query: where is the fundus of the gallbladder located

pos: Gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into the cystic duct. The gallbladder is divided into three sections: the "fundus", "body", and "neck". The "fundus" is the rounded base, angled so that it faces the abdominal wall. The "body" lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver. The "neck" tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct, part of the biliary tree. The gallbladder fossa, against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie, is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V. The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct

pos: Gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into the cystic duct. The gallbladder is divided into three sections: the "fundus", "body", and "neck". The "fundus" is the rounded base, angled so that it faces the abdominal wall. The "body" lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver. The "neck" tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct, part of the biliary tree. The gallbladder fossa, against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie, is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V. The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct

neg: Phrygian cap (anatomy) decrease in bile flow, it may warrant a preventative removal of the gallbladder. Phrygian cap (anatomy) In medicine, a Phrygian cap is the folded portion of some gallbladders that resembles the Phrygian cap (a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia). It is a normal anatomical variant seen in 1-6% of patients. It is caused by a fold in the gallbladder where the gallbladder fundus joins the gallbladder body. Apart from the chance of being mistaken for stones on a sonogram, it has no other medical

neg: Phrygian cap (anatomy) Phrygian cap (anatomy) In medicine, a Phrygian cap is the folded portion of some gallbladders that resembles the Phrygian cap (a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia). It is a normal anatomical variant seen in 1-6% of patients. It is caused by a fold in the gallbladder where the gallbladder fundus joins the gallbladder body. Apart from the chance of being mistaken for stones on a sonogram, it has no other medical implications nor does it predispose one to other diseases. However, due to potential

neg: Gallbladder bile from the gallbladder. A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence of "Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses", deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which indicate adenomyomatosis. The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue. The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a thick serosa, which is exposed to the peritoneum. The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics. The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue. The gallbladder varies in size, shape, and

neg: Gallbladder removed. It may be removed because of recurrent gallstones, and is considered an elective procedure. A cholecystectomy may be an open procedure, or one conducted by laparoscopy. In the surgery, the gallbladder is removed from the neck to the fundus, and so bile will drain directly from the liver into the biliary tree. About 30 percent of patients may experience some degree of indigestion following the procedure, although severe complications are much rarer. About 10 percent of surgeries lead to a chronic condition of postcholecystectomy syndrome. Cancer of the gallbladder is uncommon and mostly occurs in later life. When cancer

neg: Gallstone ileus Gallstone ileus First described by Thomas Bartholin in 1654, gallstone ileus is a rare form of small bowel obstruction caused by an impaction of a gallstone within the lumen (small opening) of the small intestine. Such a gallstone enters the bowel via a cholecysto-enteric fistula. The presence of large stones, >2.5 cm in diameter, within the gallbladder are thought to predispose to fistula formation by gradual erosion through the gallbladder fundus. Once a fistula has formed, a stone may travel from the gallbladder into the bowel and become lodged almost anywhere along the GI tract. Obstruction occurs most commonly at

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele that is pear-shaped and identified between two liver lobes. It is divided into three sections a body, neck and fundus. The main function of this excretory organ is storing, acidifying and concentrating bile. This is achieved due to the nature of the muscular sac being a thin wall that can easily distend to accommodate the bile. It is collected from the liver cells via small channels that pass through the hepatic ducts and into the gallbladder. After a fatty meal the bile is then released into the small intestine promoted by a hormone called cholecystokinin that is present in the

neg: Gallbladder are very rare: from 1886 to 1998, only 110 cases of left-lying liver, or less than one per year, were reported in scientific literature. An anatomical variation can occur, known as a Phrygian cap, which is an innocuous fold in the fundus, named after its resemblance to the Phrygian cap. The gallbladder develops from an endodermal outpouching of the embryonic gut tube. Early in development, the human embryo has three germ layers and abuts an embryonic yolk sac. During the second week of embryogenesis, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac. The enveloped

neg: Cystic artery fundus of the gallbladder before descending to supply the body and neck. When a single cystic artery arises from gastroduodenal artery it forms a configuration is known as "low-lying cystic artery", as it passes inferior to the cystic duct through the cholecystoduodenal ligament, and therefore remains outside the hepatobiliary triangle. This condition has alternatively been described as an inferior cystic artery and transposition of the cystic artery and duct with a prevalence at approximately 5%. In 25% of these patients with this course there will be a secondary arterial supply to the gallbladder, with the low-lying artery acting as the

neg: Motilin ligand in positive feedback mechanism to stimulate the release of more motilin. The main function of motilin is to increase the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulate the production of pepsin. Motilin is also called "housekeeper of the gut" because it improves peristalsis in the small intestine and clears out the gut to prepare for the next meal. A high level of motilin secreted between meals into the blood stimulates the contraction of the fundus and antrum and accelerates gastric emptying. It then contracts the gallbladder and increases the squeeze pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter. Other

neg: Transpyloric plane The horizontal part of the duodenum slopes upwards to the left of the vertical midline, following which the vertical ascending part of the duodenum reaches the transpyloric plane. It ends in the duodenojejunal junction, which lies approximately 2.5 cm to the left of the midline and just below the transpyloric plane. The neck of pancreas lies on the transpyloric plane, whilst the body and tail are to the left and above it. The fundus of the gallbladder projects from the liver’s inferior border at the intersection of the transpyloric plane and the right lateral midline. Despite the right kidney lying

neg: Gallbladder surgeons Phillipe Mouret and Francois Dubois are often credited for their operations in 1987 and 1988 respectively. Gallbladder In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats. The gallbladder

neg: Gallbladder Gallbladder In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats. The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones, formed by material that cannot be dissolved – usually cholesterol or bilirubin,

neg: Duodenal bulb Duodenal bulb The duodenal bulb is the portion of the duodenum closest to the stomach. It normally has a length of about 5 centimeters. The duodenal bulb begins at the pylorus and ends at the neck of the gallbladder. It is located posterior to the liver and the gallbladder and superior to the pancreatic head. The gastroduodenal artery, portal vein, and common bile duct lie just behind it. The distal part of the bulb is located retroperitoneally. It abuts the Pyloric sphincter. The duodenal bulb is the place where duodenal ulcers occur. Duodenal ulcers are more common than gastric ulcers

neg: Henchir-Sidi-Salah Henchir-Sidi-Salah Henchir-Sidi-Salah is a rural locality and archaeological site in the hinterland behind Sfax, Tunisia. Located at latitude:35°56'18"N, longitude10°8'51"E, Henchir Sidi Salah is close to Ait and Teniour, and Medass Sidi Salah, on the Oued Sidi Salah and near the ruins of Henchir Bou Gherara. The elevation above seal level is 50 meters. The ruins that dot the landscape at Sidi Salah are the remains of a "fundus" (farm or estate) of the Roman province of Byzacena (North Africa). Inscriptions give the name of the Roman settlement as "Fundus [...]itanus" assumed to be "Fundus (Dic)itanus", though "Fundus Tigitanus" is also

