query: who was responsible for bombing the spanish town of guernica

pos: Bombing of Guernica Bombing of Guernica The bombing of Guernica () (26 April 1937) was an aerial bombing of the Basque town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. It was carried out, at the behest of Francisco Franco's nationalist government, by its allies, the Nazi German Luftwaffe's Condor Legion and the Fascist Italian Aviazione Legionaria, under the code name Operation Rügen. The town was being used as a communications center behind the frontline. The operation opened the way to Franco's capture of Bilbao and his victory in northern Spain. The attack gained controversy because it involved the bombing of civilians by a

pos: Bombing of Guernica peace and have worked hard to bring about this memorial ceremony is profoundly meaningful. The solidarity we feel today derives from our shared experience of the horror of war, and this solidarity can truly lead us toward a world beyond war. Bombing of Guernica The bombing of Guernica () (26 April 1937) was an aerial bombing of the Basque town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. It was carried out, at the behest of Francisco Franco's nationalist government, by its allies, the Nazi German Luftwaffe's Condor Legion and the Fascist Italian Aviazione Legionaria, under the code name Operation Rügen.

neg: Guernica (2016 film) Guernica (2016 film) Guernica (Spanish/Basque: Gernika) is a 2016 Spanish-American war romance drama film directed by Koldo Serra, starring James D'Arcy, María Valverde and Jack Davenport. It is the first ever feature-length film made about the 1937 bombing of Guernica. The film centres on an American journalist (D'Arcy) covering the Spanish Civil War and the bombing of Guernica who falls in love with a censor (Valverde) for the Spanish Republican government. The journalist's character is loosely based on George Steer, the British reporter who covered the war and bombing for the UK media, as well as Ernest Hemingway and Robert

neg: Guernica the German "Bundeswehr Magazine" (published in April 2007, page 94). The raid was requested by Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Guernica survived. The Bombing of Guernica is considered the beginning of the Luftwaffe doctrine of terror bombing, where civilian targets were selected to demoralize the enemy. Pablo Picasso painted his famous "Guernica" painting to commemorate the horrors of the bombing and René Iché made a violent sculpture the day after the bombing. The bombing went on continuously for three hours. Celebrations

neg: Guernica (2016 film) Capa. Filming took place in the summer of 2015 in and around Bilbao. The film premiered at the Málaga Film Festival on 26 April 2016, the 79th anniversary of the bombing of Guernica. Guernica (2016 film) Guernica (Spanish/Basque: Gernika) is a 2016 Spanish-American war romance drama film directed by Koldo Serra, starring James D'Arcy, María Valverde and Jack Davenport. It is the first ever feature-length film made about the 1937 bombing of Guernica. The film centres on an American journalist (D'Arcy) covering the Spanish Civil War and the bombing of Guernica who falls in love with a censor (Valverde) for

neg: Guernica (Picasso) of Guernica, the poet Juan Larrea visited Picasso and urged him to make the bombing his subject. However, it was only on 1 May, having read George Steer's eyewitness account of the bombing (originally published in both "The Times" and "The New York Times" on 28 April), that he abandoned his initial project and started sketching a series of preliminary drawings for "Guernica". Guernica is a town in the province of Biscay in Basque Country. During the Spanish Civil War, it was regarded as the northern bastion of the Republican resistance movement and the center of Basque culture, adding to

neg: Guernica (Picasso) The painting was created in response to the bombing of Guernica, a Basque Country town in northern Spain, by Nazi Germany and Italian warplanes at the request of the Spanish Nationalists. Upon completion, "Guernica" was exhibited at the Spanish display at the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (Paris International Exposition) in the 1937 World's Fair in Paris and then at other venues around the world. The touring exhibition was used to raise funds for Spanish war relief. The painting became famous and widely acclaimed, and it helped bring worldwide attention to the Spanish Civil War.

neg: 20th-century Western painting 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the scene of the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized "Guernica" to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. In its final form, "Guernica" is an immense black and white, 3.5 metre (11 ft) tall and 7.8 metre (23 ft) wide

neg: Urdaibai estuary from 1476 until 1602. Guernica is formed by the union of the historical town of Guernica with Porch of Luno. Guernica, founded in 1366, is the historical seat of the General Assembly of Vizcaya and it is the House of Meetings with Tree of Guernica, a symbol of Basque privileges. It is also famous worldwide for the bombing suffered in the Spanish Civil War of 1936, the subject of Picasso's painting 'Guernica'. The remaining populations are small centers that cater to the historical political demarcation of the Lordship of Biscay in which the call Level Earth was organized porches. Mundaca

neg: Guernica 1882, when the two parishes joined together to form Gernika-Lumo. The first industrial concerns were set up in the early years of the 20th century. This encouraged population growth, and the town grew from 4,500 inhabitants in 1920 to 6,000 in 1936. On April 26, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Guernica was the scene of the Bombing of Guernica by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's "Luftwaffe" and the Italian Aviazione Legionaria. According to the official Basque figures, 1,654 civilians were killed, but the German sources report a round figure of 300 civilians killed in the bombing, according to

neg: Bombing of Guernica ton of bombs: 7.2–10.2 fatalities per ton of bombs dropped. Corum, who ascribes the discrepancy between the high death toll reported at Guernica and in other cases such as Rotterdam to propaganda, goes on to say that for Guernica: ...a realistic estimate on the high side of bombing effectiveness (7–12 fatalities per ton of bombs) would yield a figure of perhaps 300–400 fatalities in Guernica. This is certainly a bloody enough event, but reporting that a small town was bombed with a few hundred killed would not have had the same effect as reporting that a city was bombed with

neg: Bombing of Guernica Bilbao "George Steer Kalea", and commissioning a bronze bust with the dedication: "George Steer, journalist, who told the world the story about Guernica." Despite Francoist efforts to play down the reports, they proliferated and led to widespread international outrage at the time. Guernica quickly became a world-renowned symbol of civilian suffering resulting from conflict and inspired Pablo Picasso to adapt one of his existing commissions into "Guernica". The Spanish Republican Government had commissioned a work from him for the Spanish pavilion at the Paris International Exposition. Though he accepted the invitation to display a piece, he remained uninspired until he

neg: Pablo Picasso the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War – "Guernica". This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, "It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them." "Guernica" was exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at the Paris International Exposition, and then became the centerpiece of an exhibition of 118 works by Picasso, Matisse,

