query: where did the tragedy of the commons originate

pos: Tragedy of the commons Tragedy of the commons The tragedy of the commons is a term used in social science to describe a situation in a shared-resource system where individual users acting independently according to their own self-interest behave contrary to the common good of all users by depleting or spoiling that resource through their collective action. The concept and phrase originated in an essay written in 1833 by the British economist William Forster Lloyd, who used a hypothetical example of the effects of unregulated grazing on common land (also known as a "common") in Great Britain and Ireland. The concept became widely known

pos: Tragedy of the commons the higher the benefit to each one. Rose cites as examples commerce and group recreational activities. According to Rose, public resources with the "comedic" characteristic may suffer from under-investment rather than over usage. Tragedy of the commons The tragedy of the commons is a term used in social science to describe a situation in a shared-resource system where individual users acting independently according to their own self-interest behave contrary to the common good of all users by depleting or spoiling that resource through their collective action. The concept and phrase originated in an essay written in 1833 by the British

neg: Tragedy of the commons of social insects, where scientists wish to understand why insect workers do not undermine the "common good" by laying eggs of their own and causing a breakdown of the society. The idea of evolutionary suicide, where adaptation at the level of the individual causes the whole species or population to be driven extinct, can be seen as an extreme form of an evolutionary tragedy of the commons. From an evolutionary point of view, the creation of the tragedy of the commons in pathogenic microbes may provide us with advanced therapeutic methods. The "commons dilemma" is a specific class of social

neg: Tragedy of the commons have been warned to desist and if they failed would have punitive sanctions against them. He says that rather than being called "The Tragedy of the Commons", it should be called "the Tragedy of the Failure of the Commons". The geographer David Harvey has a similar criticism, noting that "The dispossession of indigenous populations in North America by 'productive' colonists, for instance, was justified because indigenous populations did not produce value", and asks generally: "Why, for instance, do we not focus in Hardin's metaphor on the individual ownership of the cattle rather than on the pasture as a common?" Hardin's

neg: Tragedy in the Commons Tragedy in the Commons Tragedy in the Commons is a book written by the co-founders of Samara Canada, Alison Loat and Michael MacMillan (). The book puts forth several arguments about a crisis facing Canadian politics and the institution of Parliament as a whole. It is backed by primary research conducted by Samara including "exit interviews" with 80 former Members of Parliament. "Tragedy in the Commons" is a variation of Garrett Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons". In Hardin's argument, the commons as a whole suffers when individuals (in Hardin's case, farmers) behave selfishly and contrary to the good of the

neg: Tragedy in the Commons stop paying attention to politics, refusing to engage their elected representatives and becoming increasingly sceptical about an MP's purpose, cost, or mandate. Tragedy in the Commons Tragedy in the Commons is a book written by the co-founders of Samara Canada, Alison Loat and Michael MacMillan (). The book puts forth several arguments about a crisis facing Canadian politics and the institution of Parliament as a whole. It is backed by primary research conducted by Samara including "exit interviews" with 80 former Members of Parliament. "Tragedy in the Commons" is a variation of Garrett Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons". In Hardin's

neg: Eco-socialism did not thoroughly examine ecology and that Garrett Hardin, a key Neo-Malthusian, suggested that further enclosed and privatised land, as opposed to commons, would solve the chief environmental problem, which Hardin labeled the 'tragedy of the commons'. Guha and Martinez-Alier attack the gulf between what they see as the two "varieties of environmentalism" – the environmentalism of the North, an aesthetic environmentalism that is the privilege of wealthy people who no longer have basic material concerns, and the environmentalism of the South, where people's local environment is a source of communal wealth and such issues are a question of survival.

neg: Tragedy of the commons when describing a problem where "all" individuals have equal and open access to a resource. Hence, 'tragedy of open access regimes' or simply 'the open access problem' are more apt terms. The 'tragedy of the commons' is often cited in connection with sustainable development, meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in the debate over global warming. It has also been used in analyzing behavior in the fields of economics, evolutionary psychology, anthropology, game theory, politics, taxation and sociology. Although common resource systems have been known to collapse due to overuse (such as in over-fishing), many examples have

neg: Commons the tragedy of the commons concept suggested that all commons were doomed to failure, they remain important in the modern world. Work by later economists has found many examples of successful commons, and Elinor Ostrom won the Nobel prize for analysing situations where they operate successfully. For example, Ostrom found that grazing commons in the Swiss Alps have been run successfully for many hundreds of years by the farmers there. Allied to this is the "comedy of the commons" concept, where users of the commons are able to develop mechanisms to police their use to maintain, and possibly improve, the

neg: Tragedy of the commons water and energy conservation – for example, through installing water and electricity meters in houses. Selective rewards work, provided that they are open to everyone. An experimental carpool lane in the Netherlands failed because car commuters did not feel they were able to organize a carpool. The rewards do not have to be tangible. In Canada, utilities considered putting "smiley faces" on electricity bills of customers below the average consumption of that customer`s neighborhood. Articulating solutions to the tragedy of the commons is one of the main problems of political philosophy. In many situations, locals implement (often complex) social schemes

neg: Tragedy of the commons in terms of water supply, the limited water available in arid regions (e.g., the area of the Aral Sea) and the Los Angeles water system supply, especially at Mono Lake and Owens Lake. In economics, an externality is a cost or benefit that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit. Negative externalities are a well-known feature of the "tragedy of the commons". For example, driving cars has many negative externalities; these include pollution, carbon emissions, and traffic accidents. Every time 'Person A' gets in a car, it becomes more likely that 'Person Z' and

neg: Overexploitation "Leviathan". The opposite situation to a tragedy of the commons is sometimes referred to as a tragedy of the anticommons: a situation in which rational individuals, acting separately, collectively waste a given resource by underutilizing it. The tragedy of the commons can be avoided if it is appropriately regulated. Hardin's use of "commons" has frequently been misunderstood, leading Hardin to later remark that he should have titled his work "The tragedy of the unregulated commons". In wild fisheries, overexploitation or overfishing occurs when a fish stock has been fished down "below the size that, on average, would support the long-term