neg: Gallbladder side, the hepatic diverticulum, which will go on to become the biliary tree. Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the "cystic diverticulum", that will eventually develop into the gallbladder. The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store bile, also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food. Produced by the liver, bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately through the cystic duct (parts of the biliary tree) into the gallbladder, where it is stored. At any one time, of bile is stored within the gallbladder. When food containing fat

neg: Fundus (eye) ophthalmoscope allows observation of blood vessels with diameters as small as 10 μm. Fundus (eye) The fundus of the eye is the interior surface of the eye opposite the lens and includes the retina, optic disc, macula, fovea, and posterior pole. The fundus can be examined by ophthalmoscopy and/or fundus photography. The term "fundus" may also be inclusive of Bruch's membrane and the choroid. The color of the fundus varies both between and within species. In one study of primates the retina is blue, green, yellow, orange, and red; only the human fundus (from a lightly pigmented blond person) is

neg: Fundus (eye) Fundus (eye) The fundus of the eye is the interior surface of the eye opposite the lens and includes the retina, optic disc, macula, fovea, and posterior pole. The fundus can be examined by ophthalmoscopy and/or fundus photography. The term "fundus" may also be inclusive of Bruch's membrane and the choroid. The color of the fundus varies both between and within species. In one study of primates the retina is blue, green, yellow, orange, and red; only the human fundus (from a lightly pigmented blond person) is red. The major differences noted among the "higher" primate species were size and

neg: Arcuate uterus Arcuate uterus The arcuate uterus is a form of a uterine anomaly or variation where the uterine cavity displays a concave contour towards the fundus. Normally the uterine cavity is straight or convex towards the fundus on anterior-posterior imaging, but in the arcuate uterus the myometrium of the fundus dips into the cavity and may form a small septation. The distinction between an arcuate uterus and a septate uterus is not standardized. The condition may not be known to the affected individual and not result in any reproductive problems; thus normal pregnancies occur. Indeed, there is no consensus on the

neg: Human digestive system Bile is collected and delivered through the common hepatic duct. This duct joins with the cystic duct to connect in a common bile duct with the gallbladder. Bile is stored in the gallbladder for release when food is discharged into the duodenum and also after a few hours. The gallbladder is a hollow part of the biliary tract that sits just beneath the liver, with the gallbladder body resting in a small depression. It is a small organ where the bile produced by the liver is stored, before being released into the small intestine. Bile flows from the liver through

neg: Arcuate uterus followed by septate uterus (3%) and bicornuate uterus (0.5%). Arcuate uterus The arcuate uterus is a form of a uterine anomaly or variation where the uterine cavity displays a concave contour towards the fundus. Normally the uterine cavity is straight or convex towards the fundus on anterior-posterior imaging, but in the arcuate uterus the myometrium of the fundus dips into the cavity and may form a small septation. The distinction between an arcuate uterus and a septate uterus is not standardized. The condition may not be known to the affected individual and not result in any reproductive problems; thus normal

neg: Fundus (eye) regularity of the border of macular area, size and shape of the optic disc, apparent 'texturing' of retina, and pigmentation of retina. Medical signs that can be detected from observation of eye fundus (generally by funduscopy) include hemorrhages, exudates, cotton wool spots, blood vessel abnormalities (tortuosity, pulsation and new vessels) and pigmentation. Arteriolar constriction, seen as "silver wiring", and vascular tortuosities are seen in hypertensive retinopathy. The eye's fundus is the only part of the human body where the microcirculation can be observed directly. The diameter of the blood vessels around the optic disc is about 150 μm, and an

neg: Gallstone as low as 3%. Gallbladder and biliary related diseases occurred in about 104 million people (1.6%) in 2013 and they resulted in 106,000 deaths. Women more commonly have stones than men and they occur more commonly after the age of 40. Certain ethnic groups have gallstones more often than others. For example, 48% of Native Americans have gallstones. Once the gallbladder is removed, outcomes are generally good. Gallstone disease refers to the condition where gallstones are either in the gallbladder or common bile duct. The presence of stones in the gallbladder is referred to as cholelithiasis, from the Greek "chol"-

neg: Fundus photography and high-resolution digital image capture. These improvements have helped make modern fundus photography a standard ophthalmic practice for documenting retinal disease. Following the development of fundus photography, David Alvis, and Harold Novotny, performed the first fluorescein angiography (FFA) in 1959, using the Zeiss fundus camera with electronic flash. This development was huge feat in the world of Ophthalmology. The optical design of fundus cameras is based on the principle of monocular indirect ophthalmoscopy. A fundus camera provides an upright, magnified view of the fundus. A typical camera views 30 to 50° of retinal area, with a magnification of 2.5x, and

neg: Fundus photography advanced anti reflection coatings eliminate glare. The low cost device has given doctors an invaluable diagnostic and imaging tool Ullman Indirect An iPhone app was released in 2017 that allows users to manually control focus, exposure, and torch intensity to better capture fundus photographs. The app is free to download and designed to enhance both the quality and convenience of smartphone fundus photography. The official website can be found at UllmanIndirect.com (http://www.UllmanIndirect.com) Fundus photography Fundus photography involves capturing a photograph of the back of the eye i.e. fundus. Specialized fundus cameras that consist of an intricate microscope attached to a

neg: Cholecystectomy decrease the risk of spontaneous abortion and pre-term delivery. Without cholecystectomy, more than half of such women will have recurrent symptoms during their pregnancy, and nearly one in four will develop a complication, such as acute cholecystitis, that requires urgent surgery. Acute cholecystitis is the second most common cause of acute abdomen in pregnant women after appendectomy. Porcelain gallbladder (PGB), a condition where the gallbladder wall shows calcification on imaging tests, was previously considered a reason to remove the gallbladder because it was thought that people with this condition had a high risk of developing gallbladder cancer. However, recent studies

neg: Dilated fundus examination non-dilated examination. It is frequently performed by ophthalmologists and optometrists as part of an eye examination. Dilated fundus examination Dilated fundus examination or dilated-pupil fundus examination (DFE) is a diagnostic procedure that employs the use of mydriatic eye drops (such as tropicamide) to dilate or enlarge the pupil in order to obtain a better view of the fundus of the eye. Once the pupil is dilated, examiners use ophthalmoscopy (funduscopy) to view the eye's interior, allowing assessment of the retina, optic nerve head, blood vessels, and other features. They also often use specialized equipment such as a fundus camera. DFE

neg: Dilated fundus examination Dilated fundus examination Dilated fundus examination or dilated-pupil fundus examination (DFE) is a diagnostic procedure that employs the use of mydriatic eye drops (such as tropicamide) to dilate or enlarge the pupil in order to obtain a better view of the fundus of the eye. Once the pupil is dilated, examiners use ophthalmoscopy (funduscopy) to view the eye's interior, allowing assessment of the retina, optic nerve head, blood vessels, and other features. They also often use specialized equipment such as a fundus camera. DFE has been found to be a more effective method for evaluation of internal ocular health than