neg: History of painting the scene of the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized "Guernica" to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. In its final form, "Guernica" is an immense black and white, tall and wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The

neg: Bombing of Guernica Spanish weapons manufacturer Astra-Unceta y Cía, which had been a supplier of firearms to the Spanish military and police forces since 1912. At the time of the bombing, the population of Guernica was 7,000 people, and the battlefront was 30 kilometres away. Advances by Nationalist troops led by Generalísimo Francisco Franco had eaten into the territory controlled by the Republican Government. The Basque Government, an autonomous regional administrative body formed by Basque nationalists, sought to defend Biscay and parts of Guipuzcoa with its own light Basque Army. At the time of the raid, Guernica represented a focal strategic point for

neg: Guernica (Picasso) Guernica was thus a major target in support of the Republican offensive. The following day, Richthofen wrote in his war diary, "Guernica burning." The Republican retreat towards Bilbao did pass through Guernica, before and after the bombing, and, as Beevor points out, "At Guernica the communist Rosa Luxemburg Battalion under Major Cristobal held back the nationalists for a time". Guernica was a quiet village. The nearest military target of any consequence was a factory on the outskirts of the town, which manufactured various war products. The factory went through the attack unscathed. Thus, the motivation of the bombing was one

neg: Guernica (sculpture) Guernica (sculpture) Guernica is a 1937 statue made by French sculptor René Iché. It is one of Iché's most personal and violent works. He created this sculpture immediately after the bombing of Guernica on 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War. Shocked by the horror of the civilians' massacre, Iché worked all the day and the next night on his plaster statue. His daughter, Hélène, who was six at the time, was his model. However, Iché refused to exhibit his work because of its violence. It was revealed to the general public in 1997, at the exhibition commemorating the

neg: Hugo Sperrle war as commander of the air components of the German 7th Army. After the war, Sperrle joined the Freikorps and then the "Reichswehr". He entered the newly formed Luftwaffe in 1935 where he was soon promoted to a Generalmajor. He was the first commander of the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War until October 1937, with Wolfram von Richthofen serving as his chief of staff, Sperlle was directly responsible for the infamous bombing of Guernica, which involved the deliberate bombing of civilian targets by a military air force. Afterwards, he was promoted to "General der Flieger". At the outbreak

neg: Bombing of Guernica the Condor Legion during a practice exercise in preparation for Guernica. That was not the case. It was executed by Spanish pilots flying German planes. On April 1, 1937, at 17:20 PM, the Spanish city of Jaén, one of the few areas in Andalucia under Republican control at that point of the Civil War, was bombed by 6 German bombers(Junker 52). The bombers made a single raid over Jaen, in which killed an estimate of 150 people. The order for the Jaén bombing, dated on the same April 1 between the times of the attack on Jaen and the time

neg: Bombing of Guernica attack, José Antonio Aguirre published the following press note: ""German airforces, following orders of the Spanish Fascists, have bombed Guernica, setting the historical villa, that so much veneration has among the Basques, on fire. They (the Spanish Fascists) wanted to hurt us in the most vulnerable spot of our(the Basques) patriotic sentiment, proving once again what Euzkadi(Basque provinces) may expect from those who won't hesitate in destroying the sanctuary that commemorates centuries of our freedom and democracy (...). Before God and before History, which will judge us all, I assure you that the German planes bombed the population of Guernica,

neg: Strategic bombing At the time, the expectation was any new war would be brief and very savage. A British Cabinet planning document in 1938 predicted that, if war with Germany broke out, 35% of British homes would be hit by bombs in the first three weeks. This type of expectation might justify the appeasement of Hitler in the late 1930s. During the Spanish Civil War, the bombing of Guernica by German aviators including the Condor Legion, under Nationalist command, resulted in the near destruction of that Spanish town, and casualties estimated to be between 500 and 1500 people. Though this figure was

neg: Bombing of Guernica a symbol of Basque nationalism during the Spanish transition to democracy, was displayed near "Mercury Fountain," an overtly political work by Alexander Calder that incorporated mercury from the mines of Almadén. Today it resides in Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in Madrid. A tapestry copy of Picasso's "Guernica" is displayed on the wall of the United Nations building in New York City, at the entrance to the Security Council room. It was placed there as a reminder of the horrors of war. Immediately after the bombing of Guernica, René Iché, a French sculptor, created one of his most

neg: Bombing of Jaén hundred injured, comparable with the Bombing of Guernica, which occurred four weeks later. As a reprisal, the local republican authorities executed 128 Nationalist prisoners. Bombing of Jaén The Bombing of Jaén was an aerial attack on the city of Jaén on April 1, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany, who fought for the rebels. The bombing was ordered by the General Queipo de Llano, as retaliation for a republican air raid on the city of Córdoba. On April 1, 1937, six German Ju 52 bombers of the German Legion Condor bombed the city

neg: Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe" an important advantage going into the Second World War. One infamous operation was the bombing of Guernica in the Basque country. It is commonly assumed this attack was the result of a "terror doctrine" in "Luftwaffe" doctrine. The raids on Guernica and Madrid caused many civilian casualties and a wave of protests in the democracies. It has been suggested that the bombing of Guernica was carried out for military tactical reasons, in support of ground operations, but the town was not directly involved in any fighting at that point in time. It was not until 1942 that the Germans

neg: Civil defense siren announced via regional radio and TV stations. Few alarms for civil defense against bombing during the Spanish Civil War are preserved. The Guernica siren has a high symbolical value because the impact of the Bombing of Guernica. Barcelona City History Museum preserves one related to the Bombing of Barcelona. Another siren from civil war years is also preserved in Valencia The Swedish alarm system uses outdoor sirens as well as information transmitted through radio and television. Special radio receivers for the purpose are handed out to residents living near nuclear power plants. The outdoor signals used are as follows: The

neg: Bombing of Guernica a formation of three Ju 52s abreast—an attack front of about . At the same time, and continuing for around 15 minutes after the bombing wave, the Bf 109Bs and Heinkel He 51 biplanes strafed the roads leading out of town, adding to civilian casualties. The bombing shattered the city's defenders' will to resist, allowing the rebel Nationalists to overrun it. This indirectly supported Douhet's theory, which predicted this result. The rebels faced little resistance and took complete control of the town by 29 April. The attacks destroyed the majority of Guernica. Three quarters of the city's buildings were reported