neg: Tragedy of the commons maxim (which was quoted by Engels), "freedom is the recognition of necessity". He suggested that "freedom" completes the tragedy of the commons. By recognizing resources as commons in the first place, and by recognizing that, as such, they require management, Hardin believed that humans "can preserve and nurture other and more precious freedoms". Hardin's article was the start of the modern use of "Commons" as a term connoting a shared resource. As Frank van Laerhoven & Elinor Ostrom have stated: "Prior to the publication of Hardin’s article on the tragedy of the commons (1968), titles containing the words 'the commons',

neg: Cheating (biology) by laying eggs, foraging activities would diminish, leading to decreased resources for the entire colony. This, in turn, can cause a tragedy of the commons, where selfish behavior lead to the depletion of resources, with long-term negative consequences for the group. However, in natural bee and wasp societies, only 0.01–0.1% and 1%, respectively, of the workers lay eggs, suggesting that strategies exist to combat cheating to prevent tragedy of the commons. These insect systems have given scientists opportunities to study strategies that keep cheating in check. Such strategies are commonly referred to as "policing" strategies, generally where additional costs are

neg: Tragedy of the commons resources such as the Earth's atmosphere and oceans, as well as pointing out the "negative commons" of pollution (i.e., instead of dealing with the deliberate privatization of a positive resource, a "negative commons" deals with the deliberate commonization of a negative cost, pollution). As a metaphor, the tragedy of the commons should not be taken too literally. The "tragedy" is not in the word's conventional or theatric sense, nor a condemnation of the processes that lead to it. Similarly, Hardin's use of "commons" has frequently been misunderstood, leading him to later remark that he should have titled his work "The

neg: Tragedy of the commons people may adopt an equality rule. Another strategic factor is the ability to build up reputations. Research found that people take less from the common pool in public situations than in anonymous private situations. Moreover, those who harvest less gain greater prestige and influence within their group. Much research has focused on when and why people would like to structurally rearrange the commons to prevent a tragedy. Hardin stated in his analysis of the tragedy of the commons that "Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all." One of the proposed solutions is to appoint a leader to regulate access

neg: Science and technology studies other participants. It should take its time and ensure that those participating understand the topics on which they debate. Independent managers of debates should also have substantial grasp of the concepts discussed, but must "[remain] independent and impartial as to the outcomes of the process." In 1968, Garrett Hardin popularised the phrase "tragedy of the commons." It is an economic theory where rational people act against the best interest of the group by consuming a common resource. Since then, the tragedy of the commons has been used to symbolize the degradation of the environment whenever many individuals use a common

neg: Tragedy of the commons millions of others will suffer in each of those areas. Economists often urge the government to adopt policies that "internalize" an externality. More general examples (some alluded to by Hardin) of potential and actual tragedies include: A parallel was drawn recently between the tragedy of the commons and the competing behaviour of parasites that through acting selfishly eventually diminish or destroy their common host. The idea has also been applied to areas such as the evolution of virulence or sexual conflict, where males may fatally harm females when competing for matings. It is also raised as a question in studies

neg: Excludability organize its production and distribution. A classic example of the inefficiency caused by non-excludability is the tragedy of the commons (which Hardin, the author, later corrected to the 'tragedy of the unmanaged commons' because it is based on the notion of an entirely rule-less resource) where a shared, non-excludable, resource becomes subject to over-use and over-consumption, which destroys the resource in the process. Brito and Oakland (1980) study the private, profit-maximizing provision of excludable public goods in a formal economic model. They take into account that the agents have private information about their valuations of the public good. Yet, Brito

neg: Tragedy of the commons had by each family would not be of public concern. Parents breeding excessively would leave fewer descendants because they would be unable to provide for each child adequately. Such negative feedback is found in the animal kingdom. Hardin said that if the children of improvident parents starved to death, if overbreeding was its own punishment, then there would be no public interest in controlling the breeding of families. Hardin blamed the welfare state for allowing the tragedy of the commons; where the state provides for children and supports overbreeding as a fundamental human right, Malthusian catastrophe is inevitable. Consequently, in

neg: Commons the resource through institutions that it creates . The Digital Library of the Commons defines "commons" as "a general term for shared resources in which each stakeholder has an equal interest". The term "commons" derives from the traditional English legal term for common land, which are also known as "commons", and was popularised in the modern sense as a shared resource term by the ecologist Garrett Hardin in an influential 1968 article called The Tragedy of the Commons. As Frank van Laerhoven and Elinor Ostrom have stated; "Prior to the publication of Hardin's article on the tragedy of the commons

neg: María Conesa saved by a miracle. Overcome the tragedy, María's father did everything possible to make her a big star. She arrived to Mexico in 1901 with a company of children actors who played zarzuelas at the Teatro Principal. Later she doing a small role in "La verbena de la Paloma". In, 1907 she was presented at the Teatro Albisu of Havana (Cuba), with "La Gatita Blanca (The White Kitten)", getting an overwhelming success. She took the nickname of "La Gatita Blanca" for the rest of her life. Her major success did not originate from her vocal powers but the playfulness of

neg: Ownership and passages to adjacent buildings. One disadvantage of communal ownership, known as the Tragedy of the Commons, occurs where unlimited unrestricted and unregulated access to a resource (e.g. pasture land) destroys the resource because of over-exploitation. The benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals immediately, while the costs of policing or enforcing appropriate use, and the losses dues to over exploitation, are distributed among many, and are only visible to these gradually. In a communist nation the means of production of goods would be owned communally by all people of that nation; the original thinkers did not specify rules and regulations.