neg: Fundus photography Fundus photography Fundus photography involves capturing a photograph of the back of the eye i.e. fundus. Specialized fundus cameras that consist of an intricate microscope attached to a flash enabled camera are used in fundus photography. The main structures that can be visualized on a fundus photo are the central and peripheral retina, optic disc and macula. Fundus photography can be performed with colored filters, or with specialized dyes including fluorescein and indocyanine green.The models and technology of fundus photography has advanced and evolved rapidly over the last century. Since the equipments are sophisticated and challenging to manufacture to clinical

neg: Cholesterolosis of gallbladder hence the term "strawberry" gallbladder. It is not tied to cholelithiasis (gallstones) or cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder). Cholesterolosis of gallbladder In surgical pathology, strawberry gallbladder, more formally cholesterolosis of the gallbladder and gallbladder cholesterolosis, is a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol. The name "strawberry gallbladder" comes from the typically stippled appearance of the mucosal surface on gross examination, which resembles a strawberry. Cholesterolosis results from abnormal deposits of cholesterol esters in macrophages within the lamina propria (foam cells) and in mucosal epithelium. The gallbladder may be affected in a patchy localized form or in a

neg: Porcelain gallbladder and discovered on imaging obtained for a different reason. The assertion that porcelain gallbladder increases the incidence of gallbladder cancer is widely taught in medical schools but is based on studies from 1931 and 1962. A prominent study aid for surgical residents even states that the risk of cancer in a porcelain gallbladder is 15%. The precise nature of the association between gallbladder cancer and porcelain gallbladder is uncertain. Two articles published in 2001 examined the association between cancer of the gallbladder and calcified gallbladder. The first study reviewed 10,741 cholecystectomies and found that the 88 patients with gallbladder cancer

neg: Gallbladder disease gain, and cigarette smoking. Alcohol was shown to have an inverse relationship between use and gallbladder disease. Xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis is a rare form of gallbladder disease which mimics gallbladder cancer although it is not cancerous. It was first discovered and reported in the medical literature in 1976 by J.J. McCoy, Jr., and colleagues. Gallbladder disease Gallbladder diseases are diseases involving the gallbladder. Gallstones may develop in the gallbladder as well as elsewhere in the biliary tract. If gallstones in the gallbladder are symptomatic, surgical removal of the gallbladder, known as cholecystectomy may be indicated. Gallstones form when the tenuous balance

neg: Fundus photography stereo fundus cameras, which are able to provide three dimensional images by superimposing two images, most fundus cameras in circulation are only able to provide two dimensional images of the fundus. This limitation currently prevents the technology from superseding the current gold standard which is indirect binocular ophthalmoscopy. The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of fundus photography: Fundus photography has been crucial in diagnosing and treating patients in Ophthalmology (especially retinal conditions such as Macular Degeneration and Diabetic Retinopathy) since the 1920s. Fluorescein angiography has been crucial to Ophthalmology since the late 1950s. While OCT imaging has

neg: Fundus photography Three other names played a prominent role in early fundus photography. According to some historical accounts, Elmer Starr and Lucien Howe may have been first to photograph the human retina. Lucien Howe is a well-known name in Ophthalmology, and together with his assistant Elmer Starr, they collaborated on the fundus photography project in 1886-88. Howe described their results as the first "recognizable” fundus photograph, apparently a nod to Jackman & Webster being the first to "publish” a fundus photograph. Based on the written accounts, Howe and Starr's image was more "recognizable” as a fundus. For about 75 years a concerted

neg: Fundus photography to prevent the excessive drying of the eye. A dry eye may also lead to a blurred fundus photo. When dry eye is suspected, ask the patient to blink several times to lubricate the eye before continuing. The picture on the right depicts an incorrectly taken fundus photo that is out of focus and somewhat obscured. The examiner taking the fundus photo has to be extremely careful and meticulous in ensuring correct alignment, and that the picture of the fundus is in clear focus before capturing the image. Make sure the 3 white dots are in clear focus and aligned

neg: Fundus photography and make decisions concerning film choice. Each of these factors must be taken into consideration when evaluating a fundus photograph. However some artifacts are not visible until the film is captured and normally this can be caused either by a mechanical problem in the camera, patient's pupil size or blink. The picture on the left represents patient that has blinked when the fundus photo was taken, resulting in a blurred and incomplete image of the fundus. It is imperative to instruct the patient not to blink when the fundus photo is taken.The patient may blink normally at any other time

neg: Cholecystography Cholecystography Oral cholecystography is a radiological procedure used to visualize the gallbladder and biliary channels, developed in 1924 by American surgeons Evarts Ambrose Graham and Warren Henry Cole. It is usually indicated in cases of suspected gallbladder disease, and can also be used to determine or rule out the presence of intermittent obstruction of the bile ducts or recurrent biliary disease after biliary surgery. A radiopaque cholegraphic (contrast) agent, usually iopanoic acid (Telepaque) or its sodium or calcium salt, is orally administered, which is absorbed by the intestine. This excreted material will collect in the gallbladder, where reabsorption of water

neg: Fundus photography are crucial to create a starting point to better understand a disease's progression. Fundus photographs may be useful if there is a new disease affecting the fundus and for the planning of additional management options. The medical necessity of fundus photography and other diagnostic imaging must be recorded in an orderly fashion so that the clinician is able to compare photographs of a patient from different timelines. Documents of a patient's medical record must consist of a recent, relevant history, progress notes and fundus photographs depicting and supporting the relevant diagnosis. The photographs need to be labelled appropriately such as

neg: Porcelain gallbladder malignancy fell to 6%. Comparatively, a matched cohort without gallbladder calcification showed a 1% rate of gallbladder malignancy. Abdominal radiography (X-ray), abdominal ultrasound or CT scan. Due to the increased risk for gallbladder cancer, the recommended treatment is cholecystectomy which usually includes pre-operative or intra-operative imaging of the biliary tree. Cholecystectomy may be performed via an open incision or via laparoscopic methods, but gallbladder anatomy and consistency may complicate the operation. Porcelain gallbladder Porcelain gallbladder is a calcification of the gallbladder believed to be brought on by excessive gallstones, although the exact cause is not clear. As with gallstone disease

neg: Gastric glands lumen. Fundic gland polyposis is a medical syndrome where the fundus and the body of the stomach develops many polyps. Pernicious anemia is caused when damaged parietal cells fail to produce the intrinsic factor necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. This can be one of the causes of vitamin B12 deficiency. Gastric glands The gastric glands are located in different regions of the stomach. These are the fundic glands, the cardiac glands, and the pyloric glands. The glands and gastric pits are located in the stomach lining. The glands themselves are in the lamina propria of the mucous membrane