neg: Guernica Guernica Guernica (), official and Basque name Gernika, is a town in the province of Biscay, in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, Spain. The town of Guernica is united in one municipality with neighbouring Lumo, as Gernika-Lumo. The population of the municipality is 16,224 . Gernika is best known to those residing outside the Basque region as the scene of the April 26, 1937, Bombing of Guernica, one of the first aerial bombings by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. It inspired the painting "Guernica" by Pablo Picasso. This village is situated at 10m altitude, in the region of Busturialdea, in

neg: Bombing of Guernica at this opportunity in this or that technical respect. Guernica may have been considered as a military target, being a communication centre not too far from the battle line. The Germans bombed Guernica in a deliberate attempt to destroy the entire town. After the war a telegram sent from Franco’s headquarters was found revealing that he had asked for a Condor Legion attack on Guernica. His goals were to discourage the Basque people and take over the Basque Government. Hermann Goering also confessed in 1946 that Germany had considered Guernica as a testing ground. Alongside the potential for gains in

neg: Pablo Picasso Pablo Picasso Pablo Ruiz Picasso (; ; 25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Regarded as one of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" (1907), and "Guernica" (1937), a dramatic portrayal of the bombing of Guernica

neg: Spanish Civil War Calder's "Fuente de mercurio" (Mercury Fountain) a protest work by the American against the Nationalist forced control of Almadén and the mercury mines there. Pablo Picasso painted "Guernica" in 1937, taking inspiration from the bombing of Guernica, and in Leonardo da Vinci's "Battle of Anghiari". "Guernica", like many important Republican masterpieces, was featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris. The work's size (11 ft by 25.6 ft) grabbed much attention and cast the horrors of the mounting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight. The painting has since been heralded as an anti-war work and a symbol of peace

neg: By the Waters of Babylon The story ends with John stating his conviction that, once he becomes the head priest, "We must build again." Benét wrote the story in response to the April 25, 1937 bombing of Guernica, in which Fascist military forces destroyed the majority of the Basque town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. This story took place before the public knowledge of nuclear weapons, but Benét's description of "The Great Burning" is similar to later descriptions of the effects of the atomic bombings at Nagasaki and Hiroshima. His "deadly mist" and "fire falling from the sky" seem eerily prescient of the

neg: Guernica (sculpture) centenary of the artist's birth. Thereafter, the sculpture was no longer exhibited and remains owned by the artist's family. The original plaster was given in 2011 to the Musée Fabre, where he is going to be restored. Guernica (sculpture) Guernica is a 1937 statue made by French sculptor René Iché. It is one of Iché's most personal and violent works. He created this sculpture immediately after the bombing of Guernica on 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War. Shocked by the horror of the civilians' massacre, Iché worked all the day and the next night on his plaster statue.

neg: Bombing of Guernica the Republican forces. It stood between the Nationalists and capture of Bilbao. Bilbao was seen as key to bringing the war to a conclusion in the north of Spain. Guernica also was the path of retreat for the Republicans from the northeast of Biscay. Prior to the Condor Legion raid, the town had not been directly involved in the fighting, although Republican forces were in the area; 23 battalions of Basque army troops were at the front east of Guernica. The town also housed two Basque army battalions, although it had no static air defenses, and it was thought that

neg: Bombing of Guernica and deputies from Hiroshima, Volgograd, Pforzheim, Dresden, Warsaw, and Oswiecim, as well as several survivors from Guernica itself. During the meeting they showed images and film clips of the bombing, took time to remember the 250 dead, and read the Guernica Manifesto for Peace, pleading that Guernica become a "World Capital for Peace". Documentary "Gernika, The Story", documentary of 2007 directed by Alberto Rojo The 2016 film 'Guernica' leads up to and culminates in the bombing of Guernica, set against the background of personalities involved in press coverage of the war. The attack on Jaen is sometimes falsely attributed to

neg: Bombing of Guernica almost 1,700 dead". The numbers regarding the level of material destruction of the city still vary depending on the author and on what type of damages are being taken into account. Salas Larrazábal Estimated that the bombs destroyed 14% of the local buildings. Cástor Uriarte (1970) estimated a total of 74% of the buildings were destroyed, mainly due to the fire that could not be extinguished until the next day. The first English-language media reports of the destruction in Guernica appeared two days later. George Steer, a reporter for "The Times", who was covering the Spanish Civil War from inside

neg: Bombing of Guernica suggested that the war chronicle Picasso read to inspire himself to paint the Guernica was actually a chronicle written by Louis Delaprée about the bombing of Madrid on December 1936. On 13 February 2003, during the commemoration of the 58th anniversary of the Bombing of Dresden, inhabitants of Dresden, Germany, including survivors of the firestorm of 1945, joined together with witnesses of the bombing of Guernica to issue an appeal to the people of the world: <poem> As our television sets show bombers preparing for war against Iraq, we survivors of Guernica and Dresden recall our own helplessness and horror

neg: The Third of May 1808 was an indiscriminate killing of civilians by French soldiers in reprisal for a guerrilla attack the previous day. Goya's painting of the massacre, which shows terrified civilians facing a firing squad, was intended to arouse anger and hatred on the part of Spanish viewers. Goya's is a highly romantic picture of a deeply emotional episode. "The Third of May" is cited as an influence on Pablo Picasso's 1937 "Guernica", which shows the aftermath of the Nazi German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. An exhibition in 2006 at the Prado and the Reina Sofía showed "The Third of

neg: Guernica the ground by German aircraft belonging to the Condor Legion, sent by Hitler to support Franco's troops. For almost four hours bombs rained down on Guernica in an "experiment" for the blitzkrieg tactics and bombing of civilians seen in later wars. In 1987 the 50th anniversary of the bombing was commemorated as the town hosted the Preliminary Congress of the World Association of Martyr Cities. The full congress was held subsequently in Madrid, bringing together representatives of cities all over the world. Since then, Gernika-Lumo has been a member of this association. 1988 saw the setting up of the monument

neg: Spanish Civil War Nationalists immediately after the Civil War. The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory, carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie: Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Guernica, Durango, and other cities were attacked. The Bombing of Guernica was the most controversial. According to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians died in Republican-held territories. This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor. However, it was much less than the half a million claimed during the war. The deaths would form the prevailing outside opinion of the

