of the passport system of the Russian Empire, inherited by a Russian Republic in March, 1917 for a short period of 8 months, were scattered with the October Revolution, which dismantled all the state apparatus, including police as one of the

neg: History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union is one of the gravest crises the Russian revolution has experienced.' The resolution submitted by Lenin on the subject of the Brest-Litovsk Peace was adopted by 30 votes against 12, with 4 abstentions. On the day following the adoption of this resolution, Lenin wrote an article entitled 'A Distressful Peace', in which he said: In its resolution, the congress declared that further military attacks on the Soviet Republic were inevitable, and that therefore the congress considered it the fundamental task of the Party to adopt the most resolute measures to organize the Red Army and to introduce universal military training.

neg: Politics of the Soviet Union new Soviet man. The validity of ideas, public discourse, and institutional form were evaluated in terms of the official ideology of Marxism-Leninism, as interpreted by the Communist Party. Politics of the Soviet Union The political system of the Soviet Union took place in a single-party socialist republic framework which was characterized by the superior role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only party permitted by the Constitution. "For information about the government, see Government of the Soviet Union." The Bolsheviks who took power during the October Revolution, the final phase of the Russian Revolution, were the

neg: Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 of its independence, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Latvia's sovereignty was fully restored in 1991. On August 22, 1996, the Latvian parliament adopted a declaration which stated that the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 was a military occupation and an illegal incorporation. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Latvia declared its independence on November 18, 1918. After a prolonged War of Independence, Latvia and Soviet Russia (the predecessor of the Soviet Union) signed a peace treaty on August 11, 1920. In its "Article 2" Soviet Russia "unreservedly recognises the independence and sovereignty of

neg: Joseph Stalin in the Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, and Polish–Soviet War Joseph Stalin in the Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, and Polish–Soviet War Joseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the authoritarian leader of the Soviet Union. After growing up in Georgia, Stalin conducted activities for the Bolshevik party for twelve years before the Russian Revolution of 1917. After being elected to the Bolshevik Central Committee in April 1917, Stalin helped Lenin to evade capture by authorities and ordered the besieged Bolsheviks to

neg: History of the Jews in the Soviet Union the late 20th century. The 2001 census showed that 380,000 Jews left Ukraine since 1989, which was ¾ of the entire Jewish population. This is discussed in more detail in the following articles: The following articles discuss various aspects of Jewish history specific to the Soviet Union and the Soviet era: Pre-Soviet Union History of the Jews in the Soviet Union The history of the Jews in the Soviet Union is inextricably linked to much earlier expansionist policies of the Russian Empire conquering and ruling the eastern half of the European continent already before the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. "For

neg: Spread of the Latin script seizing power during the Russian Revolution of 1917, they made plans to realise these ideals. Although progress was slow at first, in 1926 the Turkic-majority republics of the Soviet Union adopted the Latin script, giving a major boost to reformers in neighbouring Turkey. When Mustafa Kemal Atatürk adopted the new Turkish Latin alphabet in 1928, this in turn encouraged the Soviet leaders to proceed. The Commission to romanise the Russian alphabet completed its work in mid-January 1930. But on 25 January 1930, General Secretary Joseph Stalin ordered the stop of the romanisation of Russian. The Latinisation of non-Slavic languages within

neg: Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic The Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian SFSR () was a political act of the Russian SFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), then part of the Soviet Union, which marked the beginning of constitutional reform in Russia. The Declaration was adopted by the First Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian SFSR on 12 June 1990. It proclaimed the sovereignty of the Russian SFSR and the intention to establish a democratic constitutional state within a liberalized Soviet Union. The declaration also states the following: The declaration was signed

neg: Soviet art With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the new market economy enabled the development of a gallery system, which meant that artists no longer had to be employed by the state, and could create work according to their own tastes, as well as the tastes of their private patrons. Consequently, after around 1986 the phenomenon of Nonconformist Art in the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Soviet art Soviet art is the visual art that was produced in the Soviet Union. During the Russian Revolution a movement was initiated to put all arts to service of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

neg: 1910s into a violent civil war that dragged on until mid-1920, not long after a new Mexican Constitution was signed and ratified. The Russian Empire also had a similar fate, since its participation on World War I led it to a social, political and economical collapse which made the tsarist autocracy unsustainable and, as a following of the events of 1905, culminated in the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, under the direction of the Bolshevik Party later renamed as Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution of 1917, known as the October

neg: Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Republics Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Republics The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which was founded after the October Revolution in the Russian Empire and very soon had to create an award system. The award systems of parallel Soviet states soon followed and they also created and issued awards of their own, mainly in a similar style to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. In 1924, the Union Of Soviet Socialist Republics started to award all-union Orders and within a decade all the Orders of member republics had ceased to be awarded. Some Republics such as the Tuvan People's

neg: Soviet Union 1989, with 80% of the population living in the western, European part of the country. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, the Soviet Union was formed by the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR which legalized the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics that had occurred from 1918. Following Lenin's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s.

