query: what was most of the clothing in the indus valley made from

pos: History of clothing in India History of clothing in India Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was the one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BC during the Harappan era. The remnants of the ancient Indian clothing can be found in the figurines discovered from the sites near the Indus Valley Civilisation, the rock cut sculptures, the cave paintings, and human art forms found in temples and monuments. These scriptures view the figures of human wearing the clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the

pos: History of clothing in India History of clothing in India Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was the one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BC during the Harappan era. The remnants of the ancient Indian clothing can be found in the figurines discovered from the sites near the Indus Valley Civilisation, the rock cut sculptures, the cave paintings, and human art forms found in temples and monuments. These scriptures view the figures of human wearing the clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the

neg: History of clothing and textiles symbols of a mother goddess. One of the most important recovered figurines is that of the “Priest King” from the site of Mohenjo-daro. It is not only important because scholars have called it a representation of an assumed authority or head of state but also because of what it is wearing, however, it was recently discovered to be an interpretation of a wealthy trader. The calmly seated Priest-King is depicted wearing a shawl with floral patterns. So far, this is the only sculpture from the Indus Valley to show clothing in such explicit detail. However, it does not provide any

neg: History of clothing in India analysis of Harappan silk fibres in beads have shown that silk was made by the process of reeling, the art known only to China till the early centuries AD. Evidences for textiles in Indus Valley Civilisation are not available from preserved textiles but from impressions made into clay and from preserved pseudomorphs. The only evidence found for clothing is from iconography and some unearthed Harappan figurines which are usually unclothed. These little depictions show that usually men wore a long cloth wrapped over their waist and fastened it at the back (just like a close clinging dhoti). Turban was also

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation the Indus Valley, where the first remains were found. The Indus Valley Civilisation was also named as the "Harappan civilisation" after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India. The Indus Valley Civilisation has also been called by some the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilisation", the "Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation" or the "Sindhu-Saraswati Civilisation", as the Ghaggar-Hakra river is identified by some with the mythological Sarasvati River, suggesting that the Indus Valley Civilisation was the Vedic civilisation as perceived by traditional Hindu beliefs. The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)

neg: Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation. While the Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into Early, Mature and Late Harappan by archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler, newer periodisations include the Neolithic early farming settlements, and use a Stage-Phase model, often combining terminology from various systems. The most commonly used nomenclature classifies the Indus Valley Civilisation into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase. The Indus Civilisation was preceded by local agricultural villages, from where the river plains were populated when water-management became available, creating an integrated civilisation. This broader time range

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation and successor cultures – Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively – the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley. Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the IVC. The most commonly used classifies the Indus Valley Civilisation into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase. An alternative approach by Shaffer divides the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era,"

neg: Tourism in Afghanistan tourist visas annually. In 2014, bookings for adventure trips were doubled in Afghanistan. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BC; mature period 2600–1900 BC) extending from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. Apart from Shortughai tourists can visit Mundigak in southern Afghanistan which is another notable site. The museums collection had earlier been one of the most important in Central Asia, with over 100,000 items dating back several millennia. With the start of the

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan, at Manda, Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu, India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi. The southern most site of the Indus valley civilisation is Daimabad in Maharashtra. Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. It flourished along the system of monsoon-fed perennial rivers in the basins of the Ghaggar-Hakra River in northwest India, and the Indus River flowing through the length of Pakistan. There is evidence of

neg: Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation the two main urban-focused developments in South Asia," and They also note that the term "Integration Era" may not be applicable to the whole of South Asia for the period of the Mature Harappan Civilisation, because "large swathes of northern and southern South Asia were unaffected by what was, on a subcontinental scale, a regional feature." Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation. While the Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into Early, Mature and Late Harappan by archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler, newer periodisations include the Neolithic early farming settlements,

neg: Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation Indus Valley. Mehrgarh Period I belongs to this era. The Regionalisation Era corresponds to ca. 4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer) or ca. 5000-2600 BCE (Coningham & Young). The Early Harappan phase belongs to this Era. According to Manuel, "the most significant development of this period was the shift in population from the uplands of Baluchistan to the floodplains of the Indus Valley." This era was very productive in arts, and new crafts were invented. The Regionalisation Era includes the Balakot, Amri, Hakra and Kot Diji Phases. The Integration Era refers to the period of the "Indus Valley Civilisation". It is a period

