query: who has the power to negotiate treaties with other countries

pos: Treaty Clause upheld by the Supreme Court in "Field v. Clark" (1892). Warren F. Kimball, Alliances, Coalitions, and Ententes - The American alliance system: an unamerican tradition Treaty Clause The Treaty Clause is part of Article II, Section 2, Clause 2, of the United States Constitution, that empowers the President of the United States to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements between the United States and other countries, which, upon receiving the advice and consent of a two-thirds supermajority vote of the United States Senate, become binding with the force of federal law. The body of law governing U.S. foreign policy recognizes three

pos: Space policy the International Geophysical Year. Since that time, space law has evolved and assumed more importance as mankind has increasingly come to use and rely on space-based resources. The Soviet Union became the world's first spacefaring state by launching its first satellite, Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957. United States space policy is drafted by the Executive branch at the direction of the President of the United States, and submitted for approval and establishment of funding to the legislative process of the United States Congress. The President may also negotiate with other nations and sign space treaties on behalf of the

neg: Louisiana Purchase historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did. Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution"), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties

neg: First and second terms of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt American forces were withdrawn from Haiti, and new treaties with Cuba and Panama ended their status as protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. Following the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Haiti, the only U.S. military forces remaining in the Caribbean were stationed in the Panama Canal Zone or the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. In 1934, Roosevelt signed the Reciprocal Tariff Act, which allowed the president to negotiate trade reciprocity treaties with other countries. Over the next six

neg: German occupation of Norway negotiate favourable trade treaties both with the United Kingdom and Germany under these conditions, but it became increasingly clear that both countries had a strategic interest in denying the other warring power access to Norway and its coastline. The government was also increasingly pressured by Britain to direct ever larger parts of its massive merchant fleet to transport British goods at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. In March and April 1940, British plans for an invasion of Norway were prepared, mainly in order to reach and destroy the Swedish iron ore mines in

neg: Foreign relations of Brazil considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, also known as Itamaraty, is the government department responsible for advising the President and conducting Brazil's foreign relations with other countries and international bodies. Itamaraty's scope includes political, commercial, economic, financial, cultural and consular relations, areas in which it performs the classical tasks of diplomacy: represent, inform and negotiate. Foreign policy priorities are established by the President. Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing

neg: International taxation item). In some countries they are also known as double taxation agreements, double tax treaties, or "tax information exchange agreements" (TIEA). Most developed countries have a large number of tax treaties, while developing countries are less well represented in the worldwide tax treaty network. The United Kingdom has treaties with more than 110 countries and territories. The United States has treaties with 56 countries (as of February 2007). Tax treaties tend not to exist, or to be of limited application, when either party regards the other as a tax haven. There are a number of model tax treaties published by

neg: Constitution Act, 1867 to also serve as senators at the same time. Section 132 gives the federal government the sole responsibility to makes treaties with other countries, either within or without the British Empire. Section 133 establishes English and French as the official languages of the Parliament of Canada and the Parliament of Quebec. No provision was made for the official languages of other government bodies. This part has only one section, which obligates the federal government to construct a railway uniting all the four original provinces. Section 146 allows the federal government to negotiate the entry of new provinces into the Union

neg: Texas Revolution ill from dysentery and other diseases. Their supply lines had completely broken down, leaving no hope of further reinforcements. Filisola later wrote that "Had the enemy met us under these cruel circumstances, on the only road that was left, no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion". For several weeks after San Jacinto, Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston, Rusk, and then Burnet. Santa Anna suggested two treaties, a public version of promises made between the two countries, and a private version that included Santa Anna's personal agreements. The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops

neg: Brexit negotiations leaves the EU, they may put trade agreements in place with non-EU countries. Only the EU can act in areas where it has exclusive competence, such as the customs union and common commercial policy. In those areas Member States may not act independently. The UK can still negotiate its own bilateral investment protection treaties subject to Commission authorization. Strategic controls on military goods are primarily a Member State competence. As a result, Member States themselves negotiate multilateral or bilateral agreements on the strategic aspects of trade in defense goods. The EU27 wish to exclude the UK from sitting in on

neg: San Marino General Council approves the budget and elects the Captains Regent, the State Congress (composed of ten Secretaries with executive power), the Council of Twelve (which forms the judicial branch during the period of legislature of the Council), the Advising Commissions, and the Government Unions. The council also has the power to ratify treaties with other countries. The council is divided into five different Advising Commissions consisting of fifteen councillors who examine, propose, and discuss the implementation of new laws that are on their way to being presented on the floor of the council. Every six months, the council elects two

neg: Energy policy of Canada to make laws in relation to non-renewable resources and electrical energy, while Section 125 prevented the federal government from taxing any provincial government lands or property. On the other hand, the federal government has the power to make treaties with foreign countries. This has important implications for treaties involving energy production, like the Kyoto Protocol, which the Canadian government signed in 2002. Although the federal government had the authority to sign the treaty, it may require the cooperation of the provincial governments to enforce it. Canada has a robust energy profile with abundant and diverse resources. Energy and climate policies

neg: Treaty 4 for the intended transcontinental railway. The Canadian government had also decided that there was enough land for the beginning of settlement and development. Therefore they had no interest to negotiate any other treaties at that time. However, the Indigenous people who had not been a part of treaty discussions were worried about their future because of the dwindling bison and the ongoing settlement. They were aware that other Indigenous communities who lived southeast in the newly confederated land had signed treaties for themselves. They believed that the treaties provided protection from the change and economic hardships, and they wanted that

neg: Halifax Treaties the Mi'kmaw as a means of drawing their support away from the British. The Mi'kmaq continued to pressure the British Government throughout the nineteenth century to have the British live up to the Treaties and treat the Mi'kmaq like full British subjects as they did those from other cultures who were British subjects. Some historians have argued that the Treaties were not Treaties of surrender and that, in fact, Nova Scotia is "unceded Mi'kmaw territory". To sustain this argument, some historians have argued that the Mi'kmaq were in a strong enough position to negotiate the terms of the Halifax Treaties

neg: Brazil of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations. According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy. Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power. Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based

