query: who called a meeting of the estates general in 1789

pos: Estates General of 1789 Estates General of 1789 The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). Summoned by King Louis XVI, it was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the King. This signaled the outbreak of the French Revolution. The suggestion to summon the Estates General came from the Assembly of Notables installed by the King on 22 February 1787. It had not met since 1614.

pos: Refractory clergy check the power and privileges of the Church was gaining momentum before the Revolution erupted. In an attempt to find a peaceful resolution to mounting popular unrest and calls for reform, King Louis XVI first convened the Assembly of Notables in 1787 and then revived the Estates-General in 1789. During the 1787 Assembly, clerical representatives strongly opposed any reforms directed towards the Church, but by the meeting of the Estates-General, internal divisions began to form. Bishops and other ‘high clergy’ (who were often of noble stock) allied strongly with the Second Estate in the preservation of official privileges. However, many

pos: Estates General of 1789 Estates General of 1789 The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate). Summoned by King Louis XVI, it was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the King. This signaled the outbreak of the French Revolution. The suggestion to summon the Estates General came from the Assembly of Notables installed by the King on 22 February 1787. It had not met since 1614.

pos: Political history of the world United States Constitution, going from a confederation to a union and in 1789, elected George Washington as the first President of the United States. By the late 1780s, France was falling into debt, with higher taxes introduced and famines ensuring. As a measure of last resort, King Louis XVI called together the Estates-General in 1788 and reluctantly agreed to turn the Third Estate (which made up all of the non-noble and non-clergy French) into a National Assembly. This assembly grew very popular in the public eye and on July 14, 1789, following evidence that the King planned to disband the

neg: Louis XII of France of government offices. By 7 March 1484, the King announced that he was leaving Tours because of poor health. Five days later the deputies were told that there was no more money to pay their salaries, and the Estates General meekly concluded its business and went home. The Estates General of 1484 is called, by historians, the most important Estates General until the Estates General of 1789. Important as they were, many of the reforms suggested at the meeting of the Estates General were not immediately adopted. Rather the reforms would only be acted on when Louis XII came to

neg: Estates of Navarre Estates of Navarre The Estates of Navarre "(French: États de Navarre, États généraux de Navarre, Cortes de Navarre)" were created in 1317 under Philip II. The Estates of Lower Navarre "(French: États de Basse-Navarre, Cortes de la Basse-Navarre)" were first called into session on 28 August 1523 by Henry II after the definitive loss of Upper Navarre, It was created in the model of the Estates General that already existed in the Court of Pamplona, the Estates General of France, and in Béarn and other provinces. The last meeting of the Estates of Lower Navarre was on 15 June 1789.

neg: Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé (17621829) was a member of the French nobility who at the age of twenty-seven played a role in the meeting of the states-general in 1789. Brézé had succeeded his father Thomas as court master of the ceremonies to Louis XVI in 1781. During the opening stages of the Estates-General of 1789 it fell to Brézé to regulate the questions of etiquette and precedence between the three estates. That as the immediate representative of the crown he would offend the susceptibilities of the deputies of the Third Estate was perhaps inevitable,

neg: Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé peerage and at court by his son Scipion (17931845). Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé (17621829) was a member of the French nobility who at the age of twenty-seven played a role in the meeting of the states-general in 1789. Brézé had succeeded his father Thomas as court master of the ceremonies to Louis XVI in 1781. During the opening stages of the Estates-General of 1789 it fell to Brézé to regulate the questions of etiquette and precedence between the three estates. That as the immediate representative of the crown he would offend the susceptibilities of

neg: Estates General of 1789 King granted a "Charte octroyée", a constitution granted by royal favor, which affirmed, subject to the traditional limitations, the right of separate deliberation for the three orders, which constitutionally formed three chambers. This move failed; soon, that part of the deputies of the nobles who still stood apart joined the National Assembly at the request of the King. The Estates-General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly (and after 9 July 1789, the National Constituent Assembly). Estates General of 1789 The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy

neg: Estates General (France) to focus solely on taxes failed totally. The Estates General reached an immediate impasse, debating (with each of the three estates meeting separately) its own structure rather than the nation's finances. On 28 May 1789, Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the "Communes" (), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, completing the process on June 17. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates

neg: The Estates Representation through estates was the norm in Europe until the advent of popular representation beginning with the French Revolution. The Estates General of France were convoked only twice between 1614 and 1789, both times during the Fronde (1648–53) and in neither case did they actually meet. At the final meeting of the Estates in 1789, they voted to join together in a single National Assembly, generally seen as marking the start of the Revolution. Still, Estates continued to meet in Navarre until 1828, in Hungary until 1848, in Sweden until 1866 and in the Duchy of Mecklenburg until 1918. In

neg: National Assembly (French Revolution) National Assembly (French Revolution) During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (), which existed from 14 June 1789 to 9 July 1789, was a revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate of the Estates-General; thereafter (until replaced by the Legislative Assembly on 30 Sept 1791) it was known as the National Constituent Assembly (), though popularly the shorter form persisted. The Estates-General had been called on 4 May 1789 to deal with France's financial crisis, but promptly fell to squabbling over its own structure. Its members been elected to represent the estates of the realm: the 1st

neg: Estates General of 1789 that the representatives of the Third Estate, who now called themselves the "Communes" ("Commons"), proceed with verification and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. On 13 June 1789, the Third Estate had arrived at a resolution to examine and settle the powers of the three orders. They invited the clergy and nobles to work with them on this endeavor. On 17 June, with the failure of efforts to reconcile the three estates, the "Communes" completed their own process of verification and almost immediately voted a measure far more radical: they declared themselves

neg: Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette Louis XVI called an Assembly of Notables, in response to France's fiscal crisis. The king appointed Lafayette to the body, which convened on 22 February 1787. In speeches, Lafayette decried those with connections at court who had profited from advance knowledge of government land purchases; he advocated reform. He called for a "truly national assembly", which represented the whole of France. Instead, the king chose to summon an Estates General, to convene in 1789. Lafayette was elected as a representative of the nobility (the Second Estate) from Riom. The Estates General, traditionally, cast one vote for each of the three

