query: the majority of the heat energy on the earth 's surface comes from where

pos: Earth's internal heat budget budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation. The insolation that eventually, after reflection, reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle. This renders solar radiation minimally relevant for internal processes. Based on calculations of Earth's cooling rate, which assumed constant conductivity in the Earth's interior, in 1862 William Thomson (later made Lord Kelvin) estimated the age of the Earth at 98 million years, which contrasts with the age of 4.5 billion years obtained in the 20th century by

pos: Mikhail Budyko Mikhail Budyko Mikhail Ivanovich Budyko () (20 January 1920 – 10 December 2001) was a Russian climatologist and one of the founders of physical climatology. He pioneered studies on global climate and calculated temperature of Earth considering simple physical model of equilibrium in which the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth's system is balanced by the energy re-radiated to space as thermal energy. Budyko's groundbreaking book, "Heat Balance of the Earth's Surface", published in 1956, transformed climatology from a qualitative into a quantitative physical science. These new physical methods based on heat balance were quickly adopted by climatologists around

pos: Earth's energy budget This comes to 0.087 watt/square metre, which represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation. Human production of energy is even lower, at an estimated 18 TW. Photosynthesis has a larger effect: photosynthetic efficiency turns up to 2% of incoming sunlight into biomass, for a total photosynthetic productivity of earth between ~1500–2250 TW (~1%+/-0.26% solar energy hitting the Earth's surface). Other minor sources of energy are usually ignored in these calculations, including accretion of interplanetary dust and solar wind, light from stars other than the Sun and

neg: Earth's internal heat budget Earth's internal heat budget Earth's internal heat budget is fundamental to the thermal history of the Earth. The flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface is estimated at formula_1 terawatts (TW) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts: the "radiogenic heat" produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the "primordial heat" left over from the formation of the Earth. Earth's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics. Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth's interior is actually only 0.03% of Earth's total energy

neg: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment global radiation measurements to determine radiative energy fluxes. The energy that comes from the sun strikes the atmosphere and scatters, clouds and is reflected, the earth or water where heat and light are radiated back into the atmosphere or space. When water is struck heated surface water can evaporate carrying energy back into space through cloud formation and rain. The SRB project measured these processes by measuring fluxes at the Earth's surface, top-of-atmosphere with shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) radiation. At the onset of GEWEX there was inadequate information on how radiation redistributed, both horizontally and vertically. BSRN is a

neg: Renewable energy in Albania take part in choosing location including: altitude, site accessibility, infrastructures, protected areas, and power grid. The wind speed is 8–9 m/s in many areas of Albania. Albania might export excess wind energy to Italy. Geothermal energy could also be used in Albania. It comes from warm water sources from underground soil. Geothermal energy comes from the heat generated by the Earth. There are some spots called hot spots that generate more heat than others. There are natural wells near Albania’s border with Greece. This energy could be used for heating purposes. Geothermal energy in Albania is under study and there

neg: Tropical cyclone surface, i.e. The rate of energy loss per unit surface area from surface friction, formula_19, is given by where formula_21 is the density of near-surface air ([kg/m]) and formula_22 is the near surface wind speed ([m/s]). The rate of energy production per unit surface area, formula_23 is given by where formula_25 is the heat engine efficiency and formula_26 is the total rate of heat input into the system per unit surface area. Given that a tropical cyclone may be idealized as a , the Carnot heat engine efficiency is given by Heat (enthalpy) per unit mass is given by where

neg: Hydrothermal explosion Hydrothermal explosion Hydrothermal explosions occur when superheated water trapped below the surface of the earth rapidly converts from liquid to steam, violently disrupting the confining rock. Boiling water, steam, mud, and rock fragments called breccia are ejected over an area of a few meters up to several kilometers in diameter. Although the energy inherently comes from a deep igneous source, this energy is transferred to the surface by circulating meteoric water rather than by magma, as occurs in volcanic eruptions. The energy is stored as heat in hot water and rock within a few hundred feet of the surface. Hydrothermal

neg: Renewable energy thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective "geothermal" originates from the Greek roots "geo", meaning earth, and "thermos", meaning heat. The heat that is used

neg: Geothermal heat pump geoexchange, earth-coupled, earth energy systems. The engineering and scientific communities prefer the terms ""geoexchange"" or ""ground source heat pumps"" to avoid confusion with traditional geothermal power, which uses a high temperature heat source to generate electricity. Ground source heat pumps harvest heat absorbed at the Earth's surface from solar energy. The temperature in the ground below is roughly equal to the mean annual air temperature at that latitude at the surface. Depending on latitude, the temperature beneath the upper of Earth's surface maintains a nearly constant temperature between 10 and 16 °C (50 and 60 °F), if the temperature is

neg: Jason-1 designed to measure climate change through very precise millimeter-per-year measurements of global sea level changes. As did TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1 uses an altimeter to measure the hills and valleys of the ocean's surface. These measurements of sea surface topography allow scientists to calculate the speed and direction of ocean currents and monitor global ocean circulation. The global ocean is Earth's primary storehouse of solar energy. Jason-1's measurements of sea surface height reveal where this heat is stored, how it moves around Earth by ocean currents, and how these processes affect weather and climate. Jason-1 was launched on December 7, 2001 from

