query: the nucleoli found within the nucleus are the sites of -- -- -- -- synthesis .

pos: Nucleolus Nucleolus The nucleolus (, plural: nucleoli ) is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as the site of ribosome biogenesis. Nucleoli also participate in the formation of signal recognition particles and play a role in the cell's response to stress. Nucleoli are made of proteins, DNA and RNA and form around specific chromosomal regions called nucleolar organizing regions. Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human conditions called "nucleolopathies" and the nucleolus is being investigated as a target for cancer chemotherapy. The nucleolus was identified by bright-field microscopy during the 1830s.

pos: Nucleolus to diffuse and to interact with their binding partners. Targets of this post-translational regulatory mechanism include VHL, PML, MDM2, POLD1, RelA, HAND1 and hTERT, among many others. It is now known that long noncoding RNAs originating from intergenic regions of the nucleolus are responsible for this phenomenon. Nucleolus The nucleolus (, plural: nucleoli ) is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as the site of ribosome biogenesis. Nucleoli also participate in the formation of signal recognition particles and play a role in the cell's response to stress. Nucleoli are made of proteins, DNA

pos: Cellular compartment where it can promote transcription of certain genes. In terms of protein synthesis, the necessary organelles are relatively near one another. The nucleolus within the nuclear envelope is the location of ribosome synthesis. The destination of synthesized ribosomes for protein translation is rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), which is connected to and shares the same membrane with the nucleus. The Golgi body is also near the rough ER for packaging and redistributing. Likewise, intracellular compartmentalization allows specific sites of related eukaryotic cell functions isolated from other processes and therefore efficient. Often, cellular compartments are defined by membrane enclosure. These membranes

pos: Ribosome destinations, through the secretory pathway. Bound ribosomes usually produce proteins that are used within the plasma membrane or are expelled from the cell via "exocytosis". In bacterial cells, ribosomes are synthesized in the cytoplasm through the transcription of multiple ribosome gene operons. In eukaryotes, the process takes place both in the cell cytoplasm and in the nucleolus, which is a region within the cell nucleus. The assembly process involves the coordinated function of over 200 proteins in the synthesis and processing of the four rRNAs, as well as assembly of those rRNAs with the ribosomal proteins. The ribosome may have

neg: Circular RNA are prominently found in the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm. In addition, these molecules contain few (if any) miRNA binding sites. Instead of acting as sponges, ciRNAs seem to function in regulating the expression of their parent genes. For example, a relatively abundant ciRNA called ci-ankrd52 positively regulates Pol II transcription. Many ciRNAs remain at their "sites of synthesis" in the nucleus. However, ciRNA may have roles other than simply regulating their parent genes, as ciRNAs do localize to additional sites in the nucleus other than their "sites of synthesis". As with most topics in molecular biology, it is important

neg: Annexin structural diversity of annexins is the grounds for the functional range of these complex, intracellular messengers. Annexins are characterized by their calcium dependent ability to bind to negatively charged phospholipids (i.e. membrane walls). They are located in some but not all of the membranous surfaces within a cell, which would be evidence of a heterogeneous distribution of Ca within the cell. Annexin species (II,V,XI) have been found within the membranes. Tyrosine kinase activity has been shown to increase the concentrations of Annexins II,V within the nucleus. Annexin XI is predominantly located within the nucleus, and absent from the nucleoli. During

neg: Effector cell form the extracellular matrix and collagen. Fibroblasts are the most common connective tissues in animals. They have branched cytoplasm surrounding their nucleus, which contain two or more nucleoli. Fibroblasts play a key role when responding to tissue injury. They initiate inflammation in the presence of foreign microorganisms. Receptors found on the surface of fibroblasts regulate hematopoietic cells, start chemokine synthesis, and provide a pathway that allows immune cells to regulate the fibroblast cells. Fibroblasts are also known as tumor mediators. They suppress the tumor as an inflammatory response. Microglia are located throughout the brain and spinal cord. They are the

neg: Leydig cell Leydig cell Leydig cells, also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle. They produce testosterone in the presence of luteinizing hormone (LH). Leydig cells are polyhedral in shape, display a large prominent nucleus, an eosinophilic cytoplasm and numerous lipid-filled vesicles. The mammalian Leydig cell is a polyhedral epithelioid cell with a single eccentrically located ovoid nucleus. The nucleus contains one to three prominent nucleoli and large amounts of dark-staining peripheral heterochromatin. The acidophilic cytoplasm usually contains numerous membrane-bound lipid droplets and large amounts of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Besides the obvious

neg: Proerythroblast proliferative capacity is more limited compared to the preceding stage, the CFU-e. In vivo, starting with the proerythroblast stage, erythroid cells undergo several more cell divisions while at the same time upregulating survival genes such as Bcl-xL, acquiring and storing large amounts of iron, ramping up the synthesis of hemoglobin and other erythroid genes (in large part a GATA-1 dependent process that is augmented by the EpoR signaling) and decreasing in cell size, eventually removing their nuclei and being released into the bloodstream as a reticulocyte.There are several Nucleoli on the nucleus and it occupies most of the cell volume.

neg: Monoblast Monoblast Monoblasts are normally found in bone marrow and do not appear in the normal peripheral blood. They mature into monocytes which, in turn, develop into macrophages. A typical monoblast is about 12 to 20 µm in diameter, has a nuclear to cytoplasm ratio of 4:1 to 3:1, and, like most myeloid blasts, has a round to oval nucleus with fine chromatin structure. One to four nucleoli are usually visible. The nucleus can be central or eccentric and it can show evidence of indentation or folding. The cytoplasm is agranular, stains moderately to lightly basophilic, and often has an intensely

neg: FAM71E1 The structure of the protein has 3 alpha helices and 5 beta strands. The protein is predicted to localize to the nucleus and thought to be mainly associated with the nucleoli fibrillar center. It can also be exported to the cytoplasm. The FAM71E1 gene is fast evolving. It has the following 8 paralogs: FAM71A, FAM71B, FAM71C, FAM71D, FAM71E2, FAM71F1, FAM71F2, and AC020922.1. FAM71D, FAM71E2 and AC0209221.1 are found in Amniotes and their last common ancestor with FAM71E1 was likely in the ancestor of the Sauria taxon, which includes reptiles and birds. The remaining paralogs are found in mammals and are

neg: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma as “diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified” (DLBCL, NOS). The majority of DLBCL cases fall into this category. Much research has been devoted to separating this still-heterogeneous group; such distinctions are usually made along lines of cellular morphology, gene expression, and immunohistochemical properties. Within cellular morphology, three variants are most commonly seen: centroblastic, immunoblastic, and anaplastic. Most cases of DLBCL are centroblastic, having the appearance of medium-to-large-sized lymphocytes with scanty cytoplasm. Oval or round nuclei containing fine chromatin are prominently visible, having two to four nucleoli within each nucleus. Sometimes the tumor may be monomorphic, composed almost entirely of