neg: History of clothing and textiles nomads and urban dwellers from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods of time. The earliest known woven textiles of the Near East may be fabrics used to wrap the dead, excavated at a Neolithic site at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia, carbonized in a fire and radiocarbon dated to c. 6000 BC. Evidence exists of flax cultivation from c. 8000 BC in the Near East, but the breeding of sheep with a wooly fleece rather than hair occurs much later, c. 3000 BC. We do not know what the people who constituted the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the earliest

neg: Clothing in India color codes are followed in clothing based on the religion and ritual concerned. The clothing in India also encompasses the wide variety of Indian embroidery, prints, handwork, embellishment, styles of wearing cloths. A wide mix of Indian traditional clothing and western styles can be seen in India. India's recorded history of clothing goes back to the 5th millennium BC in the Indus Valley civilization where cotton was spun, woven and dyed. Bone needles and wooden spindles have been unearthed in excavations at the site. The cotton industry in ancient India was well developed, and several of the methods survive until

neg: Afghanistan have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in

neg: Jewellery traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization (encompassing present-day Pakistan and north and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques.

neg: History of clothing in India the hair woven into a bun, hair coiled in a ring on the top of the head, beards were usually trimmed. Indus valley civilization men are frequently depicted wearing head bands especially to contain hair bun at the back. People have been shown wearing elaborate headdresses like turban, conical hats, pakol hats etc.. Dressing of indus valley civilization people show presence of multi ethnic people of diverse backgrounds for instance people have been depicted wearing pashtun style pakol hat with a chocker like neck ornament as well as Punjabi style pagri and rajasthani style bangles and necklaces and many other

neg: Cotton is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The use of cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric dated to the fifth millennium BC have been found in the Indus Valley Civilization. Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the invention of the cotton gin that lowered the cost of production that led to its widespread use, and it is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, accounting

neg: Lund Khwar Indians followed and retained control of the valley till the 7th century CE. By the 8th century, the Afghan Dilazaks had appeared in the valley. At that time the Peshawar valley was under control of the rulers at Lahore. The Afghans joined the Gakkhars who held the country between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers and compelled the Lahore rulers to cede to them the hill country west of the Indus and south of the Kabul River. The Yousafzai conquered much of what was called Samah, in the olden days, from the Dilazak. After Yousafzai Afghans, the next major tribe

neg: Mohenjo-daro "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi, and as "Mound of Mohan" (where Mohan is Krishna). Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, in a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River. It is situated on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around from the town of Larkana. The ridge was prominent during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding flood, but subsequent flooding has since buried most of the ridge in silt deposits.

neg: Mitathal The pottery shows fully developed Sothi-Siswal traits. Mitathal is an important site for scholars investigating what Possehl (1992) has called the "Eastern Domain" of the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization. Recent studies have provided a fresh glimpse into this ancient settlement and the surrounding region during the later part of what is commonly termed the Mature Harappan period (ca. 2600-1900 B.C) of the Indus Valley Civilization. Prior to excavation conducted by Kurukshetra University in 1968, under the direction of Suraj Bhan (Bhan 1969, 1975), copper artefacts, Indus-style pottery, beads and faience bangles were discovered at Mitathal. Bhan’s excavations, although small

neg: History of India later in Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisation of the Old World. Of the three, the Indus Valley Civilisation was the most expansive. At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million inhabitants. The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana,

neg: Sequin they do not move, and are less likely to fall off; or they may be stitched at only one point, so that they dangle and move easily, to catch more light. Some sequins are made with multiple facets, to increase their reflective ability. Evidence exists that gold sequins were being used as decoration on clothing or paraphernalia in the Indus Valley as early as 2500BC, during the Kot Diji phase. The name "sequin" originates from the Venetian colloquial noun "zecchino" (), meaning a Venetian Ducat coin, rendered into French as "sequin" . The Ducat stopped being minted after the Napoleonic