neg: Marie Joséphine of Savoy the meeting of the Estates General, every member of the royal family was publicly mocked by libelous verses, in which Marie Joséphine was satirized for her alleged alcoholism. In contrast to her sister and brother-in-law the count and countess of Artois, who left France soon after the Storming of the Bastille in July 1789, the count and countess of Provence remained in France after the outbreak of the revolution. They were present at the Palace of Versailles during The Women's March on Versailles, which took place on 5 October 1789. After the Women's March, they were forced to move to

neg: Camille Desmoulins in public affairs led him to a career as a political journalist. In March 1789, Jean Benoît Nicolas Desmoulins was nominated as deputy to the Estates-General from the bailliage of Guise; however, due to illness, he failed to take his seat. Camille Desmoulins, himself limited to the role of spectator at the procession of the Estates-General on 5 May 1789, wrote a response to the event: "Ode aux Etats Generaux." The Comte de Mirabeau, a powerful political figure within the Estates-General who positioned himself as a bridge between the aristocracy and the emerging reformist movement, briefly enlisted Desmoulins to write

neg: Estates General of 1789 establishing it in the regional Parlement. The latter refused unanimously following the Parlement of Paris. If the King's commissioners forced the issue Parlement abandoned the meeting place only to return the next day to declare the registration null and void. Armed protest swept the kingdom. Street fighting broke out at Rennes, Brittany. A deputation sent to Paris from there was imprisoned in the Bastille. The Bretons in Paris founded the Breton Club, later the Jacobin Society. The Grand Bailliages could not be created and the Plenary Court met only once. The Estates-General were summoned by a royal edict dated to

neg: Dual revolution Louis Blanc, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, and Karl Marx who attempted to come up with ideas for “utopias”, conservative and socialist societies. The French Revolution began in 1789 with the Tennis Court Oath, by which the members of the third estate, who had been locked out of the meeting the estates general, gathered together and swore not to disband until they had written a new constitution. Inspired by the ideas of Enlightenment Philosophers, most prominently Rousseau and his social contract, the National assembly, those who had sworn the tennis court oath, published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

neg: Antoine-Éléonor-Léon Leclerc de Juigné the Parlement of Paris he voted, on 9 January 1788, for the edict which restored to Protestants their civil status. On 30 April 1789, the clergy of Paris elected him deputy to the Estates General. His two brothers were also called there. The Archbishop of Paris sat, "in these stormy assemblies, with the minority faithful to God and to the King." He opposed the meeting of the three orders, and on June 19 proposed: Resulting at 135 votes approving this proposal, 127 voted in opposition, and 12 more joined with reservations. The motion, defeated by four votes of majority, made

neg: 1792 Imperial election crisis. In order to resolve the crisis, the king, Louis XVI of France, called the Estates General of 1789 on January 24. The Estates General quickly became mired in disputes over the representation of the various estates. On June 17, after months of such disputes, the Third Estate, representing the common people, declared itself the National Assembly. On June 20, the National Assembly swore not to disperse until they had established a constitution. The dismissal of the Controller-General of Finances Jacques Necker, seen as sympathetic to the Third Estate, and the gathering of the army outside Paris led to fears

neg: National Constituent Assembly (France) National Constituent Assembly (France) The National Constituent Assembly () was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789 during the first stages of the French Revolution. It dissolved on 30 September 1791 and was succeeded by the Legislative Assembly. The Estates-General of 1789, "(Etats Généraux)" made up of representatives of the three estates (clergy, aristocracy, and commoners), which had not been convoked since 1614, convened on 5 May 1789. The Estates-General reached a deadlock in its deliberations by 6 May. The representatives of the Third Estate attempted to make the whole body more effective and so met separately from

neg: Antoine Claire Thibaudeau Antoine Claire Thibaudeau Antoine Claire, Comte Thibaudeau (23 March 17658 March 1854) was a French politician. He was the son of Antoine de Thibaudeau (1739–1813), who was a lawyer of Poitiers and a deputy to the Estates-General of 1789. He was admitted to the bar in 1787, and in 1789 accompanied his father to the Estates-General at Versailles. When he returned to Poitiers in October he immediately set up a local revolutionary club, and in 1792 was returned as a deputy to the National Convention. Thibaudeau joined the party of the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI

neg: François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas François-Antoine, Count of the Empire (1756–1828) was a French writer, lawyer and politician during the Revolution and the Empire. Born to a Protestant family in Saint-Jean-Chambre, Ardèche, he studied Law and, after literary attempts, became a lawyer to the "parlement" of Paris. In 1789 he was elected by the Third Estate of the "sénéchaussee" of Annonay as deputy to the Estates-General. He was one of those who induced the Estates-General to proclaim itself a National Assembly on 17 June 1789, and approved, in several speeches, of the storming of the Bastille and of the taking

neg: Joseph-Henri baron de Jessé Estates-General by the sénéchaussée Béziers, to serve as a deputy of the nobility. The Estates-General soon reached a deadlock. The Third Estate, or Commoners, broke away during June and formed its own assembly. Jessé was amongst those who helped persuade the three orders of Clergy, Nobility and Commoners to eventually reunite and form the National Constituent Assembly, which was declared on 9 July 1789. The Bastille was stormed, and fell on 14 July 1789. The people of Paris believed that weapons and gunpowder were being stored in the Bastille, and fearing the city was about to be placed under military

neg: Louis Marc Antoine de Noailles Louis Marc Antoine de Noailles Louis-Marie, vicomte de Noailles (17 April 1756 Paris – 7 January 1804 Havana) was the second son of Philippe, duc de Mouchy, and a member of Mouchy branch of the famous Noailles family of the French aristocracy. He served under his brother-in-law the Marquis de Lafayette in America during the American War for Independence, and was the officer who concluded the capitulation of Yorktown in 1781. He was elected to the Estates-General in 1789. On 4 August 1789, during the French Revolution, he began the famous "orgy" (as Mirabeau called it) when feudalism was to

neg: Tennis Court Oath Tennis Court Oath On 20 June 1789, the members of the French Third Estate, who had begun to call themselves the National Assembly, took the Tennis Court Oath (), vowing "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established". It was a pivotal event in the French Revolution. The Estates-General had been called to address the country's fiscal and agricultural crisis, but immediately after convening in May 1789, they had become bogged down in issues of representation—particularly, whether they would vote by head (which would increase the power of the Third Estate,