neg: Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941 World War on the Western Front. After Germany's collapse, British, French and Japanese troops intervened in the Russian Civil War. Initially, the Soviet leadership hoped for a successful socialist revolution in Germany as part of the "world revolution". However, this was put down by the right-wing freikorps. Subsequently, the Bolsheviks became embroiled in the Soviet war with Poland of 1919–20. Because Poland was a traditional enemy of Germany (see e.g. Silesian Uprisings), and because the Soviet state was also isolated internationally, the Soviet government began to seek a closer relationship with Germany and therefore adopted a much less hostile attitude

neg: Soviet democracy Bolsheviks saw the soviet as the basic organizing unit of society in a socialist system and supported this form of democracy. The soviets also played a considerable role in the February and October Revolutions. At that time, they represented a variety of socialist parties in addition to Bolsheviks. According to the official historiography of the Soviet Union, the first soviet was formed in May 1905 in Ivanovo (north-east of Moscow) during the 1905 Russian Revolution ("Ivanovsky Soviet"). However, in his memoirs, the Russian Anarchist Volin claims that he witnessed the beginnings of the St Petersburg Soviet in January 1905. The

neg: History of Kiev Empire. A Christian city since 988, it still played an important role in preserving the traditions of Orthodox Christianity, especially at times of domination by Catholic Poland, and later the atheist Soviet Union. The city prospered again during the Russian industrial revolution in the late 19th century. In the turbulent period following the Russian Revolution Kiev, caught in the middle of several conflicts, quickly went through becoming the capital of several short-lived Ukrainian states. From 1921 the city was part of the Soviet Union, since 1934 as a capital of Soviet Ukraine. In World War II, the city was destroyed

neg: Women in the Russian Revolution Women in the Russian Revolution The Russian Revolutions of 1917, and the events that preceded and followed it, saw the creation of the world's first socialist state, which made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies of the Soviet Union. Beginning in October 1918, the Soviet Union liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality, permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms that instigated a red sexual

neg: United States and the Russian Revolution United States and the Russian Revolution American involvement in the Russian Revolution was the key event that pitted the United States and the Soviet Union against each other for the next seventy years. It was the foundation for a face off between the two nations that would emerge as the world's superpowers. The United States responded to the revolution by participating in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War with the Allies of World War I in support of the White movement. The United States withheld diplomatic recognition of the Soviet Union until 1933. As President Woodrow Wilson was

neg: Designations of Russian artillery with optional producer’s name and attributes such as regimental, divisional, siege, field, fortress, etc. follows and the year of adopting the piece onto Army service finishes the name. E. g. howitzer with Schneider designation O. C. 6″ Bas became 6-дюймовая крепостная гаубица обр. 1909 г. (6-inch fortress howitzer Model of 1909) and Canon de 42‴ Schneider was designated 42-линейная полевая тяжёлая пушка образца 1910 года (42-line heavy field gun M1910). After the October Revolution, the first change in this new system took place, when Soviet Union officially adopted the metric system and abolished old non-metric measurement units. From this point

neg: Sweden during World War II next year. At the other end of the political spectrum, following the Russian Civil War the Russian Empire had become the Soviet Union and many Swedish communists were cooperating with this new Soviet regime, seeking to realize a world revolution. Compromise and a parliamentary system were thought to stand in the way of a more equal and just society. A new cabinet led by the social democrats with Per Albin Hansson as Prime Minister, took control in 1932. A policy of cooperation and consensus was pursued, which led to a furthering of the divide between the two socialist factions: the

neg: Russia Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east. Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state. The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II, and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first

neg: Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the later Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700. For most of the Soviet Union's existence, it was commonly referred to as Russia, even though technically Russia itself was only one republic within the larger union of 15 republics—albeit by far the largest, most powerful and most highly developed. On 25 December 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union (officially on 26 December), the republic was officially renamed the Russian Federation, which

neg: Armenia in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, all non-Russian countries declared their independence after the Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet

neg: Pyotr Krasikov Pyotr Krasikov Pyotr Ananyevich Krasikov () (5 October 1870 – 20 August 1939) was a functionary of the All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks) and the Soviet Union. He was the first Procurator General of the Soviet Union, serving from 1924 to 1933. Pyotr Krasikov was involved in revolutionary politics beginning in 1892, when he joined the Emancipation of Labour group. Later he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. After the 1917 Russian Revolution his positions were related to legal issues and he is considered to be among the principal creators of the Soviet legal system, along with Andrey Vyshinsky. He

neg: Ukraine language of the Soviet Union but both Russian and Ukrainian were official languages in the Soviet Union and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR learning Ukrainian was mandatory. Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitles any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be declared official within that area. Russian was within weeks declared as a regional language in several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities. Russian can now be used in these cities'/oblasts' administrative office work and documents. On 23 February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, the Ukrainian Parliament

neg: Cuban Revolution of the Soviet Union into Europe after the 1917 Russian Revolution, Castro immediately sought to "export" his revolution to other countries in the Caribbean and beyond, sending weapons to Algerian rebels as early as 1960. In the following decades, Cuba became heavily involved in supporting Communist insurgencies and independence movements in many developing countries, sending military aid to insurgents in Ghana, Nicaragua, Yemen and Angola, among others. Castro's intervention in the Angolan Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s was particularly significant, involving as many as 60,000 Cuban soldiers. Following the American embargo, the Soviet Union became Cuba's main ally.

