query: who stated that all plants are made of cells

pos: Cell theory optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe. Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science. The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave

pos: Cell theory types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista. Cell theory In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells,

pos: Cell biology such as cancer, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology and cytochemistry . Cells, which were once invisible to the naked eye, were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. Robert Hooke was the first person to term the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at cork. The cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells. The theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden

pos: Cell theory Cell theory In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later,

neg: Virus cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall. Nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called plasmodesmata. Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell. Given that bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size, some

neg: Turgor pressure turgor pressure in plants, many things have to be taken into account. It is generally stated that fully turgid cells have a turgor pressure value which is equal to that of the cell, and that flaccid cells have a value at or near zero. Other cellular mechanisms taken into consideration include the protoplast, solutes within the protoplast (solute potential), transpiration rates of the plant, and the tension of cell walls. Measurement is limited depending on the method used, some of which are explored and explained below. Not all methods can be used for all organisms, due to size and other

neg: Plant stem cell Plant stem cell Plant stem cells are innately undifferentiated cells located in the meristems of plants. Plant stem cells serve as the origin of plant vitality, as they maintain themselves while providing a steady supply of precursor cells to form differentiated tissues and organs in plants. Two distinct areas of stem cells are recognised: the apical meristem and the lateral meristem. Plant stem cells are characterized by two distinctive properties, which are: the ability to create all differentiated cell types and the ability to self-renew such that the number of stem cells is maintained. Plant stem cells never undergo aging

neg: Stoma by the modification of conceptacles from plants' alga-like ancestors. However, the evolution of stomata must have happened at the same time as the waxy cuticle was evolving – these two traits together constituted a major advantage for early terrestrial plants. There are three major epidermal cell types which all ultimately derive from the outermost (L1) tissue layer of the shoot apical meristem, called protodermal cells: trichomes, pavement cells and guard cells, all of which are arranged in a non-random fashion. An asymmetrical cell division occurs in protodermal cells resulting in one large cell that is fated to become a pavement

neg: Sieve tube element Sieve tube element Sieve elements are specialized cells that are important for the function of phloem, which is highly organized tissue that transports organic compounds made during photosynthesis. Sieve elements are the major conducting cells in phloem. Conducting cells aid in transport of molecules especially for long-distance signaling. In plant anatomy, there are two main types of sieve elements which are sieve cells and sieve tube members. Sieve cells are specialized cells in the phloem tissue of flowering plants. Companion cells and Sieve cells originate from meristems, which are tissues that actively divide throughout a plant's lifetime. They are similar

neg: Cell theory is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated. 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization

neg: Germ cell Germ cell A germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate in the primitive streak and migrate via the gut of an embryo to the developing gonads. There, they undergo meiosis, followed by cellular differentiation into mature gametes, either eggs or sperm. Unlike animals, plants do not have germ cells designated in early development. Instead, germ cells can arise from somatic cells in the adult (such as the floral meristem of flowering plants). Multicellular eukaryotes are made of two fundamental cell types. Germ

neg: Endodermis Endodermis The endodermis is the central, innermost layer of cortex in some land plants. It is made of compact living cells surrounded by an outer ring of endodermal cells that are impregnated with hydrophobic substances (Casparian Strip) to restrict apoplastic flow of water to the inside. The endodermis is the boundary between the cortex and the stele. In many seedless vascular plants, the endodermis is a distinctly visible layer of cells immediately outside the vascular cylinder (stele) in roots and shoots. In most seed plants, especially woody types, an endodermis is absent from the stems but is present in roots.

neg: Phycodnaviridae genome. The EsV-1 viral genome is then replicated and virions are assembled in the sporangia or gametangia of infected plants. Viruses are subsequently released via lysis of reproductive cells, stimulated by changes in environmental conditions, such as an increase in temperature. In healthy plants, environmental stimuli synchronize the release of gametes and zoospores into the surrounding water. Free virus particles can then re-infect free-swimming gametes or spores of healthy plants. Infected gametes or spores undergo mitosis, forming infected plants and all cells of the progeny plant contain viral DNA. However, viral particles are only produced in the reproductive cells of

neg: Dawsonia (plant) analogous to the xylem and phloem of vascular plants. The water-conducting tissue is the hydrome, made up of elongated cells known as hydroids. Unlike the xylem of vascular plants, there is no secondary thickening of cell walls, as bryophytes lack lignin. The phloem analogue in Polytrichales is the leptome, made up of leptoids, they are similar to sieve cells. Hydrome and leptome are well-developed in Polytrichales, and also appear in a number of other bryophytes. The leaves of "Polytrichum" and "Dawsonia" (and related moss) differ from those of most mosses, which are only one or two cells thick. Polytrichia have

neg: Power plant engineering work in a Thermal Power Plant. Mechanical engineers maintain performance of the thermal power plants while keeping the plants in operation. Nuclear Engineer generally handle fuel efficiency and disposal of nuclear waste; however, in Nuclear Power Plants they work directly with nuclear equipment. Electrical Engineers deals with the power generating equipment as well as the calculations. Solar power plants derive their energy from sunlight, which is made accessible via photovoltaics (PV's). Photovoltaic panels, or solar panels, are constructed using photovoltaic cells which are made of semiconductor materials that release electrons when they are warmed by the thermal energy of the

neg: Cellular differentiation many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types of the adult organism is known as "pluripotent". Such cells are called meristematic cells in higher plants and embryonic stem cells in animals, though some groups report the presence of adult pluripotent cells. Virally induced expression of four transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and KIF4 (Yamanaka factors) is sufficient to create pluripotent (iPS) cells from adult fibroblasts. A multipotent cell is one that can differentiate into multiple different, but closely related cell types. Oligopotent cells are more restricted than multipotent, but