neg: Fourth Estate powers of regency to "a fourth estate: the queen". This was reported by Burke, who, as noted above, went on to use the phrase with the meaning of "press". In his novel "The Fourth Estate", Jeffrey Archer wrote: "In May 1789, Louis XVI summoned to Versailles a full meeting of the 'Estates General'. The First Estate consisted of three hundred clergy. The Second Estate, three hundred nobles. The Third Estate, six hundred commoners." The book is a fictionalization from episodes in the lives of two real-life Press Barons, Robert Maxwell and Rupert Murdoch. Fourth Estate The term Fourth Estate (or

neg: Journal des débats Petit Journal". The many contributions established the "Journal"s reputation as a major influence on French culture, and especially French literature for the first half of the 19th century. During the German occupation, the "Journal" continued to be published, which caused it to be suppressed after the Liberation of Paris in 1944. Journal des débats The Journal des débats (French for: Journal of Debates) was a French newspaper, published between 1789 and 1944 that changed title several times. Created shortly after the first meeting of the Estates-General of 1789, it was, after the outbreak of the French Revolution, the exact record

neg: Journal des débats Journal des débats The Journal des débats (French for: Journal of Debates) was a French newspaper, published between 1789 and 1944 that changed title several times. Created shortly after the first meeting of the Estates-General of 1789, it was, after the outbreak of the French Revolution, the exact record of the debates of the National Assembly, under the title "Journal des Débats et des Décrets" ("Journal of Debates and Decrees"). Published weekly rather than daily, it was headed for nearly forty years by Bertin l'Aîné and was owned for a long time by the Bertin family. During the First Empire

neg: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Albi resign canonically, however, until 2 March 1802. The electors of Tarn, meeting at Castres on 13 March 1791, chose in his place Jean-Joachim Gausserand, who was a Beneficier of the Cathedral Chapter of Albi and Promoter Forain of the district of Gaillac. He had been elected a deputy to the Estates General of 1789, and had taken the constitutional oath on 27 December 1790. He was consecrated a Constitutional Bishop in Paris at Notre Dame on 3 April 1791 by Constitutuonal Bishop Antoine-Adrien Lamourette. The consecration was valid, but canonically irregular, schismatic, and blasphemous (as a parody of genuine Catholic

neg: Estates General (France) Necker's report to the "conseil du roi" according to which the convocation of 1789 was decided, said (as did the declaration of 23 June), that on matters of common interest the deputies of the three orders could deliberate together, if each of the others decided by a separate vote in favour of this, and if the king consented. The working of the Estates General led to an almost exclusive system of deliberation by committees. There were, it is true, solemn general sessions, called "séances royales", because the king presided; but at these there was no discussion. At the first, the

neg: History of tennis that accompanied the French Revolution. The Tennis Court Oath (Serment du Jeu de Paume) was a pivotal event during the first days of the French Revolution. The Oath was a pledge signed by 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General on 20 June 1789. Any history of tennis that ignores its origins in the game that was (and is still in certain circles) known as tennis until "lawn tennis" became popular in the late nineteenth century is inaccurate. The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams,

neg: Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette Estates: clergy, nobility, and commons, meaning the much larger commons was generally outvoted. The Estates General convened on 5 May 1789; debate began on whether the delegates should vote by head or by Estate. If by Estate, then the nobility and clergy would be able to outvote the commons; if by head, then the larger Third Estate could dominate. Before the meeting, as a member of the "Committee of Thirty", Lafayette agitated for voting by head, rather than estate. He could not get a majority of his own Estate to agree, but the clergy was willing to join with the

neg: Roman Catholic Diocese of Pamiers new "Diocese of Ariège" was created, with its center at Pamiers. When the Estates General had been summoned in 1789, the legitimate bishop of Pamiers, Joseph-Mathieu d'Agoult, behaved in such an authoritarian and aristocratic way when the "cahiers" (Notes of complaints and recommendations) were being drawn up that his own clergy refused to elect him as their representative for the meeting in Paris, and chose Canon Bernard Font instead. Canon Font's brother was one of the members of the Assembly who drew up the plan for the new departments. Font was elected bishop of Ariège in 1791, and consecrated at

neg: Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau of the Second Estate), but was rejected. He appealed instead to the Third Estate and was elected to the Estates-General in both Aix and Marseilles. He chose to accept the seat for the former city, and was present at the opening of the Estates-General on 4 May 1789. From this time onward, Mirabeau took a very prominent role in the deliberations of the National Constituent Assembly. Among a large crowd of unfamiliar politicians in the Estates General, Mirabeau was one figure who stood out. He was widely known to the French public, and not only did the people place great

neg: Estates of the realm an invitation to revolution. By June, when continued impasses led to further deterioration in relations, the Estates-General was reconstituted first as the National Assembly (June 17, 1789) seeking a solution for the realm independent of the King's management of the meetings of the Estates General which occasionally continued to meet. These self-organized meetings are today defined as the epoch event beginning the historical epoch (era) of the French Revolution, during which – after several more weeks of civil unrest – the body assumed a new status as a revolutionary legislature, the National Constituent Assembly (July 9, 1789). This unitary body

neg: Louis XVI of France last-ditch attempt to get new monetary reforms approved, Louis XVI convoked the Estates-General on 8 August 1788, setting the date of their opening on 1 May 1789. With the convocation of the Estates-General, as in many other instances during his reign, Louis XVI placed his reputation and public image in the hands of those who were perhaps not as sensitive to the desires of the French population as he was. Because it had been so long since the Estates-General had been convened, there was some debate as to which procedures should be followed. Ultimately, the "Parlement de Paris" agreed that

neg: Estates of Burgundy Estates of Burgundy In Burgundy, under the Ancien Régime, impôts, aides and subsides as well as the provincial economic administration were, at least in theory, put under a general assembly which occurred every three years - the Estates of Burgundy (often called the Estates General of Burgundy, in contrast to the different "États particuliers" which were subordinate to it). The Estates' decisions were then executed by the Élus (known as the Élus généraux, in contrast to the Élus of the États particuliers), meeting in the Chambre des élus. The Estates of Burgundy are often described by historians of the estates

neg: The Estates some countries, the parliament kept the same name when its feudal organization was replaced with a more modern kind of representation, like census or universal suffrage. In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates was replaced with the Riksdag in 1866. The Estates The Estates or the States (, , ) was the assembly of the representatives of the estates of the realm, the divisions of society in feudal times, called together for purposes of deliberation, legislation or taxation. A meeting of the estates that covered an entire kingdom was called an estates general. The first estate was the clergy, the