neg: President of Indonesia declare a State of Emergency. Diplomatically, the president, with the agreement of the DPR, has the power to declare war, peace, and to sign treaties. In addition, he or she appoints ambassadors and consuls as well as accepting ambassadors from other countries. Finally, the president has power to give amnesties and pardons as well as awarding titles and honours. The Provisional Constitution: The president has the power to name cabinets and appoint the prime minister with the advice of formateurs. The president is able to remove ministers from office and has the right to be informed of important matters by

neg: Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia negotiate border treaties with Romania, but tacitly permitted Deleu, Bocu, Ghibu and other Transylvanian Romanians activists who worked against Austria-Hungary to work on UNR territory. "România Mare" gazette, which still had Bocu as chief editorial manager, closed down in December 1917, having published 23 issues in all. By then, Ion Agârbiceanu and family had left their temporary home in Yelisavetgrad for Hârlău, where he became the Corps' chaplain. A last group of Romanian units left the UNR and headed for Kishinev, where a Romanian-friendly Moldavian Democratic Republic was vying for power with the local Bolsheviks. Their action was likely coordinated

neg: Accidental American the same fines for failure to file. Tax treaties generally do not serve to mitigate the double taxation and filing burdens such people face, as all U.S. tax treaties give the U.S. the power to tax U.S. citizens residing in other countries as if the treaty did not exist; such treaties generally only benefit business entities and dual-resident non-U.S. citizens. The result, as tax attorney Gavin Leckie put it, is that "people who have no sense of being American find themselves caught up in a maze of rules really aimed at the U.S. resident citizen seeking to defer or evade

neg: Secret treaty modern substitutes." Secret treaties (in which the agreement itself is secret) are distinct from secret negotiations (in which the ongoing negotiations are confidential, but the final agreement is public). Colin Warbrick writes that in Britain, "the prerogative power to negotiate and conclude treaties puts the government in a powerful position. It does not need to seek a negotiating mandate from Parliament and can keep its positions confidential until the conclusion of negotiations." The traditional rule in favor of secrecy of negotiations is in tension with values of transparency: Anne Peters writes that "the growing significance of multilateral treaties as global

neg: President of Indonesia to grant pardons. The Amended 1945 Constitution: The president has constitutional authority over the government and has the power to name and remove ministers. He or she has the right to propose bills to DPR, to discuss bills with the DPR to reach an agreement, make government regulations in accordance with laws, and in the case of emergencies has the power to make Government regulations in lieu of law. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Diplomatically, the president can only sign treaties, appoint ambassadors, accept ambassadors from other countries, rehabillitate prisoners, and appoint Judicial

neg: Louisiana Purchase to acquire any territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient. Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics. It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the

neg: Politics of Russia on power sharing. For instance, in the bilateral treaty signed with the Russian government in February 1994, the Republic of Tatarstan gave up its claim to sovereignty and accepted Russia's taxing authority, in return for Russia's acceptance of Tatar control over oil and other resources and the republic's right to sign economic agreements with other countries. This treaty has particular significance because Tatarstan was one of the two republics that did not sign the Federation Treaty in 1992. By mid-1996 almost one-third of the federal subunits had concluded power-sharing treaties or charters. The first power-sharing charter negotiated by the central

neg: Health care in the United States care costs compared to an OECD average of 18% (2003 figures). Some 25% of out-of-pocket spending by individuals is for prescription drugs. The U.S. government has taken the position (through the Office of the United States Trade Representative) that U.S. drug prices are rising because U.S. consumers are effectively subsidizing costs which drug companies cannot recover from consumers in other countries (because many other countries use their bulk-purchasing power to aggressively negotiate drug prices). The U.S. position (consistent with the primary lobbying position of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America) is that the governments of such countries are free

neg: Arbitration major disputes. The treaty was rejected by the U.S. Senate and never went into effect. American Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan (1913–1915) worked energetically to promote international arbitration agreements, but his efforts were frustrated by the outbreak of World War I. Bryan negotiated 28 treaties that promised arbitration of disputes before war broke out between the signatory countries and the United States. He made several attempts to negotiate a treaty with Germany, but ultimately was never able to succeed. The agreements, known officially as "Treaties for the Advancement of Peace," set up procedures for conciliation rather than for arbitration.

neg: Reciprocal Tariff Act Reciprocal Tariff Act The Reciprocal Tariff Act (enacted June 12, 1934, ch. 474, , ) provided for the negotiation of tariff agreements between the United States and separate nations, particularly Latin American countries. The Act served as an institutional reform intended to authorize the president to negotiate with foreign nations to reduce tariffs in return for reciprocal reductions in tariffs in the United States. It resulted in a reduction of duties. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (RTAA) into law in 1934. RTAA gave the president power to negotiate bilateral, reciprocal trade agreements with other countries.

neg: Reichskommissariat Norwegen of urgency that Norway had to prepare, not only to protect its neutrality, but indeed to fight for its "freedom and independence." Efforts to improve military readiness and capability, and to sustain an extended blockade, were intensified between September 1939 and April 1940. Several incidents in Norwegian maritime waters, notably the Altmark incident in Jøssingfjord, put great strains on Norway's ability to assert its (recently broken) neutrality. Norway managed to negotiate favorable trade treaties both with the United Kingdom and Germany under these conditions, but it became increasingly clear that both countries had a strategic interest in denying the other

neg: Tax treaty to domestic law. In those countries, a conflict between domestic law and the treaty must be resolved under the dispute resolution mechanisms of either domestic law or the treaty. Tax treaty Many countries have entered into tax treaties (also called double tax agreements, or DTAs) with other countries to avoid or mitigate double taxation. Such treaties may cover a range of taxes including income taxes, inheritance taxes, value added taxes, or other taxes. Besides bilateral treaties, multilateral treaties are also in place. For example, European Union (EU) countries are parties to a multilateral agreement with respect to value added taxes

neg: British Columbia Treaty Process bands in the process, but only 20% are said to be making progress. About 40% of First Nations are not involved in the treaty process. Because the Royal Proclamation of 1763 stated that the Crown must negotiate and sign treaties with the indigenous people before land could be ceded to a colony, the Numbered Treaties were negotiated in most parts of the Prairie Provinces. The Government of the Colony of British Columbia, however, failed to negotiate many treaties and as a result, most of the province's land is not covered by treaties. The few exceptions are the 14 Douglas Treaties