neg: Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation from this civilization. The Great Bath might be the first of its kind in the pre-historic period. This ancient town had more than 700 wells, and most houses in Mohenjo-Daro had at least one private well. Dholavira, located in Gujarat, India, had a series of water storing tanks and step wells, and its water management system has been called "unique". Dholavira had at least five baths, the size of one is comparable with the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro. Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation The ancient Indus Valley Civilization of South Asia, including current day Pakistan and Northwest India, was

neg: Mohenjo-daro The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the western side is now dry. Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE. It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. At its height, the Indus Civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, extending westwards to the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India and northwards to an outpost in Bactria, with major urban centers at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation it plausible that a series of maritime stages linked the Indus Valley and the Gulf region. In the 1980s, important archaeological discoveries were made at Ras al-Jinz (Oman), demonstrating maritime Indus Valley connections with the Arabian Peninsula. According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-west India, but there is also "good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh." According to Jean-Francois Jarrige, farming had an independent origin at Mehrgarh, despite the similarities which he notes between Neolithic sites from

neg: Rakhigarhi Indus Valley Civilisation Museum Rakhigarhi Indus Valley Civilisation Museum The Rakhigarhi Indus Valley Civilisation Museum, with a research center and hostel for researchers, is a proposed museum to be built in Rakhigarhi village in Hisar district of Haryana state in India. A 2017 joint roundtable conference by Rasika Research & Design, INTACH, Center for Art and Archaeology, Sushant School of Art and Architecture at Ansal University and Deccan College affirmed the whole Rakhi Garhi IVC archaeological site a living museum. Highlighting the significance of Rakhigarhi, speaker Surbhi Gupta (Director, Rasika Research & Design) announced at the conference, ""What Giza is to Egypt, and Athens

neg: Edakkal Caves a depiction as “a man with jar cup” that is the most distinct motif of the Indus valley civilization. The finding, made in September 2009, indicates that the Harappan civilization was active in the region. The “a man with jar cup” symbol from Edakkal seems to be more similar to the Indus motif than those already known from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Mr. Varier said “The discovery of the symbols are akin to that of the Harappan civilization having predominantly Dravidian culture and testimony to the fact that cultural diffusion could take place. It is wrong to presume that the

neg: Indus Valley State Railway expansion of the railways. The IVSR had reached Rohri in 1879 and a steam ferry would transport eight wagons at a time across the Indus River between from Rohri to Sukkur. This was found to be cumbersome and time-consuming. The opening of Lansdowne Bridge in 1889 solved this bottleneck, as rail traffic could now travel from Karachi uninterrupted to Lahore. The Indus Valley State Railway was merged in 1886 to form the North Western State Railway. Today, this line forms a section of the Karachi-Peshawar Railway Line. Indus Valley State Railway The Indus Valley State Railway was a railway founded

neg: Punjabi Muslims of a common "Punjabi" ethno-cultural identity and community did not exist, even though the majority of the various communities of the Punjab had long shared linguistic, cultural and racial commonalities. Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada. Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 5000 years old. The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilization. The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the Vedic civilization along the length of the Indus River. This

neg: Cradle of civilization became the Indus Valley Civilisation. The earliest fortified town in the region is found at Rehman Dheri, dated 4000 BC in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa close to River Zhob Valley. Other fortified towns found to date are at Amri (3600–3300 BC), Kot Diji in Sindh, and at Kalibangan (3000 BC) at the Hakra River. The Indus Valley Civilisation starts around 3300 BC with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BC). The earliest examples of the Indus Script date to this period, as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality

neg: Sahiwal District dominated the lower Indus Valley and Ganweriwala might have been the urban centre for what is now Rajasthan. The site at Harappa was first excavated by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1872-73, two decades after Brick Robbers carried off the visible remains of the city. He found an Indus seal of an unknown origin. The first extensive excavations at Harappa were started by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni in 1920. His excavations at Mohenjo-daro called attention to the Indus Valley civilization as the earliest urban culture in the Indian Sub-Continent. His work was followed later in the decade by that of

neg: Indus River 800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus. Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo-Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had already been abandoned. The word "India" is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, but

neg: History of astronomy of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe. Astronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley Civilization during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars. As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period. Vedanga Jyotisha describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual.