neg: Werner Mölders "Mölders". The Fighter Wing 74 ("Jagdgeschwader" 74), stationed in Neuburg an der Donau, received the name "Mölders" in 1973. Now a general, Rall presented the cuffbands. In 1998, on the occasion of the 61st anniversary of the bombing of the Spanish town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War, the German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion, such as Mölders, should "no longer be honoured". In 2005, the Federal Ministry of Defence decided to remove the name "Mölders" from JG 74. The decision was confirmed on 11 March 2005 by the Federal Minister of Defence Peter Struck, and

neg: Woodlands Academy, Coventry girls went to the nearby Tile Hill Wood School. In 2003, the school was awarded specialist status as a Sports College. In the main building there was a copy of the "Guernica" painting, which illustrated a stylised view of the 1937 Bombing of Guernica in Basque Spain by German and Italian bombers in the Spanish Civil War, in which the artist Pablo Picasso clearly expressed his abhorrence to the military suppression of the Spanish people. In 2003, Woodlands School adopted a new system where all the pupils took their SATs and GCSEs a year early compared to most other secondary

neg: Bombing of Guernica heard of the bombing of Guernica. Before the bombing of Guernica took place, Picasso never cared much for anything that had to do with politics. Once Picasso heard the news he changed his commissioned work for Spain into a reflection on the massacre. Picasso began the painting on 11 May 1937, working on a piece of unbleached muslin (349 cm x 776 cm). Since the work was so large, Picasso had to use a ladder and a long-handled brush to reach the furthest corners of the canvas. He spent over two months creating "Guernica". He used only black and white

neg: Bombing of Guernica in Guernica. It killed an estimate of 250 people and destroyed most of the city. Alfredo Kindelán considers that both Guernica and Durago were "practice drills" in the development of more effective bombing strategies to use on Madrid. The city of Madrid suffered a similar attack prior to the bombing of Guernica, and various after. Madrid was presenting a fierce resistance against the National troops that surpassed all of Franco's expectations and forced him to completely modify his attack strategy. A series of air bombings to demoralize the population were ordered both before and after Guernica. It has also been

neg: Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen bombed Guernica. Soon afterwards, and even in modern-day studies, historians referred to it as a deliberate act of terror bombing designed to break civilian morale. In April 1937 the town was located just behind the Republican frontline and Nationalist forces were applying pressure in the area. One simple, and possible reason for Richthofen sanctioning the bombing, was that two main roads being used to supply 23 Basque battalions at Bilbao intersected at Guernica. At least the 18th Loyola and Saseta battalions were stationed in the city at the time making it a legitimate target. The destruction of the road and

neg: Spanish Air Force World War II. Despite the devastation and the human casualties caused by the bombing of the Basque city of Guernica in 1937, known by the Luftwaffe as Operation Rügen, Hitler insisted that his longterm designs in Spain were peaceful. He called his strategy "Blumenkrieg" (Flower War), as evidenced in a January 1937 speech. The international outcry over Guernica, however, would not bring about any increase in the military help provided to the beleaguered Spanish Republic.The pilots of the Spanish Republican Air Force, often young and poorly trained were unable to check the Nazi German and Fascist Italian modern-warfare attacks. Despite

neg: Anti-war movement 1937 painting "Guernica", on the other hand, used abstraction rather than realism to generate an emotional response to the loss of life from the fascist bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. American author Kurt Vonnegut used science fiction themes in his 1969 novel Slaughterhouse-Five, depicting the bombing of Dresden in World War II (which Vonnegut witnessed). The second half of the 20th century also witnessed a strong anti-war presence in other art forms, including anti-war music such as "Eve of Destruction" and One Tin Soldier and films such as "M*A*S*H" and "Die Brücke", opposing the Cold War in

neg: Jörg Friedrich (author) airships. During the Spanish civil war, German airplanes bombed the town of Guernica in April 1937, which had no military use or value. Less well-known bombings, such as that of the Polish town of Wieluń within the first two hours of the war and prior to any attack on Germany, either by air or land, are left out. Friedrich mentions the British use of explosive weapons followed by incendiary, a mixture designed to create large fires. He also mentions that the technique to create firestorms was a German development first seen in the bombing against British cities, such as the

neg: Bombing of Guernica half of them in the hospital. Combined, both attacks equate most estimates for Guernica. (That same day at 20:00, the Republican government signed an order to execute "as many National Prisoners as people died in the Jaen bombing" This was clearly a punishment action. The order was carried through. If those executed are taken into account as victims of the bombings the bombing of Jaen doubles its number of victims). This is considered the clearest precedent for Guernica. It was perpetrated on March 31, 1937, by the Italian Air Forces in a three-raid pattern, almost exact to the one observed

neg: Bombing of Durango Durango, and later communists and socialists locked up the priests and nuns, shooting without pity and burning the churches". The bombing of Durango was to a certain extent overlooked historically. Instead, it was the bombing of Guernica, a similar air attack that took place only a few weeks later, that got to symbolize the horrors of modern aerial warfare in the public consciousness. Bombing of Durango The Bombing of Durango took place on 31 March 1937, during the Spanish Civil War. On 31 March 1937 the Nationalists started their offensive against the Republican held province of Biscay. As part of

neg: Bombing of Guernica Spain for the London Daily Express, was the first reporter to arrive on the scene after the bombing. He received the following cable from his office, "Berlin denies Guernica bombing. Franco says he had no planes up yesterday owing fog. Queipo de Llano says Reds dynamited Guernica during retreat." Overall, the impression generated was one which fed the widely held public fear of air attack which had been building throughout the 1930s, a fear which accurately anticipated that in the next war the aerial forces of warring nations would be able to wipe whole cities off the map. After the

neg: Bombing of Guernica Legion persuaded Franco to send troops to go north and to be led by General Emilio Mola. 31 March 1937, Mola attacked Biscay province, including the bombing of Durango by the Condor Legion. Republicans put up a tough fight against the German troops, but eventually were forced back. Many refugees fled to Guernica for safety, about a thousand people turned to Guernica. On 25 April, Mola sent a warning to Franco saying that he was planning a heavy strike against Guernica. To meet these objectives, two Heinkel He 111s, one Dornier Do 17, eighteen Ju 52 "Behelfsbomber", and three Italian