neg: Style of the French sovereign lordships of Béarn, Andorra and Donezan, which were considered attached to the Crown of Navarre), the Bourbon Kings of France customarily used the title 'King of France and Navarre'. In the troubles of 1789, Navarre - being a distinct Kingdom - by order of the Navarrese estates refused to elect representatives to the Estates General of France, instead sending four representatives of the Estates to Versailles at the 'invitation' of the King; these representatives, arriving in July 1789, refused to sit with the National Assembly, and instead the Navarrese estates attempted to revoke the 1620 Union. This was denied, and

neg: Estates General of 1789 Commons. The Third Estate elections returned predominantly magistrates and lawyers. The lower levels of society, the landless, working men, though present in large numbers in street gangs, were totally absent from the Estates-General, as the King had called for "the most notable persons". The grievances returned were mainly about taxes, which the people considered a crushing burden. Consequently, the people and the King were totally at odds from the very beginning. Aristocratic privilege was also attacked. The people resented the fact that nobles could excuse themselves from most of the burden of taxation and service that fell on the ordinary

neg: Estates of Burgundy provincial. Estates of Burgundy In Burgundy, under the Ancien Régime, impôts, aides and subsides as well as the provincial economic administration were, at least in theory, put under a general assembly which occurred every three years - the Estates of Burgundy (often called the Estates General of Burgundy, in contrast to the different "États particuliers" which were subordinate to it). The Estates' decisions were then executed by the Élus (known as the Élus généraux, in contrast to the Élus of the États particuliers), meeting in the Chambre des élus. The Estates of Burgundy are often described by historians of the

neg: Estates General (France) the Estates General session. According to the model of 1614, the Estates General would consist of equal numbers of representatives of each Estate, but the Third Estate demanded, and ultimately received, double representation, which they already had in the provincial assemblies. When the Estates General convened in Versailles on 5 May 1789, however, it became clear that the double representation was something of a sham: voting was to occur "by orders", which meant that the collective vote of the 578 representatives of the Third Estate would be weighed the same as that of each of the other Estates. Royal efforts

neg: French Revolution a tithe—a 10% tax on income, often collected in the form of crops—on the general population, only a fraction of which it then redistributed to the poor. Resentment towards the Church weakened its power during the opening of the Estates General in May 1789. The Church composed the First Estate with 130,000 members of the clergy. When the National Assembly was later created in June 1789 by the Third Estate, the clergy voted to join them, which perpetuated the destruction of the Estates General as a governing body. The National Assembly began to enact social and economic reform. Legislation sanctioned

neg: Emmanuel Marie Michel Philippe Fréteau de Saint-Just to the Estates General 20 March 1789. Once at Versailles, he quickly joined the liberal nobles such as the marquis de Lafayette and the comte de Clermont-Tonnerre who wanted to challenge absolutism and combine the three orders in a National Assembly. He was a strong supporter of the constitutional monarchy, and it was he who proposed to give the King the title of "King of the French". He twice served early on as president of the National Assembly (10–28 October 1789; 5–22 December 1789). After the attack on the Tuileries by the mobs of Paris (10 August 1792), in disagreement

neg: The Estates The Estates The Estates or the States (, , ) was the assembly of the representatives of the estates of the realm, the divisions of society in feudal times, called together for purposes of deliberation, legislation or taxation. A meeting of the estates that covered an entire kingdom was called an estates general. The first estate was the clergy, the second the nobility and the third the commoners, although actual membership in the third estate varied from country to country. Bourgeoisie, peasants and people with no estate from birth were separated in Sweden and Finland as late as in 1905.

neg: Estates General of 1789 people. A third type complained that the ubiquitous tolls and duties levied by the nobility hindered internal commerce. On 5 May 1789, amidst general festivities, the Estates-General convened in an elaborate but temporary "Île des États" set up in one of the courtyards of the official Hôtel des Menus Plaisirs in the town of Versailles near the royal château. With the "étiquette" of 1614 strictly enforced, the clergy and nobility ranged in tiered seating in their full regalia, while the physical locations of the deputies from the Third Estate were at the far end, as dictated by the protocol. When

neg: Estates of Béarn Estates of Béarn The Estates of Béarn are the former Provincial Estates of Béarn. It was formed following the death of Gaston III/X of Foix-Béarn, alias Gaston Phoebus, on , as a sort of Extraordinary Assembly, regrouping the representatives of the various courts of Béarn, most notably those of the "Cour des Communautés" and of the "" that had been disbanded by Gaston Phoebus. It assembled for the first time on and held its last meeting from . When the National Assembly abolished all privileges on 4 August 1789, an exception was made allowing the Estates of Béarn to express

neg: Antoine Barnave explained his political position in a pamphlet entitled "Esprit des édits, Enregistrés militairement, le 20 mai 1788". He was immediately elected deputy, with his father, to the Estates General of Dauphiné, and played a prominent role in their debates. A few months later he became better known, when the Estates-General of 1789 convened in Versailles on 5 May 1789, and Barnave was chosen to be a deputy of the Third Estate for his native province of Dauphiné. He soon rose to prominence in the National Assembly, becoming the friend of most of the leaders of the party originating in the

neg: Jacobin powers and/or supporters of extensive government intervention to transform society. It is also used in other related senses, indicating proponents of a state education system which strongly promotes and inculcates civic values and proponents of a strong nation-state capable of resisting any undesirable foreign interference. When the Estates General of 1789 in France was convened in May–June 1789 at the Palace of Versailles, the club, originated as the "Club Breton", was composed exclusively of a group of Breton representatives attending those Estates General. They soon were joined by deputies from other regions throughout France. Among early members were the dominating

neg: Storming of the Bastille Louis XVI, France faced a major economic crisis, caused in part by the cost of intervening in the American Revolution, and exacerbated by a regressive system of taxation. On 5 May 1789, the Estates General of 1789 convened to deal with this issue, but were held back by archaic protocols and the conservatism of the second estate: representing the nobility who made up less than 2% of France's population. On 17 June 1789, the third estate, with its representatives drawn from the commoners, reconstituted themselves as the National Assembly, a body whose purpose was the creation of a French constitution.