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of 26 symbols. While the Indus Valley Civilisation is generally characterised as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004) who argue that

neg: Rajasthan record of "Rajputana" as a name for the region is in George Thomas's 1800 memoir "Military Memories". John Keay, in his book "India: A History", stated that "Rajputana" was coined by the British in 1829, John Briggs, translating Ferishta's history of early Islamic India, used the phrase "Rajpoot (Rajput) princes" rather than "Indian princes". Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation and Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Stone Age tools dating from 5,000 to 2,00,000 years were found in Bundi and Bhilwara

neg: Seleucus I Nicator in India. Chandragupta (known in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), founder of the Mauryan empire, had conquered the Indus valley and several other parts of the easternmost regions of Alexander's empire. Seleucus began a campaign against Chandragupta and crossed the Indus. Seleucus' Indian campaign was, however, a failure. It is unknown what exactly happened. Perhaps Chandragupta defeated Seleucus in battle. No sources mention this, however. But as most western historians note, Seleucus appears to have fared poorly as he did not achieve his aims. The two leaders ultimately reached an agreement, and through a treaty sealed in 305 BC, Seleucus ceded

neg: History of Pakistan crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metalworking. The site was occupied continuously until 2600 BCE, when climatic changes began to occur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favor of the Indus Valley, where a new civilization was in the early stages of development. The Bronze Age in the Indus Valley began around 3300 BCE with the Indus Valley Civilization. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three the most widespread, covering an area of 1.25 million km.

neg: Indus Valley Desert Indus Valley Desert The Indus Valley Desert is an almost uninhabited desert ecoregion of northern Pakistan. The Indus Valley desert covers an area of in northwestern Punjab Province between the Chenab and Indus rivers. The Indus Valley Desert is drier and less hospitable than the northwestern thorn scrub forests that surround it with temperatures ranging from freezing in winter to extremely hot (more than ) in summer with only of rainfall per year. The desert vegetation is quite varied due to the variety of temperatures with Khejri shrubs being the characteristic species. The desert is home to five large mammals:

neg: Shamoon Sultan Shamoon Sultan Shamoon Sultan is a Pakistani Textile designer, textile businessmen and founder of "Khaadi", an international retailing fashion house which produces "handwoven" clothing material for men, women and children as well as home furnishings clothing line. Shamoon has won numerous industry awards including Lux Style Award for High Street Band thrice, Achievement in Fashion Design – Prèt and has been nominated at different occasion in several categories at Lux Style Awards. "Khaadi" is regarded as the one of the best fashion-brand in Pakistan. Shamoon born to a Muslim family and did his graduation from Indus Valley School of Art

neg: History of clothing in India sari to that of turban and the dhoti, the traditional Indian wears were mostly tied around the body in various ways. The clothing system was also related to the social and economic status of the person. The upper classes of the society wore fine muslin garments and silk fabrics while the common classes wore garments made up of locally made fabrics. For instance, women from rich families wore clothes (sari specifically) made up of silk from China, but the common women wore sari made up of cotton or local fabrics. The Indus civilisation knew the process of silk production. Recent

neg: History of Haryana [[Nangal_Sirohi#Havelis_and_architecture|Nangal Sirohi]] in [[Mahendragarh district]], 130 km from Delhi, is popular for its [[haveli]]s of [[shekhavati]] architecture within [[National Capital Region (India)|NCR]]. [[Tosham_Hill_range#Tosham_Hill_range_Indus_Valley_Civilization_mines_&_smelters|Mines]] at [[Tosham Hill range]] from [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. [[File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|Dancing girl attire and ornaments from [[Indus Valley Civilization]].]] [[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]] attire. [[File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumb|Attire and ornament of Priest-King from [[Indus Valley Civilization]].]] [[Rakhigarhi#Discoveries|Rakhigarhi silver bronze ornaments]] finds and [[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]] ornaments. [[Jagadhri#Chaneti|Chanetic Buddhist monastic university]] as chronicled by [[Hieun Tsang]]. [[File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg|thumb|[[Pashupati]] [[Shiva]] in [[yoga]] pose from [[Indus Valley Civilization]].]] [[Pashupati]] [[Shiva]] in [[yoga]] pose from [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. [[Category:History of Haryana|*]] History of Haryana Haryana is