neg: UK Independence Party payments to the EU, and withdrawing from EU treaties, while maintaining trading ties with other European countries. Initially, UKIP's policy was that, in the event of them winning a general election, it would remove the UK from the EU without a referendum on the issue. The party leadership later suggested a referendum, expressing the view that in the case of an exit vote, it could negotiate favourable terms for the country's withdrawal, for instance through ensuring a free trade agreement between the UK and EU. UKIP eventually committed to a referendum in their 2015 manifesto. In contrast to involvement in

neg: Extradition law in Australia warrant. The local jurisdiction has priority in respect of offences in that jurisdiction, so that a person charged or in prison in the jurisdiction must be processed and serve time before extradition to the other state. The "Extradition Act 1988" governs the extradition to other countries of fugitives found in Australia. The law ratifies a series of treaties to which Australia is a party with other countries, either in the right of the Commonwealth of Australia, by being bound by treaties which the United Kingdom executed on behalf of the Commonwealth of Australia, or multilateral treaties to which Australia is

neg: Federalist No. 70 the president's power is more limited than the power of a king. He points out that the decisive president will be balanced and checked by a slow and deliberate legislative branch and that the president and the legislative branch will share responsibilities. For example, the president will make appointments and negotiate treaties, while the Congress will possess legislative powers and fund and set rules for the military. The Senate serves as a final check by providing (or not providing) its consent for appointments and treaties. Hamilton similarly anticipates and refutes the counterargument that more opinions in government lead to better

neg: Battle of San Jacinto that was left, no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion". For several weeks after San Jacinto, Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston, Rusk, and then Burnet. Santa Anna suggested two treaties, a public version of promises made between the two countries, and a private version that included Santa Anna's personal agreements. The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops withdraw south of the Rio Grande and that all private property be respected and restored. Prisoners of war would be released unharmed and Santa Anna would be given immediate passage to Veracruz. He secretly promised to

neg: Ouray (Ute leader) the government in negotiating with his tribe, who kept in good faith all treaties that were made by him. He protected their interests as far as possible, and set them the example of living a civilized life. Although Ouray sought reconciliation between different peoples, with the belief that war with the whites likely meant the demise of the Ute tribe, other, more militant Utes, considered him a coward for his propensity to negotiate. Disturbed by the treaties that Ouray entered into, his brother-in-law Sapovanero tried to kill him with an axe during his near-daily visit to the Los Piños Indian

neg: Labour Conventions Reference as to the extent of the federal power to negotiate, sign and ratify treaties that deal with areas falling within provincial jurisdiction. After 1949, the Supreme Court tended to side more with the federal government, and in 1955 subsequently ruled that international agreements between provinces and foreign governments were allowed only if they did not involve treaty obligations but merely reciprocal or concurrent legislative action. This judgment has generated extensive debate about the complications that were introduced in implementing Canada's subsequent international obligations, and it has been condemned for being out of touch with Canadian economic and political realities. The

neg: History of Oklahoma more formalized in 1830 via the passage of the Indian Removal Act. This act gave President Andrew Jackson the power to negotiate treaties for removal with Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi River. The treaty called for the Indians to give up their eastern land for land in the west. Those who wished to stay behind were required to assimilate and become citizens in their state. For the tribes that agreed to Jackson's terms, the removal was peaceful, however those who resisted were eventually forced to leave. Part of what became Oklahoma was designated as the home for the

neg: Tax treaty Tax treaty Many countries have entered into tax treaties (also called double tax agreements, or DTAs) with other countries to avoid or mitigate double taxation. Such treaties may cover a range of taxes including income taxes, inheritance taxes, value added taxes, or other taxes. Besides bilateral treaties, multilateral treaties are also in place. For example, European Union (EU) countries are parties to a multilateral agreement with respect to value added taxes under auspices of the EU, while a joint treaty on mutual administrative assistance of the Council of Europe and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is open

neg: Secret treaty Secret treaty A secret treaty is "an international agreement in which the contracting parties have agreed, either in the treaty instrument or separately, to conceal its existence or at least its substance from other states and the public." According to one compilation of secret treaties published in 2004, there have been 593 secret treaties negotiated by 110 countries and independent political entities since the year 1521. "Secret treaties were a central instrument of balance-of-power diplomacy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries," but are rare today. The "elaborate alliance systems" among European powers, "each secured by a network of secret treaties,

neg: Vatican Secret Archives a sizable collection of records. Known alternately as the Holy Scrinium or the Chartarium, it normally travelled with the current Pope. The vast majority of these documents are now lost, but we know of them through references in contemporary and later works. In later centuries, as the Church amassed power, popes would visit heads of state to negotiate treaties or make political appearances around Europe. Popes would also have multiple places of residency. When they travelled for diplomatic or other purposes, they would take their archives with them, since they needed it for administrative work. This resulted in some loss

neg: Mackay Treaty to negotiate the amendments deemed necessary by the foreign governments to the treaties of commerce and navigation and the other subjects concerning commercial relations, with the object of facilitating them." These were the last treaties signed by the Qing before the 1911 fall of the dynasty. The Chinese delegation comprised Lü Haihuan (1840–1927), president of the Board of Public Works and Sheng Xuanhuai (1844–1916), director general of the Chinese Railway Company, assisted by attachés A. E. Hippisley and F. E. Taylor, who were commissioners in the Chinese Maritime Customs Service (CMCS). R.E. Bredon, the CMCS deputy inspector general, later joined

neg: Israel and Islamophobia Israel and Islamophobia Islamophobia often involves the strategy of targeted elimination and harassment of a population of Muslims. This tactic is common in other countries such as Myanmar and India. Unlike Myanmar and India, Islamophobia in Israel often takes the form of spreading Islamophobia in other countries. This includes abusing power by justifying the harassment of Palestinians within territories under Israel's control, as well as supporting aggression towards Muslim people. This strategy has become less frequent over time, due to multiple agreements and treaties. Islamophobia within Israel is considered an issue of social injustice. Lobbyists in Israel have often given