neg: Science and technology studies resource. Although Garrett Hardin was not an STS scholar, the concept of tragedy of the commons still applies to science, technology and society. In a contemporary setting, the Internet acts as an example of the tragedy of the commons through the exploitation of digital resources and private information. Data and internet passwords can be stolen much more easily than physical documents. Virtual spying is almost free compared to the costs of physical spying. Additionally, net neutrality can be seen as an example of tragedy of the commons in an STS context. The movement for net neutrality argues that the Internet

neg: Tragedy of the commons resources is to convert common good into private property, giving the new owner an incentive to enforce its sustainability. Libertarians and classical liberals cite the tragedy of the commons as an example of what happens when Lockean property rights to homestead resources are prohibited by a government. They argue that the solution to the tragedy of the commons is to allow individuals to take over the property rights of a resource, that is, to privatize it. In England, this solution was attempted in the Inclosure Acts. In a typical example, governmental regulations can limit the amount of a common good

neg: House of Commons of Canada committees to study matters other than bills. Such committees are known as special committees. Each such body, like a legislative committee, may consist of no more than fifteen members. Other committees include joint committees, which include both members of the House of Commons and senators; such committees may hold hearings and oversee government, but do not revise legislation. Although legislation may be introduced in either House, most bills originate in the House of Commons. In conformity with the British model, the Lower House alone is authorized to originate bills imposing taxes or appropriating public funds. This restriction on the power

neg: Tragedy of the commons Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for her work on the issue, and others revisited Hardin's work in 1999. They found the tragedy of the commons not as prevalent or as difficult to solve as Hardin maintained, since locals have often come up with solutions to the commons problem themselves. For example, it was found that a commons in the Swiss Alps has been run by a collective of farmers there to their mutual and individual benefit since 1517, in spite of the farmers also having access to their own farmland. In general, it is in the users of a commons

neg: Tragedy of the commons carried out through widely distributed, nonmarket means that do not depend on market strategies." He also coined the term 'commons-based peer production' to describe collaborative efforts based on sharing information. Examples of commons-based peer production are free and open source software and open-source hardware. In certain cases, exploiting a resource more may be a good thing. Carol M. Rose, in a 1986 article, discussed the concept of the "comedy of the commons", where the public property in question exhibits "increasing returns to scale" in usage (hence the phrase, "the more the merrier"), in that the more people use the resource,

neg: Invisible hand the most effective means for promoting the happiness of mankind."" Contrary to common misconceptions, Smith did not assert that all self-interested labour necessarily benefits society, or that all public goods are produced through self-interested labour. His proposal is merely that in a free market, people "usually" tend to produce goods desired by their neighbours. The tragedy of the commons is an example where self-interest tends to bring an unwanted result. The invisible hand is traditionally understood as a concept in economics, but Robert Nozick argues in "Anarchy, State and Utopia" that substantively the same concept exists in a number of

neg: Commons and non-material incentives to produce better quality products (mainly software). A commons failure theory, now called tragedy of the commons, originated in the 18th century. In 1833 William Forster Lloyd introduced the concept by a hypothetical example of herders overusing a shared parcel of land on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze, to the detriment of all users of the common land. The same concept has been called the "tragedy of the fishers", when over-fishing could cause stocks to plummet. It has been said the dissolution of the traditional land commons played a watershed role in

neg: Tragedy in the Commons commons. As well, each person is demotivated from changing their ways, since they will be putting themselves at an economic disadvantage unless the other individuals agree to live by the same rules. Loat and MacMillan apply this as a metaphor to a "tragedy of the Commons", referring to the House of Commons. The authors interviewed 80 former Members of Parliament from all major political parties, including the Liberal Party of Canada, Conservative Party of Canada, New Democratic Party of Canada, Bloc Quebecois, and the former Canadian Alliance, Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, and Reform Party of Canada. Those MPs came

neg: Tragedy of the commons over a century later due to an article written by the American ecologist and philosopher Garrett Hardin in 1968. In this modern economic context, commons is taken to mean any shared and unregulated resource such as atmosphere, oceans, rivers, fish stocks, or even an office refrigerator. It has been argued that the very term 'tragedy of the Commons' is a misnomer, since 'the commons' referred to land resources with rights jointly owned by members of a community, and no individual outside the community had any access to the resource. However, the term is now used in social science and economics

neg: Common heritage of mankind be no weaponry or military installations established in territorial commons areas. Fifth, the commons should be preserved for the benefit of future generations, and to avoid a "tragedy of the commons" scenario. Academic claims have been made that where the principle requires the establishment of an international resource management regime, prior to establishment of such a regime a moratorium on resource exploitation should be enforced. Such a position does not appear to have been supported by most states during the respective drafting negotiations. A similar principle of international law holds that the world's cultural and natural heritage (as nominated for

neg: Quebec Resolutions Lower Canada, and also in the Federal Courts and in the Courts of Lower Canada. 47. No lands or property belonging to the General or Local Governments shall be liable to taxation. 48. All Bills for appropriating any part of the Public Revenue, or for imposing any new Tax or Impost, shall originate in the House of Commons or House of Assembly, as the case may be. 49. The House of Commons or House of Assembly shall not originate or pass any Vote, Resolution, Address or Bill for the appropriation of any part of the Public Revenue, or of any

neg: Garrett Hardin where the state provides for children and supports over-breeding as a fundamental human right, Malthusian catastrophe is inevitable. Hardin stated in his analysis of the tragedy of the commons that "Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all." However, environmental historians Joachim Radkau, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham denounced Hardin "as an American with no notion at all how Commons actually work". In addition, Hardin's pessimistic outlook was subsequently contradicted by Elinor Ostrom's later work on success of co-operative structures like the management of common land, for which she shared the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with

neg: CC–PP game are both non-excludable and non-rival. It is very difficult to assign property rights to public goods, which results in many people using the resource and the resource's subsequent depletion or the tragedy of the commons. Hardin uses the original conception of the commons as a "village pasture used for grazing sheep or cattle in preindustrial England." The pasture was a public space for any villager to use to grave their livestock. Villagers gained profit from each additional animal on the pasture, but did not have to pay the costs of the animals depleting the grass. The village as a whole

neg: Tragedy of the commons The commons dilemma stands as a model for a great variety of resource problems in society today, such as water, forests, fish, and non-renewable energy sources such as oil and coal. Situations exemplifying the "tragedy of the commons" include the overfishing and destruction of the Grand Banks, the destruction of salmon runs on rivers that have been dammed – most prominently in modern times on the Columbia River in the Northwest United States, and historically in North Atlantic rivers – the devastation of the sturgeon fishery – in modern Russia, but historically in the United States as well – and,

neg: Tragedy of the commons resource to increase, which causes the problem to snowball until the resource collapses (even if it retains a capacity to recover). The rate at which depletion of the resource is realized depends primarily on three factors: the number of users wanting to consume the common in question, the consumptiveness of their uses, and the relative robustness of the common. The same concept is sometimes called the "tragedy of the fishers", because fishing too many fish before or during breeding could cause stocks to plummet. The "tragedy of the commons" can be considered in relation to environmental issues such as sustainability.