neg: Society of the Friends of the Blacks responded to criticism written by pro-slaver Arthur Dillon, Député de la Martinique, and owner of a large plantation. In 1789, the royal government had requested petitions of grievances from all parts of the country. During the election of representatives to the Estates-General, Condorcet asked for a demand for abolition of the slave trade to be included in these cahiers de doléances. Out of the 600 cahiers assembled, fewer than 50 called for an end to the slave trade and slavery. Society member Abbé Grégoire recommended in the fall of 1789 that two deputies to the Assembly be chosen from the

neg: Estates of Béarn of noble offices or commissions granted by the King, most notably: Estates of Béarn The Estates of Béarn are the former Provincial Estates of Béarn. It was formed following the death of Gaston III/X of Foix-Béarn, alias Gaston Phoebus, on , as a sort of Extraordinary Assembly, regrouping the representatives of the various courts of Béarn, most notably those of the "Cour des Communautés" and of the "" that had been disbanded by Gaston Phoebus. It assembled for the first time on and held its last meeting from . When the National Assembly abolished all privileges on 4 August 1789,

neg: Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville was elected as a deputy to the Estates General of 1789 and was one of the 47 deputies from the nobility who joined forces with the Third Estate on 25 June 1789. He proposed article XI of the 1789 Declaration - that article was adopted. Worried by the turn of events, he became a member of his department's directory after the Constituent Assembly split. He opposed Pétion and after the events of 10th August 1792 he resigned and left Paris to escape the people's anger. He was arrested at Gisors whilst escorting his wife and mother from Forges to the

neg: Joseph-Ignace Guillotin a member, along with Benjamin Franklin and others. In December 1788, Guillotin drafted a pamphlet entitled "Petition of the Citizens Living in Paris", concerning the proper constitution of the States-General. As a result, he was summoned by the French parliament to give an account of his opinions, which served to increase his popularity. On 2 May 1789, he became one of 10 Paris deputies in the Estates-General of 1789 and was secretary to the body from June 1789 to October 1791. As a member of the assembly, Guillotin mainly directed his attention towards medical reform. On 10 October 1789, during

neg: Cahiers de doléances to have their voices heard – the chance to express their hopes and grievances directly to the King. They were explicitly discussed at a special meeting of the Estates-General held on May 5, 1789. Many of these lists have survived and provide considerable information about the state of the country on the eve of the revolution. The documents recorded criticisms of government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting rights of the aristocracy. While the cahiers conveyed the grievances of common people, they were not meant to directly challenge the Old Regime. They were instead suggestions of

neg: Réveillon riots lower wages and, as a result, there would be lower prices. Workers were concerned with food shortages, high unemployment, and low wages after a difficult winter in 1789. However, Réveillon was known for his benevolence towards the poor and actually stated that bread prices should be brought down to those that people could afford (below 15 sous a day) but his comments were misinterpreted as wage restrictions. He made the comments on 21 April when the assembly of the Saint-Marguerite was discussing its "Cahier" which all Estates drew up before the Estates-General was to be called. After informal protests on

neg: Joseph Martin-Dauch Estates-General ended, Martin-Dauch retired to Toulouse. He was thrown in prison during the Reign of Terror, but was afterwards released. He was saved from the guillotine when he gave a false name to revolutionary authorities. He survived at least one assassination attempt. Joseph Martin-Dauch Joseph Martin-Dauch, (26 May 1741 – 5 July 1801) was a French politician who represented Castelnaudary as a member of the Third Estate in the Estates-General of 1789. He is remembered as the only member not to vote in favor of the Tennis Court Oath on the grounds that he could not faithfully execute any decisions

neg: Isaac René Guy le Chapelier and effectively barred guilds and trade unions in France until 1864. In May, 1789, when the Estates General were still meeting, Le Chapelier was one of the founders of the Breton Club, a collection of deputies initially all hailing from his home province of Brittany, but which in the weeks to come drew all sorts of deputies sharing a more radical ideology. After the October Days (5–6 October) and the National Assembly moved to Paris, the Breton Club rented a Dominican monastery and became the Jacobin Club; Le Chapelier was the first president. Like many radical deputies, Le Chapelier wished

neg: Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès mayor of Montepellier) as Councillor in the court of accounts and finances in Toulouse. He was a supporter of the French Revolution of 1789, and was elected as an extra deputy to represent the nobility of Montpellier (in case the government doubled the nobility's delegation) at the meeting of the Estates-General at Versailles. However, since the delegation was not increased, he never took his seat. In 1792, he represented the department of Hérault at the National Convention which assembled and proclaimed the First French Republic in September 1792. In revolutionary terms, Cambacérès was a moderate republican and sat left of

neg: Maria Theresa of Savoy her mother, died while the court was at Choisy-le-Roi at the age of just 6 months. Prior to the meeting of the Estates General, every member of the Royal Family was publicly mocked by libelous verses, in which Maria Theresa was claimed to have given birth to an illegitimate child. Maria Theresa left France with her spouse after the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, which marked the beginning of the French Revolution, and took refuge in her homeland of Savoy. She left one week after her spouse with a retinue of thirty people, and since she had

neg: Souppes-sur-Loing to be hauled, pulled by horses, up the Loing River as far as the Seine. To eliminate this difficult leg of the journey, the Loing Canal, parallel to the river, was built by the Royal Marine Regiment. It was completed in 1724 under Louis XV. The port of Souppes, on the canal, became an important shipping point for local products to Paris. The local priest of Souppes, Anne Alexander Marie Thibault, played a small but notable role in the French Revolution. He was elected to represent the clergy of the region at the meeting of the Estates-General of 1789. He

neg: Estates General (France) sat in Paris in 1593 and whose chief object was to elect a Catholic king, were not a success. The Estates General again met in Paris in 1614, on the occasion of the disturbances that followed the death of Henry IV; however, though their minutes bear witness to their sentiments of exalted patriotism, dissensions between the three orders rendered them weak. They dissolved before completing their work and were not summoned again until 1789. As to the question whether the Estates General formed one or three chambers for the purposes of their working, from the constitutional point of view the

neg: Pierre-Charles Laurent de Villedeuil was Brienne who actually acted as finance minister, with Villedeuil doing the work under his control - the latter left the role only four months later, pleading ill health. During his short time in the role, the measures he put in places did not prove sufficient to rectify the situation or to avoid the assembly of the Estates General. Opposing the Estates General, he left for England in July 1789 but returned to France in 1792 to plan Louis XVI's escape after the failure of his attempt to flee at Varennes. After Louis' execution he emigrated to Scotland and only

