query: when did the federal government establish a probation system for u.s. district courts

pos: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System The U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System, also called the Office of Probation and Pretrial Services, part of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, is the office of the federal judiciary of the United States. It serves the United States district courts in all 94 federal judicial districts nationwide and constitutes the community corrections arm of the Federal Judiciary. It administers probation and supervised release under United States federal law. The first legislation for Federal Probation Law was introduced in 1908, one of which was prepared by the New York State Probation

pos: John Lee Coulter John Lee Coulter John Lee Coulter (April 16, 1881 – April 16, 1959) was an American academic. He assumed several roles within the federal government, and served as president of the North Dakota Agriculture College from 1921 to 1929. Coulter was born in East Grand Forks, Minnesota, on April 16, 1881, and attended the University of North Dakota before earning his doctorate from the University of Wisconsin in 1908. He began teaching at the University of Minnesota later that year. Coulter started working for the federal government in 1910, leading the U. S. Census of Agriculture. He helped establish the

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System Commission and the National Probation Association (later known as the National Council on Crime and Delinquency) and introduced before Congress by United States Senator Robert L. Owen of Oklahoma. The bill provided for a suspension of a sentence, in U.S. District Court, and a sentence of probation. The bill also provided for compensation of $5 per diem for Federal Probation Officers. This first attempt did not pass and through 1909 to 1925 there were 34 bills introduced to establish federal probation law. In 1925, the Federal Probation Act was introduced by Senator Copeland as S.1042 and Representative Graham as H.R.

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System require prior experience in a similar field, a background suitability investigation, drug test, and medical examination as a pre-requisite for hiring. Federal Probation is unique to other federal law enforcement agencies in that they are regionally aligned to their judicial districts, rather than a single headquarters element. All officers within a district report to their Chief Probation Officer or Chief Pretrial Services Officer, who in turn serves the Chief District Judge. The national element is the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Washington, DC, which provides administrative support to the courts, including staffing and other resources, and enforces policies

neg: Circuit split Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." In 1789, Congress created the first system of intermediate appellate courts, known as federal circuit courts, which had appellate jurisdiction over certain matters decided by District Courts. These federal circuit courts consisted of two justices from the Supreme Court of the United States and one district court judge. In 1891, Congress created the existing system of United States courts of appeals, which hear appeals from United States district courts within limited geographic areas. For example, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit hears appeals originating

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release which would lead to the defendant's ultimate acceptance by society." The 2nd Circuit, in "U.S. v. Myers", ruled that if the liberty interest at stake in a decision involving a condition of release is fundamental, a deprivation of that liberty is "reasonably necessary" only if the deprivation is narrowly tailored to serve a compelling government interest. Courts of appeals have consistently required district courts to set forth factual findings to justify special probation conditions. It is not enough that the required findings are implicit in the record. The District Court is required to give reasons on the record for imposition

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release in the statute's drug-testing provisions and in the reference to community confinement as an authorized condition of supervised release, but the courts upheld legislative intent. United States federal probation and supervised release United States federal probation and supervised release are imposed at sentencing. The difference between probation and supervised release is that the former is imposed as a substitute for imprisonment, or in addition to home detention, while the latter is imposed in addition to imprisonment. Probation and supervised release are both administered by the U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System. Federal probation has existed since 1909, while supervised release

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System Probation. Supervision Officers must enforce court ordered conditions and are mandated to use their discretion and skills to mitigate the offenders risk to society. Both Supervision Officers and Pre-Sentence Investigators deal with a wide range of offenders, many of whom have extensive criminal histories. Federal Probation Officers also represent the United States Department of Justice in the performance of duties connected with federal parole. U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System The U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System, also called the Office of Probation and Pretrial Services, part of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, is the office of

neg: United States Constitution review over the actions of Congress or the executive branch. Two conflicting federal laws are under "pendent" jurisdiction if one presents a strict constitutional issue. Federal court jurisdiction is rare when a state legislature enacts something as under federal jurisdiction. To establish a federal system of national law, considerable effort goes into developing a spirit of comity between federal government and states. By the doctrine of 'Res judicata', federal courts give "full faith and credit" to State Courts. The Supreme Court will decide Constitutional issues of state law only on a case by case basis, and only by strict Constitutional

neg: Law of Canada First Nation reserves), and property and civil rights. The "Constitution Act, 1867" also provides that, while provinces establish their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges. It also gives the federal Parliament the right to establish a court system responsible for federal law and a general court of appeal to hear appeals of decisions of both federal and provincial courts. This last power resulted in the federal Parliament's creation of the Supreme Court of Canada, which is, despite its role as supreme arbiter of all Canadian law, a creation of simple, rather than constitutional, statute. The "Constitution Act,

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release authorized form of punishment of mild nature, and unlike a pardon, it cannot be refused by the convicted person. Federal courts have an inherent power to reduce a sentence, but without Congressional authorization, a federal court has no power to suspend the execution of a sentence which it has imposed or to place the defendant on probation. When this was first announced by the Supreme Court in 1916 in the case of Ex Parte United States, an abrupt halt was brought to a practice which, by then, had become widespread in the federal system, and which had existed for more

neg: Cannabis trafficking penalties for juveniles as deemed fit. The court can also give community service orders, probation orders, as well as require the offender to undergo detention and reformative training. The USA Judicial System consists of three main components: the Law enforcement, the Courts and the Corrections. Crimes fall under two main categories: misdemeanour's, which is less serious and felony, which is more serious. The USA's Court System is structured as follows; County Courts, State Courts and Federal Courts. The Federal Courts consist of the Supreme court and the lower courts (trial courts and appeal courts). The Supreme Court can overthrow any lower courts decision.