neg: Greek tragedy R.P. Winnington-Ingram points out that we can easily trace various influences from other genres. The stories that tragedy deals with stem from epic and lyric poetry, its meter — the iambic trimeter — owed much to the political rhetoric of Solon, and the choral songs' dialect, meter and vocabulary seem to originate in choral lyric. How these have come to be associated with one another remains a mystery however. Speculating on the problem, Scodel writes that: "Three innovations must have taken place for tragedy as we know it to exist. First, somebody created a new kind of performance by combining

neg: Tragedy of the commons gasoline taxes which are intended to include both the cost of road maintenance and of air pollution. This solution can provide the flexibility of privatization while minimizing the amount of government oversight and overhead that is needed. The environmentalist Derrick Jensen claims the tragedy of the commons is used as propaganda for private ownership. He says it has been used by the political right wing to hasten the final enclosure of the "common resources" of third world and indigenous people worldwide, as a part of the Washington Consensus. He argues that in true situations, those who abuse the commons would

neg: Tragedy of the commons be based on "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" and result in "relinquishing the freedom to breed". Hardin discussed this topic further in a 1979 book, "Managing the Commons," co-written with John A. Baden. He framed this prescription in terms of needing to restrict the "reproductive right", to safeguard all other rights. Several countries have a variety of population control laws in place. German historian Joachim Radkau thought Hardin advocates strict management of common goods via increased government involvement or international regulation bodies. An asserted impending "tragedy of the commons" is frequently warned of as a consequence of the adoption of

neg: Tragedy of the commons each entitled to let their cows graze, as was the custom in English villages. He postulated that if a herder put more than his allotted number of cattle on the common, overgrazing could result. For each additional animal, a herder could receive additional benefits, but the whole group shared damage to the commons. If all herders made this individually rational economic decision, the common could be depleted or even destroyed, to the detriment of all. In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin explored this social dilemma in his article "The Tragedy of the Commons", published in the journal "Science". The essay derived

neg: Ethical egoism that behaviour remains rational "even though" it is ultimately self-defeating, i.e. self-defeating does not imply self-refuting. A tragedy of the commons, however, assumes some degree of public land. That is, a commons forbidding homesteading requires regulation. Thus, an argument against the tragedy of the commons is fundamentally an argument for private property rights and the system that recognizes both property rights and rational self-interest—capitalism. More generally, an increasing respect for individual rights uniquely allows for increasing wealth creation and increasing usable resources despite a fixed amount of raw materials (e.g. the West pre-1776 versus post-1776, East versus West Germany, Hong

neg: Debates within libertarianism property will have more incentive to ensure the longer term value of the property. Others, such as geolibertarians, believe the earth cannot legitimately be held in allodium, that usufructuary title with periodic land value capture and redistribution avoids both the tragedy of the commons and the tragedy of the anticommons while respecting equal rights to natural resources. Libertarian philosophies are usually strong propertarians that define liberty as non-aggression, or the state in which no person or group aggresses against any other person or group, where aggression is defined as the violation of private property. This philosophy implicitly recognizes private property

neg: Conscience our "conscience" is likely shaped not so much by heroic struggles, as by choice of partner, friends and job, as well as where we choose to live. Garrett Hardin in a famous article called tragedy of the commons argued that any instance in which society appeals to an individual exploiting a commons to restrain himself or herself for the general good-by means of his or her "conscience"- merely sets up a system which, by selectively diverting societal power and physical resources to those lacking in "conscience", while fostering guilt (including anxiety about his or her individual contribution to over-population) in

neg: Water trading "tragedy of the commons", where all appropriators will continue to consume common pool resources to maximize their individual utility without considering social utility or cost: "Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons". To redress this, one traditional scheme for common pool resource management is a "Leviathan" strategy, in which a central authority (like government) must enforce rules, and coerce and punish appropriators as necessary to obey resource rules; however a large enforcer cannot catch all offenders or obtain complete information so

neg: United States House of Representatives the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives". As a result of the Origination Clause, the Senate cannot initiate bills imposing taxes. This provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Furthermore, congressional tradition holds that the House of Representatives originates appropriation bills. Although it cannot originate revenue bills, the Senate retains the power to amend or reject them. Woodrow Wilson wrote the following about appropriations bills: [T]he constitutional prerogative of the House

neg: Bill Keeler radio in 2013. Most notably, when tragedy struck in Herkimer, NY following a shooting rampage that left several dead or injured, Keeler reported from behind police lines for nearly 7 hours while a shooter was on the loose, giving local citizens trapped in their homes and businesses a lie of communication to the outside. Keeler was hired as host of a show on WMEX/Boston, Massachusetts in May 2015, where he was to host middays. The show would originate from Utica. For reasons not fully explained, WMEX never carried Keeler's show. Bill Keeler currently holds the Guinness World Record for the

neg: Tragedy of the commons existed and still do exist where members of a community with access to a common resource co-operate or regulate to exploit those resources prudently without collapse. Elinor Ostrom was awarded the Nobel Prize in economics for demonstrating exactly this concept in her book Governing the Commons, which included examples of how local communities were able to do this without top-down regulations. In 1833, the English economist William Forster Lloyd published a pamphlet which included a hypothetical example of over-use of a common resource. This was the situation of cattle herders sharing a common parcel of land on which they are

neg: Tyranny of small decisions which can lead to market failure. The concept has since been extended to areas other than economic ones, such as environmental degradation, political elections and health outcomes. A classic example of the tyranny of small decisions is the tragedy of the commons, described by Garrett Hardin in 1968 as a situation where a number of herders graze cows on a commons. The herders each act independently in what they perceive to be their own rational self-interest, ultimately depleting their shared limited resource, even though it is clear that it is not in any herder's long-term interest for this to happen.