neg: Assembly of Vizille Dauphiné. Demanded at this meeting: the Convocation in Paris of an Estates-General (a form of national parliament). This meeting marked the first portion of the French Revolution. Opposition to absolutist monarchy finally came out into the open, with increasing support for its demands, culminating in the meeting of the Estates General. Assembly of Vizille The Assembly of Vizille or Estates General of Dauphiné was the result of a meeting of various representatives in Grenoble. Its purpose was to discuss the events of The Day Of The Tiles, one of the first revolts preceding the French Revolution. On 7 June 1788,

neg: Estates General of 1789 the Third Estate, but on this occasion he spoke only about the fiscal situation, leaving it to Barentin to speak on how the Estates-General was to operate. Trying to avoid the issue of representation and to focus solely on taxes, the King and his ministers had gravely misjudged the situation. The Third Estate wanted the estates to meet as one body and for each delegate to have one vote. The other two estates, while having their own grievances against royal absolutism, believed – correctly, as history was to prove – that they stood to lose more power to the Third

neg: Estates General of 1789 25 years and older, property owners, and registered taxpayers. They could be native or naturalized citizens. The number of delegates elected was about 1,200, half of whom formed the Third Estate. The First and Second Estates had 300 each. But French society had changed since 1614, and these Estates-General were not identical to those of 1614. Members of the nobility were not required to stand for election to the Second Estate, and many of them were elected to the Third Estate. The total number of nobles in the three Estates was about 400. Noble representatives of the Third Estate were

neg: Estates General of 1789 redefined as the National Assembly, an assembly not of the estates, but of the people. They invited the other orders to join them but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them. As their numbers exceeded the combined numbers of the other estates, they could dominate any combined assembly. The King tried to resist. Under the influence of the courtiers of his privy council, he resolved to go in state to the Assembly, annul its decrees, command the separation of the orders, and dictate the reforms to be effected by the restored Estates-General.

neg: Debate chamber Estates General, a legislative and consultative assembly of the different classes (or "estates") of French subjects. In the 18th Century French Revolution, this was transformed into the National Assembly (1789), the National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791), the Legislative Assembly (1971-1792), the National Convention (1792-1795), the Council of Five Hundred (1795-1799), and eventually the tricameral (three-house) French Consulate during the reign of Napolean Bonaparte. These bodies met in a variety of palaces, a riding academy, a large theater, and a tennis court. In the late 18th century the United States of America established the U.S. Congress, a bicameral legislative model that would

neg: France in the long nineteenth century 18th century had produced chronic financial problems. Deteriorating economic conditions, popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics, and a lack of alternate avenues for change were among the principal causes for convoking the Estates-General which convened in Versailles in 1789. On May 28, 1789 the Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, and then voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly

neg: French Revolution people. The Estates-General was organised into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. It had last met in 1614. Elections were held in the spring of 1789; suffrage requirements for the Third Estate were for French-born or naturalised males, aged 25 years or more, who resided where the vote was to take place and who paid taxes. Strong turnout produced 1,201 delegates, including 303 clergy, 291 nobles and 610 members of the Third Estate. The First Estate represented 100,000 Catholic clergy; the Church owned about 10% of the land and collected its own taxes (the tithe)

neg: Antoine Marie Roederer Antoine Marie Roederer Antoine-Marie Roederer (14 May 1782 - 15 March 1865) was a French administrator and writer who served as Prefect of Trasimène under the First French Empire and was made a Peer of France by Louis-Philippe in 1845. In the Nobility of the First French Empire Roederer was created a Baron by Napoleon. The son of Pierre Louis Roederer and his wife Ève Régine Louise Walburge de Guaita, Antoine-Marie was born on 14 May 1782 in Metz, where his father was a councillor to the parlement. Elected to the Estates General of 1789 in 1789,Pierre Louis Roederer played

neg: Levée en masse This was unpopular with the peasant communities on which it fell, and was one of their grievances which they expected to be addressed by the French Estates-General when it was convened in 1789, to strengthen the French monarchy. When this instead led to the French Revolution, the "milice" was duly abolished by the National Assembly. As early as 1789, leaders had considered how they would sustain their Revolutionary army. In December, Dubois de Crancé, who was both “a man of the left” and “a military man, having served as a King’s Musketeer,” spoke to the National Assembly on behalf of

neg: Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe after the friendship between Marie Antoinette and Polignac had started to deteriorate. At this point, Lamballe and her sister-in-law joined in with the Parliament to petition on behalf of the duke of Orléans, who was exiled. In the spring of 1789, Lamballe was present in Versailles to participate in the ceremonies around the Estates General of 1789 in France. Marie Thérèse was by nature reserved and, at court, she had the reputation of being a prude. However, in popular anti-monarchist propaganda of the time, she was regularly portrayed in pornographic pamphlets, showing her as the Queen's lesbian lover to undermine

neg: Jean Sylvain Bailly Oriental Astronomy" (1787). Though his works were "universally admired" by contemporaries, later commentators have remarked that "their erudition was… marred by speculative extravagances." In a short period of time, Bailly made his way up the judicial ranks. From being the deputy of Paris, he was elected Estates-General on 20 May 1789. Soon after he was elected inaugural president of the National Assembly (3 June 1789) and led the famous proceedings in the Tennis Court on 20 June, being the first to take the Tennis Court Oath. In the National Assembly (French Revolution) Bailly was one of the deputies who secured

neg: Estates General (France) point was never decided. What the king required was to have the consent, the resolution of the three estates of the realm; it was in reality of little importance to him whether their resolutions expressed themselves in common or separately. At the Estates General of 1484 the elections were made in common for the three orders, and the deputies also arrived at their resolutions in common. But after 1560 the rule was that each order deliberate separately; the royal declaration of 23 June 1789 (at the outbreak of the French Revolution) even stated that they formed three distinct chambers. But

neg: Maximilien Robespierre the Third Estate. Although the leading members of the established provincial estates of Artois were elected to the Estates-General, Robespierre succeeded in getting elected with them – even though he was their chief opponent. In the assembly of the "bailliage", rivalry ran still higher, but Robespierre had begun to make his mark in politics with the of 1789. With this, he secured the support of the country electors. Although he was only thirty, comparatively poor, and lacking patronage, he was elected as the fifth deputy of the Third Estate of Artois to the Estates-General. When Robespierre arrived at Versailles few