neg: Ancient Egyptian trade including Tell Brak and Uruk and Susa in Mesopotamia. By the second half of the 4th millennium BCE, the gemstone lapis lazuli was being traded from its only known source in the ancient world—Badakhshan, in what is now northeastern Afghanistan—as far as Mesopotamia and Egypt. By the 3rd millennium BCE, the lapis lazuli trade was extended to Harappa, Lothal and Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley Civilization of modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India. The Indus Valley was also known as Meluhha, the earliest maritime trading partner of the Sumerians and Akkadians in Mesopotamia. The ancient harbor constructed in Lothal, India, around

neg: Button had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing with thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old." Functional buttons with buttonholes for fastening or closing clothes appeared first in Germany in the 13th century. They soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting garments in 13th- and 14th-century Europe. Since at least the seventeenth century, when box-like metal buttons

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation southern Mesopotamia. The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the "Harappan Civilisation" after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s (mainly 1921), in what was then the Punjab province of British India. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj. Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately

neg: Indus River in abundance, including pomfret and prawns. The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains – it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 – the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The

neg: Peopling of India common European mutation." According to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found." Asko Parpola, who regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes that Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the west of the Indus River valley, is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation,

neg: History of art "Dancing Girl" and the "Priest-King". This civilisation made also many clay pots, most of them decorated with geometric patterns. They made seals decorated with animals, anthropomorphic figures and their script. The Indus script (also known as the Harappan script) is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilization during the Kot Diji and Mature Harappan periods between 3500 and 1900 BCE. Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a script used to record a language, or even symbolise a writing system. In spite of many attempts,

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation Indus Valley Civilisation The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread. The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir states) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces), while some sites in Afghanistan are believed to be trading colonies. A total of 1,022 cities and settlements

neg: Leh the one the modern highway follows from the Punjab via Mandi, the Kulu valley, over the Rohtang Pass, through Lahaul and on to the Indus Valley, and then down river to Leh. The route from Srinigar was roughly the same as the road that today crosses the "Zoji La" (pass) to Kargil, and then up the Indus Valley to Leh. From Baltistan there were two difficult routes: the main on ran up the Shyok Valley from the Indus, over a pass and then down the Hanu River to the Indus again below Khalsi (Khalatse). The other ran from Skardu straight

neg: Mahilpur population is under 6 years of age. Profession of the most of the persons are agriculture based. Mahilpur is the NRI hub of the Punjab state. Mahilpur was part of the Indus Valley Civilisation, although it was founded probably during the Vedic period. Chinese pilgrim Huang Tsang visited it in 635 when he was going to Chamba valley from Jalandhar and described it as Sri Mahipalpur in his travel accounts. Many nearby villages have been found to be part of the Indus Valley Civilization. Mahilpur was one of the earlier centers of educational institutions being set up during the time

neg: Indus OS the second most popular OS in India according to a research study conducted by Counterpoint Research. As of May 2016, the OS was the second most popular in India, with a 7.6% market share. This is a greater market share than Microsoft and Apple. Android remains the most popular, with 82.3%. Indus OS was awarded the prestigious TiE50 (Silicon Valley) Top Start-Up Award for the year 2016 and ET Telecom Award 2016 for 'Innovation and Development OEM Product'. Indus OS won the 'Digital Startup of the Year Award' at the Drivers of Digital Awards 2016. NASSCOM announced Indus OS as

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation insights on the emergence of the Indus Valley Civilization. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. Mehrgarh was influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic, with similarities between "domesticated wheat varieties, early phases of farming, pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some domesticated plants and herd animals." According to Parpola, the culture migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation. Jean-Francois Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes "the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-East to South Asia," and the similarities between Neolithic sites from

neg: Clothing in India upper castes dressed themselves in fine muslin and wore gold ornaments The Indus civilisation also knew the process of silk production. Recent analysis of Harappan silk fibres in beads have shown that silk was made by the process of reeling, a process known only to China until the early centuries AD. According to the Greek historian Arrian: "The Indians use linen clothing, as says Nearchus, made from the flax taken from the trees, about which I have already spoken. And this flax is either whiter in colour than any other flax, or the people being black make the flax appear

neg: History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent and Ganges valley regions of northern India as early as 4530 BCE and 5440 BCE respectively. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilisation. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Kashmir and Harrappan regions. Mixed farming was the basis of the Indus valley economy. Denis J. Murphy (2007) details the spread of cultivated rice from India into South-east Asia: Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilisation by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilisation grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making