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release the defendant in a written statement that is sufficiently clear and specific to serve as a guide for the defendant's conduct and for such supervision as is required. The District Court must state its reasons for imposing a term of supervised release where none is required by statute; appellate courts deem it inappropriate to assume that the sentencing court's reason for imposing a prison term likewise extends to its decision regarding supervised release. The conditions for probation must be reasonably related to the purposes of the Federal Probation Act, and the purposes sought to be served by probation (including rehabilitation

neg: J. Rich Leonard Leonard was heavily involved in federal court administration nationally. He served on the prestigious Judicial Conference Committee on Court Administration and Case Management (CACM). In that capacity, he oversaw the development of the first electronic filing system in the federal courts and played a role in the development of PACER, the public access system to the federal courts. He also served repeatedly as a consultant for the U. S. State Department to emerging judiciaries in sub-Saharan Africa, traveling to Zambia, Tanzania, Namibia, Kenya, and Nigeria more than 30 times. During his time with the bankruptcy court, Leonard was also active

neg: United States district court of Missouri". In contrast to the Supreme Court, which was established by Article III of the Constitution, the district courts were established by Congress. There is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all. Indeed, after the ratification of the Constitution, some opponents of a strong federal judiciary urged that, outside jurisdictions under direct federal control like Washington, D.C. and the territories, the federal court system be limited to the Supreme Court, which would hear appeals from state courts. This view did not prevail, however, and the first Congress created the district court system that is still in place

neg: District of Columbia home rule local justice system is centered on the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, which hears all local civil and criminal cases, and the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, which serves as the highest local appeals court in District of Columbia. Despite the fact that the local courts are technically the third branch of the D.C. government, they are funded and operated by the United States federal government. Though operated by the federal government, the District's local courts are separate from the United States District Court for the District of Columbia and the United States Court of Appeals for

neg: Jonathan Lee Riches Jonathan Lee Riches Jonathan Lee Riches (born December 27, 1976) is a former federal prisoner (inmate #40948-018) known for the many lawsuits he has filed in various United States district courts. Riches was incarcerated at Federal Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky, for wire fraud under the terms of a plea bargain. His release date was April 30, 2012. He was arrested for violating his federal probation in December 2012, when he left the Eastern District of the state of Pennsylvania without permission. He allegedly drove to Connecticut and impersonated the uncle of Adam Lanza, the shooter in the Sandy Hook Elementary

neg: Law report publish unofficial reporters of U.S. Supreme Court opinions. West also publishes the West American Digest System to help lawyers find cases in its reporters. West digests and reporters have always featured a "Key Numbering System" with a unique number for every conceivable legal topic. The U.S. federal government does not publish an official reporter for the federal courts at the circuit and district levels (the sole exception is the D.C. Circuit). However, just as the UK government uses the ICLR reporters by default, the U.S. courts use the unofficial West federal reporters for cases after 1880, which are the "Federal

neg: William Aberhart premiership, Aberhart campaigned for and instituted several anti-poverty and debt relief programs, and other governmental reforms, such as consolidation of Alberta's numerous small school districts into centralized school divisions, and natural resources conservation. His attempts at banking reform met with less success, balked by opposition from the federal government, the courts, privately-owned newspapers and a coalition of the Liberal and Conservative parties. However, he did proceed to establish a government-owned banking chain, the Alberta Treasury Branches, which exist to this day, the only government banking system serving the public in North America. William Aberhart was born December 30, 1878, in

neg: Probation Decision, held that a Federal Judge (Killets) was without power to suspend a sentence indefinitely. This decision led to the passing of the National Probation Act of 1925, thereby, allowing courts to suspend the imposition of incarceration and place an offender on probation. Probation developed from the efforts of a philanthropist, John Augustus, who looked for ways to rehabilitate the behavior of criminals. Massachusetts developed the first statewide probation system in 1878, and by 1920, 21 other states had followed suit. With the passage of the National Probation Act on March 5, 1925, signed by President Calvin Coolidge, the U.S.

neg: Symmetric federalism State capital be located in Guthrie, Oklahoma until at least 1913, as being unconstitutional. However, the U.S. has a number of insular areas directly under the control of the U. S. federal government, with various degrees of autonomy. The District of Columbia is not an insular area, but it is also directly controlled by the federal government with limited autonomy. Symmetric federalism Symmetric federalism refers to a federal system of government in which each constituent state to the federation possess equal powers. In a symmetric federalism no distinction is made between constituent states. This is in contrast to an asymmetric

neg: United States Sentencing Commission United States Sentencing Commission The United States Sentencing Commission is an independent agency of the judicial branch of the federal government of the United States. It is responsible for articulating the sentencing guidelines for the United States federal courts. The Commission promulgates the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, which replaced the prior system of indeterminate sentencing that allowed trial judges to give sentences ranging from probation to the maximum statutory punishment for the offense. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C. The commission was created by the Sentencing Reform Act provisions of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984. The constitutionality of the

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System 5195. The U.S. Senate passed in unanimously but the House passed the law by a vote of 170 in favor and 49 opposed. On March 4, 1925, President Calvin Coolidge, a former Governor of Massachusetts and very familiar with the benefits of a functioning probation system, signed the bill in law. This Act gave the U.S. Courts the power to appoint Federal Probation Officers and authority to sentence defendants to probation instead of a prison sentence. It later gave U.S. Probation Officers the responsibility of supervising offenders granted parole by the United States Parole Commission, military offenders and pretrial supervision.

neg: Administrative courts in Mongolia government licensing, tax order, land related regulation and government procurement. The Supreme Court has three chambers: civil, criminal, administrative, and consists of 17 justices. The court hears the civil and criminal cases with a panel of five justices. The general court system consists of the Supreme Court - last resort, aimag and capital city courts – appellate, Sum, inter-sum and district courts – trial. For the following two reasons, the State Great Khural decided that the administrative courts should be organized differently from the ordinary court system. The reasons are first – financial (shortage of funding to establish three levels

neg: Judiciary of Brazil Judiciary of Brazil The Judiciary of Brazil is the Judiciary branch of the Brazilian government. The structure and the division of jurisdiction of the ramifications of the Brazilian Judiciary is defined in the Brazilian Constitution. The system is divided primarily in the ordinary courts ("Justiça comum") and the specialized courts ("Justiça especializada"). The specialized courts are kept entirely by the Federal Government and are divided into three areas of practice: the Military courts, the Labor courts and the Electoral courts. The ordinary courts are divided between the Federal and the States' judiciaries. The Judiciary of the Brazilian Federal District has

neg: National Reporter System federal courts into the NRS framework by compiling them into the "Federal Cases" reporter. But West never did the same thing with all U.S. Supreme Court cases which predate the publication of the "Supreme Court Reporter", nor with all published state cases that predate the start of the NRS regional or state-level reporters. The NRS does not include opinions from state trial courts, courts administered by territorial governments (as distinguished from federal territorial courts), Indian courts, or administrative agencies at either the federal or state level. Certain opinions from federal courts of appeals, federal district courts, and state appellate courts