neg: Bancroft Treaties Bancroft Treaties The Bancroft treaties, also called the Bancroft conventions, were a series of agreements made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries between the United States and other countries. They recognized the right of each party's nationals to become naturalized citizens of the other; and defined circumstances in which naturalized persons were legally presumed to have abandoned their new citizenship and resumed their old one. Named for historian and diplomat George Bancroft (1800–1891), who negotiated the first of these agreements with Prussia, the Bancroft treaties were mainly intended to prevent individuals from using naturalization as a way to

neg: William Jennings Bryan and in mid-1913 El Salvador became the first nation to sign one of Bryan's treaties. 29 other countries, including every great power in Europe other than Germany and Austria-Hungary, also agreed to sign the treaties. Despite Bryan's aversion to conflict, he oversaw U.S. interventions in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Mexico. After World War I broke out in Europe, Bryan consistently advocated for U.S. neutrality between the Entente and the Central Powers. With Bryan's support, Wilson initially sought to stay out of the conflict, urging Americans to be "impartial in thought as well as action." For much of 1914, Bryan

neg: Interventionism (politics) nonviolent intervention is the Peace Brigades International. Examples of Foreign policy doctrines include the Bush Doctrine, the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, and the Kirkpatrick Doctrine. Nazi Germany Geopolitik and United States Realpolitik are also examples of practical policies. Foreign intervention may result in a declaration of war or state of emergency. Efforts in foreign intervention may include diplomacy to dispute resolution. The involved parties in a conflict may negotiate a peace treaty or other treaties. A state may operate as a protecting power on behalf of other

neg: Modern Cambodia a 'wily operator who destroys his political opponents', Hun Sen is widely viewed as a dictator that has assumed authoritarian power in Cambodia using violence and intimidation and corruption to maintain his power base. Hun Sen has accumulated highly centralized power in Cambodia, including a 'praetorian guard that appears to rival the capabilities of the country’s regular military units.' From July 30 to August 30, 1989, representatives of 18 countries, the four Cambodian parties, and Secretary-General of the United Nations Javier Pérez de Cuéllar met in Paris in an effort to negotiate a comprehensive settlement. They hoped to achieve those

neg: League of Nations the First World War, pacifism became a strong force among both the people and governments of the two countries. The British Conservatives were especially tepid to the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of that organisation. Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for Britain, France, and its other members, while at the same time advocating collective security, meant that the League was depriving itself of the only forceful means by which it could uphold its authority. When the British cabinet discussed the concept of the League during the First World War, Maurice Hankey, the

neg: Tax residence taxation. Therefore, it is particularly relevant when two countries simultaneously claim a person to be resident within their jurisdiction. Double taxation treaties generally follow the OECD Model Convention. Other relevant models are the UN Model Convention, in the case of treaties with developing countries and the US Model Convention, in the case of treaties negotiated by the United States. The OECD Model Convention and the UN Model Convention are identical. They first provide for a definition of "resident of a Contracting State": 1. For the purposes of this Convention, the term "resident of a Contracting State" means any person who,

neg: Bakumatsu in the current Second Opium War (1856–1860), suggesting that these countries would not hesitate to go to war against Japan as well, and that the United States offered a peaceful alternative. The most important points of the Treaty were: Japan was also forced to apply any further conditions granted to other foreign nations in the future to the United States, under the "most favoured nation" provision. Soon several foreign nations followed suit and obtained treaties with Japan (the Ansei Five-Power Treaties, with the United States (Harris Treaty) on July 29, 1858, Dutch (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands

neg: House of Representatives of Liberia Senate, a conference committee made up of members of both chambers may be formed to negotiate a single bill for passage by the chambers. The Constitution grants the House the sole power to impeach the president, the vice president and judges upon the concurrence of two-thirds of its members. Furthermore, the House must, along with Senate, approve any treaties or other international agreements signed by the president. Should the president veto any bill passed by the House and the Senate, the veto may be overturned by a vote of two-thirds of the members in each chamber. The House holds one

neg: Stairs Expedition to Katanga was the Congo Free State, Belgian King Leopold II's instrument for private colonisation in Central Africa. On the other was the company chartered by the British government to make treaties with African chiefs, the British South Africa Company (BSAC) of Cecil Rhodes, who mixed a determined approach to gaining mineral concessions with a vision for British imperial development spanning the continent. Caught between them, and attempting to play one off against the other, was Msiri, the big chief of Garanganze or Katanga, a tribal land not yet claimed by a European power, and larger than many European countries in acreage.

neg: The Third World War (video game) one of 16 nations to lead. The United States of America, Russia, Japan, Germany, China, France, the United Kingdom, India, Brazil, Canada, Australia, Iraq, Israel, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, or Libya. There are several other areas in the map that are gray in most game options, that are not selectable to control, but are conquerable (such as Cuba, Vietnam, Mexico, and Ethiopia for example). "Entertainment Weekly" gave the game a C and wrote that "Assuming the leadership of any one of 16 countries, players negotiate treaties, deploy armed forces, and shore up their economies in this complex, menu-driven brain strainer.

neg: Oklahoma Organic Act be done consistently with good faith and legal and national obligations. As part of the Reconstruction effort following the Civil War, a "Southern Treaty Commission" was formed to meet with Indian tribes to negotiate new treaties. A result of these "Reconstruction Treaties" with various tribes was that the land allocated to the Five Civilized tribes was reduced to the eastern part of the territory, making room for relocation of other Indian tribes. Later, other aboriginal people, such as the Apache, Comanche, Delaware, Kiowa, Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes and the Osage Nation were also forced to relocate to the Territories (there

neg: Samuel Kirkland with the Iroquois. In 1790 he was visited by the Italian explorer Paolo Andreani who reported on his observations of Kirkland and the Oneida people. Andreani noted that Kirkland had collected basic word lists of over 200 languages. He also saw how Kirkland conducted Sunday services with translated psalms. The participants were teased by other members of the tribe but the congregation was sincere and they abstained from hunting and other work on Sundays. Kirkland helped negotiate treaties and keep peace between the Iroquois tribes, who were relocated to smaller reservations, and whites. He is considered by many to be