neg: Hops they are trained to grow up trellises made from strings or wires that support the plants and allow them significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile. In this way, energy that would have been required to build structural cells is also freed for crop growth. The hop plant's reproduction method is that male and female flowers develop on separate plants, although occasionally a fertile individual will develop which contains both male and female flowers. Because pollinated seeds are undesirable for brewing beer, only female plants are grown in hop fields, thus preventing pollination. Female plants are propagated vegetatively, and

neg: Plasmodesma Plasmodesma Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells and some algal cells, enabling transport and communication between them. Plasmodesmata evolved independently in several lineages, and species that have these structures include members of the Charophyceae, Charales, Coleochaetales and Phaeophyceae (which are all algae), as well as all embryophytes, better known as land plants. Unlike animal cells, almost every plant cell is surrounded by a polysaccharide cell wall. Neighbouring plant cells are therefore separated by a pair of cell walls and the intervening middle lamella, forming an extracellular domain known as the apoplast. Although

neg: Fluorochemical industry plants continue to run, new plants typically use membrane cells. By 2002, more than a third of the global capacity for the industry was membrane-cell based. Recently, the fuel cell application has reemerged; significant research is being conducted and investments made related to getting proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells into vehicles. Fluoroelastomers are rubber-like substances that are composed of crosslinked mixtures of fluoropolymers. Viton is a prominent example. Chemical-resistant O-rings are the primary application. Fluoroelastomers tend to be more stiff than conventional elastomers, but with superior chemical and heat resistance. Fluorinated surfactants are small organofluorine molecules, principally used in

neg: Peter H. Raven sympatrically, yet hybrids are very rare in the wild," and that much of the sterility is due to chromosomal repatterning between species." In 1980 Raven and coauthors reviewed the literature concerning fungal symbiosis in vascular plants. They reviewed two kinds of fungal-plant associations: ectomycorrhizal and endomycorrhizal. They reported that endomycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate plant cells, are found in 80% of all vascular plants, including ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms, and are found in forests of high species richness. On the other hand, ectomycorrhizal fungi, which do not penetrate plant cells, occur in forests of low species richness, are usually in temperate

neg: Latex it is collected. The cells (laticifers) in which latex is found make up the laticiferous system, which can form in two very different ways. In many plants, the laticiferous system is formed from rows of cells laid down in the meristem of the stem or root. The cell walls between these cells are dissolved so that continuous tubes, called latex vessels, are formed. Since these vessels are made of many cells, they are known as "articulated laticifers". This method of formation is found in the poppy family and in the rubber trees (Para rubber tree, members of the family Euphorbiaceae,

neg: Hardiness (plants) cold winters to bloom, while others – such as freesia – can survive a freezing winter. Many domestic plants are assigned a hardiness zone that specifies the climates in which they can survive. Winter gardens are dependent upon the cultivation of winter-hardy plants. Woody plants survive freezing temperatures by suppressing the formation of ice in living cells or by allowing water to freeze in plant parts that are not affected by ice formation. The common mechanism for woody plants to survive up to –40 °C (–40 °F) is supercooling. Woody plants that survive lower temperatures are dehydrating their cells, allowing

neg: Xerochrysum bracteatum with a low water content, unlike leaves or flower parts of other plants. They are made up of dead cells, which are unusual in that they have a thin primary and a thick secondary cell wall, a feature only found in sclerenchyma, or structural, cells, not cells of flowers or leaves. The individual florets are yellow. Those on the outer regions of the disc are female, while those in the centre are bisexual. Female flowers lack stamens and have only a very short, tube-shaped corolla surrounding a pistil that splits to form two stigmas, while bisexual or hermaphrodite flowers have

neg: Bracken the earliest. Until re-registration is approved the Group will aim to keep Asulam available under the emergency provisions. Bracken Control Group website Bracken Bracken ("Pteridium") is a genus of large, coarse ferns in the family Dennstaedtiaceae. Ferns (Pteridophyta) are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells (eggs and sperm). Brackens are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts, though their typical habitat is moorland. The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern in

neg: Bracken Bracken Bracken ("Pteridium") is a genus of large, coarse ferns in the family Dennstaedtiaceae. Ferns (Pteridophyta) are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells (eggs and sperm). Brackens are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts, though their typical habitat is moorland. The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern in the world. In the past, the genus was commonly treated as having only one species, "Pteridium aquilinum", but the recent trend is

neg: Palisade cell carbohydrates. Beneath the palisade mesophyll are the spongy mesophyll cells, which also perform photosynthesis,they are irregularly shaped cells that have many intercellular spaces that allow the passage of gases. Holt Science & Technology "Microorganisms, Fungi, and Plants", Holt, Rinehart and Winston Palisade cell Palisade cells are plant cells located in leaves, right below the epidermis and cuticle. They are vertically elongated, a different shape from the spongy mesophyll cells beneath them in the leaf. Their chloroplasts absorb a major portion of the light energy used by the leaf. Palisade cells occur in dicotyledonous plants, and also in the net-veined monocots,

neg: Cytosol mass of less than 300 Da. This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex, as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism (the metabolites) is immense. For example, up to 200,000 different small molecules might be made in plants, although not all these will be present in the same species, or in a single cell. Estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as "E. coli" and baker's yeast predict that under 1,000 are made. Most of the cytosol is water, which makes up about 70% of the total volume of a typical cell. The pH

neg: Callus (cell biology) Callus (cell biology) Plant callus (plural "calluses" or "calli") is a growing mass of unorganized plant parenchyma cells. In living plants, callus cells are those cells that cover a plant wound. In biological research and biotechnology callus formation is induced from plant tissue samples (explants) after surface sterilization and plating onto tissue culture medium in vitro (in a closed culture vessel such as a Petri dish). The culture medium is supplemented with plant growth regulators, such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, to initiate callus formation or somatic embryogenesis. Callus initiation has been described for all major groups of land plants.