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release United States federal probation and supervised release United States federal probation and supervised release are imposed at sentencing. The difference between probation and supervised release is that the former is imposed as a substitute for imprisonment, or in addition to home detention, while the latter is imposed in addition to imprisonment. Probation and supervised release are both administered by the U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System. Federal probation has existed since 1909, while supervised release has only existed since 1987, when it replaced federal parole as a means for imposing supervision on releasees from prison. Some conditions of probation and

neg: Scott Bloch Deborah A. Robinson ruled that Bloch faced a mandatory sentence of at least one month in prison. On June 24, 2013, U. S. District Judge Robert L. Wilkins sentenced Bloch to 2 years probation which was terminated 1 year early. As a condition of probation, Bloch had to do community service and spend a day in the county jail, he was also ordered to pay a $5000 fine and perform 200 hours of community service. In 2010, after an investigation by the FBI into the infamous "Geeks on Call" incident, Bloch pleaded guilty to the misdemeanor charge of destroying government

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release charges, and an agreed-upon sentence." Most federal appeals courts have ruled that a single positive urinalysis constitutes possession of a controlled substance warranting supervised release revocation, resulting in him being sentenced to a prison term of at least one-third the supervised release term, although it has been argued that the legislative history indicates that Congress did not intend this interpretation. The federal government considers the use of medical cannabis by probationers to be a violation. The court is not prohibited from considering the results of a drug test that shows presence of cocaine metabolites in the defendant's urine, albeit a

neg: Government of Guam to the equal of other states' highest courts, since it meant appeals from decisions of the Supreme Court of Guam would be subject to review only if accepted for such by the United States Supreme Court. The U.S. District Court for the District of Guam is one of three territorial courts within the federal court system. The others are the district courts for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, also located within the Ninth Circuit, and the U.S. Territory of the Virgin Islands, located within the Third Circuit. Territorial courts exercise the same jurisdiction as U.S. district courts, as

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release private non-profit offender rehabilitation program that has been approved by the court, in consultation with a State Coalition Against Domestic Violence or other appropriate experts, if an approved program is available within a 50-mile radius of the legal residence of the defendant. The former statute, 18 U.S.C.A. 3651 (1964), authorized the trial court to place a criminal defendant on probation "for such period and upon such terms and conditions as the court deems best." Courts interpreted this as meaning that "Congress obviously intended by means of the broad statutory language to invest the court with great discretion to establish conditions

neg: Worker Protection Standard venues when civilian government employees and flag officers are unable to deal with the situation in an ethical manner. US federal laws, state laws, local laws, foreign laws, and treaty agreements may not apply. Policies are established by Executive Order and not public law, except for interventions by the United States Congress and interventions by US district courts. The following Executive Orders establish the requirements for DoD environmental policy for government organizations within the executive branch of the United States. The following unclassified documents provide further information for programs managed by the United States Secretary of Defense. Worker Protection Standard

neg: Government of Guam the duties of court clerks, reporters, marshals, the attorney general, and the island attorney or prosecuting attorney. It provided requisites for admission to the practice of law and for a probation system. After 1950, the District Court of Guam, which had the same jurisdiction as a District Court in the US over federal questions, was established. For the first time, the judiciary in Guam, exercised its powers independent of the executive branch. However, a dual judicial structure began—the District Court with responsibility both for federal and local cases, and the Island Court established by the Guam Legislature with responsibility strictly

neg: County court borders, blurring the distinction between the types of government and their jurisdictions in the mind of the common inhabitant, but even television police drama's occasionally point out a county function (Coroners, Sheriffs, Jails, courts, probation departments) are different from a metropolis' police agencies, city governments, and district attorney's (prosecutors) offices (Politically elected or appointed in most of the United States). In those states with an administrative county court, the body acts as the executive agency for the local government. For example, Harry S. Truman was county judge of Jackson County, Missouri in the 1930s, an executive position rather than a

neg: Coram nobis that adhered to the English legal system and issued writs in the same manner as English courts. After the United States obtained independence from England, state governments, as well as the federal government, provided courts the authority to continue to rely upon writs as a source of law unless issuing the writ violated the state or federal constitution or if either the state or federal government subsequently enacted a statute restricting the writ. The purpose of allowing courts to issue writs was to fill a void whenever the state constitution, state statutes, the U.S. Constitution or federal statutes did not

neg: Complaint United States bankruptcy courts. The system is managed by the Administrative Office of the United States Courts; it allows lawyers and self-represented clients to obtain documents entered in the case much faster than regular mail. In addition to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, many of the U.S. district courts have developed their own requirements included in Local Rules for filing with the Court. Local Rules can set up a limit on the number of pages, establish deadlines for motions and responses, explain whether it is acceptable to combine a motion petition with a response, specify if a judge needs an

neg: Supreme court a general outline of the judiciary, vesting of federal judicial power in "one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." They delineated neither the exact powers and prerogatives of the Supreme Court nor the organization of the Judicial Branch as a whole. Some countries have multiple "supreme courts" whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. Some countries with a federal system of government may have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and

neg: Boston Municipal Court the legislature authorizing the Mayor of Boston to appoint a probation officer for Suffolk County. The continued success of the system led to its extension to district and police courts in other towns and cities in the state. In 1898 a law was passed extending the probation system by authorizing the appointment of probation officers by the Superior Court. The jurisdiction of the court is within Suffolk County, Massachusetts, and the types of criminal cases that may be filed include most felonies and misdemeanors that do not require a state prison sentence, as well as felonies punishable by a sentence