neg: Ministries of the Soviet Union Ministries of the Soviet Union The Ministries of the Soviet Union () were the government ministries of the Soviet Union. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the previous bureaucratic apparatus of bourgeois ministers was replaced by People’s Commissariats (; Narkom), staffed by new employees drawn from workers and peasants. On 15 March 1946 the people’s commissariats were transformed into ministries. The name change had no practical effects, other than restoring a designation previously considered a leftover of the bourgeois era. The collapse of the ministry system was one of the main causes behind the fall of the Soviet Union. State

neg: Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union August 1917, following the collapse of the tsarist government, a council of the Russian Orthodox Church reestablished the patriarchate and elected the metropolitan Tikhon as patriarch. In November 1917, within weeks of the revolution, the People's Commissariat for Enlightenment was established, which a month later created the All-Russian Union of Teachers-Internationalists for the purpose of removing religious instruction from school curricula. In order to intensify the anti-religious propaganda in the school system, the Chief Administration for Political Enlightenment (Glavpolitprosvet) was established in November 1920. Lenin's decree on the separation of church and state in early 1918 deprived the formerly official

neg: Human rights in Russia Human rights in Russia As a successor to the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation remains bound by such human rights instruments (adopted by the Soviet Union) as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (fully). In the late 1990s, Russia also ratified the European Convention of Human Rights (with reservations) and from 1998 onwards the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg became a last court of appeal for Russian citizens from their national system of justice. According to Chapter 1, Article 15 of the Constitution adopted in Russia in

neg: Communist Party of the Soviet Union Communist Party of the Soviet Union The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990, when the Congress of People's Deputies modified Article 6 of the most recent 1977 Soviet constitution, which had granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system. The party was founded in 1912 by the Bolsheviks (a majority faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, RSDLP). Led by Vladimir Lenin, which seized power in the October Revolution, the second of the

neg: GOST to international standard requirements. As the base is the system of international standards ISO, in Russia they created series of Russian standards such as GOST ISO 9001 or GOST ISO 14001, which absorbed the best developments of the world community but they also consider the Russia's specific. Please be informed that the following standards were replaced from August 1, 2018: Historically, GOST R system originated from GOST system developed in the Soviet Union and later adopted by the CIS. Thus, the GOST standards are used across all CIS countries, including Russia while GOST R standards are valid only within the

neg: Rise of Joseph Stalin Rise of Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924, Stalin rose to become the leader of the Soviet Union. After growing up in Georgia, Stalin conducted discreet activities for the Bolshevik Party for twelve years before the Russian Revolution of 1917. Following the October Revolution, Stalin took military positions in the Russian Civil War and the Polish-Soviet War. Stalin was one of the Bolsheviks' chief operatives in the Caucasus and grew

neg: Geographical distribution of Russian speakers native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers. 65% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work. In 1990 Russian became legally the official all-Union language of the Soviet Union, with constituent republics having rights to declare their own official languages. Previously in 1989 the Ukrainian SSR government adopted Ukrainian as its official language, which with dissolution of the Soviet Union was affirmed as the only official state language of independent Ukraine. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over

neg: Coat of arms of Moscow September 22, 1924, the Moscow Soviet adopted a new emblem of Moscow which featured a red star, the sickle and hammer symbol, and the Revolution Monument in Moscow. The Soviet emblem failed to gain popularity, however, and was rarely used. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the heraldic representation of Moscow reverted in 1993 to the version used between 1883 and 1918, with some minor modifications. As the Russian Orthodox Church does not allow sculptural representations of saints, no statues of Saint George and the Dragon were erected in Moscow prior to the Revolution. After the emblem was restored

neg: Criticism of communist party rule to free markets, religious freedom and liberal democracy. Meanwhile, under the tutelage of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union the only party permitted by the Soviet Union constitution, state institutions were intimately entwined with those of the party. By the late 1920s, Joseph Stalin consolidated the regime's control over the country's economy and society through a system of economic planning and five-year plans. Between the Russian Revolution and the Second World War, Soviet-style communist rule only spread to one state that was not later incorporated into the Soviet Union. In 1924, communist rule was established in neighboring Mongolia, a

neg: Soviet republic (system of government) republics were short-lived communist revolutionary governments that were established in what had been the Russian Empire after the October Revolution and under its influence. These states included some such as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic which won independence from Russia during the civil war period. Others such as the Ukrainian Soviet Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia later became union republics of the Soviet Union and are now independent states. Still others such as the Kuban Soviet Republic and the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic were absorbed into other polities and no longer