neg: Bombing of Guernica longing for peace. After World War I, that longing led to the League of Nations and numerous rules and taboos designed to govern warfare itself. Of these, the most important was the proscription against attacking and killing civilian non-combatants even in times of war. However, the second half of the twentieth century has seen most of those taboos broken. Guernica was the point of departure, and Hiroshima is the ultimate symbol. We must find ways to communicate to future generations the history of horror that began with Guernica...<br> In this sense, the leadership of those here in Guernica who seek

neg: Bombing of Guernica armed forces. The Condor Legion was entirely under the command of the Nationalist forces. The order to perform the raid was transmitted to the commanding officer of the Condor Legion, Oberstleutnant Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, from the Spanish Nationalist Command. While questions are often raised over the intent of the raid, the diaries of the planner and commander of the mission made public in the 1970s indicate that an attack on Guernica represented part of a wider Nationalist advance in the area and was also designed to support Franco's forces already in place. Richthofen, understanding the strategic importance of the

neg: Spanish Civil War republic up until the bombing of Guernica. The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters attacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of military revolt. In his 1961 book, Spanish archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno, who at the time was director of the journal "Ecclesia", wrote that 6,832 were killed during the war, including 4,184 priests, 2,365 monks and friars, and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops, a figure accepted by historians, including Beevor. Some sources claim that by the conflict's end, 20 percent of the nation's clergy had been killed, The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart

neg: Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen train lines around Guernica, as well as the bridges, denied the Republicans an escape route as well as the only way to evacuate heavy equipment. Another mitigating factor was the "poor accuracy" of German bomb sights in early 1937. By the rules of international warfare in 1937, the town was a legitimate target. Richthofen planned and executed the attack with the approval of the Spanish Nationalists. On that basis, unable to hit targets with precision, it has been argued, carpet bombing was the only realistic option. In the event, from a purely military perspective, it was a success, closing the

neg: Francisco Dosamantes Bombardeo, España, 1937 in opposition to the rebellion by Francisco Franco against the Spanish Republic. It has elements similar to Picasso’s painting related to the bombing of Guernica. Francisco Dosamantes Francisco Dosamantes (b. October 4, 1911 - d. July 18.1986) was a Mexican artist and educator who is best known for is educational illustrations and graphic work against fascism. He was a founding member of the Taller de Gráfica Popular and the Salón de la Plástica Mexicana. Francisco Dosamantes was born in Mexico City on October 4, 1911. His father was Daniel Dosamantes who was a builder, interior decorator and

neg: Kirmen Uribe Spanish as "Lo que mueve el mundo" (Seix Barral) is a docu-fictional novel that tells the story of one the thousands of Basque children who left the port of Bilbao way to exile in May 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, after the bombing of Guernica. Carmen, a girl of eight years, was hosted in the home of a poet and translator (Robert Mussche) in Ghent, Belgium. The writer’s life changes with the arrival of the child and, gradually, the events lead to an unexpected ending. “A thrilling novel from the first line to the last. The vicissitudes of the

neg: Bombing of Guernica of the Bombing of Cordoba, to which it is believed to be a direct response. It was written and signed by General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano is still preserved in the Spanish National Archives On April 1, 1937, at noon, the Andalucian city of Córdoba, under Rebel control at the time, had been heavily bombarded by seven bombers (Tupolev Katiuska) under command of the Republican Government. The civil population was warned about the bombing. The main target of the attack was the General Military Hospital in the city. It is estimated that 40 people were killed by the attack, about

neg: Josep Lluís Sert Catalonia, Spain (1935), the Central Dispensary of Barcelona (1935) and the Master Plan for the City of Barcelona (1933–35). From 1937 through 1939 he lived in Paris, where he designed the Spanish Republic's pavilion at the World's Fair, the Paris Exposition of 1937. The Spanish Pavilion was built right beside the Nazi Germany Pavilion, while in Spain the Civil War was going on and the Nazis had just bombed the town of Guernica. For the artistic content of the building, Sert called on his Spanish artist friends Picasso, Miró, and Calder; Picasso's contribution was Guernica and became the focal attraction

neg: Western painting the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized "Guernica" to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. "Guernica" is an immense black-and-white, 3.5 metre (11 ft) tall and 7.8 metre (23 ft) wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The choice to paint in black and white invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph. The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia and London, and in 1939 at Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United

neg: Bombing of Guernica "Guernica". Guernica (Gernika in Basque; officially Gernika-Lumo), in the Basque province of Biscay, and 30 kilometres east of Bilbao, has long been a centre of great significance to the Basque people. Its Gernikako Arbola ("the tree of Gernika" in Basque) is an oak tree that symbolizes traditional freedoms for the Biscayan people and, by extension, for the Basque people as a whole. Not only was Guernica considered the identity of Basque, but it was also considered the spiritual capital of Basque people. Guernica has always been celebrated as the home of Basque liberties. Guernica was also the location of the

neg: Bombing of Guernica military air force. The number of victims is still disputed; the Basque government reported 1,654 people killed at the time, while local historians identified 126 victims (later revised by the authors of the study to 153). A British source used by the Air War College claims 400 civilians died. Soviet archives claim 800 deaths on 1 May 1937, but this number may not include victims who later died of their injuries in hospitals or whose bodies were discovered buried in the rubble. The bombing is the subject of a famous anti-war painting by Pablo Picasso, commissioned by the Spanish Republic.