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System 71 districts, the probation office provides pretrial services to the court. United States Probation Officers, also referred to as Federal Probation Officers, are the largest cadre of Federal Law Enforcement Officers in the Federal Judiciary after the after the small division of Supreme Court Police who serve to protect the Supreme Court and its justices. Koerner, Brendan I. (2004-05-03), "Who Protects David Souter?", Slate, retrieved 2007-04-27. Despite their law enforcement status and authority within the federal government, their investigators are referred to as Officers, not Special Agents. The Federal Probation Office emphasizes their unique role as law enforcement officers and

neg: Federal judiciary of the United States States court was established for the Northwest Territory. When the Constitution came into force in 1789, Congress gained the authority to establish the federal judicial system as a whole. Only the Supreme Court was established by the Constitution itself. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the first inferior (i.e., lower) federal courts established pursuant to the Constitution and provided for the first Article III judges. Virtually all U.S. law schools offer an elective course that focuses specifically on the powers and limitations of U.S. federal courts, with coverage of topics such as justiciability, abstention doctrines, the abrogation doctrine, and habeas

neg: Constitution Act, 1867 Superior, District, and County Courts in each Province". No provinces have district or county courts anymore, but all provinces have superior courts. Although the provinces pay for these courts and determine their jurisdiction and procedural rules, the federal government appoints and pays their judges. Historically, this section has been interpreted as providing superior courts of inherent jurisdiction with the constitutional authority to hear cases. The "section 96 courts" are typically characterized as the "anchor" of the justice system around which the other courts must conform. As their jurisdiction is said to be "inherent", the courts have the authority to try

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release the fine. Corporations can be placed on probation, but corporate shareholders of the defendant corporation cannot be placed on probation without making them defendants too and giving them an opportunity to be heard. Controversial proposed amendments to the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines would encourage courts to install monitors in corporate probationers with wide-reaching powers to examine corporate records. There has also been some debate as to whether courts can order corporate probationers to make charitable contributions. A federal court, in determining whether to impose a term of probation and the length of the term and the conditions of the probation, is

neg: Mental health court strategy. Shortly after the establishment of the Broward County Mental Health Court, other mental health courts began to open in jurisdictions around the U.S., launched by practitioners who believed that standard punishments were ineffective when applied to the mentally ill. In Alaska, for example, the state's first mental health court (established in Anchorage in 1998) was spearheaded by Judge Stephanie Rhoades, who felt probation alone was inadequate. "I started seeing a lot of people in criminal misdemeanors who were cycling through the system and who simply did not understand their probation conditions or what they were doing in jail. I

neg: Legal system of the United Arab Emirates Legal system of the United Arab Emirates The judicial system in the United Arab Emirates is based on the British law, civil law system with influences from Islamic, French, Roman and Egyptian laws. Under the Constitution, each Emirate is allowed to either establish its own judiciary or to merge with the federal court system. Federal Court System The UAE federal system includes courts of first instance (trial court), courts of appeal and the court of cassation (Supreme Court). State Court System The State (or Emirate) judicial system (النظام القضائي المحلي "local judicial system") has also trial, appeal and cassation courts.

neg: Montana (city courts, justice courts, and municipal courts), and oversee naturalization proceedings. District Court judges are elected, and serve six-year terms. They are not term limited. There are 22 judicial districts in Montana, served by 56 District Courts and 46 District Court judges. The District Courts suffer from excessive workload, and the legislature has struggled to find a solution to the problem. Montana Youth Courts were established by the Montana Youth Court Act of 1974. They are overseen by District Court judges. They consist of a chief probation officer, one or more juvenile probation officers, and support staff. Youth Courts have

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System social case workers. They hold the responsibility to investigate and supervise persons charged with and convicted of crimes against the United States. They have statutory authority to carry firearms, make warrantless arrests of those under their supervision and have jurisdiction over felons convicted in federal courts. Most districts require that all new officers attend the Probation and Pretrial Services National Training Academy at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center soon after coming on board. Officers are eligible for a 20-year retirement and must be appointed prior to their 37th birthday because the mandatory separation age is 57. Almost all districts

neg: Concurrent powers can therefore be divided into two kinds: those not generally subject to federal preemption (like the power to tax private citizens); and, other concurrent powers. In the United States, examples of the concurrent powers shared by both the federal and state governments include the power to tax, build roads, establish bankruptcy laws, and to create lower courts. Concurrent powers Concurrent powers are powers a federal system of government shared by both the federal government and each constituent political unit (such as a state or province). These powers may be exercised simultaneously within the same territory, in relation to the same

neg: State court (United States) in the United States, such as the District of Columbia or American Samoa, often has a court system established under federal or territorial law which substitutes for a state court system and is distinct from the ordinary federal court system. State trial courts are usually located in a courthouse, which is often in the county seat. Even when state trial courts include more than one county in a judicial district, it isn't uncommon for the state trial court to hold regular sessions at each county seat in its jurisdiction and function from the point of view of litigants as if

neg: Boynton v. Virginia 364 U. S. 457-461. (b) Although the courts below made no findings of fact, the evidence in this case shows such a situation here. Pp. 364 U. S. 461-463. Reversed. Page 364 U. S. 455 MR. JUSTICE BLACK delivered the opinion of the Court. The basic question presented in this case is whether an interstate bus passenger is denied a federal statutory or constitutional right when a restaurant in a bus terminal used by the carrier along its route discriminates in serving food to the passenger solely because of his color. Petitioner, a Negro law student, bought a Trailways bus

neg: Ex parte Young the representation of its officers in court. He therefore condemned the decision as a "radical change in our government system" that "would place the states of the Union in a condition of inferiority never dreamed of when the Constitution was adopted or when the Eleventh Amendment was made a part of the supreme law of the land." Harlan also contended that Constitutional rights can be enforced by suits in the state courts, instead of the federal courts. If the state's trial courts did not enforce the Constitution, they could be appealed up to the state supreme court, which could then