neg: Russian Theatre, Tallinn Russian Theatre, Tallinn The Russian Theatre (, ) is a Russian-language theatre in Tallinn, Estonia. It is housed in a building that was originally built as a cinema in 1926 and is in Art Deco style. A small Russian theatre community has existed in Tallinn since the late 19th century; it grew following the Russian Revolution when Russian actors settled in Estonia as refugees. A permanent Russian-language theatre was not set up in the city until 1948, however. During the Soviet occupation of Estonia, it was one of several Russian-language theatres of the Soviet Union and also toured around the

neg: Armenia–Russia relations of the territory currently belonging to Armenia was incorporated into the Russian Empire pursuant to the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay signed between Russia and Persia following the Russo-Persian War (1826–28). After the 1917 Russian Revolution, Armenia gained short-lived independence as the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, a founding member of the Soviet Union that was formally constituted in 1922. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, leaving its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, as full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in

neg: Flag of Russia February Revolution and was not replaced until the October Revolution which established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. On 8 April 1918, the flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was discussed at a meeting of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. The Council proposed that the All-Russian Central Executive Committee create a red flag with the abbreviation for the phrase "Workers of the world, unite!" However, the proposal was not adopted. On 13 April 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee established the RSFSR flag to be a red banner with the inscription "Russian Socialist Federative Soviet

neg: Flag of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic Tajik agriculture, and the green was for other agricultural produce. The first specifically Tajik flag was introduced in 1929. Before that, Tajikistan had been part of the Bukharan SSR (partly transferred to the Turkestan SSR in 1924); before the Russian revolution it had been part of the Emirate of Bukhara (since 1873 a protectorate of the Russian Empire). Following independence on September 9, 1991, the Tajik SSR flag remained in use until the new Tajik flag was adopted in November 1992, becoming the last post-Soviet country to receive a new flag. Flag of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic The flag

neg: Trade unions in the Soviet Union Trade unions in the Soviet Union Trade unions in the Soviet Union, headed by the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions (VTsSPS), had a complex relationship with industrial management, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet government, given that the Soviet Union was ideologically supposed to be a state in which the members of the working class ruled the country and managed themselves. During the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War that immediately followed, there were all sorts of ideas about how to organize and manage industries, and many people thought that the trade unions would

neg: Military ranks of the Soviet Union as informal position names to the present day. Personal ranks were reintroduced in 1935, and general officer ranks were restored in May 1940. The ranks were based on those of the Russian Empire, although they underwent some modifications. Modified Imperial-style rank insignia were reintroduced in 1943. The Soviet ranks ceased to be used after the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, although the military ranks and insignia of the modern Russian Federation and Ukraine have been largely adopted from the Soviet system. The early Red Army abandoned the institution of a professional officer corps as a "heritage of tsarism" in

neg: Ministries of the Soviet Union warfare agents were produced by the Ministry of the Chemical Industry. Ministries of the Soviet Union The Ministries of the Soviet Union () were the government ministries of the Soviet Union. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the previous bureaucratic apparatus of bourgeois ministers was replaced by People’s Commissariats (; Narkom), staffed by new employees drawn from workers and peasants. On 15 March 1946 the people’s commissariats were transformed into ministries. The name change had no practical effects, other than restoring a designation previously considered a leftover of the bourgeois era. The collapse of the ministry system was one of

neg: Khanate of Khiva present western Uzbekistan, southwestern Kazakhstan and much of Turkmenistan before Russian arrival at the second half of the 19th century. In 1873, the Khanate of Khiva was much reduced in size and became a Russian protectorate. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Khiva had a revolution too, and in 1920 the Khanate was replaced by the Khorezm People’s Soviet Republic. In 1924, the area was formally incorporated into the Soviet Union and today is largely a part of Karakalpakstan and Xorazm Province in Uzbekistan. See Khwarezm, the former name of the region. After the capital was moved to Khiva, Khwarezm

neg: History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27) leader of the USSR. During World War I, Tsarist Russia experienced famine and economic collapse. The demoralized Russian Army suffered severe military setbacks, and many captured soldiers deserted the front lines. Dissatisfaction with the monarchy and its policy of continuing the war grew among the Russian people. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne following the February Revolution of 1917 (March 1917 N.S. See: Soviet calendar.), causing widespread rioting in Petrograd and other major Russian cities. The Russian Provisional Government was installed immediately following the fall of the Tsar by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma in early March 1917

neg: Revolutionary Mass Festivals of the revolutionary mass festivals explains why, as a genre, they were later eschewed in favor of the more uniform annual Soviet holidays such as May Day, the anniversary of the Revolution, and - after World War II - Victory Day. Revolutionary Mass Festivals Revolutionary Mass Festivals (in Russian массовые праздники), or Mass Spectacles, were participatory, staged cultural events held in the Soviet Union. They were held during the period of the Russian Civil War following the October Revolution of 1917. Experimental in nature, they united the Marxist-Leninist ideology of re-education of the masses and the aesthetics of the Russian