neg: Botany hormones. The synthetic auxin 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides. 20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics, the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis. The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown "in vitro"

neg: Innate immune system species including plants, birds, fish, and some species of invertebrates. All white blood cells (WBCs) are known as leukocytes. Leukocytes differ from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, their function is similar to that of independent, single-cell organisms. Leukocytes are able to move freely and interact with and capture cellular debris, foreign particles, and invading microorganisms. Unlike many other cells in the body, most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone

neg: Paphiopedilum of this genus have unusual stomata. Whereas most land plants' stomata have guard cells with chloroplasts in their cytoplasm (including those of closely related "Phragmipedium" slipper orchids), "Paphiopedilum" stomata do not. This difference results in simpler, but weaker control of stomatal function. For example, most plants close their stomata in response to either blue or red light, but "Paphiopedilum" guard cells only respond to blue light. The fact that they lack chloroplasts has made them valuable to researchers investigating stomatal function. For example, it enabled the discovery of intracellular events that precede stomatal closure. The paphiopedilums are among the most

neg: Transformation (genetics) the early 1970s the tumor-inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid. By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes, researchers were able to infect plants with "A. tumefaciens" and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants. Not all plant cells are susceptible to infection by "A. tumefaciens", so other methods were developed, including electroporation and micro-injection. Particle bombardment was made possible with the invention of the Biolistic Particle Delivery System (gene gun) by John Sanford in the 1980s. Transformation is

neg: Virus nanotechnology and robust, and they are biocompatible, and in some cases, orally bioavailable. They are "programmable" units that can be modified by either genetic modification or chemical bioconjugation methods. A virus is a biological infective agent that infect living hosts and reproduces inside the host cells. Viral infect all forms of life; can cause disease in humans, animals, plants and even insects. The science of studying viruses also called as Virology. Unlike most living things, viruses do not have cells that divide; new viruses are assembled in the infected host cells. Therefore, viruses are ultimately called as obligatory parasites. Viruses contain

neg: Karl-Henrik Robèrt The Natural Step Foundation. His 1979 doctoral dissertation, at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, studied leukemia. As head of the Division of Clinical Hematology and Oncology at the Department of Medicine at the Huddinge Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden and director of research at the Karolinska Institute, he conducted research and lectured widely on several forms of cancer, including leukemia, lymphoma and lung cancer. From his study of cancerous cells, he realized that “cells are the unifying unit of all living things. The difference between our cells and the cells of plants are so minor that it's almost embarrassing; the makeup is

neg: Meristem in two locations: the root and the stem. Some Arctic plants have an apical meristem in the lower/middle parts of the plant. It is thought that this kind of meristem evolved because it is advantageous in Arctic conditions. Shoot apical meristems are the source of all above-ground organs, such as leaves and flowers. Cells at the shoot apical meristem summit serve as stem cells to the surrounding peripheral region, where they proliferate rapidly and are incorporated into differentiating leaf or flower primordia. The shoot apical meristem is the site of most of the embryogenesis in flowering plants. Primordia of leaves,

neg: Brongniartella byssoides Brongniartella byssoides Brongniartella byssoides (Goodenough & Woodward) Schmitz ("Vertebrata byssoides") is a small red marine alga. "Brongniartella byssoides" is a small brownish-red marine alga which grows to a length of about 30 cm. It consists of tufts of erect axes. The erect axes are polysiphonous, that is each axes is composed of axial cells each covered with periaxial cells without cortication. All the branches produce secondary lateral branches which produce the ultimate final monosiphonous ramuli.The mature thallus pyramidal in shape. The plants are attacked by rhizoids with disc-like bases. The species is dioecious, the sexes occur on separate plants, with

neg: Viridiplantae Viridiplantae Viridiplantae (literally "green plants") are a clade of eukaryotic organisms made up of the green algae, which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants (embryophytes), which emerged within them. Green algae traditionally excludes the land plants, rendering them a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. They have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins. More than 350,000 species of Viridiplantae exist. In some classification systems, the group

neg: CLE peptide they do not possess any defined end status. In that sense, the meristematic cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals, which have an analogous behavior and function. Within plants SAM cells play a major role in the overall growth and development, this is due to the fact that all cells making up the major parts of the plant come from the shoot apical meristem (SAM). There are three different important area found within the SAM and they include the central zone (CZ), the peripheral zone (PZ), and the rib meristem (RM). Each of these areas play an

neg: Plants vs. Zombies modes and minigames were locked requiring advancement within adventure mode to become unlocked. Fan stated that every game he worked on had only him designing the prototype, adding that he used to draw a lot before he made games, where he made pixel art. The final designs of the zombies and the first plants are similar to how they were initially. After searching for an artist, they discovered Rich Werner, who Fan thought clicked with what he intended for the design. He attributed the intrigue of the design to its animation scheme; Tod Semple suggested that they animate it in