neg: Marie Thérèse of France the Dauphin, Louis-Joseph, who died of tuberculosis, on 4 June 1789, one day after the opening of the Estates-General. When the Bastille was stormed by an armed mob on 14 July 1789, the situation reached a climax. The life of the 10-year-old "Madame Royale" began to be affected as several members of the royal household were sent abroad for their own safety. The comte d'Artois, her uncle, and the "duchesse de Polignac", governess to the royal children, emigrated on the orders of Louis XVI. The "Duchesse de Polignac" was replaced by the "marquise de Tourzel", whose daughter Pauline became a

neg: Stanislas Marie Adélaïde, comte de Clermont-Tonnerre He was elected to the Estates-General of 1789 by the Second Estate of Paris, and was the spokesman of the minority of Liberal nobles (including the duc d'Orléans and the marquis de Lafayette) who joined the Third Estate on the 25th of June. In July 1789, Stanislas wrote and shared two propositions based on varying cahiers from across the Assembly, one known as the "Rapport du Comité de Constitution". Both liberals and conservatives alike felt the proposals were not rooted in the best interest of either faction. He was chiefly concerned with keeping the kingdom intact, yet he voted for

neg: Achille Pierre Dionis du Séjour Séjour died in Vernou-la-Celle-sur-Seine. Achille Pierre Dionis du Séjour Achille Pierre Dionis du Séjour (January 11, 1734 – August 22, 1794) was a French astronomer and mathematician. Dionis du Séjour was born in Paris and was a distant relative of surgeon and anatomist Pierre Dionis. He served as an advisor to parliament before he was appointed to the French Academy of Sciences in 1765. He was appointed to the Paris group for the Estates-General of 1789 and was one of the 47 who joined the Estates of the Realm that year. In 1775 he was elected a Fellow of the

neg: Achille Pierre Dionis du Séjour Achille Pierre Dionis du Séjour Achille Pierre Dionis du Séjour (January 11, 1734 – August 22, 1794) was a French astronomer and mathematician. Dionis du Séjour was born in Paris and was a distant relative of surgeon and anatomist Pierre Dionis. He served as an advisor to parliament before he was appointed to the French Academy of Sciences in 1765. He was appointed to the Paris group for the Estates-General of 1789 and was one of the 47 who joined the Estates of the Realm that year. In 1775 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Dionis du

neg: National Assembly (French Revolution) deliberation for the three orders, which constitutionally formed three chambers. This move failed; soon that part of the deputies of the nobles who still stood apart joined the National Assembly at the request of the king. The Estates-General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly (and after 9 July 1789, the National Constituent Assembly), though these bodies consisted of the same deputies elected by the separate orders. Messages of support poured into the Assembly from Paris and other French cities. On 9 July 1789, the Assembly, reconstituting itself as the National Constituent Assembly, addressed the king in polite

neg: Laborie widely spoken. Laborie Laborie is a village on the south coast of Saint Lucia. It was originally called l'Islet a Caret after the Loggerhead sea turtles that were found in the area. The name Laborie is named after Baron de Laborie who was the French governor of Saint Lucia from 1784–1789. At that time the village had a population of 712. The French introduced large estates to the island and after the British took control of the island in 1814, many French landowners remained on their estates. In 1838 the first school was opened. Known as the "Mico School" because

neg: Laborie Laborie Laborie is a village on the south coast of Saint Lucia. It was originally called l'Islet a Caret after the Loggerhead sea turtles that were found in the area. The name Laborie is named after Baron de Laborie who was the French governor of Saint Lucia from 1784–1789. At that time the village had a population of 712. The French introduced large estates to the island and after the British took control of the island in 1814, many French landowners remained on their estates. In 1838 the first school was opened. Known as the "Mico School" because it was

neg: Claude de Longwy de Givry the Estates of the Mâconnais; this was the first time that the Bailly of Macon did not preside at a meeting of the Estates, the privilege being given by the Letters of Convocation on this occasion to Bishop de Longuy personally. Obviously he was highly trusted by the King's Regency Council. On 7 July 1527 the Bishop was present at a meeting of the Estates of Auxonne. In 1527 Claude de Longwy served as Vicar General of Archbishop François de Rohan of Lyon in the council held in Lyon to raise money for the ransom of King Francis I, who

neg: 1562 Riots of Toulouse the execution of this decision was in question." Though the Council edict was not viewed as a success, they did decide that there would be conference between Catholic bishops and reformed ministers (who would be granted safe conduct) to meet at Poissy. Originally scheduled for August 18 the Colloquy at Poissy would be postponed until October due to a meeting of the Estates General on the state of French finances. At the meeting of General Estates on August 26 the third estate continued to deride the cost the upkeep of the Catholic clergy was having on the merchants and bourgeoisie.

neg: French Revolution He asserted: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing. What does it want to be? Something." The Estates-General convened in the Grands Salles des Menus-Plaisirs in Versailles on 5 May 1789 and opened with a three-hour speech by Necker. The Third Estate demanded that the credentials of deputies should be verified by all deputies, rather than each estate verifying the credentials of its own members, but negotiations with the other estates failed to achieve this. The commoners appealed to the clergy, who asked for more time. Necker then stated that

neg: Estates of Béarn their consent. Deliberations took place in a charged atmosphere, and in the end the decree of 4 August 1789 was approved on 28 October 1789. The Estates of Béarn were composed of two orders: the ""First Order"" and the ""Second Order"". The "First Order" was the chamber of the clergy and of the nobility. Its members were: The "Second Order" was the chamber of the Estates of the Realm. It was composed of the representatives of the province's 480 communes, represented by forty-two mayors and jurats of the main communes of Béarn, who were appointed, not elected, and generally owners

neg: Estates General (France) bourgeoisie, the peasants, and everyone else in France. Unlike the First and Second Estates, the Third Estate were compelled to pay taxes, but the bourgeoisie found one way or another to be exempt from them. The heavy burden of the French government therefore fell upon the poorest in French society—the peasantry, the working poor, and the farmers. There was much resentment from the Third Estate towards its superiors. In 1789, the Estates General was summoned for the first time since 1614. As Fénelon had wished in former days, an Assembly of Notables in 1787 (which already displayed great independence) preceded

neg: Estates General of 1789 Parlement of Paris, an aristocratic advisory body to the King, had decided that the organization of the convention would be the same as in 1614, the last time the Estates had met. As 175 years had gone by since then it is clear the Estates were not a functional institution in French society. By reviving them as much as possible like they had been the King and the Parlement intended to control the authority of the people. The previous Estates had voted by order; that is, the Nobles and the Clergy could together outvote the Commons by 2 to 1.