neg: Russian science fiction and fantasy was so popular that Anton Chekhov wrote a parody on him, and Konstantin Sluchevsky produced a sequel - "Captain Nemo in Russia" (1898). The Soviet era was the golden age of Russian science fiction. Soviet writers were innovative, numerous and prolific, despite limitations set up by state censorship. Both Russian and foreign writers of science fiction enjoyed mainstream popularity in the Soviet Union, and many books were adapted for film and animation. The birth of Soviet science fiction was spurred by scientific revolution, industrialisation, mass education and other dramatic social changes that followed the Russian Revolution. Early Soviet authors from

neg: Orders, decorations, and medals of Russia Orders, decorations, and medals of Russia The State Award System of the Russian Federation has varied and distinct origins. The first being pre-1917 orders of the Russian Empire re-established after the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, the second is from former Soviet orders that were slightly modified and retained post 1991, we also find many completely new awards resembling Imperial awards in basic design since the reintroduction of Russian heraldry. Originally set up following the dissolution of the Soviet Union by Decision of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation № 2557-I of March 20, 1992, the statutes of

neg: Orders, decorations, and medals of Russia conferred in exile. Orders, decorations, and medals of Russia The State Award System of the Russian Federation has varied and distinct origins. The first being pre-1917 orders of the Russian Empire re-established after the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, the second is from former Soviet orders that were slightly modified and retained post 1991, we also find many completely new awards resembling Imperial awards in basic design since the reintroduction of Russian heraldry. Originally set up following the dissolution of the Soviet Union by Decision of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation № 2557-I of March 20, 1992,

neg: Socialist heraldry new governments reinstating the traditional heraldry that was previously cast aside. The Soviet Union, created after the 1917 revolution, required insignia to represent itself in line with other sovereign states, such as emblems, flags and seals, but the Soviet leaders did not wish to continue the old heraldic practices which they saw as associated with the societal system the revolution sought to replace. In response to the needs and wishes, the national emblem adopted would lack the traditional heraldic elements of a shield, helm, crest and mantling, and instead be presented more plainly. This style was followed then by other

neg: Prostitution in the Soviet Union Prostitution in the Soviet Union Prostitution in the Soviet Union was not officially recognised until 1986. In pre-revolutionary Russia prostitution was regulated. After the Russian Revolution this system was abolished but prostitution continued. Any estimates of the extent of prostitution were hampered by the state's denial of its existence. In the work of criminologists Andrejs Vilks and Leonīds Tess, it was noted: The topic of prostitution in newspapers, journals and in contemporary writing was taboo. The rationale was that the publication of the existence of this phenomenon could undermine not only the moral and moral foundations of the country, but

neg: LGBT rights in the Post-Soviet states LGBT rights in the Post-Soviet states Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in the former Soviet Union face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Since 1 January 2016, in Estonia (and there only), same-sex couples have recognition called a "cohabitation agreement" that gives the same legal protections available to opposite-sex couples (with the exemption of marriage and Joint adoption). The Soviet Government of the Russian Soviet Republic decriminalised homosexuality in December 1917, following the October Revolution and the discarding of the Legal Code of Tzarist Russia. Through the abolishment of the Tsarist legal code in 1917, the Russian

neg: Russian Constitution of 1978 SFSR. Following a turbulent period of democratization, dissolution of the Soviet Union and subsequent economic reform the Constitution was amended several times. It lost its legal force by the referendum of 12 December 1993, which was preceded by a power struggle between the President of Russia and Russia's legislative institutions – the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of Russia. Russian Constitution of 1978 The Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic of 12 April 1978 was formally its supreme law. At its Extraordinary Session of 12 April 1978, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR adopted

neg: Soviet Union Iran), and Lake Baikal, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake that is also an internal body of water in Russia. The last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the February Revolution, due in part to the strain of fighting in World War I, which lacked public support. A short-lived Russian Provisional Government took power, to be overthrown in the October Revolution (N.S. 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. The Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of

neg: Soviet Union at the Olympics agenda on an international stage. Following the Russian Revolution of November 1917 and the Russian Civil War (1917-1922), the Soviet Union did not participate in international sporting events on ideological grounds; however, after World War II (1939-1945), attendance at the Olympic Games came to be seen by Soviet officials and leaders as a useful method of promoting Communist ideals. "The Olympic Committee of the USSR" formed on April 21, 1951, and the IOC recognised the new body in its 45th session (May 7, 1951). In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR

neg: Foreign policy of Vladimir Putin criticised the Rose and Orange Revolution, according to him: "If you have permanent revolutions you risk plunging the post-Soviet space into endless conflict". During the protests following the 2011 Russian elections (in December 2011) Putin named the Orange Revolution as a potential precedent of what was going to happen in Russia. Apart from a clash of nationalist rhetorics with the common historical legacies of the Soviet Union and the Russian Empire, a number of economic disputes erupted between Russia and some neighbours, such as the 2006 Russian ban of Moldovan and Georgian wines. Moscow's policies under Putin towards these states