neg: Magan (civilization) his ports were home to boats from Tilmun, Magan and Meluhha. His successor, Naram-Sin, not only conquered Magan, but honoured the Magan King Manium by naming the city of Manium-Ki in Mesopotamia after him. Trade between the Indus Valley and Sumer took place through Magan, although that trade appears to have been interrupted, as Ur-Nammu (2,113-2,096 BCE) laid claim to having 'brought back the ships of Magan'. Archaeological finds dating from this time show trade not only with the Indus Valley and Sumer, but also with Iran and Bactria. They have also revealed what is thought to be the oldest

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilisation cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All

neg: Sindh In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River. The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, "Acacia Rupestris" (kher), and "Tecomella undulata" (lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the "Acacia nilotica" (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The "Azadirachta indica" (neem) (nim), "Zizyphys vulgaris" (bir) (ber), "Tamarix orientalis" (jujuba lai) and "Capparis aphylla" (kirir) are among the more common trees. Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and

neg: Indus Valley State Railway Indus Valley State Railway The Indus Valley State Railway was a railway founded in 1871 to provide a rail link between Kotri and Multan and to replace the Indus Steam Flotilla. The opening of the line thus connected Karachi with Lahore. The survey of the Indus Valley railway line began in 1869 and was undertaken by John Brunton, the Chief Resident Engineer of Scinde Railway, and assisted by his son William Arthur Brunton. The Empress Bridge, opened in 1878, carried the IVSR over the Sutlej River near Bahawalpur. The Indus and Sutlej rivers were seen as major impediments in the

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation the first civilisation to use wheeled transport. These advances may have included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.-P.

neg: Indian mathematics the 15th century CE. Their remarkable work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration, nor is there any "direct" evidence of their results being transmitted outside Kerala. Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation have uncovered evidence of the use of "practical mathematics". The people of the Indus Valley Civilization manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favourable for the stability

neg: Gandhara grave culture DNA of 362 ancient skeletons from Central and South Asia, including those from the Iron Age grave sites discovered in the Swat valley of Pakistan (between 1200 BCE and 1 CE from Aligrama, Barikot, Butkara, Katelai, Loe Banr, and Udegram). According to them, "there is no evidence that the main BMAC population contributed genetically to later South Asians", and that "Indus Periphery-related people are the single most important source of ancestry" in Indus Valley Civilization and South Asia. They further state that the Swat valley grave DNA analysis provides further evidence of "connections between [Central Asian] Steppe population and early

neg: History of art Soviet archaeologist Sergei Rudenko discovered a royal burial at Pazyryk, Altay Mountains, which featured – among many other important objects – the most ancient extant pile rug, probably made in Persia. Unusually for prehistoric burials, those in the northern parts of the area may preserve organic materials such as wood and textiles that normally would decay. Steppes people both gave and took influences from neighbouring cultures from Europe to China, and later Scythian pieces are heavily influenced by ancient Greek style, and probably often made by Greeks in Scythia. The Indus Valley Civilisation made anthropomorphic figures. Most famous are the

neg: Mortimer Wheeler in the methodologies of the discipline. Wheeler became very fond of his students, with one of them, B. B. Lal, later commenting that "behind the gruff exterior, Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart". Throughout his period in India, his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed; more widely, he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness, incompetence and corruption of Indian society. Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent, Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of

neg: Pir Ghaib Waterfall Valley would have stopped at this spring sacred to their own gods on the first leg of their long journey to Mesopotamian marts. As the vedic God Shivaderives from an earlier Indus Valley deity, and as the 5000 year old goddess Nania evolves into Bibi Nani or Durga, so too did the Pir Ghaib develop from an early Indus Valley god. But until the Indus script is understood we will not know which from this pantheon was celebrated for walking into rock walls. Pir Ghaib Waterfall Pir Ghaib Waterfalls are waterfalls situated in the Bolan Valley, from Quetta, in Balochistan,