neg: Geothermal heating retained within the Earth since the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth. In these areas, ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than the target temperature of the application. However, even cold ground contains heat, below the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the Mean Annual Air Temperature and it may be extracted with a heat pump. There are a wide

neg: El Tatio started to form between 4,000 and 1,500 years ago; the sinters have not been directly dated, however. Glacial deposits beneath the sinter indicate that the sinter deposition started less than 10,000 years ago. Geothermal power is the energy that comes from the internal heat of the Earth, and where the heat flow from the interior of the globe is sufficiently high it can be used both for heating purposes and for the generation of electrical power. , about 10.9 gigawatt geothermal energy are produced on Earth, not all of this production is linked to active volcanism. In the case of

neg: Earth's energy budget sustained by increased energy leaving the surface through evaporation (the latent heat flux), offsetting increases in longwave flux to the surface. If the incoming energy flux is not equal to the outgoing energy flux, net heat is added to or lost by the planet (if the incoming flux is larger or smaller than the outgoing respectively). An imbalance must show in something on Earth warming or cooling (depending on the direction of the imbalance), and the ocean being the larger thermal reservoir on Earth, is a prime candidate for measurements. Earth's energy imbalance measurements provided by Argo floats have detected

neg: Greenhouse effect space by the atmosphere and clouds, and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it. The atmosphere also gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a

neg: Renewable heat enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making populations less dependent on oil). The earth absorbs the sun's energy and stores it as heat in the oceans and underground. The ground temperature remains constant at a point of all year round depending on where you live on earth. A geothermal heating system takes advantage of the consistent temperature found below the Earth's surface and uses it to heat and cool buildings. The system is made up of a series of pipes installed underground, connected

neg: Geodynamics the likelihood of ductile flow. After the brittle-ductile transition zone, ductile deformation becomes dominant. Elastic deformation happens when the time scale of stress is shorter than the relaxation time for the material. Seismic waves are a common example of this type of deformation. At temperatures high enough to melt rocks, the ductile shear strength approaches zero, which is why shear mode elastic deformation (S-Waves) will not propagate through melts. The main motive force behind stress in the Earth is provided by thermal energy from radioisotope decay, friction, and residual heat. Cooling at the surface and heat production within the Earth

neg: Tidal power the sea floor and coastlines. Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–Sun system. Other natural energies exploited by human technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun, including fossil fuel, conventional hydroelectric, wind, biofuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear energy makes use of Earth's mineral deposits of fissionable elements, while geothermal power taps the Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%). A tidal generator

neg: Energy development difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective "geothermal" originates from the Greek roots "γη (ge)", meaning earth, and "θερμος (thermos)", meaning hot. Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle

neg: Springhill, Nova Scotia coal mining presented incredible economic challenges for the region as residents struggled with massive unemployment in the 1960's. An unexpected legacy and benefit from the abandoned coal mines is being realized in the form of geothermal energy. Since their closure, the mines have filled with ground water which is heated to an average temperature of 18° C (65 °F) by the surrounding earth. Beginning in the late 1980s, this heat source has been exploited by companies located in Springhill's industrial park, situated on the land where the surface facilities of the coal mines were located, reducing winter heating bills substantially.

neg: Heat transfer atoms, after pre-cooled by methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration cools below 0.3K, by making use of the magnetocaloric effect. Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere. Thermal energy storage

neg: Idealized greenhouse model Idealized greenhouse model The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 °C. The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths, mostly in the infrared range. The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, including carbon dioxide and water vapour, are transparent to the high-frequency, high-energy solar radiation, but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth. Thus heat is easily let "in", but is partially trapped by these gases as it

neg: Thermal history of the Earth The simplest mathematical formulation of the thermal history of Earth's interior involves the time evolution of the mid-mantle and mid-core temperatures. To derive these equations one must first write the energy balance for the mantle and the core separately. They are, for the mantle, and for the core. formula_3 is the surface heat flow [W] at the surface of the Earth (and mantle), formula_4 is the secular cooling heat from the mantle, and formula_5, formula_6, and formula_7 are the mass, specific heat, and temperature of the mantle. formula_8 is the radiogenic heat production in the mantle and formula_9 is the

neg: Terraforming of Venus periodic nano/micro-structures. Recently there has been proposals of a device named a "emissive energy harvester" that can transfer heat to space through radiative cooling and convert part of the heat flow into surplus energy, opening up possibilities of a self replicating system that could exponentially cool the planet. As an alternative to changing the atmosphere of Venus, it has been proposed that a large artificial mountain, dubbed the "Venusian Tower of Babel", could be built on the surface of Venus that would reach up to into the atmosphere where the temperature and pressure conditions are similar to Earth and where

neg: Geothermal gradient Geothermal gradient Geothermal gradient is the rate of increasing temperature with respect to increasing depth in the Earth's interior. Away from tectonic plate boundaries, it is about 25–30 °C/km (72-87 °F/mi) of depth near the surface in most of the world. Strictly speaking, "geo"-thermal necessarily refers to the Earth but the concept may be applied to other planets. The Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion, heat produced through radioactive decay, latent heat from core crystallization, and possibly heat from other sources. The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and

neg: Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget with certainty weather there possible feedbacks will in total be positive and accelerate, or negative and slow down global warming. The actions of the Earth weather/climate system are essentially the work done from a global scale heat engine, the heat into which comes from all the absorbed solar energy while the heat out is from thermal infra-red emissions back to space. These two radiative fluxes are referred to as Short-Wave (SW for solar) and Long-Wave (LW for IR) components in what is known as the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB, naturally the heat in requires the reflected SW to me measured