neg: Ivan Silayev was also awarded a Hero of Socialist Labour. He was awarded a Lenin Prize in 1972. In 1981 he was awarded the Order of the October Revolution and in 2002 the National Prize of Peter the Great. On 19 October 2000 and on 21 October 2005 Silayev was awarded the Diploma of the Government of the Russian Federation. Ivan Silayev Ivan Stepanovich Silayev (; born 21 October 1930) is a former Soviet official who became a Russian politician following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He served as Premier of the Soviet Union through the offices of chairman of the

neg: Prostitution in the Soviet Union audience and the editorial board received a large number of responses. Pyotr Todorovsky directed the film adaptation "Intergirl", released to theaters in 1989. Since the 1980s, there has been trafficking: women and girls are sent "to work" abroad. There is still no information on clients of Soviet prostitutes during the period. See individual articles of post-Soviet states: Prostitution in the Soviet Union Prostitution in the Soviet Union was not officially recognised until 1986. In pre-revolutionary Russia prostitution was regulated. After the Russian Revolution this system was abolished but prostitution continued. Any estimates of the extent of prostitution were hampered by

neg: Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union Most of the clergy reacted toward the Russian Revolution with open hostility. During the Civil War, many representatives of the Russian orthodox clergy collaborated or had sympathies with the White Armies and foreign invading armies, hoping for a restoration of the prerevolutionary regime. The church had expressed its support to General Kornilov's counter-revolutionary coup attempt. The church adopted the Enactment on Legal Status of the Church in Russia which tried to vindicate the rights that the church had enjoyed for centuries under the old regime. The Orthodox Church, said the document, "holds the pre-eminent public and legal position in Russian

neg: History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27) had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the February Revolution in 1917, the Mensheviks gained control of Russia and established a provisional government, but this lasted only until the Bolsheviks took power in the October Revolution (also called the Bolshevik Revolution) later in the year. To distinguish themselves from other socialist parties, the Bolshevik party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (RCP). Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the proletariat and all activities contrary to

neg: Kazan Metro Kazan Metro Kazan Metro (; Tatar Latin: Qazan metrosı) is a rapid-transit system that serves the city of Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. The metro system was the seventh opened in Russia, and the fifteenth in the former Soviet Union region. Opened on August 27, 2005, it is the newest system in Russia. Kazan is a historic and cultural centre on the middle Volga. The first plans to have a rapid-transit system were proposed back in the days of the Russian Empire, but after the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War little was left for the design. Nevertheless, in

neg: United States and the Russian Revolution Schwartz sums it up in his article in the July 7, 1963 "New York Times": "Soviet-United States relations since the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution have gone through almost all possible phases from warm comradeship in arms to the deepest hostility". United States and the Russian Revolution American involvement in the Russian Revolution was the key event that pitted the United States and the Soviet Union against each other for the next seventy years. It was the foundation for a face off between the two nations that would emerge as the world's superpowers. The United States responded to the revolution by participating

neg: Flag of Turkmenistan afterthought to represent the "status of permanent neutrality", which was accepted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 12, 1995. The flag of the Russian Empire was the official flag of Turkmenistan until the Russian Revolution. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Turkmenistan had a flag similar to all other Soviet Republics; see Flag of the Turkmen SSR. After independence in 1991, Turkmenistan adopted a flag very similar to the current design, on February 19, 1992. However, the designs on the left were different. In 1997, an olive branch was added to symbolise the peace-loving nature

neg: Military history of the Soviet Union Military history of the Soviet Union The military history of the Soviet Union began in the days following the 1917 October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power. In 1918 the new government formed the Red Army, which then defeated its various internal enemies in the Russian Civil War of 1917–22. The years 1918–21 saw defeats for the Red Army in the Polish–Soviet War (1919–21) and in independence wars for Estonia (1918–20), Latvia (1918–20) and Lithuania (1918–19). The Red Army invaded Finland (November 1939); fought the Battles of Khalkhin Gol of May-September 1939 (together with its ally Mongolia) against Japan

neg: Communist-controlled China (1927–1949) Union in capturing Manchuria. After the end of the war, the communists controlled one-third of the territory of China. The Communist Party of China Soviets revised marriage law in their territories, issued laws to control the activities of counter-revolutionaries, and established a soviet-style judicial system. The judicial system was considered impressive even by opponents of the Communists, such as General Ch'en Ch'eng, who spoke of its "scarcity of cases of embezzlement and corruption". On November 7, 1931, the anniversary of the 1917 Russian Bolshevik Revolution, with the help of the Soviet Union, a National Soviet People's Delegates Conference took place

neg: Podkulachnik Podkulachnik Podkulachnik (, literally: "Person under the kulaks") was a political label used in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s to brand people considered traitors to the Soviet Government. Podkulachnik is considered by many to be a Stalinist neologism from the late 1920s. After the Russian Revolution, the Kulaks - relatively affluent and well-endowed peasants - were persecuted by the Soviet Government as class enemies of the poor, and hence enemies of the Revolution itself. In every village, there were people who in one way or another had gotten in the way of local activists. [Following the revolution,