neg: Centriole Centriole In cell biology a centriole is a cylindrical cellular organelle composed mainly of a protein called tubulin. Centrioles are found in most eukaryotic cells. A bound pair of centrioles, surrounded by a shapeless mass of dense material, called the pericentriolar material (PCM), makes up a structure called a centrosome. Centrioles are present in the cells of most eukaryotes, for example those of animals. However, they are absent from conifers (pinophyta), flowering plants (angiosperms) and most fungi, and are only present in the male gametes of charophytes, bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, cycads, and ginkgo. Centrioles are typically made up of

neg: Sex organ The seed plants, which include conifers and flowering plants have small gametophytes that develop inside the pollen grains (male) and the ovule (female). Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the union of the male and female germ cells, sperm and egg cells respectively. Pollen is produced in stamens, and is carried to the pistil, which has the ovary at its base where fertilization can take place. Within each pollen grain is a male gametophyte which consists of only three cells. In most flowering plants the female gametophyte within the ovule consists of only seven cells. Thus there are no sex

neg: Protoplast culture. Additionally, protoplasts of plants expressing fluorescent proteins in certain cells may be used for Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS), where only cells fluorescing a selected wavelength are retained. Among other things, this technique is used to isolate specific cell types (e.g., guard cells from leaves, pericycle cells from roots) for further investigations, such as transcriptomics. Protoplast Protoplast, from ancient Greek ("prōtóplastos", "first-formed"), is a biological term proposed by Hanstein in 1880 to refer to the entire cell, excluding the cell wall, but currently has several definitions: Cell walls are made of a variety of polysaccharides. Protoplasts can be made

neg: Botany oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life. Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues. Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis. Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety

neg: Cell (biology) Cell (biology) The cell (from Latin "cella", meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans

neg: Effector-triggered immunity caused by pathogenic toxins or effectors. Effector-triggered immunity Effector-triggered immunity (ETI) is a property of the innate immune system. ETI was first identified in plants but has also been identified in animal cells. The innate immune system is common to all multicellular organisms and forms the first line of defense against pathogens. Infected cells recognize that they are under attack by detecting the pathogen directly through the Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPS) which bind with the Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) on the host cells. Host cells also recognize the pathogen through effector-triggered immunity, whereby the host cells are alerted to

neg: Effector-triggered immunity Effector-triggered immunity Effector-triggered immunity (ETI) is a property of the innate immune system. ETI was first identified in plants but has also been identified in animal cells. The innate immune system is common to all multicellular organisms and forms the first line of defense against pathogens. Infected cells recognize that they are under attack by detecting the pathogen directly through the Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPS) which bind with the Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) on the host cells. Host cells also recognize the pathogen through effector-triggered immunity, whereby the host cells are alerted to the pathogen by the associated damage

neg: Chloroplast is controversial. Plants lack specialized immune cells—all plant cells participate in the plant immune response. Chloroplasts, along with the nucleus, cell membrane, and endoplasmic reticulum, are key players in pathogen defense. Due to its role in a plant cell's immune response, pathogens frequently target the chloroplast. Plants have two main immune responses—the hypersensitive response, in which infected cells seal themselves off and undergo programmed cell death, and systemic acquired resistance, where infected cells release signals warning the rest of the plant of a pathogen's presence. Chloroplasts stimulate both responses by purposely damaging their photosynthetic system, producing reactive oxygen species. High

neg: Pollen Pollen Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require

neg: Samael Aun Weor many other esoteric teachers. He states that it is the Elemental Spirits who cure, not simply the 'cadavers of the plants'. Plants should be treated as living beings, harvested at the proper hours etc. He stated that the Elementals of all plants are aspects of The Divine Mother in the form of Mother Nature. In 'Occult Medicine and Practical Magic' he spoke about the healing methods of the Kogi Mamas, who diagnose sicknesses by means of clairvoyance. The Roman Catholic Church has labeled Samael Aun Weor's Christian Gnostic Movement as a pseudo-church and some Roman Catholic authors have accused Samael

neg: Eukaryote Fungi and many protists have some substantial differences, however. All animals are eukaryotic. Animal cells are distinct from those of other eukaryotes, most notably plants, as they lack cell walls and chloroplasts and have smaller vacuoles. Due to the lack of a cell wall, animal cells can transform into a variety of shapes. A phagocytic cell can even engulf other structures. Plant cells are quite different from the cells of the other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features are: The cells of fungi are most similar to animal cells, with the following exceptions: Some groups of eukaryotes have unique organelles, such

neg: Oscillatoria willei They consist of dozens of cells, which sometimes break off to reproduce by establishing new colonies. Like all species of "Oscillatoria", this species can cause skin irritation in humans who come in close contact with them in the tropics. Oscillatoria willei Oscillatoria willei is a species of bacteria that is able to photosynthesize to make food, similarly to plants. Bacteria of the "Oscillatoria" genus occur in rows of cells of similar size. They form filaments called trichomes. Many trichomes are enveloped in a firm casing, but in this genus the casing is almost non-existent. This gives the filaments easier mobility

neg: Animal barnacles, later become sessile. The blastula is a stage in embryonic development that is unique to most animals, allowing cells to be differentiated into specialised tissues and organs. All animals are composed of cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. During development, the animal extracellular matrix forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganised, making the formation of complex structures possible. This may be calcified, forming structures such as shells, bones, and spicules. In contrast, the cells of other multicellular organisms (primarily algae, plants, and fungi) are held

neg: Epidermis (botany) The cells of the epidermis are structurally and functionally variable. Most plants have an epidermis that is a single cell layer thick. Some plants like "Ficus elastica" and "Peperomia", which have periclinal cellular division within the protoderm of the leaves, have an epidermis with multiple cell layers. Epidermal cells are tightly linked to each other and provide mechanical strength and protection to the plant. The walls of the epidermal cells of the above ground parts of plants contain cutin, and are covered with a cuticle. The cuticle reduces water loss to the atmosphere, it is sometimes covered with wax in

neg: Meristem Meristem A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Meristematic cells give rise to various organs of a plant and are responsible for growth. Differentiated plant cells generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Meristematic cells are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cellular division. Therefore, cell division in the meristem is required to provide new cells for expansion and differentiation of tissues and initiation of new organs, providing the basic structure of the plant body.