neg: Protostar deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center, hydrogen-1 is not yet fusing with itself. Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope deuterium fuses with hydrogen-1, creating helium-3. The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed pre-main-sequence stars. The energy generated from ordinary stars comes from the nuclear fusion occurring at their centers. Protostars also generate energy, but it comes from the radiation liberated at the shocks on its surface and on the surface of its surrounding disk. The radiation thus

neg: Age of the Earth it would take for the near-surface to cool to its present temperature. His calculations did not account for heat produced via radioactive decay (a process then unknown to science) or, more significantly, convection inside the Earth, which allows more heat to escape from the interior to warm rocks near the surface. Even more constraining were Kelvin's estimates of the age of the Sun, which were based on estimates of its thermal output and a theory that the Sun obtains its energy from gravitational collapse; Kelvin estimated that the Sun is about 20 million years old. Geologists such as Charles Lyell

neg: Specific energy more energy, typically moving with respect to the sun, when in our vicinity, at about the square root of two times the speed of the earth. This comes to 42 km/s, or a specific energy of 882 MJ/kg. The speed relative to the earth may be more or less, depending on direction. Since the speed of the earth around the sun is about 30 km/s, a comet's speed relative to the earth can range from 12 to 72 km/s, the latter corresponding to 2592 MJ/kg. If a comet with this speed fell to the earth it would gain another 63

neg: Geothermal energy Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective "geothermal" originates from the Greek roots "γη (ge)", meaning

neg: Hot gas welding The welding energy imparted on the weld surface during hot gas welding can be used to predict the overall strength of the finished joint. Welding energy ("E") is determined using the gas temperature and flow rate using the following relationship: formula_1 where hot gas parameters include the specific heat ("c"), initial and final temperature ("T" and "T", respectively), volumetric flow rate ("q"), and density (formula_2). These properties are divided by the weld travel speed ("S"). Studies performed on semi-crystalline materials conclude the higher the welding energy input on the surface, the higher the joint strength. A high welding energy has

neg: Energy in South Australia reduce need for network upgrades. However, such installations only provide synthetic inertia which is excluded from the 2017 energy security target. "Geothermal energy" refers to the heat generated naturally by the earth, which can be used for the production of electricity. One of the greatest advantages of geothermal energy is said to be the reduction in CO2 emission. Unlike some other energy alternatives, which rely on intermittent supply of sunlight or wind, geothermal power generation can be used, like more traditional sources, for long term base-load power 24/7. South Australia hosts significant geothermal resources, with a surface heat flow of

neg: Radiative cooling Radiative cooling Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system radiative cooling is the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible light) energy from the sun. The exact process by which Earth loses heat is rather more complex than often portrayed. In particular, convective transport of heat, and evaporative transport of latent heat are both important in removing heat from the surface and redistributing it in the atmosphere. Pure radiative transport is more important higher up in the atmosphere.

neg: Heat flux formula_7 terms stand for the time rate of change of respectively the total amount of incoming energy, the total amount of outgoing energy and the total amount of accumulated energy. Now, if the only way the system exchanges energy with its surroundings is through heat transfer, the heat rate can be used to calculate the energy balance, since where we have integrated the heat flux formula_1 over the surface formula_10 of the system. In real-world applications one cannot know the exact heat flux at every point on the surface, but approximation schemes can be used to calculate the integral, for

neg: Geothermal heat pump volcanic activity or heat derived from deep within the earth. Though some confusion arises when the term ""geothermal"" is also used to apply to temperatures within the first 100 metres of the surface, this is ""Earth heat"" all the same, though it is largely influenced by stored energy from the sun. The heat pump was described by Lord Kelvin in 1853 and developed by Peter Ritter von Rittinger in 1855. After experimenting with a freezer, Robert C. Webber built the first direct exchange ground-source heat pump in the late 1940s. The first successful commercial project was installed in the Commonwealth

neg: Earth's energy budget to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation." Earth is very close to being in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be "relatively" stable. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 240 watts of solar power per square meter. Anything that increases or decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy will change global temperatures

neg: Ground-coupled heat exchanger easily trap condensation moisture and mold), rigid or semi-rigid plastic, plastic-coated metal pipes or plastic pipes coated with inner antimicrobial layers, buried underground where the ambient earth temperature is typically all year round in the temperate latitudes where most humans live. Ground temperature becomes more stable with depth. Smaller diameter tubes require more energy to move the air and have less earth contact surface area. Larger tubes permit a slower airflow, which also yields more efficient energy transfer and permits much higher volumes to be transferred, permitting more air exchanges in a shorter time period, when, for example, you want

neg: Geothermal gradient major mode of heat loss is by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents. The heat of the Earth is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW. The global geothermal flow rates are more than twice the rate of human energy consumption from all primary sources. Heat from Earth's interior can be used as an energy source, known as geothermal energy. The geothermal gradient has been used for space heating and bathing since ancient Roman times, and more

neg: Greenhouse gas the atmosphere within a century, some fraction (about 20%) of emitted remains in the atmosphere for many thousands of years. Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat. Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy. If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate. A number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth's climate.