neg: Tragedy of the anticommons Tragedy of the anticommons The tragedy of the anticommons is a type of coordination breakdown, in which a single resource has numerous rightsholders who prevent others from using it, frustrating what would be a socially desirable outcome. It is a mirror-image of the older concept of tragedy of the commons, in which numerous rightsholders' combined use exceeds the capacity of a resource and depletes or destroys it. The "tragedy of the anticommons" covers a range of coordination failures including patent thickets, and submarine patents. Overcoming these breakdowns can be difficult, but there are assorted means, including eminent domain, laches, patent

neg: Overfishing in the main fisheries around the world. The Traffic Light color convention introduces sets of rules based on predefined critical values, which could be adjusted as more information is gained. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty deals with aspects of over fishing in articles 61, 62, and 65. According to some observers, overfishing can be viewed as an example of the tragedy of the commons; appropriate solutions would therefore promote property rights through, for instance, privatization and fish farming. Daniel K. Benjamin, in "Fisheries are Classic Example of the "Tragedy of the Commons"", cites research

neg: William Forster Lloyd at Prestwood, Missenden, Buckinghamshire in 1852. Lloyd published several of his lectures. In his "Two Lectures on the Checks to Population" (1833) he introduced the concept of the overuse of a common by its commoners (i.e. those with rights of use and access to it), which was later to be developed by the ecologist Garrett Hardin and termed by Hardin "The Tragedy of the Commons". However, Hardin's use of Lloyd's example has frequently been misunderstood, leading him to later remark that he should have titled his work "The Tragedy of the "Unmanaged" Commons". The key passage in Lloyd's work is:

neg: Overexploitation of his essay, Hardin develops the theme, drawing in many examples of latter day commons, such as national parks, the atmosphere, oceans, rivers and fish stocks. The example of fish stocks had led some to call this the "tragedy of the fishers". A major theme running through the essay is the growth of human populations, with the Earth's finite resources being the general common. The tragedy of the commons has intellectual roots tracing back to Aristotle, who noted that "what is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it", as well as to Hobbes and his

neg: Garrett Hardin sterilization, and strict limits to non-western immigration, which earned him criticism from the political left. In his essays, he also tackled subjects such as conservation and creationism. In 1968 Hardin applied his conceptual model developed in his essay "The tragedy of the commons" to human population growth, the use of the Earth's natural resources, and the welfare state. His essay cited an 1833 pamphlet by the English economist William Forster Lloyd which included an example of herders sharing a common parcel of land, which would lead to overgrazing. Hardin blamed the welfare state for allowing the tragedy of the commons;

neg: NetLogo a HubNet activity is "Tragedy of the Commons", which models the economic problem called tragedy of the commons. NetLogo NetLogo is an agent-based programming language and integrated modeling environment. NetLogo was designed, by Irene Mouzakitis, in the spirit of the Freestylerz Logo programming language, to be "low threshold and no ceiling". It teaches programming concepts using agents in the form of "turtles", "patches", "links" and the "observer". NetLogo was designed for multiple audiences in mind, in particular: teaching children in the education community, and for domain experts without a programming background to model related phenomena. Many scientific articles have been

neg: House of Commons of the United Kingdom is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse: the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means, such as No Confidence Motions; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville in 1806. Bills may be introduced in either house, though bills of importance generally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented to the Queen for Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The

neg: House of Commons of the United Kingdom the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or Supply. Furthermore, supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or supply-related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election manifesto. Hence, as the power of the

neg: Tragedy of the commons policies which restrict private property and espouse expansion of public property. Privatization works when the person who owns the property (or rights of access to that property) pays the full price of its exploitation. As discussed above negative externalities (negative results, such as air or water pollution, that do not proportionately affect the user of the resource) is often a feature driving the tragedy of the commons. "Internalizing the externalities", in other words ensuring that the users of resource pay for all of the consequences of its use, can provide an alternate solution between privatization and regulation. One example is

neg: Market failure 'tragedy of the commons'-type of ecological market failure is to establish enforceable property rights politically – only, this may be easier said than done. The issue of anthropogenic global warming presents an overwhelming example of a 'tragedy of the commons'-type of ecological market failure: The Earth's atmosphere may be regarded as a 'global common' exhibiting poorly defined (non-existing) property rights, and the waste absorption capacity of the atmosphere with regard to carbon dioxide is presently being heavily overloaded by a too large volume of emissions from the world economy. Historically, the fossil fuel dependence of the Industrial Revolution has unintentionally

neg: Tragedy of the commons Tragedy of the Unregulated Commons". The metaphor illustrates the argument that free access and unrestricted demand for a finite resource ultimately reduces the resource through over-exploitation, temporarily or permanently. This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals or groups, each of whom is motivated to maximize use of the resource to the point in which they become reliant on it, while the costs of the exploitation are borne by all those to whom the resource is available (which may be a wider class of individuals than those who are exploiting it). This, in turn, causes demand for the

neg: Open-field system by extracting rent for land or labour to cultivate his demesne lands. The scattered holdings of individual farmers increased the time needed to travel to and from fields. The open-field system, especially its characteristic of common grazing lands, has often been used as an example by economists to illustrate "the tragedy of the commons" and assert that private ownership is a better steward of resources than common or public ownership. "Tragedy of the commons" refers to the alleged destruction of common pastures in England as a result of overgrazing, each tenant maximising his gain by grazing as many animals as

neg: Science and technology studies should not be a resource that is dominated by one particular group, specifically those with more money to spend on Internet access. A counterexample to the tragedy of the commons is offered by Andrew Kahrl. Privatization can be a way to deal with the tragedy of the commons. However, Kahrl suggests that the privatization of beaches on Long Island, in an attempt to combat overuse of Long Island beaches, made the residents of Long Island more susceptible to flood damage from Hurricane Sandy. The privatization of these beaches took away from the protection offered by the natural landscape. Tidal lands