neg: Probation officer Life sentencing for sex offenders. In some states, due to the heightened danger to the public, these cases are supervised by parole officers rather than probation officers since parole officers are more commonly trained in police academies and carry firearms. Probation and parole officers are required to possess excellent oral and written communication skills, a broad knowledge of the criminal justice system. This includes knowledge of the roles, relationships, and responsibilities that are distributed among the government agencies and outside organizations. Government agencies include the courts, the parole authority, the Bureau of Prisons or Department of Corrections, local jails, the

neg: Trammel v. United States Court, in "Hawkins", reaffirmed the vitality of the common law privilege in the federal courts, it made clear that its decision was not meant to 'foreclose whatever changes in the rule may eventually be dictated by reason and experience.'" 358 U.S. at 358 U. S. 79. "(b) Rule 501 of the Federal Rules of Evidence acknowledges the federal courts' authority to continue the evolutionary development of testimonial privileges in federal criminal trials 'governed by the principles of the common law as they may be interpreted . . . in the light of reason and experience.'" "(c) Since 1958, when "Hawkins"

neg: Federal Cases Federal Cases Federal Cases, circuit and district courts, 1789–1880 (in case citations, abbreviated F. Cas.) was a reporter of cases decided by the United States district and circuit courts between 1789 and 1880, and is part of the National Reporter System. In 1880, West Publishing Company began reporting decisions from all federal courts in the "Federal Reporter", and the "Federal Reporter" soon became established as the leading unofficial reporter for the federal circuit and district courts. But federal decisions issued prior to 1880 had been previously published in a variety of separate reporters from several private entrepreneurs. "Federal Cases", then,

neg: Cooperative federalism government to require implementation by a State executive branch, or its local political subdivisions, that limitation does not apply in the same way to State judicial systems. In part, this is because the founders understood that state courts would be courts of general jurisdiction, bound to apply both state and federal law. In part, it is because the State courts adjudicate cases between citizens who are bound to comply with both state and federal law. When the Congress seeks to establish federal legislation which governs the behavior of citizens, the Congress is free to choose among three judicial enforcement paradigms.

neg: Coram nobis so that a writ within one judicial systems may have a vastly different purpose and procedures from the same writ in other judicial systems. Different characteristics of a writ from one judicial system to another is the result of the federal system of government prescribed within the United States Constitution. Federalism in the United States is a mixed system of government that combines a national federal government and state governments. While federal courts are superior to state courts in federal matters, the Constitution limits the reach of federal courts; thereby, providing state courts general sovereignty and law-making authority over a

neg: Federal Cases consisting of 31 volumes. Federal Cases Federal Cases, circuit and district courts, 1789–1880 (in case citations, abbreviated F. Cas.) was a reporter of cases decided by the United States district and circuit courts between 1789 and 1880, and is part of the National Reporter System. In 1880, West Publishing Company began reporting decisions from all federal courts in the "Federal Reporter", and the "Federal Reporter" soon became established as the leading unofficial reporter for the federal circuit and district courts. But federal decisions issued prior to 1880 had been previously published in a variety of separate reporters from several private

neg: In re Gill a Miami-Dade human rights law, the Florida Legislature enacted a law prohibiting adoptions by homosexuals. Several attempts were made in the state legislature to repeal the adoption ban, and there were several unsuccessful challenges in Florida courts, including: In 1999, the issue was heard in federal court for the first time when the case of "Lofton v. Kearney" was taken to the United States District Court in South Florida, which upheld the state law in August 2001. The case was appealed to the U. S. Court of Appeals, Eleventh Circuit. In May 2002 while the Lofton case was pending, eight

neg: Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain sued on tort claims, and the Alien Tort Statute (ATS), which permits suits against foreign citizens in American courts. The government argued that the FTCA applied only to claims arising from actions that took place in the United States and therefore did not cover Álvarez-Machaín's case because the arrest took place in Mexico. Further, the government and the Mexican nationals argued that the ATS gave federal courts jurisdiction to hear tort claims against foreign citizens, but did not allow private individuals to bring those suits. The federal district court disagreed with the government's contention that the FTCA claim did not

neg: Bill Birchfield Area Legal Aid and served on their board of directors. He also belonged to the American Board of Trial Advocates. An obituary in "The Florida Times-Union" described him as follows: "W.O. was well known for his sound professional judgment grounded in pragmatic reality. He used a near legendary, finely honed sense of humor with pointedly relevant political witticisms to find solutions to seemingly intractable political and legal problems". Over his career, he was approved to practice before several Federal Jurisdictions, including the U. S. District Courts for the Middle District of Florida, the Northern District of Florida, and the United

neg: Human rights in Argentina and district courts below it. The federal courts are divided between the criminal and civil courts. In August 2008 the Congress voted to abolish the military justice system, thus making members of the military subject to civil proceedings for crimes committed during peacetime and to a new military disciplinary code for infractions of military rules. Trials are public, and defendants have the right to legal counsel and to call defense witnesses in the federal and some provincial courts that have an accusatory system of criminal justice. If needed, a public defender is provided at public expense when defendants face serious

neg: Confederate States of America Edward McCrady began filing appeals. This prevented their clients' property from being sold until a supreme court could be constituted to hear the appeal, which never occurred. Where Federal troops gained control over parts of the Confederacy and re-established civilian government, US district courts sometimes resumed jurisdiction. Supreme Court – not established. District Courts – judges When the Confederacy was formed and its seceding states broke from the Union, it was at once confronted with the arduous task of providing its citizens with a mail delivery system, and, in the midst of the American Civil War, the newly formed Confederacy

neg: Sybil Joyce Hylton Sybil Joyce Hylton Sybil Joyce Hylton MBE (25 August 1913 – 1 October 2006) was a Caymanian community volunteer and social advocate who became involved with the juvenile justice system in the 1950s. She was also known as the "Mother of probation". She lobbied the government to make changes to the way juvenile cases were processed in the court system, helped establish a probation office as well as a juvenile court system, and became the first probation and welfare officer in the country. She was honoured as a recipient of the Order of the British Empire in 1978 and in

neg: United States v. Lee (1882) title suits against the federal government's officers and agents. Only when property has been transferred by the courts does a private citizen establish a right to establish or reclaim rights to title. But the circuit court in "Lee" held that much of the decision in "Carr" was dicta, and reaffirmed the jury decision. Two appeals were made to the U.S. Supreme Court. The first was by the United States government itself, while the second was made by the government on behalf of Kaufman and Strong. The question was whether the title actually transferred to the federal government. If yes, then