neg: Earth's energy budget an accumulation of ocean heat content (OHC). The estimated imbalance was measured during a deep solar minimum of 2005–2010 to be 0.58 ± 0.15 W/m². This level of detail cannot be inferred directly from measurements of surface energy fluxes, which have combined uncertainties of the order of ± 17 W/m². Several satellites indirectly measure the energy absorbed and radiated by Earth and by inference the energy imbalance. The NASA Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) project involves three such satellites: the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), launched October 1984; NOAA-9, launched December 1984; and NOAA-10, launched September 1986. Today NASA's satellite

neg: World energy consumption electricity demand in 2011. Source: IEA/OECD Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources that are not significantly depleted by their use, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy is gradually replacing conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services. Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8%

neg: Renewable energy in Scotland overheating. Alternatively, the stored energy can be used for cooling buildings. The system was developed in the Netherlands and has been licensed by Ullapool-based Invisible Energy Systems, who have installed the technology in their car park. Geothermal energy is obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself. Most systems in Scotland provide heating through a ground source heat pump which brings energy to the surface via shallow pipe works. An example is the Glenalmond Street project in Shettleston, which uses a combination of solar and geothermal energy to heat 16 houses. Water in a coal mine below ground level

neg: Infrared and thermal testing carrying fluids at temperatures above or below the ambient ground temperatures (i.e., steam, oil, liquefied gases, or chemicals), an alternative is to use the heat sinking ability of the earth to draw heat from the pipeline under test. The crucial point to remember is that the energy must be flowing through the ground and fluids. Ground cover must be evaluated for temperature differentials (i.e., anomalies such as high grass or surface debris), as to how it may affect the surface condition of the test area. Of the three methods of energy transfer, radiation is the method that has the most

neg: Land effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much solar radiation reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and precipitation on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes condensation and precipitation. Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary albedo and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected

neg: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols a global dimming effect, where less of the sun's radiation is able to reach the surface of the Earth. This leads to a global cooling effect. In essence, they act as the reverse of a greenhouse gas, which tends to allow visible light from the sun through, whilst blocking infrared light emitted from the Earth's surface and its atmosphere. The particles also radiate infrared energy directly, as they lose heat into space. All aerosols both absorb and scatter solar and terrestrial radiation. This is quantified in the "Single Scattering Albedo" (SSA), the ratio of scattering alone to scattering plus absorption

neg: Sun km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the

neg: Moist static energy The moist static energy, S, can be described mathematically as: where C is the specific heat at constant pressure, T is the absolute air temperature, g is the gravitational constant, z is the height above the surface, L is the latent heat of vaporization, and q is water vapor specific humidity. Note that many texts use mixing ratio r in place of specific humidity q because these values tend to be close (within a few percent) under normal atmospheric conditions, but this is an approximation and not strictly correct. Through the study of moist static energy profiles, Herbert Riehl and

neg: Specific energy MJ/kg, yielding a total of 2655 MJ/kg with a speed of 72.9 km/s. Since the equator is moving at about 0.5 km/s, the impact speed has an upper limit of 73.4 km/s, giving an upper limit for the specific energy of a comet hitting the earth of about 2690 MJ/kg. If the Hale-Bopp comet (50 km in diameter) had hit the earth, it would have vaporized the oceans and sterilized the surface of the earth. Specific energy Specific energy is energy per unit mass. (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means energy per unit

neg: Mark Z. Jacobson heat, which is re-emitted to the atmosphere. Under other circumstances the sunlight would potentially reflect back out into space, had the light struck a more reflective surface. Therefore as a whole, soot affects the planets albedo, a unit of reflectance. While the more familiar greenhouse gases warm the atmosphere by trapping thermal-infrared heat radiation that is emitted by the surface of the Earth, black carbon warms the atmosphere by absorbing sunlight and re-emitting that energy to the air around it as thermal-infrared heat. Jacobson and others drew from these models, that soot from diesel engines, coal-fired power plants and burning

neg: Surface energy the video Estimating surface energy from the heat of sublimation To estimate the surface energy of a pure, uniform material, an individual molecular component of the material can be modeled as a cube. In order to move a cube from the bulk of a material to the surface, energy is required. This energy cost is incorporated into the surface energy of the material, which is quantified by: where formula_22 and formula_23 are coordination numbers corresponding to the surface and the bulk regions of the material, and are equal to 5 and 6, respectively; formula_24 is the surface area of an

neg: Galling can be enhanced if one or both metals form a thin layer of hard oxides with high coefficients of friction, such as those found on aluminum or stainless-steel. As the lump grows it pushes against the adjacent material and begins forcing them apart, concentrating a majority of the friction heat-energy into a very small area. This in turn causes more adhesion and material build-up. The localized heat increases the plasticity of the galled surface, deforming the metal, until the lump breaks through the surface and begins plowing up large amounts of material from the galled surface. Methods of preventing galling

neg: Thermal radiation the other minus that arriving from the second surface. where formula_15 is surface area, formula_23 is energy flux (the rate of emission per unit surface area) and formula_24 is the view factor from surface 1 to surface 2. Applying both the reciprocity rule for view factors, formula_25, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law, formula_26, yields: where formula_14 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and formula_29 is temperature. A negative value for formula_30 indicates that net radiation heat transfer is from surface 2 to surface 1. where formula_32 and formula_33 are the emissivities of the surfaces. Formulas for radiative heat transfer can be derived for