neg: Chloroplast host's nuclear genome. As a result, protein synthesis must be coordinated between the chloroplast and the nucleus. The chloroplast is mostly under nuclear control, though chloroplasts can also give out signals regulating gene expression in the nucleus, called "retrograde signaling". Protein synthesis within chloroplasts relies on two RNA polymerases. One is coded by the chloroplast DNA, the other is of nuclear origin. The two RNA polymerases may recognize and bind to different kinds of promoters within the chloroplast genome. The ribosomes in chloroplasts are similar to bacterial ribosomes. Because so many chloroplast genes have been moved to the nucleus, many

neg: Embryo fossil these specimens are related to "Tianzhushania" (ancestors of "Spiralicellula", Megasphaera, and "Parapandorina"). There are nucleus-like bodies having a globular shape that are clearly shown in all specimens, and their position is central to the cells. In other specimens the area surrounding the nucleus-like bodies is homogeneous, with some finely granular tissue. In the center of these nucleus-like bodies there are spheroidal bodies that represent the nucleoli surrounded by the same tissue. There was an amazing specimen that shows a stage of division because it contains an elongated, dumbbell shape. In addition, there are some fossils that are likely to follow

neg: Chloroplast DNA subunits from both the chloroplast genome and the host's nuclear genome. As a result, protein synthesis must be coordinated between the chloroplast and the nucleus. The chloroplast is mostly under nuclear control, though chloroplasts can also give out signals regulating gene expression in the nucleus, called "retrograde signaling". Protein synthesis within chloroplasts relies on an RNA polymerase coded by the chloroplast's own genome, which is related to RNA polymerases found in bacteria. Chloroplasts also contain a mysterious second RNA polymerase that is encoded by the plant's nuclear genome. The two RNA polymerases may recognize and bind to different kinds of

neg: Tetratricopeptide repeat domain 16 isoform 1 is 873 amino acids in length. There are two isoforms, of which variant 1 is the longest. There are 17 spliced versions of the gene. The protein contains many putative binding sites and forms alpha helix chains. Within the cell, TTC16 is found within the nucleus. Most of the post translational modifications are concentrated in the latter half, phosphorylation in particular is constant in the Pumilio Superfamily region. There are also 4 nuclear localization signals and 7 O-linked glycosylation sites. There are no N-linked glycosylation sites. TTC16 forms several alpha helices and coiled-coil regions. Domains containing TPR motifs show stronger

neg: Reed–Sternberg cell have a bilobed nucleus with prominent eosinophilic inclusion-like nucleoli (thus resembling an "owl's eye" appearance). Reed–Sternberg cells are CD30 and CD15 positive, usually negative for CD20 and CD45. The presence of these cells is necessary in the diagnosis of Hodgkin's lymphoma – the absence of Reed–Sternberg cells has very high negative predictive value. They can also be found in reactive lymphadenopathy (such as infectious mononucleosis immunoblasts which are RS like in appearance, carbamazepine associated lymphadenopathy) and very rarely in other types of non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma may show RS-like cells as well. They are named after Dorothy Reed

neg: Prednisolone membrane where it then binds to its respective glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) located in the cytoplasm. Upon binding, formation of the GC/GCR complex causes dissociation of chaperone proteins from the glucocorticoid receptor enabling the GC/GCR complex to translocate inside the nucleus. This process occurs within 20 minutes of binding. Once inside the nucleus, the homodimer GC/GCR complex binds to specific DNA binding-sites known as glucocorticoid response elements (GREs) resulting in gene expression or inhibition. Complex binding to positive GREs leads to synthesis of anti-inflammatory proteins while binding to negative GREs block the transcription of inflammatory genes. Prednisolone is a synthetic pregnane

neg: UBA2 possible explanation would be that these complexes exist only for a short period of time, thus not obvious in cell extracts. UBA2 expression is found in most organs including the brain, lung and heart, indicating probable existence of SUMOylation pathway in these organs. An elevated level of UBA2 (as well as all other enzyme components of the pathway) is found in testis, suggesting possible role for UBA2 in meiosis or spermatogenesis. Inside the nucleus, UBA2 is distributed throughout nuclei but not found in nucleoli, suggesting SUMOylation may occur primarily in nuclei. Cytoplasmic existence of SAE 1 and UBA2 is also

neg: Cajal body Cajal body Cajal bodies (CBs) also coiled bodies, are spherical sub-organelles of 0.3–1.0 µm in diameter found in the nucleus of proliferative cells like embryonic cells and tumor cells, or metabolically active cells like neurons. In contrast to cytoplasmic organelles, CBs lack any phospholipid membrane which would separate their content, largely consisting of proteins and RNA, from the surrounding nucleoplasm. They were first reported by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in 1903, who called them "nucleolar accessory bodies" due to their association with the nucleoli in neuronal cells. They were rediscovered with the use of the electron microscope (EM) and named

neg: Alzheimer type II astrocyte swollen and exhibits a large nucleus along with a significant nucleolus. Alzheimer type II astrocytes are visually characterized by an enlarged size and lack of cytoplasm. These astrocytes appear to be metabolically hyperactive, and contain vesicular nuclei and basophilic nucleoli. They also contain thin marginal chromatin and excessive amounts of glycogen. Alzheimer type II astrocytes may be found in both cortical and subcortical areas, including the brain stem, cerebellum, cerebral cortex, and thalamus. When hyperammonemia occurs in hepatic encepalopathy, associated phenotypic changes in appearances occur in the cells as well as regulation of gene expression for proteins associated with regulation

neg: Reed–Sternberg cell Mendenhall and Carl Sternberg, who provided the first definitive microscopic descriptions of Hodgkin's disease. A special type of Reed–Sternberg cells (RSCs) is the "lacunar histiocyte", whose cytoplasm retracts when fixed in formalin, so the nuclei give the appearance of cells that lie with empty spaces (called "lacunae") between them. These are characteristic of the nodular sclerosis subtype of Hodgkin's lymphoma. Mummified RSCs (compact nucleus, basophilic cytoplasm, no nucleolus) are also associated with classical Hodgkin's lymphoma while popcorn cells (small cell with hyper-lobulated nucleus and small nucleoli) are lymphohistiocytic (L-H) variant of Reed Sternberg cells and are associated with nodular lymphocyte

neg: Fragile X syndrome to be a consequence of strand slippage either during DNA replication or DNA repair synthesis. FMRP is found throughout the body, but in highest concentrations within the brain and testes. It appears to be primarily responsible for selectively binding to around 4% of mRNA in mammalian brains and transporting it out of the cell nucleus and to the synapses of neurons. Most of these mRNA targets have been found to be located in the dendrites of neurons, and brain tissue from humans with FXS and mouse models shows abnormal dendritic spines, which are required to increase contact with other neurons.