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release prison on some indictments and be placed on probation for other indictments. Supervised release made its debut in 1984 with the enactment of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. It replaced federal parole for all crimes committed after November 1, 1987. Congress had concluded that the parole system operated in an arbitrary way because the period of a defendant's street supervision was based on the time remaining in the defendant's original sentence. The system of supervised release was originally intended to help with the rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders into the community, and did not allow revocation of supervised release. The philosophy

neg: PACER (law) Legal Services Program and the National Consumer Law Center—filed another class-action lawsuit, in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, against the Administrative Office, alleging that the PACER fee structure did not conform to the E-Government Act of 2002, in that the fees were not only being used to maintain the system itself, but were being diverted to cover other costs of the federal courts, including courtroom audio systems and flat-screen televisions for jury use. In January 2017, judge Ellen Huvelle certified the class action. In March 2018, the judge ruled that the PACER fees were impermissibly used

neg: John S. Edwards (Virginia politician) the first criminal civil rights case in Virginia, initiated a national investigation into public corruption in the Mine Safety and Health Administration, prosecuted the largest bank robbery in Virginia history, and prosecuted organized crime. His office also received recognition from the Department of Justice for increasing by several times the collection of monies owed the federal government. He is the author of "Professional Responsibilities of the Federal Prosecutor," 17 U. Rich. L. Rev. 511 (1983). Edwards is a partner in his law firm. His law practice includes a broad range of civil and criminal litigation in federal and state courts,

neg: Unified Thread Standard presents screw thread gauging systems suitable for determining the acceptability of Unified [UN], UNR [external threads only], UNJ [internal and external threads], M, and MJ screw threads on externally and internally threaded products. It establishes the criteria for screw thread acceptance when a gauging system is used. (b) A screw thread gauging system comprises a list of screw thread characteristics that must be inspected to establish the dimensional acceptability of the screw threads on a threaded product and the gauge(s) which shall be used when inspecting those characteristics. (c) Federal Government Use. When this Standard is approved by the Department

neg: Judicial panel United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit may sit in panels of more than three judges if its rules so provide), unless a hearing or rehearing before the court is ordered by a majority of the circuit judges of the circuit who are in regular active service. Most trials in the United States District Courts are held before a single judge, but there are some circumstances where the trial itself is required to be held before a three judge panel. For example, 28 U. S. C. § 2284(a) states: A district court of three judges shall be convened

neg: Moseley v. V Secret Catalogue, Inc. that is similar to a trademark and causes an erosion of its uniqueness. Starting in 1946, various states began to adopt anti-dilution provisions in their trademark statutes. The federal government followed suit in 1995 with the Federal Trademark Dilution Act (FTDA). This federal legislation applied to famous marks and made a party liable if it used a similar mark that diluted a famous mark's distinctiveness. However, the legislation did not define terms to establish what constituted a famous mark or articulate a clear standard for determining liability. As a result, as trademark cases were litigated in federal courts, a split

neg: Coram nobis address an issue to be decided before the court. Writs were especially important when the federal government, as well as each state, first established its judicial system. During those times, there were very few (if any) statutes or case laws for courts to rely upon as guidance. In those circumstances, the English writs provided fledgling federal and state courts an important source of law. Over time, writs became significantly less important as Congress and state legislatures enacted more statutes and further defined rules for its judiciary. Writs also evolved independently in the federal judicial system and each state's judicial system

neg: District of Columbia Courts, Public Defender Service, and Court Services and Offender Supervision Agency Act of 2014 bill would allow the D.C. Courts System to collect debts and erroneous payments owed by its employees, and to purchase uniforms for non-judicial employees. The bill also would allow CSOSA to operate incentive programs for prisoner education, accept and spend gifts, and receive reimbursement from the D.C. government for the use of office space in D.C. Courts facilities. Finally, the bill would allow the PDS to use unpaid volunteers. Based on information provided by the District of Columbia Courts, the PDS, and CSOSA, CBO estimates that the proposed changes would not have a significant effect on the federal budget. H.R.

neg: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System The responsibility of the United States Probation Service was first under the United States Department of Justice, under the supervising authority of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, however, in 1940 the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts was established and assumed the responsibility. U.S. Pretrial Services came along more than 50 years later, in 1982, with the Pretrial Services Act of 1982. It was developed as a means to reduce both crimes committed by persons released into the community pending trial and unnecessary pretrial detention. Twenty three districts have both separate U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services Offices. In the remaining

neg: Court system of Canada start in provincial courts and may be eventually appealed to higher level courts. The quite small system of federal courts only hears cases concerned with matters which are under exclusive federal control, such as federal taxation, federal administrative agencies, intellectual property, some portions of competition law and certain aspects of national security. The federal government appoints and pays for both the judges of the federal courts and the judges of the superior and appellate level courts of each province. The provincial governments are responsible for appointing judges of the lower provincial courts. Provincial administrative tribunals also comprise part of provincial

neg: Ashby Pate the solitary confinement system in Palau’s only correctional facility, garnered attention in the Asia-Pacific region and among noted international human rights advocates as "an impressive national court application of international human rights norms." In 2009, while serving as Senior Court Counsel for the Palau Supreme Court, Pate also helped establish Palau's first jury trial system. After law school, Pate served as a Law Clerk to U. W. Clemon of the United States District Court, Northern District of Alabama, Alabama's first African-American federal judge. In 2016, Pate joined Lightfoot where his practice focuses on international disputes, appellate work, and general commercial

neg: United States district court filed in federal court initially). If the party that initially filed the case in state court believes that removal was improper, that party can ask the district court to "remand" the case to the state court system. For certain matters, such as patent and copyright infringement disputes and prosecutions for federal crimes, the jurisdiction of the district courts is exclusive of that of the state courts, meaning that only federal courts can hear those cases. In addition to their original jurisdiction, the district courts have appellate jurisdiction over a very limited class of judgments, orders, and decrees. In order to