neg: Gallbladder cancer organs such as the liver. It is a rare cancer that is thought to be related to gallstones building up, which also can lead to calcification of the gallbladder, a condition known as porcelain gallbladder. Porcelain gallbladder is also rare. Some studies indicate that people with porcelain gallbladder have a high risk of developing gallbladder cancer, but other studies question this. The outlook is poor for recovery if the cancer is found after symptoms have started to occur, with a 5-year survival rate close to 3%. Early symptoms mimic gallbladder inflammation due to gallstones. Later, the symptoms may be that

neg: Porcelain gallbladder Porcelain gallbladder Porcelain gallbladder is a calcification of the gallbladder believed to be brought on by excessive gallstones, although the exact cause is not clear. As with gallstone disease in general, this condition occurs predominantly in overweight female patients of middle age. It is a morphological variant of chronic cholecystitis. Inflammatory scarring of the wall, combined with dystrophic calcification within the wall transforms the gallbladder into a porcelain-like vessel. Removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) is the recommended treatment. Symptoms are similar to gallstones and can include abdominal pain (especially after eating), jaundice, and vomiting. Porcelain gallbladder can also be asymptomatic

neg: Fundus photography retinal or eyeball, etc. In patients with diabetes mellitus, regular fundus screening examinations (once every 6 months to 1 year) are important to screen for diabetic retinopathy as visual loss due to diabetes can be prevented by retinal laser treatment if retinopathy is spotted early. Besides the prevalent ocular condition/diseases, fundus photography can also be used to monitor individuals on anti-malarial therapy, by noting the changes in the fundus during standard screening. Fundus photography is also used in emergency cases including patients with constant headaches, diastolic pressure greater than or equal to 120mmHg and patients with sudden visual loss. In

neg: Cholesterolosis of gallbladder Cholesterolosis of gallbladder In surgical pathology, strawberry gallbladder, more formally cholesterolosis of the gallbladder and gallbladder cholesterolosis, is a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol. The name "strawberry gallbladder" comes from the typically stippled appearance of the mucosal surface on gross examination, which resembles a strawberry. Cholesterolosis results from abnormal deposits of cholesterol esters in macrophages within the lamina propria (foam cells) and in mucosal epithelium. The gallbladder may be affected in a patchy localized form or in a diffuse form. The diffuse form macroscopically appears as a bright red mucosa with yellow mottling (due to lipid),

neg: Henchir-El-Hatba Henchir-El-Hatba Henchir-El-Hatba is a village and an archaeological site in Tunisia. It was a Roman Catholic diocese. Henchir-El-Hatba also known as Ksar-el-Outibais located at 35.737815N, 8.62168E in Tunisia, 30km east of the border with Algeria Henchir-El-Hatba was settled in Roman times probably during the Roman Republic. A broken inscription gives the Roman name as "Fundus Ver..." Although the full name is not known, that the town is the seat of the ancient titular see known as Verrona, it is possible that the full Roman name was "Fundus Verrona". Inscriptions from Henchir-El-Hatba show it had colonia status and may have been

neg: Gallbladder a product of haemoglobin breakdown. These may cause significant pain, particularly in the upper-right corner of the abdomen, and are often treated with removal of the gallbladder called a cholecystectomy. Cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder, has a wide range of causes, including result from the impaction of gallstones, infection, and autoimmune disease. The gallbladder is a hollow organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver, that is grey-blue in life. In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately in length and in diameter when fully distended. The gallbladder has a capacity of about . The gallbladder

neg: Gallbladder occurs, it is mostly of the glands lining the surface of the gallbladder (adenocarcinoma). Gallstones are thought to be linked to the formation of cancer, and other risk factors include large (>1 cm) gallbladder polyps and having a highly calcified "porcelain" gallbladder. Cancer of the gallbladder can cause attacks of biliary pain, yellowing of the skin (jaundice), and weight loss. A large gallbladder may be able to be felt in the abdomen. Liver function tests may be elevated, particularly involving GGT and ALP, with ultrasound and CT scans being considered medical imaging investigations of choice. Cancer of the gallbladder is

neg: Gallbladder polyp presence of gallstones (cholelithiasis). Most affected individuals do not have symptoms. The gallbladder polyps are detected during abdominal ultrasonography performed for other reasons. The incidence of gallbladder polyps is higher among men than women. The overall prevalence among men of Chinese ancestry is 9.5%, higher than other ethnic types. Gallbladder polyp Gallbladder polyps are growths or lesions resembling growths (polypoid lesions) in the wall of the gallbladder. True polyps are abnormal accumulations of mucous membrane tissue that would normally be shed by the body. The main types of polypoid growths of the gallbladder include cholesterol polyp/cholesterosis, cholesterosis with fibrous dysplasia

neg: Gallbladder to become the common bile duct. At the junction of the neck of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, there is an out-pouching of the gallbladder wall forming a mucosal fold known as "Hartmann's pouch". The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers. The gallbladder wall's innermost surface is lined by a single layer of columnar cells with a brush border of microvilli, very similar to intestinal absorptive cells. Underneath the epithelium is an underlying lamina propria, a muscular layer, an outer perimuscular layer and serosa. Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract, the gallbladder does not have a

neg: Ophthalmoscopy pupil (mydriasis) is often accomplished with medicated eye drops before funduscopy. However, although dilated fundus examination is ideal, undilated examination is more convenient and is also helpful (albeit not as comprehensive), and it is the most common type in primary care. An alternative or complement to ophthalmoscopy is to perform a fundus photography, where the image can be analysed later by a professional. It is of two major types: Each type of ophthalmoscopy has a special type of ophthalmoscope: Ophthalmoscopy is done as part of a routine physical or complete eye examination. It is used to detect and evaluate symptoms

neg: Fundus photography standards, only a few manufacturers/brands are available in the market: Welch Allyn, Digisight, Volk, Topcon, Zeiss, Canon, Nidek, Kowa, CSO, CenterVue, and Ezer are some example of fundus camera manufacturers. The concept of fundus photography was first introduced in the mid-1800s, after the introduction of photography in 1839. The goal of photographing the human ocular fundus was slowly but surely becoming more achievable. In 1851, Hermann von Helmholtz introduced the Ophthalmoscope, and James Clerk Maxwell presented a colour photography method in 1861. In the early 1860s, Henry Noyes and Abner Mulholland Rosebrugh both assembled fundus cameras and tried fundus photography

neg: Gallbladder flush suffered a biliary pancreatitis after performing a gallbladder flush. Gallbladder flush The gallbladder flush or liver cleanse is an alternative medicine practice involving fasting, followed by the ingestion of some combination of Epsom salt, olive oil, and grapefruit juice, in some cases substituted by other, similar ingredients. Those who advocate it claim that it is possible to remove not only the well-known gallstones from the gallbladder, but also the so-called intra-hepatic stones from the bile ducts of the liver by this procedure. There are different sets of rules, according to which a gallbladder flush is performed. One can distinguish between