neg: Religion in the Soviet Union of its identification with Zionism, Hebrew was taught only in schools for diplomats. Most of the 5,000 synagogues functioning prior to the Bolshevik Revolution were closed under Stalin, and others were closed under Khrushchev. The practice of Judaism became very difficult, intensifying the desire of Jews to leave the Soviet Union. Notes Sources Religion in the Soviet Union The Soviet Union was established by the Bolsheviks in 1922, in place of the Russian Empire. At the time of the 1917 Revolution, the Russian Orthodox Church was deeply integrated into the autocratic state, enjoying official status. This was a significant factor

neg: Russia–Syria relations government, consisting of air strikes against militant and terrorist groups opposed to the government. In November 2015, crowds of Syrians took to the streets to praise the Russian military support. In 1893, the Russian Empire established a consular office in Damascus, then a part of Ottoman Syria. Following the October Revolution (1917), and the creation of the Soviet Union (1922), the Russian presence in Syria came to an end, which continued during the French Mandate period (1923−1946). Although the Soviet Union did not play a political role in the region, it did promote the establishment of the Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party

neg: Russia–Thailand relations Russia–Thailand relations Bilateral relations between Russia and Thailand date to the late nineteenth century, when the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and King Chulalongkorn of Siam (as Thailand was then known) formed a friendly personal relationship. The two countries exchanged legations in 1897–1898, and signed a Treaty of Friendship and Maritime Navigation in 1899. Diplomatic relations were terminated following the Russian Revolution in 1917, and re-established between the Soviet Union and Thailand on March 12, 1941; Thailand recognized Russian Federation as the successor to Soviet Union on December 28, 1991. Russia has an embassy in Bangkok and two honorary consulates in

neg: Family farm of large farms, with the displaced population partly contributing to the new class of industrial wage-labourers and partly emigrating to the New World or the Russian Empire (following the 1861 emancipation of the serfs). The family farms established in Imperial Russia were again collectivized under the Soviet Union, but the emigration of European farmers displaced by the Industrial Revolution contributed to the emergence of a system of family estates in the Americas (Homestead Act 1862). Thomas Jefferson's argument that a large number of family estates are a factor in ensuring the stability of democracy was repeatedly used in support of

neg: Mongolian Revolution of 1990 socialism in Mongolia. Although a multi-party system was established, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) actually remained in power until 1996. Nevertheless, reforms were implemented and the transition to a market economy begun. The revolution was inspired by the reforms in the Soviet Union, and by the similar revolutions in Eastern Europe in late 1989. There were pro-independence movements in 1911 against the colonization policy of the late Qing dynasty. Finally, the Mongolian People's Party took power in Mongolia in 1921 with the help of the Soviet Union, after White Russian and Chinese forces had been expelled. In 1924, the

neg: History of the Russian Revolution History of the Russian Revolution The History of the Russian Revolution by Leon Trotsky is a three-volume book on the Russian Revolution of 1917. Trotsky finished writing it in Russian in 1930 and was then translated into English by Max Eastman in 1932. The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a major event in history that changed the world. It was first time in the history that the toiled masses had successfully established their own rule. After the revolution the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was born, which eliminated poverty, established free medicine and highly subsidized housing, free education and

neg: Libertarian socialism aura of workplace power that the word became used by Vladimir Lenin for various political organs. Indeed, the name "Supreme Soviet", by which the parliament was called; and that of the Soviet Union itself make use of this terminology, but they do not imply any decentralization. Furthermore, council communists held a critique of the Soviet Union as a capitalist state, believing that the Bolshevik revolution in Russia became a "bourgeois revolution" when a party bureaucracy replaced the old feudal aristocracy. Although most felt the Russian Revolution was working class in character, they believed that since capitalist relations still existed (because

neg: Revolutionary Mass Festivals Revolutionary Mass Festivals Revolutionary Mass Festivals (in Russian массовые праздники), or Mass Spectacles, were participatory, staged cultural events held in the Soviet Union. They were held during the period of the Russian Civil War following the October Revolution of 1917. Experimental in nature, they united the Marxist-Leninist ideology of re-education of the masses and the aesthetics of the Russian avant-garde. The revolutionary mass festivals built upon the tradition of fairs and carnivals, and were part of the subsequently institutionalized public holidays and their official celebration in the Soviet Union. In contrast to these earlier versions of public festivals, the early

neg: Afro-Russian however, people have avoided using this term. There are many recorded instances of black Africans settling down in the Russian Empire. A notable member of this small group is Abram Petrovich Gannibal: an African emancipated and adopted by Peter the Great, given education, raised to nobility, and served in both civil and military capacities. He is also a great-grandfather on the maternal side to the famed Russian poet Alexander Pushkin. After the revolution several black African families came to the Soviet Union under the auspices of the Comintern. They were chiefly specialists in the spheres of industrial production and agriculture.