neg: Indian removals in Indiana the Northwest Territory, provided for the future division of western land into smaller territories, including the Indiana Territory, established in 1800. One of the immediate needs for the federal government and William Henry Harrison, who was appointed governor of the Indiana Territory in 1800 and served until 1812, was to encourage rapid settlement by reducing threats of violence from the area's native tribes and to establish a policy for acquiring ownership of territorial lands. Harrison initially had no power to negotiate treaties with the tribes; however, after his reappointment in 1803, Thomas Jefferson granted Harrison the authority to conduct negotiations

neg: Expatriation tax been criticized by the Dutch government, which expelled a top Eritrean diplomat because of it. In December 1931, the Reich Flight Tax was implemented as part of a larger emergency decree with the goal of stemming capital flight during the unstable Interbellum period. After the Nazis seized power in 1933, the Nazi government largely used the tax to confiscate assets from persecuted people (mostly Jews) who sought to flee Nazi Germany. This tax was officially repealed in 1953. The Netherlands has treaties with Belgium and Portugal permitting them to charge emigration tax against Dutch people who move to those countries.

neg: Nuclear power in Indonesia but nuclear power plants are unaffected. In 2006 Indonesia signed treaties for nuclear cooperation with a number of countries, including South Korea, Russia, Australia and the United States. Australia has indicated its willingness to supply Indonesia with uranium for peaceful purposes. A well-publicized agreement with a Russian company to build a floating nuclear reactor in Gorontalo ran aground; Indonesia has since made it clear that it wants a higher-capacity nuclear power plant, and will construct a land-based plant. In mid-2014, BATAN and Russia's state-owned Rosatom have signed an agreement for developing the (30MW) Indonesia's first nuclear power plant. The International

neg: Guidiville Rancheria of California Guidiville Rancheria of California The Guidiville Rancheria of California are a Pomo tribe located in Mendocino County, California. During the California Gold Rush, an influx of non-Indian settlers drove the Guidiville Pomos from their ancestral lands near Lake County, California into Mendocino County. The US government sent commissioners to negotiate treaties with the tribe in 1851. Although the Guidiville Band, among other Pomo bands, ceded their ancestral lands, the US congress did not ratify the treaties and the Guidiville never received their promised treaty lands. These treaties were locked away in Washington DC and not rediscovered until the 20th century.

neg: Government of Portugal listens to the parties in the Assembly of the Republic and invites someone to form a government. The Prime Minister chooses the persons that he or she finds fit. Then the President swears in the Prime Minister and the Government. The Government has political, legislative and administrative functions. These include, among other things, the power to negotiate with other countries or international organizations, to submit bills to the Assembly of the Republic, to issue decrees and to take administrative choices The government guides its actions by the governmental program and implements it in the State budget that is submitted to

neg: Bancroft Treaties avoid military service and other legal obligations in their native countries. From 1868 to 1937, the United States entered into 25 Bancroft treaties covering 34 foreign countries. A typical Bancroft treaty had three major provisions. The first specified the terms under which each party would recognize the naturalization of its citizens by the other. (Five years' uninterrupted residence in the adopted country was the usual requirement.) The second provided that naturalized citizens who returned to their native country could be prosecuted for crimes that they allegedly committed before they emigrated. The third and most important provided that naturalized citizens who

neg: Constitution of Cameroon (Articles 37–42) outlines the powers and responsibilities of the judicial branch of government. The section establishes the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and the tribunals, and defines their roles. The president retains the power to appoint the members of the judicial branch of government. Part VI (Articles 43–45) grants the president the ability to "negotiate and ratify treaties and international agreements" and places such treaties over conflicting national law. The Constitutional Council retains the right to examine the Constitutionality of such agreements. Part VII (Articles 46–52) defines the Constitutional Council and its duties to rule on the Constitutionality of laws

neg: Red Cloud's War most respects as Lakota Indian resistance to white emigrants traveling the Bozeman Trail became more determined than ever. After the Powder River Expedition, the U.S. attempted to negotiate safe passage for settlers through Indian territory. In autumn 1865, it negotiated several treaties with Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho leaders. The treaties provided monetary compensation to the Indians in exchange for their agreement to withdraw from the overland routes, established and to be established, in the Powder River country. However, the signatories to these treaties were "Laramie loafers"—Indians who lived near Fort Laramie and lived off handouts. For a treaty to be

neg: Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen support legislation implementing treaties with subject-matter of 'international concern'. The case upheld the validity of the "Racial Discrimination Act", and endorsed the Australian Government's use of the "external affairs" power to implement treaties not directly relating to other countries, an interpretation that would later become important in cases such as the Tasmanian Dam case, where a majority of four judges would adopt the reasoning favoured by Mason, Murphy and Brennan in this case. In another later case, the Industrial Relations Act case, a majority of five judges endorsed the same reasoning, thus cementing its place in Australian law. The main

neg: Politics of global warming materialize as profound differences in global conferences by countries on the subject and the debates quickly turn to pecuniary matters. Most developing countries are unwilling to accept limits on their and other greenhouse gas emissions while most developed countries place very modest limits on their willingness to assist developing countries. In addition, most developed countries would rather not participate in greenhouse gas reduction treaties if those would lead to decreased economic activity, transfers of wealth to developing countries, or significant shifts in the geopolitical balance of power of the world. Some developing countries fall under the category of vulnerable to

neg: Treaties of the European Union EU. Articles 208 to 214 deal with cooperation on development and humanitarian aid for third countries. Article 215 deals with sanctions while articles 216 to 219 deal with procedures for establishing international treaties with third countries. Article 220 instructs the High Representative and Commission to engage in appropriate cooperation with other international organisations and article 221 establishes the EU delegations. Article 222, the "Solidarity clause" states that members shall come to the aid of a fellow member who is subject to a terrorist attack, natural disaster or man-made disaster. This includes the use of military force. Part 6 elaborates on

neg: Tax treaty Competent authorities generally have the power to bind their government in specific cases. The treaty mechanism often calls for the competent authorities to attempt to agree in resolving disputes. Recent treaties of certain countries have contained an article intended to prevent "treaty shopping," which is the inappropriate use of tax treaties by residents of third states. These limitation on benefits articles deny the benefits of the tax treaty to residents that do not meet additional tests. Limitation on Benefits articles vary widely from treaty to treaty, and are often quite complex. The treaties of some countries, such as the United