neg: Mechanical resonance the only frequency at which it will vibrate, is given approximately, for small displacements, by the equation: where "g" is the acceleration due to gravity (about 9.8 m/s near the surface of Earth), and "L" is the length from the pivot point to the center of mass.(An elliptic integral yields a description for any displacement). Note that, in this approximation, the frequency does not depend on mass. Mechanical resonators work by transferring energy repeatedly from kinetic to potential form and back again. In the pendulum, for example, all the energy is stored as gravitational energy (a form of potential energy)

neg: Spirit (rover) months on the ridge, spending that time undertaking observations of changes in the surrounding area. No drives were attempted because of the low energy levels the rover was experiencing during the Martian winter. The rover made its first drive, a short turn to position targets of interest within reach of the robotic arm, in early November 2006, following the shortest days of winter and solar conjunction when communications with Earth were severely limited. While at Low Ridge, "Spirit" imaged two rocks of similar chemical nature to that of "Opportunity"'s Heat Shield Rock, a meteorite on the surface of Mars. Named

neg: Earth's energy budget 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements. Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the earth a mean net albedo of 0.29. The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is estimated to be 47 terawatts.

neg: Speleology cave ecologies are generally energy and nutrients. To some degree moisture is always available in actively forming Karst caves. Cut off from the sunlight and steady deposition of plant detritus, caves are poor habitats in comparison with wet areas on the surface. The majority of energy in cave environments comes from the surplus of the ecosystems outside. One major source of energy and nutrients in caves is dung from trogloxenes, the majority of which is deposited by bats. Other sources are mentioned above. Cave ecosystems are very fragile. Because of their rarity and position in the ecosystem they are threatened

neg: Geothermal gradient 0.5 kelvin per kilometer, and is determined by the adiabatic gradient associated with mantle material (peridotite in the upper mantle). Geothermal gradient Geothermal gradient is the rate of increasing temperature with respect to increasing depth in the Earth's interior. Away from tectonic plate boundaries, it is about 25–30 °C/km (72-87 °F/mi) of depth near the surface in most of the world. Strictly speaking, "geo"-thermal necessarily refers to the Earth but the concept may be applied to other planets. The Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion, heat produced through radioactive decay, latent heat from

neg: Effects of global warming heat from the atmosphere. The increase in ocean heat content is much larger than any other store of energy in the Earth’s heat balance over the two periods 1961 to 2003 and 1993 to 2003, and accounts for more than 90% of the possible increase in heat content of the Earth system during these periods. Global warming is projected to have a number of effects on the oceans. Ongoing effects include rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and warming of the ocean surface, leading to increased temperature stratification. Other possible effects include

neg: CubeSat DSN that folds in a 1.5U stowage volume. For MarCO, JPL's antenna engineers designed a Folded Panel Reflectarray (FPR) to fit on a 6U Cubesat bus and supports X-band Mars-to-Earth telecommunications at 8kbit/s at 1AU. Different CubeSat components possess different acceptable temperature ranges, beyond which they may become temporarily or permanently inoperable. Satellites in orbit are heated by radiative heat emitted from the Sun directly and reflected off Earth, as well as heat generated by the craft's components. CubeSats must also cool by radiating heat either into space or into the cooler Earth's surface, if it is cooler than the

neg: Ore resources on Mars crater. These are found near joints and fractures that allowed deep fluid circulation which caused chemical and thermal alteration of the rocks. So, the area around martian craters may contain a variety of minerals that were produced as an indirect result of an impact. Heat from impacts results from several processes. Immediately after an impact there is a rebound of the floor which causes hotter rocks to be uplifted to the surface. However, most of the heat comes from the kinetic energy that is produced during the impact. This enormous heat creates several useful products that may start forming early

neg: White dwarf 1/10,000 that of the Sun's. Hot white dwarfs, with surface temperatures in excess of 30,000 K, have been observed to be sources of soft (i.e., lower-energy) X-rays. This enables the composition and structure of their atmospheres to be studied by soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet observations. White dwarfs also radiate neutrinos through the Urca process. As was explained by Leon Mestel in 1952, unless the white dwarf accretes matter from a companion star or other source, its radiation comes from its stored heat, which is not replenished. White dwarfs have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from,

neg: Renewable energy in Mexico to the molten rock miles beneath the surface of the earth. Geothermal is the second most common and used sources in Mexico. It contributed nearly 958 MW towards Mexico’s renewable energy. Geothermal contributes to 9.3% of the total global renewable energy. Solar power Solar power is usually the most commonly heard and associated when one hears the term “renewable energy”. It is generated by the heat produced from the sun, absorbed through solar panels, and transferred directly to renewable green energy. This is considered the most efficient and convenient for Mexico. This is because it is located directly on the

neg: Permafrost in the "design, construction, and operation of coastal facilities, structures founded on the seabed, artificial islands, sub-sea pipelines, and wells drilled for exploration and production." It also contains gas hydrates in places, which are both a "potential abundant source of energy", but also may destabilize, as subsea permafrost warms and thaws, producing large amounts of methane gas, which is a potent green-house gas. Permafrost extends to a base depth where geothermal heat from the Earth and the mean annual temperature at the surface achieve an equilibrium temperature of 0 °C. The base depth of permafrost reaches in the northern Lena