neg: Self-refuting idea egoist, so it is not, in fact, in his or her rational self-interest to take things to such extremes. However, the (unregulated) tragedy of the commons and the (one off) prisoner's dilemma are cases in which, on the one hand, it is rational for an individual to seek to take as much as possible "even though" that makes things worse for everybody, and on the other hand, those cases are not self-refuting since that behaviour remains rational "even though" it is ultimately self-defeating, i.e. self-defeating does not imply self-refuting. A tragedy of the commons, however, assumes some degree of public

neg: Tragedy in the Commons from a variety of professional backgrounds, geographic representation, and parliamentary experience. They included members who served in Opposition and cabinet, as party leaders and as backbench MPs. MPs interviewed included Paul Martin, David Anderson, Susan Barnes, Ed Broadbent, Claudette Bradshaw, Joseph Comuzzi, Guy Cote, Roy Cullen, Roger Gallaway, John Godfrey, Bill Graham, Keith Martin, Inky Mark, Jay Hill, Monte Solberg, Chuck Strahl, and Andrew Telegdi. Loat and MacMillan argue that there are several unique yet related "tragedies" in the way the Canadian House of Commons currently operates. They are: Loat and MacMillan note that the resulting tragedy is that Canadians

neg: Commons production and maintenance of common goods by a contributor community in the form of encyclopedic knowledge that can be freely accessed by anyone without a central authority. Tragedy of the commons in the Wiki-Commons is avoided by community control by individual authors within the Wikipedia community. The information commons may help protect users of commons. Companies that pollute the environment release information about what they are doing. The Corporate Toxics Information Project and information like the Toxic 100, a list of the top 100 polluters, helps people know what these corporations are doing to the environment. Mayo Fuster Morell proposed

neg: Senate of Canada office only so long as they retain the confidence of the House of Commons. The approval of both chambers is necessary for legislation and, thus, the Senate can reject bills passed by the Commons. Between 1867 and 1987, the Senate rejected fewer than two bills per year, but this has increased in more recent years. Although legislation can normally be introduced in either chamber, the majority of government bills originate in the House of Commons, with the Senate acting as the chamber of "sober second thought" (as it was called by Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada's first prime minister). The

neg: Chinese creation myths chaos of insubstantial forms? What manner of things are the darkness and light? How did Yin and Yang come together, and how did they originate and transform all things that are by their commingling? Whose compass measured out the ninefold heavens? Whose work was this, and how did he accomplish it? Where were the circling cords fastened, and where was the sky's pole fixed? Where did the Eight Pillars meet the sky, and why were they too short for it in the south-east? Where do the nine fields of heaven extend to and where do they join each other? The

neg: House of Commons of the United Kingdom Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords. By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only

neg: Holznot Holznot Holznot (German for wood shortage) is a historic term for an existing or imminent supply crisis of wood. In particular, the concept was applied to Central Europe around the end of the 16th century till the start of the early 19th century in numerous sources. In almost all German-speaking regions, a wood shortage and resulting wood-saving measures became an important topic. Forestry and history scholars did not dispute the wood shortage "per se" for a long time. Besides the tragedy of the commons legend, the alleged Holznot was critical to motivate the shift from forest use as part of

neg: Sustainable development flexible and reversible. Pollution of the public resources is really not a different action, it just is a reverse tragedy of the commons, in that instead of taking something out, something is put into the commons. When the costs of polluting the commons are not calculated into the cost of the items consumed, then it becomes only natural to pollute, as the cost of pollution is external to the cost of the goods produced and the cost of cleaning the waste before it is discharged exceeds the cost of releasing the waste directly into the commons. So, the only way

neg: Environmental policy but the social marginal cost is less than the social marginal benefit. The tragedy of the commons is the problem that, because no one person owns the commons, each individual has an incentive to utilize common resources as much as possible. Without governmental involvement, the commons is overused. Examples of tragedies of the commons are overfishing and overgrazing. Environmental policy instruments are tools used by governments to implement their environmental policies. Governments may use a number of different types of instruments. For example, economic incentives and market-based instruments such as taxes and tax exemptions, tradable permits, and fees can be

neg: Parliament 92 of whom inherit their titles (and of whom 90 are elected internally by members of the House to lifetime seats), 588 of whom have been appointed to lifetime seats, and Lords Spiritual – 26 bishops, who are part of the house while they remain in office. Legislation can originate from either the Lords or the Commons. It is voted on in several distinct stages, called readings, in each house. First reading is merely a formality. Second reading is where the bill as a whole is considered. Third reading is detailed consideration of clauses of the bill. In addition to

neg: Hand to hand acrobatics "Chrissy Antoniades, Emily Ruppert Fall in Love with Acrobatic Gymnastics." The Washington Post. Accessed October 18, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/high-schools/chrissy-antoniades-emily-ruppart-fall-in-love-with-acrobatic-gymnastics/2011/03/20/ABMci82_story.html</nowiki>. Gregory, Sean. “Cheer Factor.” "Time" 179, no. 16 (April 23, 2012): 54–57. <nowiki>http://libproxy.howardcc.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=74406773&site=ehost-live</nowiki>. Stackpole, Kyle. "County Gymnasts Make US National Teams for Acrobatic Gymnastics." Howard County Times. August 6, 2018. Accessed October 18, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/howard/sports/ph-hs-county-athletes-acrobatic-gymnastics-national-team-20180801-story.html</nowiki>. "Where Did Acrobatics Originate? - Times of India." The Times of India. May 12, 2007. Accessed October 23, 2018. <nowiki>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Where-did-acrobatics-originate/articleshow/2039223.cms</nowiki>. Hand to hand acrobatics Hand to hand acrobatics describes the type of position an acrobatic base and flyer use to balance on top of each other in

neg: United States Senate the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate revenue bills, in

neg: Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change when the atmosphere is understood as a global commons, it is seen to belong to everybody despite its physical presence at the national, local and regional levels. In this case, overarching rules are needed to prevent this resource from being overused (see “tragedy of the commons”). Other examples include the overfishing of the oceans or the exploitation of wildlife. The lack of availability of public goods, which provide access to health care, education, clean water and much more, the so-called social commons, comprises a core focus of the work of MCC. Based on scientific findings, potential solutions are identified, evaluated