neg: Monarchy of Belize duties are specifically assigned to the Governor-General by the Constitution. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by the Prime Minister, or, for less important offices, by other ministers. In addition, it is the Crown's prerogative to declare war, make peace, and direct the actions of the military, although the Prime Minister holds "de facto" decision-making power over the armed forces. The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs: the sovereign or Governor-General may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of Belize; an Act of Parliament

neg: Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia have to compensate First Nations whose rights are affected. In 1991 the Report of the "BC Claims Task Force" was released recommending a treaty commission be set up. The British Crown passed its authority to negotiate treaties to Canada when it was created in 1867. Even though only the Canadian federal government has the authority to enter into treaties with First Nations in 1992 the newly created British Columbia Treaty Commission (BCTP) and BC Treaty Process included the BC provincial government in the process by agreement among Canada, BC and the First Nations. As of 2009 there are 60 First

neg: Lame-duck session undeveloped countries and agreements with Vietnam. Other notable legislation included a bill that allowed President George W. Bush to negotiate an agreement with India permitting cooperation on its development of nuclear power for the first time in thirty years. In addition, Congress passed a bill to overhaul the United States Postal Service and a Veterans’ Affairs package authorizing funds for major medical projects and information technology upgrades. Finally, the Senate confirmed Robert M. Gates as Secretary of Defense to replace Donald Rumsfeld, who stepped down the day following the elections. The 110th Congress reconvened on November 6, 2008, just two

neg: Politics of Jersey into treaty obligations affecting the island. Since 2000, Jersey's "external personality" has developed, recognised in the preamble to the States of Jersey Law 2005 which refers to "an increasing need for Jersey to participate in matters of international affairs". In 2007, the Chief Minister of Jersey and the UK government agreed an "International Identity Framework", setting out the modern relationship between the United Kingdom and Jersey. The United Kingdom now issues "Letters of Entrustment" to the Jersey government, which delegate power to Jersey to negotiate international agreements on its own behalf and sign treaties in Jersey's own name rather than

neg: Juan Bautista Alberdi the Confederation would take the international debt of the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the predecessor State of Argentina under Spanish rule; excluding those belonging to Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay (who had also been part of the viceroyalty, but became different countries). The treaties were signed in 1857 and 1859, and ratified on February 26, 1860. The Spanish queen Isabella II confirmed the treaties. However, the governor of Buenos Aires Carlos Tejedor rejected Alberdi's negotiations. He also met Rosas, who was living in Southampton since he left power. The Argentine Confederation and the State of Buenos Aires

neg: Extradition law in the United States person named in the extradition documents; or (4) the person is not a fugitive. There appears to be at least one additional exception: if the fugitive is under sentence in the asylum state, he need not be extradited until his punishment in the asylum state is completed. The United States has extradition treaties with more than 100 countries. Of the treaties most are dual criminality treaties with the remaining being list treaties. A list of countries with which the United States has an extradition treaty relationship can be found in the Federal Criminal Code and Rules, following 18 U.S.C. §

neg: Social Security (United States) and individuals seeking to ensure future benefits or having to deal with taxation authorities in multiple countries. To that end, the Social Security Administration has signed treaties, often referred to as "Totalization Agreements", with other social insurance programs in various foreign countries. Overall, these agreements serve two main purposes. First, they eliminate dual Social Security taxation, the situation that occurs when a worker from one country works in another country and is required to pay Social Security taxes to both countries on the same earnings. Second, the agreements help fill gaps in benefit protection for workers who have divided their

neg: Federalist No. 64 defends the provision in the Constitution that grants to the president the power to make treaties with consent of two thirds of the Senate. The reason the Senate has this ability is to check presidential power and ensure the states are each given an equal vote in the treaty-making process. He interpreted the Constitution as giving more power to the president through the use of treaties, unlike his other fellow founding fathers. They, however, believe that by doing this, the Senate will gain too much power. "While the "advise and consent" clause was typically understood to give the Senate power

neg: Imo Incident that Korea was an independent state. A compromise was finally reached, with Shufeldt and Li agreeing that the King of Korea would notify the U.S president in a letter that Korea had special status as a tributary state of China. The treaty between Korean government and the United States became the model for all treaties between it and other Western countries. Korea, later signed similar trade and commerce treaties with Great Britain and Germany in 1883, with Italy and Russia in 1884, and with France in 1886. Subsequently, commercial treaties were concluded with other European countries. In 1881 as part

neg: Thomas Barclay (diplomat) In August 1784 Thomas Barclay welcomed to Paris John Adams, with whom he had worked in Holland, and Thomas Jefferson. They had been sent to negotiate treaties of friendship and commerce with the maritime states of Europe and the Barbary powers of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis and Libya in North Africa. Jefferson succeeded Franklin as minister to France in late spring of 1785, and from that time on Barclay worked closely with him on trade and other matters. In the fall of 1785 Jefferson proposed sending Thomas Barclay to negotiate a treaty of friendship and commerce with the sultan of Morocco,

neg: Economy of Taiwan early 21st century. The amended Labor Union Law lifted the limitations on special occupational groups from collective representation. The Collective Bargaining Agreement Act in 2008 guaranteed trade unions the power to negotiate with employers. Taiwan's labor rights and employment protections increased with its democratization progress in the 1980s, and it still has relatively high level of employment protection comparing to other East Asia countries. Implemented in August 1984, Labor Standards Law was the first comprehensive employment protection law for Taiwan workers. Prior to the its implementation, the Factory Act was the primary law governing labor affairs, but was ineffective in

neg: Ares (manhwa) Icarus win against Minos, and he is sent to negotiate with the Radnik Alliance, a consortium of countries at Chronos' western border. Icarus knows he is being sent to his death while rivals plot wresting power from the weak King. His own troops are detained on other duties, and he must travel with different escort. Icarus does not trust the replacement troops, and he hires Mikael and Baroona as personal bodyguards. Mikael and Baroona recommend Ares and Gohue as well. The leader of the Radnik alliance has red eyes, similar to a dark figure in Ares' past, and Ares confronts