neg: John Goodsir and structure of cellular life and organisation. He concluded that all living organisms are formed of microscopic units, cells. Goodsir was not alone in postulating such a concept and the theory that cells form the basic structure of tissues in all plants and animals has been attributed to Matthius Schleiden and to Theodor Schwann. Goodsir posed and then answered the questions ‘What is a cell with its walls, contents, nucleus and nucleolus? How is a cell formed? How do cells multiply?’ The theory which he developed from these studies was original and won the extravagant praise of Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902),

neg: Plant primitive plants lacking some tissue types. Plants are photosynthetic, which means that they manufacture their own food molecules using energy obtained from light. The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the pigment chlorophyll. All green plants contain two forms of chlorophyll, chlorophyll "a" and chlorophyll "b". The latter of these pigments is not found in red or brown algae. The simple equation of photosynthesis is as follows:- 6CO + 6HO → (in the presence of light and chlorophyll) CHO + 6O By means of cells that behave like nerves, plants receive and distribute within their systems information

neg: Ground tissue the existence of branched pits is clearly visible. Branched pits such as these are called ramiform pits. The shell of many seeds like those of nuts as well as the stones of drupes like cherries and plums are made up from sclereids. These structures are used to protect other cells. Ground tissue The ground tissue of plants includes all tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular. It can be divided into three types based on the nature of the cell walls. Parenchyma (; from Greek παρέγχυμα "parenkhyma", "visceral flesh" from παρεγχεῖν "parenkhein", "to pour in" from παρα- "para-", "beside", ἐν

neg: Tracheid Sanio in 1863, originally as "Tracheide", in German. Tracheid Tracheids are elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plants that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts. Tracheids are one of two types of tracheary elements, vessel elements being the other. Tracheids, unlike vessel elements, do not have perforation plates. All tracheary elements develop a thick lignified cell wall, and at maturity the protoplast has broken down and disappeared. The presence of tracheary elements is the defining characteristic of vascular plants to differentiate them from non-vascular plants. The two major functions that tracheids may fulfill are contributing to

neg: Tracheid Tracheid Tracheids are elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plants that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts. Tracheids are one of two types of tracheary elements, vessel elements being the other. Tracheids, unlike vessel elements, do not have perforation plates. All tracheary elements develop a thick lignified cell wall, and at maturity the protoplast has broken down and disappeared. The presence of tracheary elements is the defining characteristic of vascular plants to differentiate them from non-vascular plants. The two major functions that tracheids may fulfill are contributing to the transport system and providing structural support. The

neg: Hydrogen economy gas emissions and pollution from that engine. Although hydrogen can be used in conventional internal combustion engines, fuel cells, being electrochemical, have a theoretical efficiency advantage over heat engines. Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines. Some types of fuel cells work with hydrocarbon fuels, while all can be operated on pure hydrogen. In the event that fuel cells become price-competitive with internal combustion engines and turbines, large gas-fired power plants could adopt this technology. Hydrogen gas must be distinguished as "technical-grade" (five nines pure, 99.999%), which is suitable for applications such as fuel cells,

neg: Post-excavation analysis can be determined. Phytoliths are silica from the cells of plants that can survive in alkaline soils. Analysis of all of the previous types of botanical remains is typically completed by specialists that study paleoethnobotany. Paleoethnobotanists examine various types of archaeological evidence to study relationships between people and plants. These specialists not only study how and why people used plants, but also ways in which uses change over time and space. Sediments can provide clues to reconstructing past natural and cultural processes in a similar manner as artifacts. Professionals that study geoarchaeology are trained to use changes in soils and

neg: Meristem exhibits a nodule regulation phenotype though it is not yet known how this relates to the other AON receptor kinases. Meristem A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Meristematic cells give rise to various organs of a plant and are responsible for growth. Differentiated plant cells generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Meristematic cells are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cellular division. Therefore, cell division in the meristem is required to provide new

neg: Vespula atropilosa entrance and tunnel. Nests range from around 550 to 2,200 cells and average 1,200 cells in size. Nests possess a single comb containing worker cells which is located above the queen cells. Nests are made of envelope paper which is strong and flexible. Fiber strips are positioned in a horizontal pattern. A variety of fiber sources are used and results in different colored strips of paper. The two primary sources of fibers are weathered wood and scraps from non-woody plants. "Vespula atropilosa" queens emerge in late April and early May. They search for new nesting sites when the weather is

neg: Palisade cell Palisade cell Palisade cells are plant cells located in leaves, right below the epidermis and cuticle. They are vertically elongated, a different shape from the spongy mesophyll cells beneath them in the leaf. Their chloroplasts absorb a major portion of the light energy used by the leaf. Palisade cells occur in dicotyledonous plants, and also in the net-veined monocots, the Araceae and Dioscoreaceae. Palisade cells contain the largest number of chloroplasts per cell, which makes them the primary site of photosynthesis in the leaves of those plants that contain them, converting the energy in light to the chemical energy of