neg: Fundus photography a digital CCD. Because of the eye’s tendency to accommodate while looking though a telescope, it is imperative that the exiting vergence is parallel in order for an in focus image to be formed on the capturing medium. Practical instruments for fundus photography perform the following modes of examination: Artifact errors in fundus images are captured through the improper setting up and alignment of the patient, examiner and the fundus camera. Patient cooperation and attitude are crucial to minimise artifacts. The clinician must ensure that the patient has understood the instruction. They must also correctly align, set the camera controls

neg: Fundus photography to study a patient's retina, detect retinal changes and review a patient's retinal findings with a coworker. Fundus photographs are routinely called upon in a wide variety of ophthalmic conditions. Fundus photography is used to inspect anomalies associated to diseases that affect the eye and to monitor the progression of the disease. It is vital for disease processes such as macular degeneration, retinal neoplasms, choroid disturbances and diabetic retinopathy. Additionally it aids in identifying glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, and other central nervous system abnormalities. It evaluates irregularities in the fundus, monitors the progression of a disease, management and therapeutic outcome. They

neg: Cholecystitis McCoy and colleagues. Blockage of the cystic duct by a gallstone causes a buildup of bile in the gallbladder and increased pressure within the gallbladder. Concentrated bile, pressure, and sometimes bacterial infection irritate and damage the gallbladder wall, causing inflammation and swelling of the gallbladder. Inflammation and swelling of the gallbladder can reduce normal blood flow to areas of the gallbladder, which can lead to cell death due to inadequate oxygen. The diagnosis of cholecystitis is suggested by the history (abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever) and physical examinations in addition to laboratory and ultrasonographic testing. Boas's sign which is pain

neg: Fundus photography with the pupil before pressing the alignment button. If the fundus is out of focus, move the joystick backward and forward to focus the image appropriately. Once the image is in clear focus the alignment process can be completed and lastly the photo taken. Optometrists, Ophthalmologists, Orthoptists and other trained medical professionals use fundus photography for monitoring the progression of certain eye condition/diseases. Fundus photographs are also used to document abnormalities of disease process affecting the eye, and/or to follow up on the progress of the eye condition/disease such as diabetes, age-macular degeneration(AMD), glaucoma, Neoplasm of the choroid, cranial nerves,

neg: White dot syndromes dots on the fundus are retinitis punctata albescens and fundus albipunctatus. These diseases are not white dot syndromes, but have much more defined etiology. Retinitis punctata albescens is caused by mutations in RLBP1, the gene for retinaldehyde binding protein 1. In comparison, fundus albipunctatus is caused by mutations in RDH5 gene for an 11-cis-RDH in RPE cells. White dot syndromes White dot syndromes are inflammatory diseases characterized by the presence of white dots on the fundus, the interior surface of the eye. The majority of individuals affected with white dot syndromes are younger than fifty years of age. Some symptoms

neg: Gallbladder of the gallbladder is commonly caused by obstruction of the duct with gallstones, which is known as cholelithiasis. Blocked bile accumulates, and pressure on the gallbladder wall, may lead to the release of substances that cause inflammation, such as phospholipase. There is also the risk of bacterial infection. An inflamed gallbladder is likely to cause pain and fever, and tenderness in the upper, right corner of the abdomen, and may have a positive Murphy's sign. Cholecystitis is often managed with rest and antibiotics, particularly cephalosporins and, in severe cases, metronidazole. A cholecystectomy is a procedure in which the gallbladder is

neg: Gallbladder managed by removing the gallbladder, however the prognosis remains poor. Cancer of the gallbladder may also be found incidentally after surgical removal of the gallbladder, with 1-3% of cancers identified in this way. Gallbladder polyps are mostly benign growths or lesions resembling growths that form in the gallbladder wall and are only associated with cancer when they are larger in size (>1 cm). Cholesterol polyps, often associated with cholesterolosis ("strawberry gallbladder", a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol), often cause no symptoms and are thus often detected in this way. Tests used to investigate for gallbladder disease

neg: Fundus photography patients with headaches, the finding of swollen optic discs, or papilloedema, on fundus photography is a key sign, as this indicates raised intracranial pressure (ICP) which could be due to hydrocephalus, benign intracranial hypertension (aka pseudotumour cerebri) or brain tumor, amongst other conditions. Cupped optic discs are seen in glaucoma. In arterial hypertension, hypertensive changes of the retina closely mimic those in the brain, and may predict cerebrovascular accidents (strokes). In certain cases fundus photography can also be used in research studies. Fundus photographs are ocular documentation that record the appearance of a patient's retina. The photographs allow the clinician

neg: Pancreaticoduodenectomy the surgery a cholecystectomy is performed to remove the gallbladder. This portion is not done en bloc, as the gallbladder is removed separately. Relevant nearby anatomy not removed during the procedure include the major vascular structures in the area: the portal vein, the superior mesenteric vein, and the superior mesenteric artery, the inferior vena cava. These structures are important to consider in this operation especially if done for resection of a tumor located in the head of the pancreas. If the tumor encases (wraps around 50% or more of the vessel) the celiac artery, superior mesenteric artery, or inferior vena

neg: Gallbladder polyp propria. Ultrasonography may reveal the thickened gallbladder wall with intramural diverticulae, called Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses. Diagnosis is typically by ultrasound or CT imaging. Most polyps are benign and do not need to be removed. Surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) is recommended when a gallbladder polyp larger than 1 cm is found, even if the person has no symptoms clearly related to the polyp. Laparoscopic surgery is an option for small or solitary polyps. Polypoid lesions of the gallbladder affect approximately 5% of the adult population. The causes are uncertain, but there is a definite correlation with increasing age and the

neg: Gallbladder secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3-10 fold by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed. Gallstones form when the bile is saturated, usually with either cholesterol or bilirubin. Most gallstones do not cause symptoms, with stones either remaining in the gallbladder or passed along the biliary system. When symptoms occur, severe "colicky" pain in the upper right part of the abdomen is

neg: Fundus photography on animals. Although the news was encouraging and showed promise, the vision of capturing a satisfactory photo of a human ocular fundus was still far from reach. Early fundus photos were limited by insufficient light, long exposures, eye movement, and prominent corneal reflexes that reduced the clarity detail. It would be several decades before these problems could be rectified. There has been some controversy regarding the first ever successful human fundus photo. Most accounts state William Thomas Jackman and J.D. Webster since they published their technique along with a reproduction of a fundus image in two photography periodicals in 1886.

neg: Fundus photography effort was made to clearly photograph the fundus. Hundreds of specialists worked to overcome the problem, which was finally achieved in the early 20th century by Friedrich Dimmer, who published his photographs in 1921. Dimmer’s fundus camera, developed about 1904, was a complicated and sophisticated research tool and it was not until 1926 that Stockholm’s Johan Nordenson and the Zeiss Camera Company were able to market a commercial device for use by practitioners, which was the first modern Fundus camera. Since then, the features of fundus cameras have improved drastically to include nonmydriatic imaging, electronic illumination control, automated eye alignment,