neg: CC–PP game the tragedy of the commons. However later in his career, Hardin argued that a strict individual responsibility could preserve the commons. He described systems of accountability for policy makers in order to preserve the commons for their constituents. This puts the responsibility for preserving the commons onto the political system. Ideally Hardin wanted all costs and benefits to be privatized. John D. Aram argues that Hardin would be in favor of a flat tax structure and elimination of public subsidies. CC–PP game The Commonize Costs–Privatize Profits Game (or CC–PP Game) is a concept developed by the ecologist Garrett Hardin to

neg: John Carlisle (British politician) did not get the job. During his tenure as a Member of Parliament, John Carlisle regularly hosted Monday Club meetings in Committee Rooms at the House of Commons. He supported the gun lobby after the Dunblane tragedy. The Almanac of British Politics recorded him as backing hanging and flogging and opposing feminism, homosexual law reform and the EEC. Carlisle was opposed to the Gleneagles Agreement of 1977 which discouraged sporting ties to the apartheid regime in South Africa. In 1981 he called it a "worthless treaty" and urged the International Cricket Council (ICC) to readmit South Africa. Advocating the right

neg: School of Salamanca of common property, a form of the tragedy of the commons. The most complete and methodical developments of a Salamancan theory of value were by Martín de Azpilcueta (1493–1586) and Luis de Molina. Interested in the effect of precious metals arriving from the Americas, de Azpilcueta proved that in the countries where precious metals were scarce, prices for them were higher than in those where they were abundant. Precious metals, like any other mercantile good, gained at least some of their value from their scarcity. This scarcity theory of value was a precursor of the quantitative theory of money put

neg: Act of Parliament final, formal examination by the Governor General, who gives it the royal assent. Although the Governor General can refuse to assent a bill or reserve the bill for the Queen at this stage, this power has never been exercised. Bills being reviewed by Parliament are assigned numbers: 2 to 200 for government bills, 201 to 1000 for private member's bills, and 1001 up for private bills. They are preceded by C- if they originate in the House of Commons, or S- if they originate in the Senate. For example, Bill C-250 was a private member's bill introduced in the House.

neg: Luzhniki disaster about the tragedy in the Soviet media immediately after the disaster was a short note in a local daily, "Vechernyaya Moskva", the next day. It said: On 21 and 24 October 1982, two Soviet national sports newspapers – the daily "Sovetsky Sport" and weekly "Football-Hockey" – published detailed accounts of this match, but did not even mention any spectator accident. The article in "Vechernyaya Moskva" did not go unnoticed by the West. It was reproduced by the Italian news agency "ANSA". On 22 October, just two days after the tragedy, "La Stampa" published a front-page article, where it revealed the

neg: Global commons the design of governance structures and management systems capable of addressing the complexity of multiple public and private interests, subject to often unpredictable changes, ranging from the local to the global level. As with global public goods, management of the global commons requires pluralistic legal entities, usually international and supranational, public and private, structured to match the diversity of interests and the type of resource to be managed, and stringent enough with adequate incentives to ensure compliance. Such management systems are necessary to avoid, at the global level, the classic tragedy of the commons, in which common resources become overexploited.

neg: Alfred Thomas Grove books, including "Africa South of the Sahara", and various books about the Little Ice Age in Europe. So together (with Jean Grove) 'Little Ice Ages Ancient and Modern', 2004 and The "Little Ice Age" and its geomorphological consequences in Mediterranean Europe' and together with Oliver Rackham'The Nature of Mediterranean Europe', an important contribution to environmental history. With regard to the alleged tragedy of the commons and neomalthusian approaches e.g. of Garrett Hardin he denounced Hardins interpretation of the failure of commons as the one of "an American with no notion at all how Commons actually work". While Grove does support

neg: Spectrum management of the commons" was popularized by Garrett Hardin in a 1968 article which appeared in "Science". The tragedy of the commons illustrates the philosophy that destructive use of public reservations ("the commons") by private interests can result when the best strategy for individuals conflicts with the "common good". In such a scenario, it asserts that even though the contribution of each "bad actor" may be minute, if summed over all bad actors the resource could be degraded to the point of uselessness. This concern has led to the regulation of the spectrum. The spectrum property rights model advocates that the

neg: Spectrum management property rights" approaches. Under US law, the spectrum is not considered to be the property of the private sector nor of the government except insofar as the term "government" is used to be synonymous with "the people". The original use of the term "the commons" was the practice by which the public at large had a limited access to a bundle of rights regarding use of the commons; each person then had an interest in his own usage rights but the commons themselves were not property, nor were the rights "property" since they could not be traded. The term "tragedy

neg: Tragedy of the commons for individuals' behavior in strategic situations, the corresponding "game", developed by Hardin, is known as the Commonize Costs – Privatize Profits Game (CC–PP game). Kopelman, Weber, & Messick (2002), in a review of the experimental research on cooperation in commons dilemmas, identify nine classes of independent variables that influence cooperation in commons dilemmas: social motives, gender, payoff structure, uncertainty, power and status, group size, communication, causes, and frames. They organize these classes and distinguish between psychological individual differences (stable personality traits) and situational factors (the environment). Situational factors include both the task (social and decision structure) and the perception of

neg: Garrett Hardin Oliver E. Williamson. In contrast to Hardin, they stated neither commons or "Allmende" in the generic nor classical meaning are bound to fail; to the contrary "the wealth of the commons" has gained renewed interest in the scientific community. Hardin's work was also criticized as historically inaccurate in failing to account for the demographic transition, and for failing to distinguish between common property and open access resources. Despite the criticisms, the theory has nonetheless been influential. For example, in 2016, Michelle DeRobertis "et al" published a paper called "The Tragedy of the Commons of the Urban (and Suburban) Arterial", which