neg: Duck plague host cell causes separation of the nucleocapsid from viral DNA and proteins. Multiple necessary viral proteins are located within the envelope. DNA and proteins enter the host cell nucleus and turn-off host cell synthesis of nucleic acids, proteins, and other macro molecules. There are two hypothesized origins of replication in the IRS and TRS regions of the genome. Immature capsids are formed from coiled DNA. L genes are transcribed “after the synthesis of DNA and viral protein onset”. Virion DNA maturation occurs as the nucleocapids “budd through nuclear membrane”. Completed viral replication occurs within 12 hours of infection. Vacuoles of

neg: ZC3H12B the only type of glycosylation occurring in the nucleus and/or cytoplasm of cells. There is a notable link between antigen activation by lymphocytes and dynamic 0-B-Glycosylation in nuclear proteins (Hart and Akimoto). NetNGlyc predicted glycosylation sites; however, these sites were excluded because the protein is likely nuclear and would not undergo this form of glycosylation. There were no predicted acetylation sites at the N-terminus of the protein. This is unusual because approximately 85% of human proteins are acetylated at the N terminus for synthesis, stabilization and localization of proteins (Van Damm et al.). No positive, negative or mixed charge clusters

neg: Alpha-keratin large variation in α-keratin structures found in mammals. α-keratin synthesis begins near focal adhesions on the cell membrane. There, the keratin filament precursors go through a process known as nucleation, where the keratin precursors of dimers and filaments elongate, fuse, and bundles together. As this synthesis is occurring, the keratin filament precursors are transported by actin fibers in the cell towards the nucleus. There, the alpha-keratin intermediate filaments will collect and form networks of structure dictated by the use of the keratin cell as the nucleus simultaneously degrades. However, if necessary, instead of continuing to grow, the keratin complex will

neg: ERICH2 been shown to be expressed narrowly in the choroid plexus of a developing fetus and in the testes of adults. Lung and female tissue expression were also present but expression was greatly decreased. Proteins are specifically located in the nucleoli fibrillar center and the vesicles within cells. Many phosphorylation sites are predicted for the ERICH2 protein. None are predicted on tyrosines only on serines and the threonines. There is also a predicted acetylation site at the N-terminus of the protein, specifically it is predicted on the third amino acid. Many SOX/SRY-sex/testis determining and related HMG box factor transcription factors and

neg: Aldolase A regulates actin cytoskeleton remodeling through interacting with cytohesin-2 (ARNO) and Arf6. ALDOA is ubiquitously expressed in most tissues, though it is predominantly expressed in developing embryo and adult muscle. In lymphocytes, ALDOA is the predominant aldolase isoform. Within the cell, ALDOA typically localizes to the cytoplasm, but it can localize to the nucleus during DNA synthesis of the cell cycle S phase. This nuclear localization is regulated by the protein kinases AKT and p38. It is suggested that the nucleus serves as a reservoir for ALDOA in low glucose conditions. ALDOA has also been found in mitochondria. ALDOA is regulated

neg: Nucleolus Little was known about the function of the nucleolus until 1964, when a study of nucleoli by John Gurdon and Donald Brown in the African clawed frog "Xenopus laevis" generated increasing interest in the function and detailed structure of the nucleolus. They found that 25% of the frog eggs had no nucleolus and that such eggs were not capable of life. Half of the eggs had one nucleolus and 25% had two. They concluded that the nucleolus had a function necessary for life. In 1966 Max L. Birnstiel and collaborators showed via nucleic acid hybridization experiments that DNA within nucleoli

neg: Lactase persistence nutritional, factors determine lactase expression, no evidence has been found for adaptive alteration of lactase expression within an individual in response to changes in lactose consumption levels. The two distinct phenotypes of hypolactasia are: Phenotype I, characterized by reduced synthesis of precursor LPH, and phenotype II, associated with ample precursor synthesis, but reduced conversion of the protein to its mature molecular form. The lactase enzyme has two active sites which break down lactose. The first is at Glu1273 and the second is at Glu1749, which separately break down lactose into two separate kinds of molecules. At least six mutations (single-nucleotide

neg: WBP11 WBP11 Studies suggest that Wbp11 plays a role in DNA/ RNA transcriptional or post-transcriptional events related to cell division. Wbp11 is found in the nucleus but not the nucleoli of cells in interphase. However it is distributed throughout the cytoplasm in dividing cells. Immunoelectron-microscopy experiments suggest that relocation from a peri-nuclear to a cytoplasmic distribution, coinciding with the onset of mitosis in cell division. Other studies have shown that Wbp11 is a component of the spliceosome. Also, that Wbp11 fragments block pre-mRNA splicing catalysis. Wbp11 is a polypeptide known to interact with other WW domain of proteins such as the

neg: WBP11 c-src and p85α. p47phox. Furthermore, it has been shown to interact with PP1(protein phosphotase 1), hence the name SIPP1. It has an inhibitory effect to PP1, with its inhibitory potency increasing upon phosphorylation with protein kinase CK1. The binding of Wbp11 with PP1 involves a RVXF (Arg-Val-Xaa-Phe) motif, which functions as a PP1- binding sequence in most interactors of PP1. A number of other interactions have been indicated such as: WBP11 Studies suggest that Wbp11 plays a role in DNA/ RNA transcriptional or post-transcriptional events related to cell division. Wbp11 is found in the nucleus but not the nucleoli of

neg: Histiocytoma (dog) 1 T helper cell cytokines (such as Interferon-gamma) and recruitment of antitumour effector cells. Most commonly histiocytomas are found in young dogs and appear as a small, solitary, hairless lump, although Shar Peis may be predisposed to multiple histiocytomas. They are most commonly found on the head, neck, ears, and limbs, and are usually less than 2.5 cm in diameter. Ulceration of the mass is common. Diagnosis is made through cytology of the mass. Cytology reveals cells with clear to lightly basophilic cytoplasm and round or indented nuclei with fine chromatin and indistinct nucleoli. Most histiocytomas will regress within two

neg: Epigenetics of cocaine addiction et al. focused specifically on the class II histone deacetylase, HDAC5, since it was known to have activity-dependent regulation in neurons. In fact, they found that HDAC5 was a central regulator of the actions of chronic cocaine use and contributed to the behavioral adaptations with its deacetylase activity. Chronic cocaine injections increased HDAC5 phosphorylation at Ser259 in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) within 30 minutes. This provides docking sites for 14-3-3 proteins, which mediate the export of HDAC5 out of the nucleus. They also found that CaMKII was necessary for depolarization-induced HDAC5 phosphorylation in NAc tissue, highlighting its role as a

neg: Licensing factor be imported into the nucleus when required. The situation is different in yeast where the factors present are degraded and resynthesised throughout the cell cycle but are found in the nucleus for most of their existence. Immediately after mitosis has finished the cell cycle starts again, entering G1 phase of the cycle. At this point protein synthesis of various products required for the rest of the cycle begins. Two of the proteins synthesised are called Cdc6 and Cdt1 and are only synthesised in G1 phase. These two together bind to the origin recognition complex (ORC), which is already bound at

neg: C17orf98 Allen Brain Atlas yields no brain atlas for c17orf98. C17orf98 protein has been found to be expressed in the intermediate filaments and the nucleoli. A C17orf98 antibody is available from Sigma-Aldrich. Additionally, C17orf98 localizes in the cytoplasm. Distantly related c17orf98 ortholgs in organisms such as "Macrostomum lignano" and "Amphimedon queenslandica" exhibit nuclear expression. Nuclear localization signals are present in distantly related organisms in non-conserved sites. The results of the k-NN prediction is cytoplasmic localization. C17orf98 is not a signal peptide. The protein is a soluble. Like most proteins, C17orf98 protein is highly expressed in the testes. The protein is expressed