neg: Convection the heat equator, and decreases as the latitude increases, reaching minima at the poles. It consists of two primary convection cells, the Hadley cell and the polar vortex, with the Hadley cell experiencing stronger convection due to the release of latent heat energy by condensation of water vapor at higher altitudes during cloud formation. Longitudinal circulation, on the other hand, comes about because the ocean has a higher specific heat capacity than land (and also thermal conductivity, allowing the heat to penetrate further beneath the surface ) and thereby absorbs and releases more heat, but the temperature changes less than

neg: Heat pump energy transfer. These heat pumps can be reversible, and work in either direction to provide heating or cooling to the internal space. Heat pumps are used to transfer heat because less high-grade energy is required than is released as heat. Most of the energy for heating comes from the external environment, only a fraction of which comes from electricity (or some other high-grade energy source required to run a compressor). In electrically-powered heat pumps, the heat transferred can be three or four times larger than the electrical power consumed, giving the system a coefficient of performance (COP) of 3 or

neg: MEG Energy Corp. Initially two horizontally parallel wells are created. Oil is directed to the lowest well after injecting steam into the one above it in order to heat the area so that the liquid in the area flows downwards (allows for the separation of oil from sand). The steam used comes from MEG's cogeneration plants. MEG Energy MEG Energy is a pure play Canadian oil sands producer engaged in exploration in Northern Alberta. All of its oil reserves are more than below the surface and so they depend on steam-assisted gravity drainage and associated technology to produce (heavy bitumen must first

neg: Canonical ensemble is a closed system, so its free energy contains surface terms. Therefore, strictly speaking, CE should be called the ensemble, where "A" is the area of the surrounding surface. If the partition function has no special surface potential terms, this is the surface of a hard solid. Canonical ensemble In statistical mechanics, a canonical ensemble is the statistical ensemble that represents the possible states of a mechanical system in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath at a fixed temperature. The system can exchange energy with the heat bath, so that the states of the system will differ in total energy.

neg: Wind power need to be especially efficient at greater wind speeds. Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, affected by areas of high pressure and of low pressure. The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1.50 MJ/m over the period from 1979 to 2010, 1.31 MJ/m in the Northern Hemisphere with 1.70 MJ/m in the Southern Hemisphere. The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine, absorbing heat at higher temperatures, releasing heat at lower temperatures. The process is responsible for production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2.46 W/m sustaining thus the circulation of the atmosphere

neg: Geoneutrino isotopes in the Earth interior. The remaining heat loss is due to the secular cooling of the Earth, growth of the Earth’s inner core (gravitational energy and latent heat contributions), and other processes. The most important heat-producing elements are uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K). The debate about their abundances in the Earth has not concluded. Various compositional estimates exist where the total Earth’s internal radiogenic heating rate ranges from as low as ~10 TW to as high as ~30 TW. About 7 TW worth of heat-producing elements reside in the Earth's crust, the remaining power is distributed in

neg: Solar cell efficiency factors affecting energy conversion efficiency were expounded in a landmark paper by William Shockley and Hans Queisser in 1961. See Shockley-Queisser limit for more detail. If one has a source of heat at temperature and cooler heat sink at temperature , the maximum theoretically possible value for the ratio of work (or electric power) obtained to heat supplied is , given by a Carnot heat engine. If we take 6000 K for the temperature of the sun and 300 K for ambient conditions on earth, this comes to 95%. In 1981, Alexis de Vos and Herman Pauwels showed that this

neg: STS-87 optics and baffling. Once on orbit a crew member will active SOLSE which will perform limb and Earth viewing observations. Limb observations focuses on the region to altitude above the horizon for the Earth's surface. Earth viewing observations will enable SOLSE to correlate the data with other nadir viewing, ozone instruments. The Loop Heat Pipe (LHP) test will advance thermal energy management technology and validating technology readiness for upcoming commercial spacecraft applications. The LHP will be operated with anhydrous ammonia as the working fluid to transport thermal energy with high effective conductivity in zero gravity. LHP is a passive, two-phase

neg: Tidal heating Tidal heating Tidal heating (also known as tidal working or tidal flexing) occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital energy is dissipated as heat in either the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite. When an object is in an elliptical orbit, the tidal forces acting on it are stronger near periapsis than near apoapsis. Thus the deformation of the body due to tidal forces (i.e. the tidal bulge) varies over the course of its orbit, generating internal friction which heats its interior. This energy gained by the object comes from its gravitational energy, so over time in

neg: Latent heat a surface, then the vapor's latent energy absorbed during evaporation is released as the liquid's sensible heat onto the surface. The large value of the enthalpy of condensation of water vapor is the reason that steam is a far more effective heating medium than boiling water, and is more hazardous. In meteorology, latent heat flux is the flux of heat from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere that is associated with evaporation or transpiration of water at the surface and subsequent condensation of water vapor in the troposphere. It is an important component of Earth's surface energy budget. Latent heat

neg: Environmental impact of electricity generation collision. Transmission lines also produce an electromagnetic field that may be harmful to some marine organisms. Geothermal energy is the heat of the Earth, which can be tapped into to produce electricity in power plants. Warm water produced from geothermal sources can be used for industry, agriculture, bathing and cleansing. Where underground steam sources can be tapped, the steam is used to run a steam turbine. Geothermal steam sources have a finite life as underground water is depleted. Arrangements that circulate surface water through rock formations to produce hot water or steam are, on a human-relevant time scale, renewable. While