neg: Villa Soldati level crossing tragedy tragedy. Villa Soldati level crossing tragedy The Villa Soldati level crossing disaster occurred on the morning of June 11, 1962 in Villa Soldati, Buenos Aires, when, in dense fog, a train struck a municipal bus carrying schoolchildren to kindergarten. The accident happened near President Illia Station where the Line Belgrano Southern crosses Lacarra Street at its junction with Veracruz. The crossing attendant, believing the crossing to be clear, opened the barriers to allow a truck to cross. The truck was followed by the bus. The bus driver did not hear the warning bell until it was too late. The impact

neg: Senate of Canada on the Scrutiny of Regulations, which considers delegated legislation, and the Standing Joint Committee on the Library of Parliament, which advises the two Speakers on the management of the library. Parliament may also establish special joint committees on an "ad hoc" basis to consider issues of particular interest or importance. Although legislation may be introduced in either chamber, most bills originate in the House of Commons. Because the Senate's schedule for debate is more flexible than that of the House of Commons, the government will sometimes introduce particularly complex legislation in the Senate first. In conformity with the British model,

neg: House of Lords of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and cannot have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a constitutional convention known as the Salisbury Convention, which means that the House of Lords does not oppose legislation promised in the Government's election manifesto. By a

neg: The Murmaids cited as the last No. 1 of the pre-British Invasion rock and roll genre. In the UK, "Popsicles and Icicles" was released on Stateside Records, with "Comedy and Tragedy" as the B-side. The tune did not chart, however, possibly due to unfamiliarity with the term popsicles, which in Britain are called "ice lollies". "Popsicles and Icicles" did afford the Murmaids a hit in Australia (where popsicles were known as "icy poles") via a W&G Records release (backed by "Comedy and Tragedy"), which reached No. 12 in February 1964. "Popsicles and Icicles" was ranked No. 31 on "Cash Box"s "Top 100

neg: Tragedy of the commons commoners, led to the demise of the commons. Some authors, like Yochai Benkler, say that with the rise of the Internet and digitalisation, an economics system based on commons becomes possible again. He wrote in his book "The Wealth of Networks" in 2006 that cheap computing power plus networks enable people to produce valuable products through non-commercial processes of interaction: "as human beings and as social beings, rather than as market actors through the price system". He uses the term 'networked information economy' to describe a "system of production, distribution, and consumption of information goods characterized by decentralized individual action

neg: Tragedy of the commons dilemma in which people's short-term selfish interests are at odds with long-term group interests and the common good. In academia, a range of related terminology has also been used as shorthand for the theory or aspects of it, including "resource dilemma", "take-some dilemma", and "common pool resource". Commons dilemma researchers have studied conditions under which groups and communities are likely to under- or over-harvest common resources in both the laboratory and field. Research programs have concentrated on a number of motivational, strategic, and structural factors that might be conducive to management of commons. In game theory, which constructs mathematical models

neg: Prisoner's dilemma until the Soviet Union could not withstand the economic cost. The same logic could be applied in any similar scenario, be it economic or technological competition between sovereign states. Many real-life dilemmas involve multiple players. Although metaphorical, Hardin's tragedy of the commons may be viewed as an example of a multi-player generalization of the PD: Each villager makes a choice for personal gain or restraint. The collective reward for unanimous (or even frequent) defection is very low payoffs (representing the destruction of the "commons"). A commons dilemma most people can relate to is washing the dishes in a shared house.

neg: Tragedy of the commons work was also criticised as historically inaccurate in failing to account for the demographic transition, and for failing to distinguish between common property and open access resources. In a similar vein, Carl Dahlman argues that commons were effectively managed to prevent overgrazing. Likewise, Susan Jane Buck Cox argues that the common land example used to argue this economic concept is on very weak historical ground, and misrepresents what she terms was actually the "triumph of the commons": the successful common usage of land for many centuries. She argues that social changes and agricultural innovation, and not the behaviour of the

neg: Spectrum commons theory rules to govern its use. While it is true that access to a commons can be open, this does not mean there is no central rule-setting authority. Complete open commons is not a feasible regime for spectrum because, as a scarce resource, it will be subject to tragedy. Even given new spectrum-sharing technologies, a controller is still needed because these technologies require standards setting and enforcement in order to function. Economists, who have long been skeptical about the ability of government agencies to allocate resources efficiently by “picking winners,” have preponderantly favored a market approach to the allocation of resources

neg: Common-pool resource them similar to common goods during times of prosperity. Unlike many common goods, open access goods require little oversight or may be difficult to restrict access. However, as these resources are first come, first served, they may be affected by the phenomenon of the tragedy of the commons. Two possibilities may follow: a common property or an open access system. An open access system is set up to continue the ideals of an open access resource in which everything is up for grabs, e.g., land. This occurred during the expansion of the U.S. west where thousands of acres were given

neg: Community management the "tragedy of the commons" can be avoided. Developing open-source software or other collaborative projects such as Wikipedia generally require some form of community management, whether it involves leadership or egalitarianism. Unlike as is the case with physical resources, the sharing of information does not necessarily deplete the resource. Nonetheless, proper management may be necessary to encourage a network effect, where collaborative use actually enriches the resource, and to avoid conflict. More generally, community management designates the activity of maintaining communication, motivation, efficiency and engagement among a group of remote individuals often only linked together by the internet. Typically, it

neg: Cheating (biology) hydrolase, which breaks down another food source, adenosine. The problem arises when some individuals ("cheaters") do not respond to these quorum sensing signals and therefore do not contribute to the costly protease production yet enjoys the benefits of the broken down resources. When "P. aeruginosa" populations are placed into growth conditions where cooperation (and responding to the quorum signal) is costly, the number of cheaters increases, and the public resources are depleted, which can lead to a tragedy of the commons. However, when "P. aeruginosa" populations are placed into growth conditions with a proportion of adenosine, the cheaters are suppressed

neg: Ownership every society on earth. Notwithstanding the illegality according to codes of law, slavery still exists in various forms today. The question of ownership reaches back to the ancient philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, who held different opinions on the subject. Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC) thought private property created divisive inequalities, while Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) thought private property enabled people to receive the full benefit of their labor. Private property can circumvent what is now referred to as the “tragedy of the commons” problem, where people tend to degrade common property more than they do private property.