neg: Immune system invertebrate life. Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses. Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as Pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the

neg: Fertilizer nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant

neg: Plant senescence both it and its share of both shoot and root cells that do not acquire sugar and gases whether they are of a structural, reproductive, immature, or just plain, root nature. The idea that a plant does not impose efficiency demands on immature cells is that most immature cells are part of so-called dormant buds in plants. These are kept small and non-dividing until the plant needs them. They are found in buds, for instance in the base of every lateral stem. There is little theory on how plants induce themselves to senesce, although it is reasonably widely accepted that

neg: Plant stem cell process but immortally give rise to new specialized and unspecialized cells, and they have the potential to grow into any organ, tissue, or cell in the body. Thus they are totipotent cells equipped with regenerative powers that facilitate plant growth and production of new organs throughout lifetime. Unlike animals, plants are immobile. As plants cannot escape from danger by taking motion, they need a special mechanism to withstand various and sometimes unforeseen environmental stress. Here, what empowers them to withstand harsh external influence and preserve life is stem cells. In fact, plants comprise the oldest and the largest living organisms

neg: Flowerpot Flowerpot A flowerpot, flower pot, or plant pot is a container in which flowers and other plants are cultivated and displayed. Historically, and still to a significant extent today, they are made from terracotta. Flowerpots are now often also made from plastic, wood, stone, or sometimes biodegradable material. An example of biodegradable pots are ones made of heavy brown paper, cardboard, or peat moss in which young plants for transplanting are grown. For seedling starting in commercial greenhouses or polytunnels, pots usually take the form of trays with cells, each cell acting as one small pot. These trays are often

neg: Mucoromycotina more. In addition to cereal plants, crown rot is seen in strawberries and other such low growing plants. Mycorrhizal, literally “fungus-root,” interactions are symbioses between fungi and plants. Such interactions are based on nutrient acquisition and sharing, the fungi increases the range over which nutrients are gathered and the plant provides materials that the fungi cannot produce. There are two main types of interactions: arbuscular endomycorrhizal, and ectomycorrhizal. Arbuscular endomycorrhizal interactions are when the fungi is allowed to enter the plant, and inhabit special cells. The fungi produce structures that look like trees, called “arbuscules,” inside these cells. Ectomycorrhizal interactions

neg: Plant genetics the plant chromosomes by various methods can be done to produce different or desired genotypes that result in different or desired phenotypes. Plants, like all other known living organisms, pass on their traits using DNA. Plants however are unique from other living organisms in the fact that they have Chloroplasts. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA. Like animals, plants experience somatic mutations regularly, but these mutations can contribute to the germ line with ease, since flowers develop at the ends of branches composed of somatic cells. People have known of this for centuries, and mutant branches are called "sports".

neg: Plant hormone powered by a heart that moves fluids around the body—plants use more passive means to move chemicals around their bodies. Plants utilize simple chemicals as hormones, which move more easily through their tissues. They are often produced and used on a local basis within the plant body. Plant cells produce hormones that affect even different regions of the cell producing the hormone. Hormones are transported within the plant by utilizing four types of movements. For localized movement, cytoplasmic streaming within cells and slow diffusion of ions and molecules between cells are utilized. Vascular tissues are used to move hormones from

neg: Gas exchange leaf's epidermis. The size of a stoma is regulated by the opening and closing of its two guard cells: the turgidity of these cells determines the state of the stomatal opening, and this itself is regulated by water stress. Plants showing crassulacean acid metabolism are drought-tolerant xerophytes and perform almost all their gas-exchange at night, because it is only during the night that these plants open their stomata. By opening the stomata only at night, the water vapor loss associated with carbon dioxide uptake is minimised. However, this comes at the cost of slow growth: the plant has to store

neg: Evolutionary history of plants implying that mutational adjustment of a single locus on the genome is enough to generate diversity. Once the leaf primordial cells are established from the SAM cells, the new axes for leaf growth are defined, among them being the abaxial-adaxial (lower-upper surface) axes. The genes involved in defining this, and the other axes seem to be more or less conserved among higher plants. Proteins of the "HD-ZIPIII" family have been implicated in defining the adaxial identity. These proteins deviate some cells in the leaf primordium from the default abaxial state, and make them adaxial. In early plants with leaves, the

neg: Rhizoid That is why fungí are called heterotrophs by absorption. In land plants, rhizoids are trichomes that anchor the plant to the ground. In the liverworts, they are absent or unicellular, but multicelled in mosses. In vascular plants they are often called root hairs, and may be unicellular or multicellular. In certain algae, there is an extensive rhizoidal system that allows the alga to anchor itself to a sandy substrate from which it can absorb nutrients. Microscopic free-floating species, however, do not have rhizoids at all. Rhizoid Rhizoids are protuberances that extend from the lower epidermal cells of bryophytes and algae.