neg: Bombing of Guernica and the explosions happened because of dynamite stored in the sewers. Another theory by Nationalists was that there were a "few bomb fragments found" in Guernica, but the damage was mainly caused by Basque incendiaries. Franco's regime minimized the bombing for decades. In 1970, newspaper "Arriba" claimed that there had only been twelve deaths during the bombing raid. The scorched earth version was maintained as the official version all through Franco's regime. The attack has entered the lexicon of war as an example of terror bombing. It is also remembered by the surviving inhabitants and Basque people as such. Due

neg: Shadows and Sun after two world wars when he served as medic and infantryman. His poem "Guernica" was written when Picasso created an anti-war painting inspired by the bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War, when Nazis bombed the market place at midday. This collection of Eluard’s poems includes his early and late poems, and six prose pieces: the Surrealist manifesto of 1925; thoughtful essays on Picasso his friend and Picasso the energetic, innovative artist; essays on “The future of poetry”; “Involuntary poetry and intentional poetry”; and “The poetry of circumstance.” The book also includes "Liberté", which RAF pilots dropped over France

neg: Guernica (Picasso) of intimidation. Because a majority of the town's men were away, engaged in fighting on behalf of the Republicans, the town at the time of the bombing was populated mostly by women and children. These demographics are reflected in the painting because, as Rudolf Arnheim writes, for Picasso: "The women and children make "Guernica" the image of innocent, defenseless humanity victimized. Also, women and children have often been presented by Picasso as the very perfection of mankind. An assault on women and children is, in Picasso's view, directed at the core of mankind." Clearly, the Nationalists sought to demoralize the

neg: Bombing of Guernica fourth and fifth waves were carried out by German twin-engined planes. Vidal notes: If the aerial attacks had stopped at that moment, for a town that until then had maintained its distance from the convulsions of war, it would have been a totally disproportionate and insufferable punishment. However, the biggest operation was yet to come. Earlier, around noon that day, the Junkers Ju 52s of the Condor Legion had carried out a mission around Gerrikaraiz. Following this they landed to re-arm and then took off to complete the raid on Guernica. The attack would run from north to south, coming

neg: Bombing of Guernica practice by Condor Legion personnel. To illustrate this point, military historian James S. Corum cites an excerpt from a 1938 Condor Legion report on this use of this tactic: We have had notable results in hitting the targets near the front, especially in bombing villages which hold enemy reserves and headquarters. We have had great success because these targets are easy to find and can be thoroughly destroyed by carpet bombing. On the Spanish side, threats made prior to the raid by General Emilio Mola to "end the war in the North of Spain quickly" and threats apparently made against

neg: Bombing of Guernica It was also depicted in a woodcut by the German artist Heinz Kiwitz, who was later killed fighting in the International Brigades, and by Rene Magritte in the painting "Le Drapeau Noir". The bombing shocked and inspired many other artists, including a sculpture by René Iché, one of the first electroacoustic music pieces by Patrick Ascione, a musical composition by René-Louis Baron and poems by Paul Eluard ("Victory of Guernica"), and Uys Krige ("Nag van die Fascistiese Bomwerpers") (English translation from the Afrikaans: "Night of the Fascist Bombers"). There is also a short film from 1950 by Alain Resnais titled

neg: Astra 400 controlled the plant until the Bombing of Guernica in April, 1937. Astra pistols were subsequently produced for Nationalist troops, while Republican forces made approximately 22,000 copies of the pistol in Terrassa (marked "F. Ascaso") and Valencia (marked RE for "Republica Española"). Astra production after the civil war was for Nationalist troops except serial numbers 92851 to 98850 for Nazi Germany. Astra continued private production until 1950 even though in 1946 the Spanish military adopted the Star Model A as the standard sidearm. Spanish military inventories were sold to civilian wholesalers between 1956 and 1965. A total of around 106,175 pistols

neg: Bombing of Guernica Monday as, prior to the bombing, the Basque government had ordered a general halt to markets to prevent congestion of roads, and restricted large meetings. It is accepted by most historians that Monday "...would have been a market day". James Corum states that a prevalent view about the "Luftwaffe" and its "Blitzkrieg" operations was that it had a doctrine of terror bombing, in which civilians were deliberately targeted in order to break the will or aid the collapse of an enemy. After the bombing of Guernica in 1937, Wieluń and Warsaw in 1939, and Rotterdam in 1940, it was commonly

neg: Bombing of Guernica combat experience it is also thought that various strategic initiatives were first tried as part of Luftwaffe involvement in the conflict. Theories on strategic bombing were first developed by the Luftwaffe with the first exhibition of "carpet bombing" in the September 1937 Asturias campaign. Comparisons between the raid on Guernica and the fate of other cities during the conflict are also telling. As the fighting progressed into March 1938 Italian pilots flying as Aviazione Legionaria under Field Marshal Hugo Sperrle were involved in thirteen raids against Barcelona involving fire and gas bombs. The use of "carpet bombing" was becoming standard

neg: Condor Legion Condor Legion The Condor Legion () was a unit composed of military personnel from the air force and army of Nazi Germany, which served with the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War of July 1936 to March 1939. The Condor Legion developed methods of strategic bombing which were used widely in the Second World War shortly afterwards. The bombing of Guernica was the most infamous operation carried out by the Condor Legion. Hugo Sperrle commanded the unit's aircraft formations and Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma commanded the ground element. Following the military coup in Spain on 17 July 1936 at the

neg: Francoist Spain economy. In Spain and abroad, the legacy of Franco remains controversial. In Germany, a squadron named after Werner Mölders has been renamed because as a pilot he led the escorting units in the bombing of Guernica. As recently as 2006, the BBC reported that Maciej Giertych, an MEP of the right-wing League of Polish Families, had expressed admiration for Franco's stature who allegedly "guaranteed the maintenance of traditional values in Europe". Spanish opinion has changed. Several statues of Franco and other public Francoist symbols have been removed, with the last statue in Madrid coming down in 2005. Additionally, the Permanent

neg: Guernica (Picasso) In January 1937, the Spanish Republican government commissioned Picasso to create a large mural for the Spanish display at the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne at the 1937 World's Fair in Paris. At the time, Picasso was living in Paris, where he had been named Honorary Director-in-Exile of the Prado Museum. He had last visited Spain in 1934 and never returned. His initial sketches for the project, on which he worked somewhat dispassionately from January until late April, depicted his perennial theme of the artist's studio. Immediately upon hearing reports of the 26 April bombing

neg: Spain in Our Hearts many of the American volunteers. George Orwell was inspired by the experience to write "Homage to Catalonia", and anti-Stalinism was a key theme in his later works such as "Animal Farm" and "Nineteen Eighty-Four". Hochschild points out that Hitler and Mussolini used the Spanish Civil War to test out weapons and strategies that they would later employ in World War II. This includes the 1937 bombing of Guernica which was the first ever aerial bombing of civilians by a military air force. Hochschild concludes that Western intervention would have prevented the Nationalist victory in the civil war, but ultimately would