neg: Private probation be able to get money they paid in "tolls" back from Sentinel and other probation companies in the state. According to the Human Rights Watch 2014 report, Georgia 's courts "put more people on probation with private companies than any other state" but Georgia also has a "more advanced regulatory and oversight model than any other state that permits privatized probation services." The Administrative Office of the Courts in Georgia in 2001, considered the "oversight mechanism and use of local judicial control in Georgia" as a potential "national model for misdemeanor probation privatization." However, as early as 2001 there were

neg: Judith C. Russell access to Government information published by the U.S. Congress, Federal agencies and the Federal courts. As the Superintendent of Documents, she was responsible for a staff of 220 employees with an annual budget of $70 million. From 1998-2003 she served as the deputy director for the U. S. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS). Judith C. Russell Judith C. Russell (born 1944) is the current Dean of University Libraries at the University of Florida. She is the first Dean of the University of Florida George A. Smathers Libraries, with the position elevated to the Dean rank from a

neg: Criminal justice system of Japan pass sentence. The judge can also suspend any sentence or place a convicted party on probation. Should a judgment of not guilty be rendered, the accused is entitled to compensation by the state based on the number of days spent in detention. Criminal cases from summary courts, family courts, and district courts can be appealed to the high courts by both the prosecution and the defense. Criminal appeal to the Supreme Court is limited to constitutional questions and a conflict of precedent between the Supreme Court and high courts. The criminal code sets minimum and maximum sentences for offenses to

neg: United States federal judicial district in each district. United States federal judicial district For purposes of the federal judicial system, Congress has divided the United States into judicial districts. There are 94 federal judicial districts, including at least one district in each state, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Three territories of the United States — the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands — have district courts that hear federal cases, including bankruptcy cases. The breakdown of what is in each judicial district is at . Federal judicial districts have also been established in the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Courts

neg: Judiciary of California of their opinions are ultimately selected for publication and become part of California law. In California, the power of the intermediate courts of appeal over the superior courts is quite different from the power of the courts of appeals of the federal government over the federal district courts. The first Court of Appeal to rule on a new legal issue will bind "all" lower superior courts statewide. However, litigants in other appellate districts may still appeal a superior court's adverse ruling to their own Court of Appeal, which has the power to fashion a different rule. When such a conflict

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release of expression, but a condition prohibiting advocacy of tax evasion was upheld as valid. A district court was deemed justified in imposing a condition of probation prohibiting a defendant with a history of prior child sex abuse from being at educational or recreational facilities where children congregate, but unjustified in prohibiting the defendant from being at such facilities where children do not congregate. The court can impose a condition that a defendant not consume alcohol. Courts can prohibit use of other legally-obtained intoxicants as well. But the condition must be reasonably related to the crime for which the defendant pleaded

neg: Massachusetts Probation Service Commissioner of Probation in the wake of the scandal. Massachusetts Probation Service The Massachusetts Trial Court Probation Service, more commonly referred to as the Massachusetts Probation Service (MPS), is the Commonwealth's primary supervisory law enforcement agency. Created in 1878, it is the first Probation agency established in the United States. The service was created based on the work of John Augustus, the Boston area bootmaker who is credited as the "Father of Probation". Probation Officers are trained to carry out a wide variety of supervisory assignments at locations across the state's 70 District Courts and 12 Superior Courts. Officers are

neg: ValuJet Flight 592 website to search for "environmental fugitives." The FBI has offered a $10,000 reward for information on his whereabouts. In 2001, the United States 11th Circuit Court of Appeals reversed SabreTech's guilty verdict in part. In so doing, the panel concluded that federal law at the time of the crash could not support a conviction for mishandling hazardous materials and that the government did not prove that SabreTech intended to cause harm. The panel did, however, uphold the conviction for improper training, and on remand, the District Court sentenced SabreTech to a $500,000 fine, three years' probation, and no restitution. Just

neg: West American Digest System provides guidance as to the proper topics and key numbers. The digest system includes digests for the individual states (except for Delaware, Nevada and Utah). The U.S. Supreme Court, Bankruptcy Courts, Federal Claims Court, and military courts each have an individual digest, as well as their decisions being included in the Federal Practice Digest with the notes of decisions from the federal District Courts and Courts of Appeals. Digests are also published for West's National Reporter System. Specialty subject digests exist, such as the Education Law Digest, and the Social Security Digest. For nationwide research, about once a month, West

neg: National Probation Service by HMPPS, which reports independently to UK government ministers; and by HM Inspectorate of Probation. There are concerns that staff shortages, failure in communication and privatisation may be weakening the probation service and putting the public at risk. Northern Ireland has its own probation service, whilst in Scotland criminal justice social work services are managed within the social work departments of local authorities. The Church of England Temperance Society and other voluntary societies appointed missionaries to the London police courts during the late nineteenth century. From this developed the system of releasing offenders on the condition that they kept in

neg: District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman the federal district court. District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman, 460 U.S. 462 (1983), was a case decided by the United States Supreme Court in which the Court enunciated a rule of civil procedure known as the Rooker-Feldman doctrine (also named for the earlier case of "Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co.", 263 U.S. 413 (1923). The doctrine holds that lower United States federal courts may not sit in direct review of state court decisions. The U.S. Congress enacted several pieces of legislation with respect to Washington, D.C.'s local judicial system.