neg: Myeloblast progenitors are concentrated in the subcortical regions of these hemopoietic cords. Myeloblasts are rather small cells with a diameter between 14 and 18μm. The major part is occupied by a large oval nucleus composed of very fine nonaggregated chromatin and possesses 3 or more nucleoli. The cytoplasm has basophilic character and is devoid of granules, which is a major difference with its successor, the promyelocyte. The nucleolus is the site of assembly of ribosomal proteins, which are located in various particles dispersed over the cytoplasm. Mitochondria are present but have a rather small size. The main features that distinguish a

neg: Fibroblast solved by use of "defined media" where the supplements are synthetic and achieve the primary goal of eliminating the chance of contamination from derivative sources. Fibroblast A fibroblast is a type of biological cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, produces the structural framework (stroma) for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing. Fibroblasts are the most common cells of connective tissue in animals. Fibroblasts have a branched cytoplasm surrounding an elliptical, speckled nucleus having two or more nucleoli. Active fibroblasts can be recognized by their abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum. Inactive fibroblasts (called fibrocytes) are smaller,

neg: Adenocarcinoma vessels into it in a haphazard manner via secretion of a number of angiogenesis promoting factors such as VEGF. Histologically, tumours resembling the original structures are classified as well differentiated. Tumour cells that have lost any resemblance to original tissue, both in appearance and structure form, are denoted as poorly differentiated tumour cells. Regardless of the grade, malignant tumors tend to have a large nucleus with prominent nucleoli. There will also be a noticeable increase in the incidence of mitosis, or cell divisions. Nearly 40% of lung cancers are adenocarcinomas, which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue. Most cases of

neg: Picornavirus viral lifecycle is very rapid with the whole process of replication being completed on average within 8 hours. However, as little as 30 minutes after initial infection, cell protein synthesis declines to almost zero output – essentially the macromolecular synthesis of cell proteins is shut off. Over the next 1–2 hours there is a loss of margination of chromatin and homogeneity in the nucleus, before the viral proteins start to be synthesized and a vacuole appears in the cytoplasm close to the nucleus that gradually starts to spread as the time after infection reaches around 3 hours. After this time

neg: NONO (protein) DBHS proteins to perform its various functions. It is theorised that these dimers may have different functions that are specific to the type of cell that they are found in. It is speculated that it is the phosphorylation state on NONO that acts to direct the proteins many disparate functions within the nucleus. NONO is found in the nucleus of most mammalian cells and is primarily distributed within the nucleoplasm, it can also be found concentrated within sub-nuclear domains known as paraspeckles. NONO has also been observed within the brain, localised in the cytoplasm of hippocampal neurons that are associated

neg: Oogonium somatic cells, under an electron microscope, by observing their nuclei. Oogonial nuclei contain randomly dispersed fibrillar and granular material whereas the somatic cells have a more condensed nucleus that creates a darker outline under the microscope. Oogonial nuclei also contain dense prominent nucleoli. The chromosomal material in the nucleus of mitotically dividing oogonia shows as a dense mass surrounded by vesicles or double membranes. The cytoplasm of oogonia appears similar to that of the surrounding somatic cells and similarly contains large round mitochondria with lateral cristae. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) of oogonia, however, is very underdeveloped and is made up

neg: Small nuclear RNA has shown that these RNA were high in uridylate and were established in the nucleus. A large group of snRNAs are known as small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). These are small RNA molecules that play an essential role in RNA biogenesis and guide chemical modifications of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and other RNA genes (tRNA and snRNAs). They are located in the nucleolus and the Cajal bodies of eukaryotic cells (the major sites of RNA synthesis), where they are called scaRNAs (small Cajal body-specific RNAs). snRNA are often divided into two classes based upon both common sequence features as well as associated

neg: Fibroblast Fibroblast A fibroblast is a type of biological cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, produces the structural framework (stroma) for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing. Fibroblasts are the most common cells of connective tissue in animals. Fibroblasts have a branched cytoplasm surrounding an elliptical, speckled nucleus having two or more nucleoli. Active fibroblasts can be recognized by their abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum. Inactive fibroblasts (called fibrocytes) are smaller, spindle-shaped, and have a reduced amount of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Although disjointed and scattered when they have to cover a large space, fibroblasts, when crowded,

neg: Anaplasia neighbors may be formed and possess either one enormous nucleus or several nuclei (syncytia). Anaplastic nuclei are variable and bizarre in size and shape. The chromatin is coarse and clumped, and nucleoli may be of astounding size. More important, mitoses are often numerous and distinctly atypical; anarchic multiple spindles may be seen and sometimes appear as tripolar or quadripolar forms. Also, anaplastic cells usually fail to develop recognizable patterns of orientation to one another (i.e., they lose normal polarity). They may grow in sheets, with total loss of communal structures, such as gland formation or stratified squamous architecture. Anaplasia is

neg: Thymoma erythematosus and thyroiditis. One-third to one-half of all persons with thymoma have no symptoms at all, and the mass is identified on a chest X-ray or CT/CAT scan performed for an unrelated problem. Thymoma originates from the epithelial cell population in the thymus, and several microscopic subtypes are now recognized. There are three principal histological types of thymoma, depending on the appearance of the cells by microscopy: Thymic cortical epithelial cells have abundant cytoplasm, vesicular nucleus with finely divided chromatin and small nucleoli and cytoplasmic filaments contact adjacent cells. Thymic medullary epithelial cells in contrast are spindle shaped with oval

neg: Uterine fibroid by the patient herself through the abdominal wall. Microscopically, tumor cells resemble normal cells (elongated, spindle-shaped, with a cigar-shaped nucleus) and form bundles with different directions (whorled). These cells are uniform in size and shape, with scarce mitoses. There are three benign variants: bizarre (atypical); cellular; and mitotically active. The appearance of prominent nucleoli with perinucleolar halos should alert the pathologist to investigate the possibility of the extremely rare hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer (Reed) syndrome. Growth and location are the main factors that determine if a fibroid leads to symptoms and problems. A small lesion can be symptomatic

neg: LRRC40 family of proteins which are known to participate in protein-protein interactions. LRRC40 is a 602 amino acid protein with a molecular weight of 68.254 kDa and an isoelectric point of 6.04.<ref name="Compute PI/Mw"></ref> LRRC40 is expected to localize to the nucleus and has no transmembrane domains to anchor it to the nuclear membrane. LRRC40 has many predicted phosphorylation sites. Of the 19 predicted phosphoserine sites, only two are conserved within the orthologs. These two sites are S38 and S391. The secondary structure of the protein has a pattern within the leucine repeat regions. Each leucine repeat has a β-sheet and

neg: Nucleolar protein, member A1 Nucleolar protein, member A1 H/ACA ribonucleoprotein complex subunit 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "GAR1" gene. This gene is a member of the H/ACA snoRNPs (small nucleolar ribonucleoproteins) gene family. snoRNPs are involved in various aspects of rRNA processing and modification and have been classified into two families: C/D and H/ACA. The H/ACA snoRNPs also include the DKC1, NOLA2 and NOLA3 proteins. These four H/ACA snoRNP proteins localize to the dense fibrillar components of nucleoli and to coiled (Cajal) bodies in the nucleus. Both 18S rRNA production and rRNA pseudouridylation are impaired if any one