neg: Guernica (Picasso) through Guernica. "During 25 April, many of the demoralized (Republican) troops from Marquina fell back on Guernica, which lay 10 kilometers behind the lines." Wolfram von Richthofen's war diary entry for 26 April 1937 states, "K/88 [the Condor Legion bomber force] was targeted at Guernica in order to halt and disrupt the Red withdrawal which has to pass through here." Under the German concept of tactical bombing, areas that were routes of transportation and troop movement were considered to be legitimate military targets, and tactical aircraft tended to operate just outside the range of friendly artillery; in the German mindset,

neg: War in the North War in the North The War in the North, in the Spanish Civil War was the campaign in which the Nationalist forces defeated and occupied the parts of northern Spain that remained loyal to the Republican government. The campaign included several separate battles. The Biscay Campaign resulted in the loss of the part of the Basque Country still held by the Republic and Bilbao, the greatest Spanish industrial center. This part of the campaign saw the Bombing of Guernica and Durango. The Battle of Santander caused the loss of the province of Santander in Cantabrian Castile for the Republic. The

neg: Bombing of Guernica Guernica. There we have to close the traffic, if we finally want a decision against personnel and materiel of the enemy. Vigon agrees to move his troops for blocking all streets south of Guernica. If this succeeds, we will have trapped the enemy around Marquina. The first wave arrived over Guernica around 16:30. A Dornier Do 17, coming from the south, dropped approximately twelve bombs. The three Italian SM.79s had taken off from Soria at 15:30 with orders to "bomb the road and bridge to the east of Guernica, in order to block the enemy retreat" during the second wave.

neg: Bombing of Guernica an appraisal of large scale bombing raids during the Second World War. A comparison of the Guernica figures with the figures of dead resulting from air attacks on major European cities during the Second World War exposed an anomaly. James Corum uses the figure of forty tons of bombs dropped on Guernica, and calculates that if the figure of 1654 dead is accepted as accurate then the raid caused 41 fatalities per ton of bombs. By way of comparison the Dresden air raid during February 1945 which saw 3,431 tons of bombs dropped on the city caused fewer deaths per

neg: Bombing of Guernica violent and personal sculptures. He was shocked and horrified by the enormous civilian massacre and worked endlessly on the plaster statue. Iché used his daughter to model a child's body. He refused to display his work because of the violence. Just after his death an exhibition was held to commemorate the artist. This piece was displayed for a short time, then returned to his family. Recrimination for the activities of the Condor Legion and shame at the involvement of German citizens in the bombing of Guernica surfaced following German reunification in the 1990s. In 1997, the 60th anniversary of Operation

neg: Bombing of Guernica 5,000 people perished in Guernica. These figures were adopted over the years by some commentators. These figures are represented in a majority of the literature from that period and up to the 1970s. The Nationalist junta gave a patently false description of the events (claiming that the destruction had been caused by Republicans burning the town as they fled) and seems to have made no effort to establish an accurate number. At an extreme low, the Francoist newspaper "Arriba" claimed, on 30 January 1970, that there had only been twelve deaths. Issues with the originally released figures were raised following

neg: Luftwaffe II in Europe. The air raid on the town was one of the first aerial bombings of the war. About 1,300 civilians were killed, hundreds injured, and 90 percent of the town centre was destroyed. The casualty rate was more than twice as high as Guernica. A 1989 Sender Freies Berlin documentary stated that there were no military or industrial targets in the area, except for a small sugar factory in the outskirts of the town. Furthermore, Trenkner stated that German bombers first destroyed the town's hospital. Two attempts, in 1978 and 1983, to prosecute individuals for the bombing of

neg: Max Aub took Spanish citizenship. In 1914 Aub and his family settled in Valencia. There he completed his secondary education. In 1920, Aub became a salesman, like his father and from 1920 to 1935 he traveled through Spain and other European countries selling a variety of different products. In 1921, he became a Spanish citizen. In 1929, Aub joined the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party and remained a lifelong member. During the Spanish Civil War, the Republican government posted him to Paris as a cultural attaché. In 1937, he was responsible for placing Picasso's "Guernica" on display at the International Exposition, and took

neg: Bombing of Guernica Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 of the (Corpo Truppe Volontarie) were assigned for the mission. These were armed with medium high-explosive bombs, light explosive bombs and incendiaries The ordnance load for the 24 bombers was in total. A follow up to the bombing raid was also planned for the next day involving Messerschmitt Bf 109 raids in the area. The order was noted on 26 April by Richthofen as: Starting at once: A/88 and J/88 for free fighter bomber mission on the streets near Marquina-Guernica-Guerriciaz. K/88 (after Returning from Guerriciaz), VB/88 and Italians for the streets and the bridge (including suburb) east of

neg: Bombing of Guernica completely destroyed, and most others sustained damage. Among infrastructure spared were the arms factories "Unceta and Company" and "Talleres de Guernica" along with the Assembly House "Casa de Juntas" and the Gernikako Arbola. Since the Luftwaffe was then operating on Wever's theory of bombing as a military action, the mission was considered a failure as a result. However, the rubble and chaos that the raid created severely restricted the movement of Republican forces. Since his appointment on the northern front, the Soviet aviation advisor Arjénoukhine had insistently called for air reinforcements, motivating his demands by high losses inflicted by nationalist

neg: Guernica (Picasso) liberates every human being and protects the individual against overwhelming forces such as political crime, war, and death. "Guernica" was initially exhibited in July 1937 at the Spanish Pavilion at the Paris International Exposition. The Pavilion, which was financed by the Spanish Republican government at the time of civil war, was built to exhibit the Spanish government's struggle for existence contrary to the Exposition's technology theme. The Pavilion's entrance presented an enormous photographic mural of Republican soldiers accompanied by the slogan: The display of "Guernica" was accompanied by a poem by Paul Éluard, and the pavilion displayed "The Reaper" by

neg: José Antonio Sistiaga José Antonio Sistiaga José Antonio Sistiaga (4 May 1932, San Sebastián, Spain) is a Spanish artist and experimental filmmaker best known for his feature-length hand-painted "direct" film, "... era erera baleibu izik subua aruaren ..." (1968–70). He lives in Ciboure (France) and works in San Sebastian (Spain). During the Spanish civil war, as a son of a republican Basque, José Antonio Sistiaga had to escape from Bilbao with part of his family to Bordeaux (France) after the bombing of Guernica in April 1937. In 1955, he settled in Paris where he met the Andalusian painter Manuel Duque, executed his first