neg: Common law Later cases interpreted the "judicial power" of Article III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or overturn any action of Congress or of any state that conflicts with the Constitution. The interactions between decisions of different courts is discussed further in the article on precedent. The United States federal courts are divided into twelve regional circuits, each with a circuit court of appeals (plus a thirteenth, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and cases against the federal government, without geographic limitation). Decisions of one circuit court are binding on

neg: United States federal judicial district United States federal judicial district For purposes of the federal judicial system, Congress has divided the United States into judicial districts. There are 94 federal judicial districts, including at least one district in each state, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Three territories of the United States — the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands — have district courts that hear federal cases, including bankruptcy cases. The breakdown of what is in each judicial district is at . Federal judicial districts have also been established in the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Courts in other insular

neg: Emergency Price Control Act of 1942 about Article III. Article III does not "require" Congress to create lower federal courts, but when Congress does--as they did in the Judiciary Act of 1789, establishing the federal court system we know today--they are subject to limitations emanating from Article III and other constitutional provisions. For example, Congress cannot prohibit all African Americans from bringing a lawsuit, as this would independently violate Equal Protection under the 14th Amendment. In addition, Congress potential could not, for example, allow discrimination cases to only be filed in-person in the District Court of Puerto Rico, as this might substantially burden the ability of

neg: Ahrens v. Clark to the custody and control" of the Attorney General. The government argued that their case should be dismissed because Ellis Island is outside of the territorial confines of the District of Columbia. The Supreme Court, the federal appeals courts, and the federal district courts had the power to grant writs of "habeas corpus" "within their respective jurisdictions"; the case hinged on whether the words "within their respective jurisdictions" implied a territorial limitation. The court held that they did. Judge Wiley Blount Rutledge was concerned that the Court's decision was narrowly construing the great writ of "habeas corpus". He wrote: The

neg: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in enforcing them than was the Bill of Rights. The courts, when confronted with violations of Charter rights, have struck down unconstitutional federal and provincial statutes and regulations or parts of statutes and regulations, as they did when Canadian case law was primarily concerned with resolving issues of federalism. The Charter, however, granted new powers to the courts to enforce remedies that are more creative and to exclude more evidence in trials. These powers are greater than what was typical under the common law and under a system of government that, influenced by Canada's parent country the United Kingdom, was

neg: Black Codes (United States) this change did not immediately take practical effect in the lower courts. Blacks could not sit on juries. Still on the books were laws specifying capital punishment for a Black man who raped a White woman. Tennessee enacted new vagrancy and enticement laws in 1875. Kentucky had established a system of leasing prison labor in 1825. This system drew a steady supply of laborers from the decisions of "negro courts", informal tribunals which included slaveowners. Free Blacks were frequently arrested and forced into labor. Kentucky did not secede from the Union and therefore gained wide leeway from the federal government

neg: Massachusetts Probation Service Massachusetts Probation Service The Massachusetts Trial Court Probation Service, more commonly referred to as the Massachusetts Probation Service (MPS), is the Commonwealth's primary supervisory law enforcement agency. Created in 1878, it is the first Probation agency established in the United States. The service was created based on the work of John Augustus, the Boston area bootmaker who is credited as the "Father of Probation". Probation Officers are trained to carry out a wide variety of supervisory assignments at locations across the state's 70 District Courts and 12 Superior Courts. Officers are trained to supervise probationers and address a variety of

neg: First National Bank of Montgomery v. Daly that a justice of the peace did not have the power to make such a ruling. This nullified case and its reasoning have nevertheless been cited by groups opposing the Federal Reserve System and, in particular, the practice of fractional-reserve banking. Such groups argue the case demonstrates that the Federal Reserve System is unconstitutional. Because the "Credit River" decision was nullified, the case has no value as precedent. A U.S. District Court decision in Utah in 2008 mentioned half a dozen such citations, noting that similar arguments have "repeatedly been dismissed by the courts as baseless" and that "courts around

neg: West (publisher) B. West and his brother Horatio in 1872 in St. Paul, Minnesota. It is best known for establishing the National Reporter System, a system of regional reporters, each of which became known for reporting state court appellate decisions within its region. West also reports decisions of the federal Courts of Appeals in the "Federal Reporter" and of the federal district courts in the "Federal Supplement", and retroactively republished the decisions of all lower federal courts predating the NRS in "Federal Cases". All these reporters are also part of the NRS, meaning that all cases published therein are annotated with headnotes

neg: Right to petition the "right to petition" originally referred only to the Congress and the US federal courts. The incorporation doctrine later expanded the protection of the right to its current scope, over all state and federal courts and legislatures, and the executive branches of the state and federal governments. The right to petition includes, under its umbrella, the petition. For example, in January 2006, the US Senate considered S. 2180, an omnibus "ethics reform" bill. This bill contained a provision (Section 204) to establish federal regulation, for the first time, of certain efforts to encourage "grassroots lobbying". The bill said that "'grassroots

neg: Constitutional law vest ultimate authority in one central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities. When a constitution establishes a federal state, it will identify the several levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement. Some federal states, most notably the United States, have separate and parallel federal and state judiciaries, with each having its own hierarchy of courts with a supreme court for each state. India, on the other hand, has one judiciary divided into district courts, high courts, and

neg: Kimora Lee Simmons African American. Her father, Vernon Whitlock Jr., worked as a Federal Marshal, an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission investigator, a bail bondsman, and later became a barber in St. Louis. He was sentenced to prison when Kimora was in grade school for distribution of narcotics. It was substantiated in the U.S. District Court (Honorable Clyde Cahill) that government agents attempted to recruit Whitlock as an informant in exchange for probation, but he vehemently refused. Consequently, he was refused probation and was taken off his $500,000 bond and was given the 24-year sentence; he was released after five years. Her parents split

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release of the probationer), the extent to which constitutional rights enjoyed by law-abiding citizens should be accorded to probationers, and the legitimate needs of law enforcement are factors considered in determining whether a reasonable relationship exists. The trial court is given wide discretion in establishing conditions of probation, and the order of the district judge providing for probation will be overturned only if it is abuse of discretion. While the court can adopt terms and conditions of probation recommended to it by an administrative agency of government, the court cannot delegate its power to fix terms and conditions of probation or

neg: United States federal probation and supervised release the defendant's computer in the midst of a fraud investigation, he did not have "a record of extensive abuse of digital communications that could justify an outright ban." The United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit ordinarily applies an abuse of discretion standard of review in reference to sentencing decisions, but applies a higher plain error standard when no timely objection to a condition was raised in District Court. In "U.S. v. Walser", the 10th Circuit ruled, in reference to a condition prohibiting the defendant from using the Internet without the probation officer's permission, that the "vagueness of