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele Canine gallbladder mucocele Canine gallbladder mucocele (GBM) is an emerging biliary disease in dogs described as the excessive and abnormal accumulation of thick, gelatinous mucus in the lumen, which results in an enlarged gallbladder. GBMs have been diagnosed more frequently in comparison to prior to the 2000s when it was considered rare. The mucus is usually pale yellow to dark green in appearance. The name originates from the Greek word "kele" meaning tumour as a mucocele resembles a mass. Although this disease is primarily identified in dogs, cats and ferrets have also been diagnosed. The gallbladder is an excretory organ

neg: Cholescintigraphy gallbladder until released into the duodenum. In the absence of gallbladder disease, the gallbladder is visualized within 1 hour of the injection of the radioactive tracer. If the gallbladder is not visualized within 4 hours after the injection, this indicates either cholecystitis or cystic duct obstruction, such as by cholelithiasis (gallstone formation). This investigation is usually conducted after an ultrasonographic examination of the abdominal right upper quadrant for a patient presenting with abdominal pain. If the noninvasive ultrasound examination fails to demonstrate gallstones, or other obstruction to the gallbladder or biliary tree, in an attempt to establish a cause of

neg: Gallbladder polyp when small polyps occur with other conditions, such as primary sclerosing cholangitis, they are less likely to be benign. Larger polyps are more likely to develop into adenocarcinomas. Cholesterolosis is characterized by an outgrowth of the mucosal lining of the gallbladder into fingerlike projections due to the excessive accumulation of cholesterol and triglycerides within macrophages in the epithelial lining. These cholesterol polyps account for most benign gallbladder polyps. Adenomyomatosis describes a diseased state of the gallbladder in which the gallbladder wall is excessively thick, due to proliferation of subsurface cellular layer. It is characterized by deep folds into the muscularis

neg: Technetium (99mTc) mebrofenin Tc mebrofenin has cleared the liver and enters the gall bladder, the common bile duct and finally the small intestines. Patients fasting for the normal requirement of 4 hours and have normal gallbladder function, the gallbladder is usually visualized within 60 minutes. If the gallbladder is not visualized in 60 minutes, the study can continue for up to 4 hours. To shorten the study, morphine sulfate (MS) can be injected into the patient to increase uptake of Tc mebrofenin into the gallbladder. If after 30 minutes of MS administration, the gallbladder is still not visualized, acute cholecystitis can be assumed

neg: Beta-3 adrenergic receptor Beta-3 adrenergic receptor The beta-3 adrenergic receptor (β adrenoreceptor), also known as ADRB3, is a beta-adrenergic receptor, and also denotes the human gene encoding it. Actions of the β receptor include It is located mainly in adipose tissue and is involved in the regulation of lipolysis and thermogenesis. Some β agonists have demonstrated antistress effects in animal studies, suggesting it also has a role in the central nervous system (CNS). β receptors are found in the gallbladder, urinary bladder, and in brown adipose tissue. Their role in gallbladder physiology is unknown, but they are thought to play a role in

neg: Gallbladder disease Gallbladder disease Gallbladder diseases are diseases involving the gallbladder. Gallstones may develop in the gallbladder as well as elsewhere in the biliary tract. If gallstones in the gallbladder are symptomatic, surgical removal of the gallbladder, known as cholecystectomy may be indicated. Gallstones form when the tenuous balance of solubility of biliary lipids tips in favor of precipitation of cholesterol, unconjugated bilirubin, or bacterial degradation products of biliary lipids. For cholesterol gallstones, metabolic alterations in hepatic cholesterol secretion combine with changes in gallbladder motility and intestinal bacterial degradation of bile salts to destabilize cholesterol carriers in bile and produce cholesterol crystals.

neg: Gallbladder flush Gallbladder flush The gallbladder flush or liver cleanse is an alternative medicine practice involving fasting, followed by the ingestion of some combination of Epsom salt, olive oil, and grapefruit juice, in some cases substituted by other, similar ingredients. Those who advocate it claim that it is possible to remove not only the well-known gallstones from the gallbladder, but also the so-called intra-hepatic stones from the bile ducts of the liver by this procedure. There are different sets of rules, according to which a gallbladder flush is performed. One can distinguish between "recipes" originating in traditional folk medicine and those of

neg: Adenomyomatosis Adenomyomatosis Adenomyomatosis is a benign condition characterized by hyperplastic changes of unknown cause involving the wall of the gallbladder. Adenomyomatosis is caused by an overgrowth of the mucosa, thickening of the muscular wall, and formation of intramural diverticula or sinus tracts termed Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses, also called entrapped epithelial crypts. Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses are pseudodiverticula or pockets in the wall of the gallbladder. They may be microscopic or macroscopic. Histologically, they are outpouchings of gallbladder mucosa into the gallbladder muscle layer and subserosal tissue as a result of hyperplasia and herniation of epithelial cells through the fibromuscular layer of the gallbladder wall.

neg: Gastrointestinal cancer a CT scan, and a patient might be monitored through blood tests (including alpha-fetoprotein, liver-function tests or ultrasound. These cancers are typically treated according to their TNM stage and whether or not cirrhosis is present. Options include surgical resection, embolisation, ablation or a liver transplant. Cancers of the gallbladder are typically adenocarcinomas, and are common in elderly women. Gallbladder cancer is strongly associated with gallstones, a porcelain gallbladder appearance on ultrasound, and the presence of polyps within the gallbladder. Gallbladder cancer may manifest with weight loss, jaundice, and pain in the upper right of. It is typically diagnosed with ultrasound

neg: Cholecystectomy gallbladder, fistulization of gallbladder and gallstone ileus, cholangitis, cirrhosis or portal hypertension, and blood dyscrasias. After removal, the gallbladder should be sent for pathological examination to confirm the diagnosis and look for any incidental cancer. Incidental cancer of the gallbladder is found in approximately 1% of cholecystectomies. If cancer is present in the gallbladder, it's usually necessary to re-operate to remove parts of the liver and lymph nodes and test them for additional cancer. After surgery, most patients are admitted to the hospital for routine monitoring. For uncomplicated laparoscopic cholecystectomies, people may be discharged on the day of surgery after

neg: Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction a structural abnormality that could lead to these symptoms. The disorder is classified into two subtypes: functional biliary sphincter of Oddi disorder, where there is no disturbance in pancreatic enzyme measurements, such as amylase and lipase; and, functional pancreatic sphincter of Oddi disorder, where pancreatic enzyme measurements are elevated. Attacks can be precipitated by opioid analgesics, particularly in patients having undergone a cholecystectomy or bariatric surgery. Functional disorders of the gallbladder, bile duct and pancreas have been defined and classified by the Rome criteria for functional gastrointestinal disorders. The criteria outline three variants of functional disorders of the gallbladder, bile