neg: Vasopressin receptor 1A substantia nigra (pars compacta), superior colliculus, raphe nuclei, locus coeruleus, inferior olive, choroid plexus, endothelial cells, area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract. Although vasopressin cell and fibre distribution patterns are highly conserved across species (with centrally projecting systems being sexually dimorphic), the vasopressin receptor AVPR1A distribution differs both between and within species; vasopressin production occurs in the hypothalamus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and the medial amygdala (projecting to the lateral septum and ventral pallidum), while vasopressin binding sites in humans are in the lateral septum, thalamus, basal amygdaloid nucleus, and brainstem, but not cortex. Human AVPR1A

neg: Dubnium synthesis of superheavy atoms. So far, studies have only been performed on single atoms. A direct relativistic effect is that as the atomic numbers of elements increase, the innermost electrons begin to revolve faster around the nucleus as a result of an increase of electromagnetic attraction between an electron and a nucleus. Similar effects have been found for the outermost s orbitals (and p ones, though in dubnium they are not occupied): for example, the 7s orbital contracts by 25% in size and is stabilized by 2.6 eV. A more indirect effect is that the contracted s and p orbitals

neg: Nucleolus DNA intergenic region, an original fibrillar component would have separated into the FC and the DFC. Another structure identified within many nucleoli (particularly in plants) is a clear area in the center of the structure referred to as a nucleolar vacuole. Nucleoli of various plant species have been shown to have very high concentrations of iron in contrast to human and animal cell nucleoli. The nucleolus ultrastructure can be seen through an electron microscope, while the organization and dynamics can be studied through fluorescent protein tagging and fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). Antibodies against the PAF49 protein can also be

neg: Anal sac adenocarcinoma (palpable masse in anal sac) and behavior, but a biopsy and histopathology is necessary for a definitive diagnosis. Fine needle aspiration and cytology is a common first step. Cytopathology reveals clusters of cells with uniform round nuclei. These cells do not have many of the features usually associated with malignancy, such as a high nucleus to cytoplasm ratio or prominent nucleoli. Ultrasonography and radiography are performed to look for metastasis. Aggressive surgical removal of the tumor and any enlarged sublumbar lymph nodes is essential for treatment of the tumor and associated hypercalcaemia. There is a high recurrence rate, although removal

neg: Uterine epithelium in other cells including a nucleus which is located towards the bottom of the cell with one or more prominent nucleoli, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, lysosomes, vesicles and lipid droplets. Like all epithelial cells, the uterine epithelial cells lie on a basal lamina. The apical plasma membrane displays compositional variations that change at the time of implantation. The apical domain is specialized for the initial interaction with the embryo as well as controlling secretory and absorptive processes including endocytosis and pinocytosis. The apical surface of the uterine epithelial cells is covered with microvilli that are under hormonal

neg: Aging brain part of the normal aging process. An overwhelming number of studies have reported age-related changes in dopamine synthesis, binding sites, and number of receptors. Studies using positron emission tomography (PET) in living human subjects have shown a significant age-related decline in dopamine synthesis, notably in the striatum and extrastriatal regions (excluding the midbrain). Significant age-related decreases in dopamine receptors D, D, and D have also been highly reported. A general decrease in D and D receptors has been shown, and more specifically a decrease of D and D receptor binding in the caudate nucleus and putamen. A general decrease in

neg: Lymphoblast to be precursor cells.". Commonly, when speaking about leukemia, "blast" is used as an abbreviation for lymphoblasts. Lymphoblasts can be distinguished microscopically from myeloblasts by having less distinct nucleoli, more condensed chromatin, and an absence of cytoplasmic granules. However these morphologic distinctions are not absolute and a definitive diagnoses relies on antibody immunostaining for the presence of unique cluster of differentiation receptors. Lymphoblast A lymphoblast is a modified naive lymphocyte with altered cell morphology. It occurs when the lymphocyte is activated by an antigen (from antigen-presenting cells) and increased in volume by nucleus and cytoplasm growth as well as new

neg: T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia nature of this disease, leukemic cells can be found in peripheral blood, lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen, liver, and skin. A high lymphocyte count (> 100 x 10/L) along with low amounts of red blood cells and platelets in the blood are common findings. HTLV-1 serologies are negative, and serum immunoglobins are within normal limits with no paraproteins present. It is postulated that the originating cell line for this disease is a mature (post-thymic) T-cell. In the peripheral blood, T-PLL consists of medium-sized lymphocytes with single nucleoli and basophilic cytoplasm with occasional blebs or projections. The nuclei are usually round

neg: 5-HT2C receptor known since 2018. 5-HT receptors are located mainly in the choroid plexus, and in rats is also found in many other brain regions in high concentrations, including parts of the hippocampus, anterior olfactory nucleus, substantia nigra, several brainstem nuclei, amygdala, subthalamic nucleus and lateral habenula. 5-HT receptors are also found on epithelial cells lining the ventricles. The 5-HT receptor is one of the many binding sites for serotonin. Activation of this receptor by serotonin inhibits dopamine and norepinephrine release in certain areas of the brain. 5-HT receptors are claimed to significantly regulate mood, anxiety, feeding, and reproductive behavior. 5-HT receptors

neg: Ribosome biogenesis transcription and translation in prokaryotes. Ribosomal protein synthesis in eukaryotes is a major metabolic activity. It occurs, like most protein synthesis, in the cytoplasm just outside the nucleus. Individual ribosomal proteins are synthesized and imported into the nucleus through nuclear pores. See nuclear import for more about the movement of the ribosomal proteins into the nucleus. The rRNA is transcribed, at a high speed, in the nucleolus, which contains all 45S rRNA genes. The only exception is the 5S rRNA which is transcribed outside the nucleolus. After transcription, the rRNAs associate with the ribosomal proteins, forming the two types of

neg: SV40 of sites I and II autoregulates early RNA synthesis. Binding to site II takes place in each cell cycle. Binding site I initiates DNA replication at the origin of replication. Early transcription gives two spliced RNAs that are both 19s. Late transcription gives both a longer 16s, which synthesizes the major viral capsid protein VP1; and the smaller 19s, which gives VP2 and VP3 through leaky scanning. All of the proteins, besides the 5% of large T, return to the nucleus because assembly of the viral particle happens there. Eventual release of the viral particles is cytolytic and results in

neg: Fatty acid synthesis two fatty acids combine with glycerol and the third alcohol group is phosphorylated with a group such as phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid is formed. Phospholipids form the bulk of the lipid bilayers that make up cell membranes and surround the organelles within the cells (e.g. the cell nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus etc.) Straight-chain fatty acids occur in two types: saturated and unsaturated. Much like β-oxidation, straight-chain fatty acid synthesis occurs via the six recurring reactions shown below, until the 16-carbon palmitic acid is produced. The diagrams presented show how fatty acids are synthesized in microorganisms and list the enzymes