neg: Renewable energy in Austria counts to the renewable energies and comes from the decay of natural radioisotopes in the rock of the earth's crust and from the heat exchange with the deeper Earth's interior. The heat can be used directly or by combined heat and power to generate electricity. There are opened and closed systems to use geothermal power, but only the opened system really matters in the worldwide use because it’s more efficient. Water is extracted from hot earth layers directly or is artificially pressed into the underground and then extracted back up in form of heated water or steam. With this technique

neg: Phytoplankton the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth. They are agents for "primary production," the creation of organic compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the euphotic zone) of an ocean, sea, lake, or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for about half of all photosynthetic activity on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (primary production) is the basis for the vast majority of

neg: Welding of advanced thermoplastic composites technique operates at high vibrational frequencies (10-70 kHz) and low amplitude. The direction of vibration is perpendicular to the joint surface, but can also be parallel to the joint for hermetic application. Heat is generated from the surface and intermolecular friction due to the vibrational. On the surface of the joint there are small asperities called energy directors, where the vibrational energy concentrates and induces melting. Design of the energy director and optimized parameters can be critical to improve the quality of the weld to reducing any fiber disruption during welding. Energy directors that are triangular or semi-circle often achieve

neg: Kinetic energy a chosen speed. On a level surface, this speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air resistance and friction. The chemical energy has been converted into kinetic energy, the energy of motion, but the process is not completely efficient and produces heat within the cyclist. The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms. For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top. The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational

neg: Schwarzschild's equation for radiative transfer is the only mechanism by which the Earth gets rid of the heat delivered continuously by the sun. The net downward radiative flux of thermal IR (DLR) produced by emission from GHGs in the atmosphere is obtained by integrating dI from the TOA (where I is zero) to the surface. DLR adds to the energy from the sun. Emission from each layer adds equally to the upward and downward fluxes. In contrast, different amounts of radiation are absorbed, because the upward flux entering any layer is usually greater than the downward flux. In "line-by-line" methods, the change in spectral intensity

neg: Climate of the Arctic the first webcam was deployed in 2002–present. Sea ice is important to the climate and the ocean in a variety of ways. It reduces the transfer of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere; it causes less solar energy to be absorbed at the surface, and provides a surface on which snow can accumulate, which further decreases the absorption of solar energy; since salt is rejected from the ice as it forms, the ice increases the salinity of the ocean's surface water where it forms and decreases the salinity where it melts, both of which can affect the ocean's circulation.

neg: Bowen ratio Bowen ratio In meteorology and hydrology, the Bowen ratio is used to describe the type of heat transfer for a surface that has moisture. Heat transfer can either occur as sensible heat (differences in temperature without evapotranspiration) or latent heat (the energy required during a change of state, without a change in temperature). The Bowen ratio is the mathematical method generally used to calculate heat lost (or gained) in a substance; it is the ratio of energy fluxes from one state to another by sensible heat and latent heating respectively. It is calculated by the equation: where formula_2 is sensible

neg: Heat equation heat energy per unit area through a surface is proportional to the negative temperature gradient across the surface, where "k" is the thermal conductivity and "u" is the temperature. In one dimension, the gradient is an ordinary spatial derivative, and so Fourier's law is In the absence of work done, a change in internal energy per unit volume in the material, Δ"Q", is proportional to the change in temperature, Δ"u" (in this section only, Δ is the ordinary difference operator with respect to time, not the Laplacian with respect to space). That is, where "c" is the specific heat capacity

neg: Vacuum flask our earlier expression for T, formula_7 Where Assuming that the outer surface of the inner wall and the inner surface of the outer wall of the vacuum flask are coated with polished silver to minimize heat loss due to radiation, we can say that the rate of heat absorption by the inner surface of the outer wall is equal to the absorptivity of polished silver times the heat radiated by the outer surface of the inner wall, formula_8 In order for energy balance to be maintained, the heat lost through the outer surface of the outer wall must be equal

neg: Passive solar building design thermal storage wall (technically not a Trombe wall) captures solar energy on the exterior surface, heats up, and conducts heat to the interior surface, where it radiates from the interior wall surface to the indoor space later in the day. A water wall uses a type of thermal mass that consists of tanks or tubes of water used as thermal mass. A typical unvented thermal storage wall consists of a south facing masonry or concrete wall with a dark, heat-absorbing material on the exterior surface and faced with a single or double layer of glass. High transmission glass maximizes solar

neg: Insulative paint Insulative paint Insulative paints, or insulating paints, claim to use a technology where a broad spectrum thermally reflective coating is applied to a specific type of micro-spheres to block heat radiation in a much larger or broader range of thermal energy (heat) to dissipate heat rapidly. This type of coated thermally reflective material (coated micro-sphere) reduces heat transfer through the coating with 90% of solar infrared radiation and 85% of ultraviolet radiation being radiated back from the coated surface. An "insulative" or "insulating" paint works bi-directionally (reflects heat coming from either direction toward the painted surface. An example of this

neg: Hohmann transfer orbit on the earth) when 300 km above the Earth's surface. This is obtained by adding to the specific kinetic energy the square of the speed (7.73 km/s) of this low Earth orbit (that is, the depth of Earth's gravity well at this LEO). The column "Δv from LEO" is simply the previous speed minus 7.73 km/s. Note that in most cases, Δ"v" from LEO is less than the Δ"v" to enter Hohmann orbit from Earth's orbit. To get to the Sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δ"v" of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go