neg: Evolutionary history of life identical cells. The red algae called "Bangiomorpha", dated at 1.2 Ga, is the earliest known organism that certainly has differentiated, specialized cells, and is also the oldest known sexually reproducing organism. The 1.43 billion-year-old fossils interpreted as fungi appear to have been multicellular with differentiated cells. The "string of beads" organism "Horodyskia", found in rocks dated from 1.5 Ga to 900 Ma, may have been an early metazoan; however, it has also been interpreted as a colonial foraminiferan. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes, and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only

neg: Theodor Schwann bodies." During the next year, he studied both decomposition and respiration, constructing apparatus that he would later adapt for the study of yeast. Next Schwann studied yeast and fermentation. His work on yeast was independent of work done by Charles Cagniard de la Tour and Friedrich Traugott Kützing, all of whom published work in 1837. By 1836, Schwann had carried out numerous experiments on alcohol fermentation. Powerful microscopes made it possible for him to observe yeast cells in detail and recognize that they were tiny organisms whose structures resembled those of plants. Schwann went beyond others who simply had noted

neg: Ribosome biogenesis on ribosome production and maintenance. Ribosome biogenesis is a very tightly regulated process, and it is closely linked to other cellular activities like growth and division. Some have speculated that in the origin of life, ribosome biogenesis predates cells, and that genes and cells evolved to enhance the reproductive capacity of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the macromolecular machines that are responsible for mRNA translation into proteins. The eukaryotic ribosome, also called the 80S ribosome, is made up of two subunits – the large 60S subunit (which contains the 25S [in plants] or 28S [in mammals], 5.8S, and 5S rRNA and 46

neg: Chloroplast plants such as cacti, chloroplasts are found in the stems, though in most plants, chloroplasts are concentrated in the leaves. One square millimeter of leaf tissue can contain half a million chloroplasts. Within a leaf, chloroplasts are mainly found in the mesophyll layers of a leaf, and the guard cells of stomata. Palisade mesophyll cells can contain 30–70 chloroplasts per cell, while stomatal guard cells contain only around 8–15 per cell, as well as much less chlorophyll. Chloroplasts can also be found in the bundle sheath cells of a leaf, especially in C plants, which carry out the Calvin cycle

neg: Genetic engineering techniques particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells or plant embryos. Some genetic material enters the cells and transforms them. This method can be used on plants that are not susceptible to "Agrobacterium" infection and also allows transformation of plant plastids. Plants cells can also be transformed using electroporation, which uses an electric shock to make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. Due to the damage caused to the cells and DNA the transformation efficiency of biolistics and electroporation is lower than agrobacterial transformation. Transformation has a different meaning in relation

neg: Plant stem cell isolation. Due to the valuable and beneficial compounds for human health (i.e. paclitaxel) which are secreted by the CMC's, this technology is considered a serious breakthrough in plant biotechnology. Plant stem cell Plant stem cells are innately undifferentiated cells located in the meristems of plants. Plant stem cells serve as the origin of plant vitality, as they maintain themselves while providing a steady supply of precursor cells to form differentiated tissues and organs in plants. Two distinct areas of stem cells are recognised: the apical meristem and the lateral meristem. Plant stem cells are characterized by two distinctive properties, which

neg: Bacteria bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology. There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×10 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies; bacteria are responsible for the

neg: Phomoxanthone A the study of mitochondrial membrane dynamics, particularly non-canonical mitochondrial fission and remodelling of the mitochondrial matrix. Since PXA has antibiotic activity against organisms as diverse as bacteria, protozoans, fungi, plants and animal cells including human cancer cells, it has to affect a cellular feature that is evolutionarily highly conserved. A recent study has shown that PXA directly affects the mitochondria by disrupting both their biochemical functions and their membrane architecture. The mitochondria are cellular organelles that are present in almost all eukaryotes. According to the theory of symbiogenesis, they are derived from bacteria and share many characteristics with them, including

neg: Megaspore Megaspore Megaspores, also called macrospores, are a type of spore that is present in heterosporous plants. These plants have two spore types, megaspores and microspores. Generally speaking, the megaspore, or large spore, germinates into a female gametophyte, which produces egg cells. These are fertilized by sperm produced by the male gametophyte developing from the microspore. Heterosporous plants include the following: In gymnosperms and flowering plants, the megaspore is produced inside the nucleus of the ovule. During megasporogenesis, a diploid precursor cell, the megasporocyte or megaspore mother cell, undergoes meiosis to produce initially four haploid cells (the megaspores). Angiosperms exhibit three

neg: Silica cycle is transported by rivers and can be deposited in soils in the form of various siliceous polymorphs. Plants can readily uptake silicate in the form of HSiO for the formation of phytoliths. Phytoliths are tiny rigid structures found within plant cells that aid in the structural integrity of the plant. Phytoliths also serve to protect the plants from consumption by herbivores who are unable to consume and digest silica-rich plants efficiently. Silica release from phytolith degradation or dissolution is estimated to occur at a rate double that of global silicate mineral weathering. Considering biogeochemical cycling within ecosystems, the import and

neg: Microorganism The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae") and fission yeast ("Schizosaccharomyces pombe"). Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast "Candida albicans", can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The green algae include

neg: Marine life are." A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles. These viral particles, also known as "virions", consist of two or three parts: (i) the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; (ii) a protein coat, called the capsid, which surrounds and protects the genetic

neg: Botany all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil. Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals. Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities. At each

neg: Transmission of plant viruses proteins which coat the virus and interact with the structure of the plasmodesmata. The array of proteins expressed by the different viruses may act differently but all achieve a similar goal, passage between adjacent cells. Transmission of plant viruses Viruses are known to infect both plant cells and animal cells. Since viruses are obligate intracellular parasites they must develop direct methods of transmission, between hosts, in order to survive. The mobility of animals increases the mechanisms of viral transmission that have evolved, whereas plants remain immobile and thus plant viruses must rely on environmental factors to be transmitted between hosts.