neg: Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War Condor Legion as a land and air force, with German efforts to fly the Army of Africa to mainland Spain proving successful in the early stages of the war. Operations gradually expanded to include strike targets, and there was a German contribution to many of the battles of the Spanish Civil War. The bombing of Guernica on 26 April 1937 would be the most controversial event of German involvement, with perhaps 200 to 300 civilians killed. German involvement also included Operation Ursula, a U-boat undertaking, and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Condor Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories, particularly in the

neg: 1937 in the Spanish Civil War colonial soldiers from Morocco, Franco made additional attempts to capture Madrid in January and February 1937, but failed again. On February 21 the League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign volunteers went into effect. The large city of Málaga was taken on February 8. On March 7, the German Condor Legion equipped with Heinkel He 51 biplanes arrived in Spain; on April 26 they bombed the town of Guernica (Gernika) in the Basque Country; two days later, Nationalist General Emilio Mola's men entered the town. After the fall of Guernica, the Republican government began to fight back with increasing

neg: Junkers German war effort. The Ju 52 had previously seen service in the Spanish Civil War, where it took part in the Condor Legion's destructive raids on Durango and Guernica in 1937 which illustrated to the world—for the first time—the destructive potential and horror of strategic bombing. Unfortunately for its pilots and military passengers, by the outbreak of World War II, the Ju 52 was a thoroughly obsolete military design and unlike many other famous Luftwaffe aircraft, the "Tante Ju" was cumbersome, slow, and therefore vulnerable to attack. This resulted in many losses, namely at Crete and Stalingrad. The abortive "Amerika

neg: Picasso: Magic, Sex & Death still decry this characterization — as altercations ensued. Picasso’s great work for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World’s Fair — "Guernica" — was occasioned by the notorious Nazi bombing. For the pacifistic Picasso, it was painting "as an instrument of war". The two antagonistic mistresses appear in the work amidst a bull fight. "This 49-minute episode covers the period from the war years to Picasso's death." From 1937, Picasso maintained a Paris studio apartment at the Rue des Grands Augustins where he spent the war years — not being able to separate himself from his family circles and artworks

neg: Guernica (Picasso) Joan Miró and "Mercury Fountain" by Alexander Calder, both of whom were sympathetic to the Republican cause. At its unveiling at the Paris Exhibition it garnered little attention. The public's reaction to "Guernica" was mixed. Max Aub, one of the officials in charge of the Spanish pavilion, was compelled to defend the work against a group of Spanish officials who objected to the mural's modernist style and sought to replace it with a more traditional painting that was also commissioned for the exhibition, "Madrid 1937 (Black Aeroplanes)" by Horacio Ferrer de Morgado. Some Marxist groups criticized Picasso's painting as lacking

neg: Bombing of Guernica Republicans in Bilbao afterward implied a blunting of strategy and that air raids were effective and set to become an increasingly favorite instrument in the Nationalist war effort. Vidal outlines some other commonly voiced theories on the raid: The bombing, which gained immediate international media attention, is thought to be the first deliberate dive-bombing of civilians by aerial bombers, a strategy widely recognized as "deviant", causing "international horror". Steer's reports on the horrors of Guernica were greatly appreciated by the Basque people. Steer had made their plight known. The Basque authorities later honored his memory by naming a street in

neg: Bombing of Guernica been destroyed. The Germans denied any involvement, as well. Von Richthofen claimed that the Germans had a target that was a bridge over the Mundaca River, which was on the edge of town. It was chosen for the fact that it would cut off the fleeing Republican troops. However, even though the Germans had the best airmen and the best planes in Spain, none of their bombs hit the presumed target. Some Nationalist reporters suggested that the town had been bombed from the air, but by Republican airplanes. The bombs were said to have been made in the Basque country

neg: Abraham Osheroff a "Goddamn Jew." Around this time, he joined the Communist Party. In 1935, aged 20, he was organizing miners' unions on behalf of the party and raising aid for striking workers. When the Spanish Civil War came in 1936, Abe felt no real compulsion to go and fight, until he saw the bombing of Guernica by the Luftwaffe. This convinced him to fight, as he believed no one should be allowed to inflict such suffering on others and get away with it. He joined the Abraham Lincoln Brigade and was wounded at the Battle Of Belchite (1937). Back home in

neg: Guernica (Picasso) in political commitment and faulted it for not offering a vision of a better future. In contrast, Morgado's painting was a great success with Spanish Communists and with the public. The art critic Clement Greenberg was also critical of "Guernica", but for different reasons. In a later essay, Greenberg termed "Guernica" "jerky" and "too compressed for its size", and compared it unfavorably to the "magnificently lyrical" "The Charnel House" (1944–48), a later antiwar painting by Picasso. Among the painting's admirers were the art critic Jean Cassou and the poet José Bergamín, both of whom praised the painting as quintessentially Spanish.

neg: Philip Pembroke Stephens continued to write critical articles on the Nazis, until the "Daily Express" lost its enthusiasm for this. He subsequently joined the "Daily Telegraph" newspaper and was sent to report on the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the Spanish Civil War, and the Japanese invasion of China. On 29 April 1937, in the Basque country, he was among the first reporters to enter the ruins of Guernica with the Nationalist forces. In the newspaper, he reported only that the town had been 'burned' but on Sunday 2 May he privately reported to the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Chilton, in Hendaye, that Guernica had

neg: Bombing of Granollers bombing must have been often aimed at non military targets. The British government and the Vatican protested to Burgos, Berlin, and Rome. Ciano said that Franco ordered the attacks and the Italians were not responsible, but he promised to do what he could, nevertheless he said to the German ambassador that: "Actually, we have, of course, done nothing, and have no intention of doing anything either". Bombing of Granollers The Bombing of Granollers took place during the Spanish Civil War in 1938. On 31 May 1938, the Italian "Aviazione Legionaria" bombed the town of Granollers. There were between 100 and

neg: Condor Legion tests of German arms in the Spanish Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, they did not provide the experience that was needed nor lead to the formulation of sound strategic concepts. Recrimination for the activities of the Condor Legion and shame at the involvement of German citizens in the bombing of Guernica surfaced following German reunification in the 1990s. In 1997, the 60th anniversary of Operation Rügen, then German President Roman Herzog wrote to survivors of the raid apologizing on behalf of the German people and state. Herzog said he wished to extend "a hand of