neg: Adolf Hitler's rise to power and peace". The Centre Party, having obtained promises of non-interference in religion, joined with conservatives in voting for the Act (only the Social Democrats voted against). The Act allowed Hitler and his Cabinet to rule by emergency decree for four years, though Hindenburg remained President. Hitler immediately set about abolishing the powers of the states and the existence of non-Nazi political parties and organisations. Non-Nazi parties were formally outlawed on 14 July 1933, and the Reichstag abdicated its democratic responsibilities. Hindenburg remained commander-in-chief of the military and retained the power to negotiate foreign treaties. The Act did not infringe upon

neg: Henry Clay into the Jackson camp; Clay was aware of Van Buren's machinations but was unwilling to shift his favorable position on high tariffs. Clay sent Albert Gallatin to Britain to attempt to negotiate a commercial treaty and a settlement of the Canada–United States border, though Gallatin proved unsuccessful. Like his predecessors, Clay insisted that the French pay for damages arising from attacks on American shipping during the Napoleonic Wars, but the French refused. Clay was more successful in negotiating commercial treaties with Latin American republics, negotiating "most favoured nation" trading status with Latin American countries in an attempt to ensure that

neg: First Sino-Japanese War which stipulated that Korea was an independent state. A compromise was finally reached, with Shufeldt and Li agreeing that the King of Korea would notify the U.S president in a letter that Korea had special status as a tributary state of China. The treaty between Korean government and the United States became the model for all treaties between it and other Western countries. Korea, later signed similar trade and commerce treaties with Great Britain and Germany in 1883, with Italy and Russia in 1884, and with France in 1886. Subsequently, commercial treaties were concluded with other European countries. After 1879,

neg: Conservatism in Taiwan the rise of China's power and relevance, could no longer maintain the same hard stance and openly hostile policy. Thus, the KMT under Kuo shifted its interpretation of One-China to the notion of representative rivalry within its current Cross-Strait relations, which expresses Taiwan's necessity to negotiate for its relevance and its concessions made in other foreign arenas in light of the CPP's competing claim of representation. Under the One-China line, Chiang Ching-kuo negotiated for its own security in order to compete with the PROC's growing power. As such, he filled the void of formal diplomatic ties to other countries with

neg: Labour standards in the World Trade Organization mainstream human rights treaties, most prominently, the International Bill of Human Rights. The WTO is an international institution that deals with the rules of trade between countries with the view of inter alia "raising standards of living, [and] ensuring full employment…". This is achieved through a series of trade liberalising agreements based on consensus from the WTO's 164 members who form the General Council. The General Council, sitting as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) has the jurisdictional power to solve disputes brought before it, and is able to approve trade restrictive measures to enforce compliance with agreements. The WTO's dispute

neg: United States and the International Criminal Court to assess the functioning of the Court. He nonetheless supported the proposed role of the ICC and its objectives: A treaty becomes part of the municipal law of a nation only when the treaty has been ratified, accepted, or acceded to. In the U.S., the Constitution gives the President power to negotiate treaties under the Treaty Clause of Article Two. The President must then submit a treaty to the Senate for advice and consent for ratification, and the Senate must approve the treaty by a two-thirds majority before it can take effect. The Senate may submit amendments, reservations, or explanations

neg: Political status of the Cook Islands and Niue on October 19, 1974, after a constitutional referendum. In 1992, the UN recognised both states' right to establish diplomatic relations with other countries. Since then, both the Cook Islands and Niue have been allowed to attend UN-sponsored conferences open to "all States" as well as sign and ratify UN treaties open to "non-member states". New Zealand has formally allowed the Cook Islands to independently conduct its own foreign affairs since April 6, 2001. Niue was granted this power in 2007. The "Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs" records that in 1988 "New Zealand stated that its future participation in

neg: Charles de Varigny France. He tried to negotiate treaties between Hawaii and European powers, but the conflicts leading up to the Franco-Prussian War prevented much progress. A short treaty with Russia was signed June 19, 1869. He also negotiated treaties with the North German Confederation and Denmark, but these were rejected by the Hawaiian government because they did not allow for any other reciprocity agreements. His leave of absence expired in November 1869. He asked to continue as envoy, but by the fall of 1870 as relieved of any connection with Hawaii. Harris took over the ministry of foreign affairs, while John Mott-Smith

neg: Foreign relations of China these claims. The People's Republic of China which inherited the claims has settled a number of such disputes with Mongolia and Russia via bilateral treaties, not recognized by the Republic of China. In this respect, the territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring countries may be considered a subset of those between the ROC and said countries. Bloomberg News reports that these disputes are undermining China's attempts to charm its neighbors away from American influence. China has come to rely more on military power to resolve these disputes. China has made double digit percentage increases in its military budget for

neg: Diplomatic immunity countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. The Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations. The United Nations system (including its agencies, which comprise the most recognizable international bodies such as

neg: Ojibwe pockets of land in the territory. In Canada, many of the land cession treaties the British made with the Ojibwe provided for their rights for continued hunting, fishing and gathering of natural resources after land sales. The government signed numbered treaties in northwestern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. British Columbia had not signed treaties until the late 20th century, and most areas have no treaties yet. The government and First Nations are continuing to negotiate treaty land entitlements and settlements. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in

neg: History of aviation in Canada of bankruptcy. While Imperial Airways negotiated with Pan Am on the potentially lucrative and prestigious trans-Atlantic route, Canadian interests were at risk. A trans-Atlantic route that bypassed Canadian territory would greatly impede commercial aviation development in Canada. No national airline existed, and none of the regional airlines was able to negotiate with Imperial Airways for trans-Atlantic routes. One route, feasible with the aircraft of the time, would run from New York to Newfoundland to Ireland to London, bypassing Canadian territory completely. International aviation treaties were negotiated, mostly among European countries, after the end of WW I. The Air Navigation Convention

neg: Comecon Bottlenecks and shortages were not relieved but exacerbated, while the (Central and) East European members of Comecon resented being asked to contribute scarce capital to projects that were chiefly of interest to the Soviet Union…" Furthermore, the liberalization that by June 25, 1988 allowed Comecon countries to negotiate trade treaties directly with the European Community (the renamed EEC), and the "Sinatra doctrine" under which the Soviet Union allowed that change would be the exclusive affair of each individual country marked the beginning of the end for Comecon. Although the Revolutions of 1989 did not formally end Comecon, and the Soviet