neg: Irina Odoyevtseva Irina Odoyevtseva Irina Vladimirovna Odoyevtseva (, real name Iraida Heinike; born in Riga, Russian Empire, on 15 June 1895, according to some sources in 1901; died in Leningrad, Soviet Union, on 14 October 1990) was a Russian poet, novelist and memoirist, and the wife of the poet Georgy Ivanov. Iraida Heinike was born in Riga, now the capital of the Republic of Latvia but then in the Russian Empire. Her father Gustav Heinike was a Baltic German lawyer. In 1918 she moved to St. Petersburg (then in the throes of revolution and recently rebaptized "Petrograd"), and adopted the pen name

neg: Baltic–Soviet relations Soviet control as Soviet Socialist Republics until 1991. A majority of Western world governments did not recognise the Soviet annexations of the Baltic states "de jure", though some countries did recognize them "de facto". In July 1989, following the dramatic events in East Germany, the Supreme Soviets of the Baltic countries stated their intention to restore full independence. In 1991, the Baltic countries reclaimed independence and restored their sovereignty upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Bolsheviks took power following the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the Baltic states proclaimed independence following the signing of the Armistice, Bolshevist Russia invaded

neg: History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27) the VTsIK, supported by the Bolsheviks, ratified the dissolution of the Russian Constituent Assembly, which intended to establish the non-Bolshevik Russian Democratic Federative Republic as the permanent form of government established at its Petrograd session held 5 and 6 January 1918. At the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets on 25 January 1918, the unrecognised state was renamed the Russian Soviet Republic. Prior to the revolution, the Bolshevik doctrine of democratic centralism argued that only a tightly knit and secretive organization could successfully overthrow the government; after the revolution, they argued that only such an organization could prevail

neg: Bolsheviks Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922. The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working

neg: Football in the Soviet Union Football in the Soviet Union The football in the Soviet Union for about seventy years was a very popular sport in the USSR, the USSR national football championships were one of the major annual sporting events. Before the revolution of 1917, football was quite widespread in the Tsarist Russian Empire. In 1914, the Russian Football Union included representatives from 33 cities, while the number of football teams was close to two hundred and the number of registered players - five thousand. Interest in football has not fallen, and after the revolution, the number of football teams continued to grow. And

neg: Elena Osokina people during those harsh times. The study enriches understanding of Stalinism, the workings of the Soviet economy, the nature of Soviet everyday life and consumerism. Elena Aleksandrovna Osokina is currently a Professor of Russian history at the University of South Carolina. Elena Osokina Elena Aleksandrovna Osokina (born 1959 in Podolsk, Soviet Union) is a Russian historian. Her mother, Octobriana (later renamed Anna), named after the Bolshevik October revolution. Elena Aleksandrovna Osokina earned her B.A. and M.A. in 1981, and her Ph.D. in 1987, all from Moscow State University. Osokina's first book, ""Hierarchy of Consumption: Life Under the Stalinist Rationing System,

neg: Chechnya which transferred to North Ossetian ASSR but gained predominantly Russian Naursky District and Shelkovskoy District that is considered the homeland for Terek Cossacks. The Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life, and for advancement in the Soviet system. On November 26, 1990, the Supreme Council of Chechen-Ingush ASSR adopted the "Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Chechen-Ingush Republic". This declaration was part of the reorganization of the Soviet Union. This new treaty would have been signed August 22, 1991, which would have transformed 15 republic states into more than 80.

neg: Lev Kamenev along. At the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Kamenev was elected Congress Chairman and Chairman of the permanent All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The latter position was equivalent to the head of state under the Soviet system. On 10 November 1917, three days after the Soviet seizure of power during the October Revolution, the executive committee of the national railroad labor union, "Vikzhel", threatened a national strike unless the Bolsheviks shared power with other socialist parties and dropped the uprising's leaders, Lenin and Trotsky, from the government. Zinoviev, Kamenev and their allies in the Bolshevik Central Committee argued that the Bolsheviks

neg: Ministry of Communications (Soviet Union) were used in the postal system of the Soviet Union. The Ministry was terminated on 26 December 1991 due to the abolition of the Soviet Union. All Ministry assets, premises and other facilities in the territory of the Russian Federation were delegated to the Ministry of Communications of the Russian Federation. The Ministry included two major departments: Over the years, the Ministry was headed by Ministers of Communications of the USSR as follows: Under the auspices of the USSR Ministry of Communications and Soyuzpechat, the following periodicals and publications were issued: Ministry of Communications (Soviet Union) The Ministry of Communications

neg: Anti-Sovietism Anti-Sovietism Anti-Sovietism and anti-Soviet refer to persons and activities actually or allegedly aimed against the Soviet Union or government power within the Soviet Union. Three different flavors of the usage of the term may be distinguished. During the Russian Civil War that followed the October Revolution of 1917, the anti-Soviet side was the White movement. Between the wars, some resistance movement, particularly in the 1920s, was cultivated by Polish intelligence in the form of the Promethean project. After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union, anti-Soviet forces were created and led primarily by Nazi Germany (see Russian Liberation Movement). In