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele diagnosing gastrointestinal illness due to the vague symptoms. With the presence of a gallbladder mucocele, the ultrasound will reveal a thickened wall and an enlarged 'kiwi-like' gallbladder filled with immobile, echogenic bile meaning it is not gravity dependent. Another clear indication in the images is striated or stellate patterns surrounding a small amount of stationary bile. The ultrasonographic can also indicate whether the gallbladder has ruptured. Signs of this include a discontinuous wall and presence of free abdominal fluid without indication of the gallbladder at all. Microbiologic sampling of the bile may also be conducted to identify potential bacterial infections

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele are multiple factors that contribute to the formation of a gallbladder mucocele. Most gallbladder mucoceles have been found in mid-age to older dogs with the median age being 9 with no sex predilection. This is because he abnormal enlargement of mucous producing glands in the gallbladder is often seen as a common feature amongst older dogs. Smaller dogs including Cocker Spaniels, Miniature Schnauzers, Pomeranians and Shetland Sheepdogs are also predisposed to developing gallbladder mucoceles as the mutation ABCB4 gene has been associated and these breeds often show signs of lipid metabolism problems which can trigger the development. Some other conditions

neg: Cystohepatic triangle bound by the cystic duct, common hepatic duct, and the liver margin. General surgeons frequently quiz medical students on this term and the name for the lymph node located within the triangle, Mascagni's lymph node or Lund's node, however many often erroneously refer to it as "Calot's node." The latter is frequently enlarged due to inflammation of the gallbladder (e.g. cholecystitis) or the biliary tract (e.g. cholangitis) and may be removed along with the gallbladder during surgical treatment (cholecystectomy). Calot's triangle, containing the cystic artery, may also contain an accessory right hepatic artery or anomalous sectoral bile ducts. As a

neg: Gallbladder polyp Gallbladder polyp Gallbladder polyps are growths or lesions resembling growths (polypoid lesions) in the wall of the gallbladder. True polyps are abnormal accumulations of mucous membrane tissue that would normally be shed by the body. The main types of polypoid growths of the gallbladder include cholesterol polyp/cholesterosis, cholesterosis with fibrous dysplasia of gallbladder, adenomyomatosis, hyperplastic cholecystosis, and adenocarcinoma. Most polyps do not cause noticeable symptoms. Gallbladder polyps are usually found incidentally when examining the abdomen by ultrasound for other conditions, usually abdominal pain. Most small polyps (less than 1 cm) are not cancerous and may remain unchanged for years. However,

neg: Heller myotomy acid reflux. In Dor or anterior fundoplication, which is the most common method, part of the stomach (the fundus) is laid over the front of the oesophagus and stitched into place so that whenever the stomach contracts, it also closes off the oesophagus instead of squeezing stomach acids into it. In Toupet or posterior fundoplication, the fundus is passed around the back of the oesophagus instead. Nissen or complete fundoplication (wrapping the fundus all the way around the oesophagus) is generally not considered advisable because peristalsis is absent in achalasia patients. This is a somewhat challenging operation, and surgeons have

neg: Nissen fundoplication the enlarged esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm. In a Nissen fundoplication, also called a complete fundoplication, the fundus is wrapped the entire 360 degrees around the esophagus. In contrast, surgery for achalasia is generally accompanied by either a "Dor" or "Toupet" partial fundoplication, which is less likely than a Nissen wrap to aggravate the dysphagia that characterizes achalasia. In a Dor (anterior) fundoplication, the fundus is laid over the top of the esophagus; while in a Toupet (posterior) fundoplication, the fundus is wrapped around the back of the esophagus. The procedure is now routinely performed laparoscopically. When used to alleviate

neg: Adventitia most cases by serosa. However, at the oral cavity, thoracic esophagus, ascending colon, descending colon and the rectum, the muscularis externa is instead bounded by adventitia. (The muscularis externa of the duodenum is bounded by both tissue types.) Generally, if it is a part of the digestive tract that is free to move, it is covered by serosa, and if it is relatively rigidly fixed, it is covered by adventitia. The connective tissue of the gallbladder is covered by adventitia where the gallbladder bounds the liver, but by serosa for the rest of its surface. Adventitia Adventitia is the outermost

neg: Cholecystectomy reason for removing the gallbladder, and lead to about 300,000 cholecystectomies in the US each year. Cholecystitis, or inflammation of the gallbladder caused by interruption in the normal flow of bile, is another reason for cholecystectomy. It is the most common complication of gallstones; 90-95% of acute cholecystitis is caused by gallstones blocking drainage of the gallbladder. If the blockage is incomplete and the stone passes quickly, the person experiences biliary colic. If the gallbladder is completely blocked and remains so for a prolonged period, the person develops acute cholecystitis. Pain in cholecystitis is similar to that of biliary colic,

neg: Fundus photography the above factors. The retinal nerve fibre layer should also be studied and commented on. It is also a useful tool in objectively measuring torsion as well as in documenting and recording progression of diseases over time. Fundus photography does not replace binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy; it is a tool to supplement and complement existing findings and to maintain a record of disease progression. Fundus photography is mainly used to monitor the progression of a retinal or optic nerve head disorder. It is also good for providing photo documentation for the continuum of care and to monitor the patient's ocular condition.

neg: Cholescintigraphy Cholescintigraphy Cholescintigraphy or hepatobiliary scintigraphy is scintigraphy of the hepatobiliary tract, including the gallbladder and bile ducts. The image produced by this type of medical imaging, called a cholescintigram, is also known by other names depending on which radiotracer is used, such as HIDA scan, PIPIDA scan, DISIDA scan, or BrIDA scan. Cholescintigraphic scanning is a nuclear medicine procedure to evaluate the health and function of the gallbladder and biliary system. A radioactive tracer is injected through any accessible vein and then allowed to circulate to the liver, where it is excreted into the bile ducts and stored by the

neg: Internal auditory meatus the internal auditory meatus is short (about 1 cm) and runs laterally into the bone. The lateral (outer) aspect of the canal is known as the fundus. The fundus is subdivided by two thin crests of bone to form three separate canals, through which course the facial and vestibulocochlear nerve branches. From medial to lateral, the transverse (falciform) crest first divides the meatus into superior and inferior sections; a second vertical crest (Bill's bar, named by William F. House) then divides the upper passage into anterior and posterior sections. Although there are three osseous canals, the fundus is conceptually divided

neg: Cholecystectomy The common bile duct drains the liver and pancreas, and a blockage there can lead to inflammation and infection in both the pancreas and biliary system. While cholecystectomy is not usually the immediate treatment choice for either of these conditions, it is often recommended to prevent repeat episodes from additional gallstones getting stuck. Gallbladder cancer (also called carcinoma of the gallbladder) is a rare indication for cholecystectomy. In cases where cancer is suspected, the open technique for cholecystectomy is usually performed. There are no specific contraindications for cholecystectomy, and in general it is considered a low-risk surgery. However, anyone who