neg: Jean-Nicolas Démeunier months after Démeunier's death. Supporter of the French Revolution, he was elected (16 May 1789) by the Third Estate of the city of Paris to the Estates General with 133 votes. When the conservative members of the Constitutional Committee resigned mid-September 1789, he was one of the deputies selected to replace them. He served a turn as President (22 December 1789 - 3 January 1790) of the National Assembly. It was as a member of the Constitutional Committee that Démeunier had the biggest impact. He presented to the Assembly on behalf of the Committee a report (7 March 1791) on

neg: Guillaume Benoît Couderc Guillaume Benoît Couderc Guillaume Benoît Couderc (7 July 1741 in Lyon—9 May 1809 in Lyon), was a French businessman, merchant and politician. He was a member of the Estates General of 1789 and of the National Constituent Assembly. He was the son of Jean Couderc and Elisabeth Vernet. He was born in a banker family from Switzerland. He worked as a merchant and banker in Lyon. He was a member of the Third Estate commission elected in January 1789 to prepare the "cahiers de doléances" (registers of grievances). On March 30, 1789, he was elected a Third Estate representative to

neg: Antoinette Saint-Huberty his own room there. D'Antraigues was hardly the most faithful of lovers: Duckworth maintains that he was conducting a simultaneous affair with at least one of the ladies at court. Prior to the French Revolution, d'Antraigues had been broadly in sympathy with many of the ideas which, in 1789, were to become revolutionary ideals. On 4 April 1789 he was elected to the Estates General as a representative of the "noblesse" of the province of Vivarais. However, later in 1789, his attitude underwent a profound change, and he became a counter-revolutionary. On 27 February 1790, after becoming implicated in a

neg: Gilles-François de Graimberg de Belleau Gilles-François de Graimberg de Belleau Gilles-François, count of Graimberg, lord of Belleau, viscount of Vaustin (28 March 1748 – 4 May 1823) was a French officer and politician. He is also notable as the father of the artist Charles de Graimberg. He was born at Belleau Castle and became an officer in the régiment du Roi-Infanterie, then a lieutenant to the Marshals of France. On 13 May 1789 he was elected to the Estates General of 1789 as a noble deputy for the bailiwick of Château-Thierry. He sat in his order's minority and on 30 June 1789 wrote a declaration

neg: Jacques Antoine Creuzé-Latouche 31 March 1789 Creuzé-Latouche was elected deputy to represent the third estate of Châtellerault in the Estates-General of 1789. He was not active in the tribune but was active in committee work. He specialized in matters of finance and economics. As a member of the committee on coins he was a strong defender of the assignat, whose fate he linked to that of the French Revolution. After the National Constituent Assembly formed on 9 July 1789 Creuzé-Latouche became judge of the High Court of Orleans, while continuing to play an active role in the Châtellerault Jacobin Society. In 1790 he

neg: Club Breton 1789, the club reverted to being a provincial caucus for National Constituent Assembly deputies from Brittany. As of October 1789, the group rented for its meetings the refectory of the monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue Saint-Honoré, adjacent to the seat of the Assembly. The name "Jacobins", given in France to the Dominicans (because their first house in Paris was in the Rue Saint-Jacques), was first applied to the club in ridicule by its enemies. Club Breton The Club Breton was a group of Bretons representatives attending the Estates General of 1789 in France. They usually met in the

neg: French Revolution each estate should verify its own members' credentials and that the king should act as arbitrator. The middle class were the ones who fanned the flames of revolution. They established the National Assembly and tried to pressure the aristocracy to spread their money evenly between the upper, middle and lower classes. On 10 June 1789 Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the "Communes" (English: "Commons") proceed with verifying its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the

neg: Revolt of Lyon against the National Convention manufacturing. In terms of employment its leading industry was silk weaving, which directly supported a third of the population. The silk industry in 1789 was in crisis, reflecting the wider economic crisis afflicting France at that time. The city was visited by the keen eyed English documentary writer Arthur Young in December of that year: he estimated that 20,000 people were living from charity and starving. Tax riots broke out in June 1789 and again in July 1790. Citizens hoped that the Estates-General of 1789 would cancel the taxation privileges of the city's merchant oligarchs whereby the burden of taxation

neg: Maria Fortunata d'Este in 1786. The latter pair were styled as the Count and Countess of Nettembourg. Ferdinand was a son of Empress Maria Theresa. The Conti couple officially separated in 1777 even though they had lived apart since 1775. In 1780, Marie Fortunée acquired the Château de Triel, a place which would become her favourite haunt. During the crisis of 1789, when the Estates General was called at Versailles, Marie Fortunée supported the royal family and even took part in a march to the Church of Saint Louis. She later escaped revolutionary France under the name of the "comtesse de Triel". After

neg: Jacques-François Menou Jacques Mourad Soliman (born 28 July 1800 in Rosetta, Egypt). Jacques-François Menou Jacques-François de Menou, baron of Boussay, later Abdallah de Menou (3 September 1750 – 13 August 1810) was a French statesman of the French Revolution and general of the French Revolutionary Wars. Born in Boussay in central France to an ancient family, he had already attained the rank of Maréchal de camp in 1789, when he was elected by the Second Estate of the bailiwick of Touraine to the Estates General in 1789. He was a liberal nobleman and supported the reforms of the National Constituent Assembly, of

neg: Jacques-François Menou Jacques-François Menou Jacques-François de Menou, baron of Boussay, later Abdallah de Menou (3 September 1750 – 13 August 1810) was a French statesman of the French Revolution and general of the French Revolutionary Wars. Born in Boussay in central France to an ancient family, he had already attained the rank of Maréchal de camp in 1789, when he was elected by the Second Estate of the bailiwick of Touraine to the Estates General in 1789. He was a liberal nobleman and supported the reforms of the National Constituent Assembly, of which he was elected secretary in December and president for