neg: Benzoxazole Benzoxazole Benzoxazole is an aromatic organic compound with a molecular formula CHNO, a benzene-fused oxazole ring structure, and an odor similar to pyridine. Although benzoxazole itself is of little practical value, many derivatives of benzoxazoles are commercially important. Being a heterocyclic compound, benzoxazole finds use in research as a starting material for the synthesis of larger, usually bioactive structures. Its aromaticity makes it relatively stable, although as a heterocycle, it has reactive sites which allow for functionalization. It is found within the chemical structures of pharmaceutical drugs such as flunoxaprofen and tafamidis. Benzoxazole derivatives are also of interest for optical

neg: Osteitis fibrosa cystica puncture the tumor, leading to dissemination and the possible spread of cancerous cells. The brown tumors commonly associated with OFC display many of the same characteristics of osteoclasts. These cells are characteristically benign, feature a dense, granular cytoplasm, and a nucleus that tends to be ovular in shape, enclosing comparatively fine chromatin. Nucleoli also tend to be smaller than average. Medical management of OFC consists of Vitamin D treatment, generally alfacalcidol or calcitriol, delivered intravenously. Studies have shown that in cases of OFC caused by either end-stage renal disease or primary hyperparathyoidism, this method is successful not only in treating

neg: Megakaryoblast Megakaryoblast A megakaryoblast is a precursor cell to a promegakaryocyte, which in turn becomes a megakaryocyte during haematopoiesis. It is the beginning of the thrombocytic series. The megakaryoblast derives from a CFU-Meg colony unit of pluripotential hemopoietic stem cells. (Some sources use the term "CFU-Meg" to identify the CFU.) The CFU-Meg derives from the CFU-GEMM (common myeloid progenitor). These cells tend to range from 8μm to 30μm, owing to the variation in size between different megakaryoblasts. The nucleus is three to five times the size of the cytoplasm, and is generally round or oval in shape. Several nucleoli are visible,

neg: Death-associated protein 6 a wide variety of proteins, such as apoptosis antigen Fas, centromere protein C, and transcription factor erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog 1 (ETS1). In the nucleus, the encoded protein functions as a potent transcription repressor that binds to sumoylated transcription factors. Its repression can be relieved by the sequestration of this protein into promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies or nucleoli. This protein also associates with centromeres in G2 phase. In the cytoplasm, the encoded protein may function to regulate apoptosis. The subcellular localization and function of this protein are modulated by post-translational modifications, including sumoylation, phosphorylation and polyubiquitination. Daxx is uniformly

neg: Neuroendocrine adenoma middle ear outer, basal, cuboidal cells. The cells may have an eccentrically placed nucleus. The nuclear chromatin distribution is "salt-and-pepper", giving a delicate, fine appearance. Nucleoli are small with inconspicuous mitoses. There may be secretions in the gland tumor. It is possible to see a concurrent cholesteatoma. It is possible to see intracytoplasmic as well as luminal mucinous material highlighted by a Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) or Alcian blue stain. The tumor cells differential stain with markers for epithelial and neuroendocrine immunohistochemistry markers. Scanning electron microscopy shows two distinct cell types: In a few areas, transitional forms with features of both cell types

neg: Perivascular epithelioid cell tumour of perivascular epithelioid cells with a clear/granular cytoplasm and central round nucleus without prominent nucleoli. PECs typically stain for melanocytic markers (HMB-45, Melan A (Mart 1), Mitf) and myogenic markers (actin, myosin, calponin). PECs bear significant histologic and immunohistochemical similarity to: Thus, it has been advocated that the above could be classified PEComas. PEComas are rare and can have myriad features; therefore, they can be confused with carcinomas, smooth muscle tumours, adipocytic tumours, clear cell sarcomas, melanomas and gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GIST). Perivascular epithelioid cell tumour Perivascular epithelioid cell tumour, also known as PEComa or PEC tumour, is a family

neg: Endocannabinoid system effects in the post-synaptic cell, such as excitation, inhibition, or the initiation of second messenger cascades. Based on the cell, these effects may result in the on-site synthesis of endogenous cannabinoids anandamide or 2-AG by a process that is not entirely clear, but results from an elevation in intracellular calcium. Expression appears to be exclusive, so that both types of endocannabinoids are not co-synthesized. This exclusion is based on synthesis-specific channel activation: a recent study found that in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, calcium entry through voltage-sensitive calcium channels produced an L-type current resulting in 2-AG production, while

neg: Bile acid steroid nucleus (in this case, they are bent). The term "cholan" denotes a particular steroid structure of 24 carbons, and the "24-oic acid" indicates that the carboxylic acid is found at position 24, at the end of the side-chain. Chenodeoxycholic acid is made by many species, and is the prototypic functional bile acid. An alternative (acidic) pathway of bile acid synthesis is initiated by mitochondrial sterol 27-hydroxylase (CYP27A1), expressed in liver, and also in macrophages and other tissues. CYP27A1 contributes significantly to total bile acid synthesis by catalyzing sterol side chain oxidation, after which cleavage of a three-carbon unit in

neg: Bombus morio pair of thick, big tubular structures. They cause the distal portion more dilated and corn shaped. The glands were evolved though protein synthesis, as RNA of the cytoplasm and nucleoli can be observed. Analysis has discovered that the gland secretion is very complex, as proteins, neutral polysaccharide, as well as lipids are released by these glands. The midgut of the "Bombus morio" is made up of three cell types that play crucial roles in the digestion, absorption, and hormone production. The differences in the three types of cells, digestive, regenerative, and endocrine cells, can be seen by the difference in

neg: FAM76A FAM76A compared to androgen sensitive cells. Another experiment demonstrated that metaphase II oocyte cells were shown to have more expression of FAM76A compared to control cells. FAM76A is predicted to undergo a variety of post-translational modifications. Post-translational modifications found within conserved regions include 7 phosphorylation sites, 2 sumoylation sites, and 1 nuclear localization signal. These modifications indicate that FAM76A is localized to the nucleus. Refer to conceptual translation for a visual representation of the aforementioned modifications. Genomatrix's ElDorado program predicts a promoter for FAM76A that is named GXP_71042 and is 679 base pairs. It is located on chromosome 1, starting

neg: C18orf63 and CK2 phosphorylation, N-glycosylation, amiditation, and cleavage. There are six total PKC phosphorylation sites and 2 CK2 phosphorylation sites, 2 SUMOylation sites, and 2 N-glycosylation sites. There are no signal peptides present in this sequence. Due to the nuclear localization signal at the end of the protein sequence, C18orf63 is predicted to be nuclear. C18orf63 has also been predicted to be targeted to the mitochondria in addition to the nucleus. Orthologs have been found in most eukaryotes, with the exception of the class "Amphibia". No human paralogs exist for C18orf63. The most distant homolog detectable is "Mizuhopecten yessoensis", sharing a

neg: Arcuate nucleus within the central nervous system include: Other cell populations include: Arcuate nucleus The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (also known as ARH, ARC, or infundibular nucleus) is an aggregation of neurons in the mediobasal hypothalamus, adjacent to the third ventricle and the median eminence. The arcuate nucleus includes several important and diverse populations of neurons that help mediate different neuroendocrine and physiological functions, including: neuroendocrine neurons, centrally projecting neurons, and astrocytes. The populations of neurons found in the arcuate nucleus are based on the hormones they secrete or interact with and are responsible for hypothalamic function, such as regulating hormones