neg: Lokiarchaeota eukaryotes. The repertoire of membrane-related functions of "Lokiarchaeum" suggests that the common ancestor to the eukaryotes might be an intermediate step between the prokaryotic cells, devoid of subcellular structures, and the eukaryotic cells, which harbor many organelles. Carl Woese's three-domain system classifies cellular life into three domains: archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes; the last being characterised by large, highly evolved cells, containing mitochondria, which help the cells produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of the cell), and a membrane-bound nucleus containing nucleic acids. Protozoa and all multicellular organisms such as animals, fungi, and plants are eukaryotes. The bacteria and archaea

neg: Marine life ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Once regarded as plants constituting the class "Schizomycetes", bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles. Although the term "bacteria" traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after

neg: Marker gene reaction, depending on the transformation efficiency, only one in a several million to billion cells may take up DNA. Rather than checking every single cell, scientists use a selective agent to kill all cells that do not contain the foreign DNA, leaving only the desired ones. Antibiotics are the most common selective agents. In bacteria, antibiotics are used almost exclusively. In plants, antibiotics that kill the chloroplast are often used as well, although tolerance to salts and growth-inhibiting hormones is becoming more popular. In mammals, resistance to antibiotics that would kill the mitochondria is used as a selectable marker. A

neg: Gloeocapsa magma Gloeocapsa magma Gloeocapsa magma is a species of bacteria in the gloeocapsa genus of cyanobacteria, an ancient line of photosynthesizing bacteria, which photolyze water generating oxygen gas. Ancient cyanobacteria were ancestral to the chloroplasts of all plants on earth. "Gloeocapsa magma" may resemble "algae" in that they are green, but in fact cyanobacteria are bacteria whereas algae are single-celled eukaryotes (cells with nuclei) that are closely related to plants. "Gloeocapsa magma" gained notoriety in the Southeastern United States in the 1990s, but it has since spread throughout most of the rest of the United States and Canada. This particular type

neg: Gloeocapsa magma avoid costly damage to the structure. Many roof cleaning contractors offer this method of cleaning. Gloeocapsa magma Gloeocapsa magma is a species of bacteria in the gloeocapsa genus of cyanobacteria, an ancient line of photosynthesizing bacteria, which photolyze water generating oxygen gas. Ancient cyanobacteria were ancestral to the chloroplasts of all plants on earth. "Gloeocapsa magma" may resemble "algae" in that they are green, but in fact cyanobacteria are bacteria whereas algae are single-celled eukaryotes (cells with nuclei) that are closely related to plants. "Gloeocapsa magma" gained notoriety in the Southeastern United States in the 1990s, but it has since

neg: Pollen also be sprinkled over heads or in mouths. Many Navajo people believe the body becomes holy when it travels over a trail sprinkled with pollen. Pollen Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone,

neg: Polysiphonia fibrata Polysiphonia fibrata Polysiphonia fibrata is a species of "Polysiphonia" that grows as small dense tufted and finely branched marine alga in the Rhodophyta. The branches of "P. fibrate" are numerous and much interwoven forming tufts up to 20 cm long. They are fine, terete, cylindrical, erect and dull brownish-red in colour. The branches consist of a central axis with 4 pericentral cells all of the same length as the axial cells. The branches become corticated near the base. Rhizoids and trichoblasts are abundant. The plants are dioecious. Spermatangia are borne near the tips of the branches. The cystocarps are clearly

neg: Hydathode Hydathode A hydathode is a type of pore, commonly found in angiosperms, that secretes water through pores in the epidermis or leaf margin, typically at the tip of a marginal tooth or serration. Hydathodes occur in the leaves of submerged aquatic plants such as "Ranunculus fluitans" as well as herbaceous plants of drier habitats such as "Campanula rotundifolia". They are connected to the plant vascular system by a vascular bundle. Hydathodes are commonly seen in water lettuce, water hyacinth, rose, balsam, and many other species. Hydathodes are made of a group of living cells with numerous intercellular spaces filled with

neg: Endodermis in distinctive bands called Casparian strips. These strips vary in width but are typically smaller than the cell wall on which they are deposited. If the endodermis is likened to a brick cylinder (e.g. a smokestack), with the bricks representing individual cells, the Casparian strips are analogous to the mortar between the bricks. In older endodermal cells, suberin may be more extensively deposited on all cell wall surfaces and the cells can become lignified, forming a complete waterproof layer. Some plants have a large number of amyloplasts (starch containing organelles) in their endodermal cells, in which case the endodermis may

neg: Gymnosperm ovulate cones, respectively. Gametophytes, as with all heterosporous plants, develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells. Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple archegonia, which produce the female gamete. During pollination, pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat (integument) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes

neg: Transfer cell Transfer cell Transfer cells are specialized parenchyma cells that have an increased surface area, due to infoldings of the plasma membrane. They facilitate the transport of sugars from a sugar source, mainly mature leaves, to a sugar sink, often developing leaves or fruits. They are found in nectaries of flowers and some carnivorous plants. Transfer cells are specially found in plants in the region of absorption or secretion of nutrients. The term transfer cell was coined by B. E. S. Gunning and J. S. Pate.Their presence is generally correlated with the existence of extensive solute infuxes across the plasma membrane.

neg: Transfer cell Transfer cell Transfer cells are specialized parenchyma cells that have an increased surface area, due to infoldings of the plasma membrane. They facilitate the transport of sugars from a sugar source, mainly mature leaves, to a sugar sink, often developing leaves or fruits. They are found in nectaries of flowers and some carnivorous plants. Transfer cells are specially found in plants in the region of absorption or secretion of nutrients. The term transfer cell was coined by B. E. S. Gunning and J. S. Pate.Their presence is generally correlated with the existence of extensive solute infuxes across the plasma membrane.