neg: Gallbladder cancer confused in the medical literature. Early diagnosis is not generally possible. People at high risk, such as women or Native Americans with gallstones, are evaluated closely. Transabdominal ultrasound, CT scan, endoscopic ultrasound, MRI, and MR cholangio-pancreatography (MRCP) can be used for diagnosis. A large number of gallbladder cancers are found incidentally in patients being evaluated for cholelithiasis, or gallstone formation, which is far more common. A biopsy is the only certain way to tell whether or not the tumorous growth is malignant. Xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis (XGC) is a rare form of gallbladder disease which mimics gallbladder cancer although it is not

neg: Gallbladder such as gallstones are suspected. An abdominal X-ray or CT scan is another form of imaging that may be used to examine the gallbladder and surrounding organs. Other imaging options include MRCP (magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography), ERCP and percutaneous or intraoperative cholangiography. A cholescintigraphy scan is a nuclear imaging procedure used to assess the condition of the gallbladder. To have 'gall' is associated with bold behaviour, whereas to have 'bile' is associated with bitterness. In the Chinese language, the gallbladder () is associated with courage and a myriad of related idioms, including using terms such as "a body completely [of] gall"

neg: Gallbladder cancer Gallbladder cancer Gallbladder cancer is a relatively uncommon cancer, with an incidence of fewer than 2 cases per 100,000 people per year in the United States. It is particularly common in central and South America, central and eastern Europe, Japan and northern India; it is also common in certain ethnic groups e.g. Native American Indians and Hispanics. If it is diagnosed early enough, it can be cured by removing the gallbladder, part of the liver and associated lymph nodes. Most often it is found after symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice and vomiting occur, and it has spread to other

neg: Slit lamp beam to transmit through the corneal parenchymal layers according to the principle of total reflection allowing the interface with the cornea to be brightly illuminated. The magnification should be selected so that the entire cornea can be seen at a glance. Fundus observation is known by the ophthalmic and the use of fundus cameras. With the slit lamp, however, direct observation of the fundus is impossible due to the refractive power of the ocular media. In other words: the far point of the eye (punctum remotum) is so distant in front of (myopia) or behind (hyperopia) that the microscope cannot

neg: Cystic duct gall bladder, and relaxation of the Sphincter of Oddi. Gallstones can enter and obstruct the cystic duct, preventing the flow of bile. The increased pressure in the gallbladder leads to swelling and pain. This pain, known as biliary colic, is sometimes referred to as a gallbladder "attack" because of its sudden onset. During a cholecystectomy, the cystic duct is clipped two or three times and a cut is made between the clips, freeing the gallbladder to be taken out. Cystic duct The cystic duct is the short duct that joins the gallbladder to the common bile duct. It usually lies

neg: Fundus photography which eye, the date, and patient details. The patient’s records ought to contain documented outcomes of the fundus photography as well as a depiction of variations from previous photographs. They should contain an interpretation of those results and the relevant changes it could have on treatment plan. Fundus photographs without an interpretation are seen as obsolete. The records should be legible, and contain suitable patient information and clinician details. The interpretation of fundus photographs that are glaucomatous must contain a description of the vertical and horizontal cup to disc ratio, vessel pattern, diffuse or focal pallor, asymmetry and development of

neg: Emergency ultrasound when the baseline electrocardiogram or EKG, is nondiagnostic. The more technically demanding aspects of echocardiographic interpretation, and should be reserved for more formal comprehensive echocardiography. Abdominal complaints: Abdominal pain is also a common complaint in the primary care and emergency department setting. Gallbladder disease is a frequent cause of abdominal pain, but can also result in critical illness. Bedside ultrasound assesses the gallbladder for presence of gallstones that cause the majority of gallbladder illness. Emergency ultrasound of the gallbladder can help speed diagnosis and care. Flank pain can indicate obstructing kidney stones or abdominal aortic aneurysm. If obstructing kidney stones

neg: Gallbladder cancer of biliary and stomach obstruction. Of note, Courvoisier's law states that in the presence of a palpably enlarged gallbladder which is nontender and accompanied with mild painless jaundice, the cause is unlikely to be gallstones. This implicates possible malignancy of the gallbladder or pancreas, and the swelling is unlikely due to gallstones due to the chronic inflammation association with gallstones leading to a shunken, non-distensible gallbladder. However, Ludwig Georg Courvoisier's original observations, published in Germany in 1890, were not originally cited as a 'law', and no mention of malignancy or pain (tenderness) was made. These points are commonly misquoted or

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele to protect the liver as the gallbladder lives between two liver lobes, it works to protect it from bile acids. Dogs who are being medically managed must be rechecked for mucoceles after 4 to 6 weeks of being on antibiotics. If there are no signs of improvement and the symptoms are worsening surgery is necessary. Surgical removal of the gallbladder also known as "cholecystectomy" is recommended at initial detection to avoid spontaneous gallbladder rupture since the rate of leakage or rupture is unpredictable this also removes the potential for a reoccurring GBM. If the patient shows clinical signs, abnormal blood

neg: Gallbladder cancer cancerous. It was first discovered and reported in the medical literature in 1976 by J.J. McCoy, Jr., and colleagues. The most common and most effective treatment is surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) with part of liver and lymph node dissection. However, with gallbladder cancer's extremely poor prognosis, most patients will die within a year of surgery. If surgery is not possible, endoscopic stenting of the biliary tree can reduce jaundice and a stent in stomach may relieve vomiting. Chemotherapy and radiation may also be used with surgery. If gallbladder cancer is diagnosed after cholecystectomy for stone disease (incidental cancer),

neg: Porcelain gallbladder did not have calcified gallbladders while the 15 patients with porcelain gallbladders did not have gallbladder cancer. The second study reviewed 25,900 gallbladder specimens and found 150 patients with cancer and 44 patients with calcified gallbladders of two types (intramural calcification and selective mucosal calcification). The selective mucosal calcification group showed a 7% incidence of cancer with a significant odds ratio of 13.89. An article published in 2013 reviewed 111 studies and found 340 patients with gallbladder wall calcification showed a 21% overall rate of gallbladder malignancy; however, when studies with obvious selection bias were excluded the rate of gallbladder

neg: Accessory bile duct Accessory bile duct An accessory bile duct is a conduit that transports bile and is considered to be supernumerary or auxiliary to the biliary tree. It may be described by its location relative to the gallbladder as supravesicular (superior to the gallbladder body) or subvesicular (inferior to the gallbladder body). In the surgical literature, the term duct of Luschka is used to refer to an accessory bile duct. They are small ducts that distinctly enter the gallbladder bed, or small tributaries of minor intrahepatic radicals of the right hepatic ductal system. They can drain directly from the liver into the