neg: Phosphatidate phosphatase two types (type I and type II), depending on their cellular localization and substrate specificity. Type I phosphatidate phosphatases are soluble enzymes that can associate to membranes. They are found mainly in the cytosol and the nucleus. Encoded for by a group of genes named "Lipin," they are substrate specific only to phosphatidate. There are speculated to be involved in the "de novo" synthesis of glycerolipids. Each of the 3 "Lipin" proteins found in mammals—"Lipin1, Lipin2," and "Lipin3"—has unique tissue expression motifs and distinct physiological functions. Regulation of mammalian "Lipin" PAP enzymes occurs at the transcriptional level. For example, "Lpin1"

neg: Coiled-Coil Domain Containing 142 acids found in the distant ortholog CCDC142 proteins are not found in the "Homo sapiens" genome the near CCDC142 gene. CCDC142 is predicted to have 6 phosphorylation sites, 4 methylation sites, 1 palmitoylation site, 1 sumoylation site, and 1 weak Nuclear Localization Signal. These modifications indicate that CCDC142 is localized to the nucleus and cytosol. Refer to the Conceptual Translation for annotations of these sites in the protein. Secondary structure of CCDC142 contains only α-helices as predicted by the Quick2D and Phyre2 programs . It is predicted that CCDC142 contains eight conserved α-helices, with six located in the coiled-coil region

neg: FAM76A conceptual translation). FAM76A contains a coiled-coil domain, which is located within the Band7/PHB/SPFH domain. No significant ligand-binding sites or active sites were predicted from I-TASSER. There is no evidence to suggest that FAM76A interacts with other proteins to form a quaternary structure. The protein subcellular localization prediction tool, PSORT II, predicts FAM76A to be located within the nucleus. This prediction is observed in orthologs such as "Gallus gallus" and "Callorhinchus milii". Further evidence for FAM76A localizing to the nucleus is provided by the presence of a nuclear localization signal. According to NCBI Geo Profile, FAM76A is expressed in "Homo sapiens"

neg: 6-Deoxyerythronolide B synthase 6-Deoxyerythronolide B synthase 6-Deoxyerythronolide B Synthase or DEBS has been identified as a Type 1 polyketide synthase. DEBS is found in "Saccharopolyspora erythraea" and responsible for the synthesis of the macrolide ring which is the precursor of the antibiotic erythromycin. There have been three categories of polyketide synthases identified to date, type 1, 2 and 3. Type one synthases involve large multidomain proteins containing all the sites necessary for polyketide synthesis. Type two synthases contain active sites distributed among several smaller polypeptides, and type three synthases are large multi-protein complexes containing modules which have a single active site for each

neg: Cell nucleus so the protein components instead form a perinucleolar cap. Perichromatin fibrils are visible only under electron microscope. They are located next to the transcriptionally active chromatin and are hypothesized to be the sites of active pre-mRNA processing. Clastosomes are small nuclear bodies (0.2–0.5 µm) described as having a thick ring-shape due to the peripheral capsule around these bodies. This name is derived from the Greek "klastos", broken and "soma", body. Clastosomes are not typically present in normal cells, making them hard to detect. They form under high proteolysis conditions within the nucleus and degrade once there is a decrease in

neg: Equine foamy virus the glycoprotein envelope on EFV lacks a dilysine retrieval motif that is commonly found in the C terminus of other foamy viruses, specifically primate foamy viruses. EFV has two initiation sites for the synthesis of (+)DNA: the 3’ LTR polypurine tract (PPT) and at the 3’ end of the PPT site located within "pol". Gapped linear DNA duplex intermediates are the result of this dual initiation of EFV. While replication is similar to lentiviruses with regards to the aforementioned promoter regions, it is also similar to the hepadnaviridae cycle. The EFV transactivator protein, Tas, binds to one of the promoter

neg: MiR-122 that miR-122 is a circadian metabolic regulator. miR-122 regulates the expression of several mRNA molecules that are important in the circadian cycle, such as PPARβ/δ. Mature miR-122 is subject to modification by the poly(A) polymerase GLD-2, which adds a single adenosine to the miRNA 3' end. This results in an increase in miR-122 stability. miR-122 regulates the synthesis of the protein CAT-1 by binding to sites in the mRNA 3'UTR such that translation is repressed and the mRNA is targeted to P bodies. This repression can be relieved by the protein HuR, which is released from the nucleus under conditions

neg: Cell nucleus on the internal face of the envelope, while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope. Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores. The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins. Like all proteins, lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported to the nucleus interior, where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina. Lamins found on the cytosolic face of the membrane, such as emerin and nesprin, bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural support. Lamins are

neg: Inferior olivary nucleus Inferior olivary nucleus The inferior olivary nucleus (ION), is a structure found in the medulla oblongata underneath the superior olivary nucleus. In vertebrates, the ION is known to coordinate signals from the spinal cord to the cerebellum to regulate motor coordination and learning. These connections have been shown to be tightly associated, as degeneration of either the cerebellum or the ION results in degeneration of the other. Though neurons of the ION are glutamatergic, they receive inhibitory input via GABA receptors. There are two distinct GABAα receptor populations that are spatially organized within each neuron present in the ION. The

neg: Inferior olivary nucleus disorders all involve motor coordination. Inferior olivary nucleus The inferior olivary nucleus (ION), is a structure found in the medulla oblongata underneath the superior olivary nucleus. In vertebrates, the ION is known to coordinate signals from the spinal cord to the cerebellum to regulate motor coordination and learning. These connections have been shown to be tightly associated, as degeneration of either the cerebellum or the ION results in degeneration of the other. Though neurons of the ION are glutamatergic, they receive inhibitory input via GABA receptors. There are two distinct GABAα receptor populations that are spatially organized within each neuron

neg: Flerovium naturally, they would have shorter and shorter half-lives to spontaneous fission, until they stopped existing altogether at around element 108 (now known as hassium). Initial work in the synthesis of the actinides appeared to confirm this. The nuclear shell model, introduced in the late 1960s, stated that the protons and neutrons formed shells within a nucleus, somewhat analogous to electrons forming electron shells within an atom. The noble gases are unreactive due to their having full electron shells; thus it was theorized that elements with full nuclear shells – having so-called "magic" numbers of protons or neutrons – would be

neg: Mitochondrion recent mathematical and experimental metastudy providing evidence for a combination of random partitioning of mtDNAs at cell divisions and random turnover of mtDNA molecules within the cell. Mitochondria can repair oxidative DNA damage by mechanisms that are analogous to those occurring in the cell nucleus. The proteins that are employed in mtDNA repair are encoded by nuclear genes, and are translocated to the mitochondria. The DNA repair pathways in mammalian mitochondria include base excision repair, double-strand break repair, direct reversal and mismatch repair. Also DNA damages may be bypassed, rather than repaired, by translesion synthesis. Of the several DNA repair

neg: C8orf58 in these tissues. The bioinformatic tools on Expasy were used to determine potential post translational modification sites for the C8orf58 protein. There are two predicted phosphorylation sites and one predicted sumoylation site. According to PSORT II, C8orf58 is located in the nucleus. This is supported by the presence of a sumoylation site, which is involved in nucleic cytoplasmic transport. Two proteins have been found to interact with protein C8orf58, CENPH and metG1, which were found using two hybrid assay and the two hybrid pooling approach respectively. CENPH (Centromere Protein H) plays a critical role in centromere structure, kinetochore formation, and