neg: Halibut Treaty months. The treaty has been revised numerous times, often based on recommendations from the IPHC and its team of scientific researchers. In 1907, Canada began to negotiate its own commercial treaties. Prior to that, treaties had been negotiated on behalf of the Canadian government by the British government in London. However, those treaties negotiated since 1907 had all been signed into agreement by the British ambassador to Canada. In 1916, the British Columbia government was informed that halibut stocks were declining in the North Pacific Ocean. Large scale halibut fishing began after the opening of the Northern Pacific Railway to

neg: Piapot had been made, signed it on September 9, 1875. Although many of his requests were provided by the government as part of future treaties (particularly Treaty 6), several were not. Until his death, Payipwat felt betrayed by Ottawa. Over the next decade Payipwat continued to negotiate with the Canadian government. He and other Cree leaders refused to sign any additional treaties unless the Crown guaranteed the autonomy of the Cree people and grant them a united territory. When it became clear that this would not happen, Payipwat, Cree leaders Cowessess and Foremost Man, and the Assiniboine First Nations all requested

neg: Minority Treaties there are people living outside normal legal protection and who required an additional guarantee of their elementary rights from an external body, as protection within individual states itself may not be sufficient. Among issues successfully resolved by the Minority Treaties was the Åland crisis. Nonetheless, the treaties were also subject to past and present criticism. The countries subject to the treaties saw it as limiting their sovereignty and infringing their right for self-determination, as the League was allowed to influence national, religious and educational policy in those countries, and suggesting that they were not competent enough to deal with their

neg: Treaty Day (Nova Scotia) limits of British sovereignty.” In contrast, according to historian John G. Reid, the Mi'kmaq were able to "negotiate" Halifax Treaties because they continued to have significant military strength in the region even after the defeat of the French. As a result of this conclusion, Reid dismisses the text of the Treaties which demand Mi'kmaw "submission" to the British crown. Instead, Reid states that the treaties infer a friendly and reciprocal relationship was the real intent. The Mi'kmaw leaders who came initially to Halifax in 1760 had clear goals that centred on the making of peace, the establishment of a secure

neg: United States expedition to Korea June 10–12, the United States Asiatic Squadron stayed at anchorage off Jakyak Island until July 3, when they left for China. The United States was not able to achieve its objectives diplomatically, as the Koreans refused to negotiate. In fact, these events led the regent Daewon-gun to strengthen his policy of isolation and issue a national proclamation against appeasing foreigners. However, there were no further attacks on foreign ships. In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on Seoul. Treaties with European countries and the U.S. soon followed. Nine sailors

neg: Powers of the President of the United States governments, and negotiate treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds of the Senate. The president may also negotiate executive agreements with foreign powers that are not subject to Senate confirmation. The Constitution does not expressly grant the president additional powers in times of national emergency. However, many scholars think that the Framers implied these powers because the structural design of the Executive Branch enables it to act faster than the Legislative Branch. Because the Constitution remains silent on the issue, the courts cannot grant the Executive Branch these powers when it tries

neg: International investment agreement (PTIAs). International Taxation Agreements and Double Taxation Treaties (DTTs) are also considered as IIAs, as taxation commonly has an important impact on foreign investment. Bilateral investment treaties deal primarily with the admission, treatment and protection of foreign investment. They usually cover investments by enterprises or individuals of one country in the territory of its treaty partner. Preferential Trade and Investment Agreements are treaties among countries on cooperation in economic and trade areas. Usually they cover a broader set of issues and are concluded at bilateral or regional levels. In order to classify as IIAs, PTIAs must include, among other content,

neg: Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun on the world market. Access to the world market is granted based on a country's prestige rating. "Victoria" has 47 separate resources, produced by collection or production (or in one case both). The game focuses on industrialization in a country, which is driven by technological research. The acquisition of machine parts is crucial to industrialization, as they are needed to build factories. Diplomacy is managed bilaterally; nations can engage in diplomacy using a variable yearly supply of diplomats, offering various treaties and entreaties to other states. Players can use money to improve relations with the other powers; offer to negotiate

neg: Cherokee removal no desire to use the power of the national government to protect the Cherokee from Georgia, since he was already entangled with states' rights issues in what became known as the nullification crisis. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokee to sign a removal treaty. The rapidly expanding population of the United States early in the 19th century created tensions with Native American tribes

neg: President of South Africa negotiate and sign (although not ratify) treaties (and the alliances that may come with them), and receives and appoints diplomatic officials, confers honours and grants pardons. (1) The President performs the following powers and functions: (a) Sign bills duly passed by parliament. (b) Convey meetings with Cabinet (c) Refer disputes of a constitutional nature between parties represented in Parliament or between organs of state at any level of government to the Constitutional Court. (d) Confer honours. (e) Appoint, accredit, receive and recognise ambassadors, diplomatic representatives and other diplomatic officials. (f) Appoint commissions of inquiry. (g) Negotiate and sign international agreements

neg: Gwalior State In 1782 the Treaty of Salbai was made with Sindhia, the chief stipulations being that he should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British north of the Yamuna, and that he should negotiate treaties with the other belligerents. The importance of the treaty can scarcely be exaggerated. It made the British arbiters of peace in India and virtually acknowledged their supremacy, while at the same time Sindhia was recognized as an independent chief and not as a vassal of the Peshwa. A resident, Mr. Anderson (who had negotiated the treaty) was at the same time appointed to Sindhia's court. Between 1782

neg: Visa history of Russia Art. 62 and Art. 63. According to the Russian Constitution, international treaties of Russia override domestic legislation. Russia has concluded a number of bilateral or multilateral treaties on visa abolishment or simplification and is seeking to negotiate new such treaties. The visa policy of Russia is based on the principle of reciprocity. In April 2014, Crimea's tourism minister proposed a visa-free regime for foreign tourists staying at Crimean resorts, for up to 12 days, and a 72-hour visa-free stay for cruise passengers. Visa-free access for Chinese citizens was proposed in June 2014. Visa-free entrance to Sevastopol began from September 2015.