neg: Snowball Earth modern Antarctica. Global warming associated with large accumulations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over millions of years, emitted primarily by volcanic activity, is the proposed trigger for melting a snowball Earth. Due to positive feedback for melting, the eventual melting of the snow and ice covering most of Earth's surface would require as little as a millennium. A tropical distribution of the continents is, perhaps counter-intuitively, necessary to allow the initiation of a snowball Earth. Firstly, tropical continents are more reflective than open ocean, and so absorb less of the Sun's heat: most absorption of Solar energy on Earth

neg: Electron-beam welding surface, where they collide with the particles of the solid. In non-elastic collisions they lose their kinetic energy. It has been proved, both theoretically and experimentally, that they can "travel" only a very small distance below the surface before they transfer all their kinetic energy into heat. This distance is proportional to their initial energy and inversely proportional to the density of the solid. Under conditions usual in welding practice the "travel distance" is on the order of hundredths of a millimeter. Just this fact enables, under certain conditions, fast beam penetration. The heat contribution of single electrons is very

neg: Friction sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the front of it. Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in creating the new surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface. Thus, a force is required to move the back of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front. For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the "angle of friction" or "friction angle". It is defined as: where

neg: Earth's energy budget in response. However, Earth's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors, such as atmospheric composition (mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases), the albedo (reflectivity) of surface properties, cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns. Changes in surface temperature due to Earth's energy budget do not occur instantaneously, due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response. In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the

neg: Friction the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force. When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given by a line integral, in accordance with the definition of work where Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of thermodynamic irreversibility. In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does "no" work, because there is never displacement between the

neg: Sensible heat James Prescott Joule characterized it in 1847 as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer. Both sensible and latent heats are observed in many processes while transporting energy in nature. Latent heat is associated with changes of state, measured at constant temperature, especially the phase changes of atmospheric water vapor, mostly vaporization and condensation, whereas sensible heat directly affects the temperature of the atmosphere. In meteorology, the term 'sensible heat flux' means the conductive heat flux from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere. It is an important component of Earth's surface energy budget. Sensible heat flux is commonly measured

neg: Biomaterial Surface Modifications of the involved materials by using the following equation: formula_5 Where S is the coefficient of spreading, formula_6 is the surface energy of the substrate in air, formula_7 is the surface energy of the liquid coating in air and formula_8 is the interfacial energy between the coating and the substrate. If S is positive the liquid will cover the surface and the coating will adhere well. If S is negative the coating will not completely cover the surface, producing poor adhesion. Organic coatings are a common way to protect a metallic substrate from corrosion. Up until ~1950 it was thought

neg: Thermal mass variations. The wall predominantly acts to retard heat transfer from the exterior to the interior during the day. The high volumetric heat capacity and thickness prevents thermal energy from reaching the inner surface. When temperatures fall at night, the walls re-radiate the thermal energy back into the night sky. In this application it is important for such walls to be massive to prevent heat transfer into the interior. The use of thermal mass is the most challenging in this environment where night temperatures remain elevated. Its use is primarily as a temporary heat sink. However, it needs to be strategically

neg: Energy transformation creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the Solar System and the Earth. Such energy locked into uranium is triggered for sudden-release in nuclear fission bombs, and similar stored energies in atomic nuclei are released spontaneously, during most types of radioactive decay. In such processes, heat from decay of these atoms of radioisotope in the core of the Earth is transformed immediately to heat. This heat in turn may lift mountains, via plate tectonics and orogenesis. This slow lifting of terrain thus represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the heat energy. The stored potential

neg: Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents organisms to thrive in this environment. 800 individual chimneys have been recorded over a section of the ridge. Heat in the Endeavor Hydrothermal Vents are supplied by the cooling of the Earth's crust in areas of high seismic activity. The water is supplied by the ocean and seeps into the Earth's crust and rises back up out of the surface after it is heated. The hydrothermal fluids come from below the surface of the Earth and rise up above the surface. Energy flux caused by high temperature gradients in the Endeavor Hydrothermal Vents contributes to the production of chemical reactions

neg: Water cycle surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor. The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate. The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth,

neg: Earth ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric into. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface

neg: Renewable energy directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is expected to make the surface of the earth too hot for liquid water to exist. Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors. According to a 2011 projection

neg: Snowmelt system foreign matter and should conform to ASTM C-33. Modular, fluid thermal transfer panel systems provide full and even heat exchange with the entire paver or concrete area as opposed to the spacing required by a tube based system. Full coverage allows for the use of lower temperature fluid which lowers the operating cost and lessens the thermal impact to the pavement structure thus reducing the deterioration of the concrete surface. The surface also comes up to temperature and can be cooled quicker. Modular snowmelt systems can also be used to collect solar thermal energy from the pavement on warm days

neg: Imbrian have occurred because the impacts of the Early Imbrian thinned the overlying rock - either causing the mantle to rise because of the reduced pressure on it, bringing molten material closer to the surface; or the top melting as heat flowed upwards through the mantle because of reduced overlying thermal insulation. The majority of lunar samples returned to earth for study come from this epoch. The Earth equivalent consists of half of the Archean eon. Imbrian The Imbrian is a lunar geologic period divided into two epochs, the Early Imbrian and Late Imbrian. In the lunar geologic timescale, the Early