neg: Thalamocortical radiations Visual input from the optic tract is processed by the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, auditory input in the medial geniculate nucleus, and somatosensory input in the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus. Thalamic nuclei project to cortical areas of distinct architectural organization and relay the processed information back to the area of original activity in the thalamus via corticothalamic (CT) fibers. The thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) receives incoming signals via corticothalamic pathways and regulates activity within the thalamus accordingly. Cortico-thalamic feedback neurons are mostly found in layer VI of the cortex. Reciprocal CT projections to the thalamus are

neg: Cell nucleus Cell nucleus In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin or , meaning "kernel" or "seed") is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many. Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in a complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome and are structured in such a

neg: Symbiodinium are consistent with the interpretation that the algae are haploid, a conclusion supported by molecular genetic data. During S-phase of the nuclear cycle the chromosomes do uncoil to facilitate DNA synthesis, and the volumes of both the chromosomes and the nucleus return to those seen in the G2 stage. There are several additional organelles found in the cytoplasm of "Symbiodinium". The most obvious of these is the structure referred to as the "accumulation body". This is a membrane-bound vesicle (vacuole) with contents that are unrecognizable, but appear red or yellow under the light microscope. It may serve to accumulate cellular

neg: Fatty acid chain by two carbons at a time. Almost all natural fatty acids, therefore, have even numbers of carbon atoms. When synthesis is complete the free fatty acids are nearly always combined with glycerol (three fatty acids to one glycerol molecule) to form triglycerides, the main storage form of fatty acids, and thus of energy in animals. However, fatty acids are also important components of the phospholipids that form the phospholipid bilayers out of which all the membranes of the cell are constructed (the cell wall, and the membranes that enclose all the organelles within the cells, such as the nucleus,

neg: Gonadotropin that hormone assembly is limited by the appearance of the specific beta subunits, and hence that synthesis of alpha and beta is independently regulated. Another human gonadotropin is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), produced by the placenta during pregnancy. Gonadotropin receptors are embedded in the surface of the target cell membranes and coupled to the G-protein system. Signals triggered by binding to the receptor are relayed within the cells by the cyclic AMP second messenger system. Gonadotropins are released under the control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the arcuate nucleus and preoptic area of the hypothalamus. The gonads — testes and

neg: Marteilia sydneyi" was also found to be causing mortalities in Sydney rock oyster ("Saccostrea glomerate") in Australia (Perkins & Wolf, 1976). "Marteilia" has a very peculiar morphology. The outermost cell is the primary cell. Within the primary cell, there is a nucleus and between 3 and 16 secondary cells. Within a secondary cell, there is a nucleus and between 1 to 6 spores. Within each spore, there is a nucleus and another spore, which has yet another nucleus and spore within. This spore within a spore within a spore is termed a tricellular spore. "Marteilia" has tricellular spores where as the

neg: Influenza A virus cleave several nucleotides after the cap. This host-derived cap and accompanied nucleotides serves as the primer for viral transcription initiation. Transcription proceeds along the vRNA until a stretch of several uracil bases is reached, initiating a 'stuttering' whereby the nascent viral mRNA is poly-adenylated, producing a mature transcript for nuclear export and translation by host machinery. The RNA synthesis takes place in the cell nucleus, while the synthesis of proteins takes place in the cytoplasm. Once the viral proteins are assembled into virions, the assembled virions leave the nucleus and migrate towards the cell membrane. The host cell membrane has

neg: Nucleic acid and the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. The term "nucleic acid" is the overall name for DNA and RNA, members of a family of biopolymers, and is synonymous with "polynucleotide". Nucleic acids were named for their initial discovery within the nucleus, and for the presence of phosphate groups (related to phosphoric acid). Although first discovered within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, nucleic acids are now known to be found in all life forms including within bacteria, archaea, mitochondria, chloroplasts, viruses, and viroids. (note: there is debate as to whether viruses are living or non-living). All living cells contain both DNA and

neg: Microbial genetics the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. The third subgroup thermoacidophiles also called thermophiles, are organisms that live in acidic areas. They are present in area with low pH levels like hot springs and geyers. Most thermophiles are found in the Yellowstone National Park. Archaeal Genetics is the study of genes that comprise of single, nucleus free cells. Archaea have a single, circular chromosomes that contain multiple origins of replication for initiation of DNA synthesis. DNA replication of Archaea involves similar processes including initiation, elongation, and termination. The primase used to synthesize a RNA primer varies than in eukaryotes.

neg: C14orf80 228. In this domain of unknown function there is a conserved WLL sequence motif. DUF4510 is located at amino acid 263 to amino acid 425. In this domain of unknown function there are two conserved sequence motifs: LEA and WMD. Uncharacterized protein C14orf80 is predicted to have glycation and phosphorylation sites for post-translational modification. Of these sites three are for glycation, eight are for serine phosphorylation and one site is for threonine phosphorylation. Uncharacterized protein C14orf80 is not predicted to be a transmembrane protein. It is mainly localized to the golgi apparatus but has been found in the nucleus and

neg: Endomembrane system have evolved from the latter (see below: Evolution). The nuclear membrane contains a lipid bilayer that encompass the contents of the nucleus. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a synthesis and transport organelle that branches into the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells. The Golgi apparatus is a series of multiple compartments where molecules are packaged for delivery to other cell components or for secretion from the cell. Vacuoles, which are found in both plant and animal cells (though much bigger in plant cells), are responsible for maintaining the shape and structure of the cell as well as storing waste products.

neg: Proliferating cell nuclear antigen binding to PCNA via APIM are mainly important in the context of genotoxic stress. The protein encoded by this gene is found in the nucleus and is a cofactor of DNA polymerase delta. The encoded protein acts as a homotrimer and helps increase the processivity of leading strand synthesis during DNA replication. In response to DNA damage, this protein is ubiquitinated and is involved in the RAD6-dependent DNA repair pathway. Two transcript variants encoding the same protein have been found for this gene. Pseudogenes of this gene have been described on chromosome 4 and on the X chromosome. PCNA was

neg: Transcription factories Transcription factories In genetics, transcription factories describe the discrete sites where transcription occurs in the nucleus. They were first discovered in 1993 and have been found to have structures analogous to replication factories, sites where replication also occurs in discrete sites. The factories contain an RNA polymerase (active or inactive) and the necessary transcription factors (activators and repressors) for transcription. Transcription factories containing RNA polymerase II are the most studied but factories can exist for RNA polymerase I and III; the nucleolus being seen as the prototype for transcription factories. It is possible to view them under both light and

neg: Cellular communication (biology) the right time, and in synchronization with other cells and their own functions within the organism. At the end, the end of a signal pathway leads to the regulation of a cellular activity. This response can take place in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm of the cell. A majority of signaling pathways control protein synthesis by turning certain genes on and off in the nucleus. Communicating through direct contact is one form of local signaling for eukaryotic cells. Plant and animal cells possess junctions that connect the cytoplasm of cells adjacent to one another. These connections allow for signaling