neg: Khushalgarh–Kohat–Thal Railway abandoned in favour of a 762mm narrow gauge line. The line was constructed from the right bank of the Indus facing Khushalgarh to Kohat, a distance of about and opened in May 1902 The "Kohat-Thal extension" of from Kohat through the Kohat Pass up the Miranzai Valley to Thall was opened in stages between March 1901 and reached Thall in April 1903. In 1903, an accident closed the ropeway over the Indus river and a boat bridge replaced it. Eventually the decision was made to construct the Khushal Garh Bridge crossing the Indus river and at the same time converting

neg: Amri, Sindh around 2500BC. In period II (ca. 2750-2450 BC), more and more elements of Indus Valley culture appear. Period III (ca. 2450-1900 BC) belongs almost entirely to Indus Valley culture. Period IV (ca. 1900-1300 BC) is marked by the mingling of cultural traditions. Elements of the Jhukar culture appear, and co-exist with the last phase of the Indus Valley culture. Later, the elements of Jhangar culture appear. Period V is Muslim and dated much later. Based on the evidence from this site, Indus culture was probably not developed directly from Amri culture. Also, at least at this location, rather than suddenly

neg: Indus River and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The Indus river and its watershed has a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species and 147 fish species, 22 of which are only found in the Indus. The Indus River Dolphin ("Platanista indicus minor") is a sub-species of dolphin found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to the World Wildlife Fund it is one of the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1,000 still existing.

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent with Baluchistan and northern Afghanistan, or the lack of migrants from the north-west who could have procured tin. The copper-bronze metallurgy in the Harappan civilization was widespread and had a high variety and quality. The early use of iron may have developed from the practice of copper-smelting. While there is to date no proven evidence for smelted iron in the Indus Valley Civilization, iron ore and iron items have been unearthed in eight Indus Valley sites, some of them dating to before 2600 BCE. There remains the possibility that some of these items were made of smelted iron, and the

neg: Geography of Ladakh the fairly populous main Indus valley, the more remote Zanskar (in the south) and Nubra valleys (to the north over Khardung La in the Ladakh mountain range, a high motorable pass at ), the almost deserted Aksai Chin (under Chinese rule) and the predominantly Shi'ite Muslim Kargil and Suru valley areas in the west (Kargil being the second most important town in Ladakh). The Baltistan and Skardu area, under Pakistani rule and entirely Muslim, used to be included in what is geographically referred to as Ladakh. Before partition, Baltistan was one of the districts of Ladakh. Skardo was the winter

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent and "S. officinarum" coming from New Guinea. The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites. This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices. One of the earliest known docks is at Lothal (2400 BCE), located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to

neg: Daya Ram Sahni ruins at Sarnath. Sahni worked as curator of Lucknow Museum from 1911 to 1912, when he was transferred to the archaeology department of Kashmir state. Sahni returned to Lahore in 1917 and was made incharge of United Provinces and Punjab. While working as Assistant Superintendent, Sahni excavated the Indus Valley site at Harappa, the first of the Indus Valley sites to be excavated. In 1925, Sahni was transferred to Delhi as Deputy Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and in July 1931, he succeeded Hargeaves as the Director-General of the ASI. Sahni was the first native Indian to be

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. many scholars believe that drought, and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation. The climate change which caused the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation was possibly due to "an abrupt and critical mega-drought and cooling 4,200 years ago," which marks the onset of the Meghalayan Age, the present stage of the Holocene. The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities. It is generally assumed that most trade between the Indus Valley (ancient Meluhha?) and western neighbors proceeded up the Persian Gulf rather than overland. Although there is no incontrovertible proof that this was indeed the case, the distribution of Indus-type artifacts on the Oman peninsula, on Bahrain and in southern Mesopotamia makes

neg: Dravidian people regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes that Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the west of the Indus River valley, is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh, which "suggests

neg: Biblical clothing Biblical clothing The clothing of the people in Biblical times was made from wool, linen, animal skins, and perhaps silk. Most events in the Old and New Testament take place in ancient Israel, and thus most Biblical clothing is ancient Hebrew clothing. They wore underwear and cloth skirts. Complete descriptions of the styles of dress among the people of the Bible is impossible because the material at hand is insufficient. Assyrian and Egyptian artists portrayed what is believed to be the clothing of the time, but there are few depictions of Israelite garb. One of the few available sources on

neg: Gujarat first port was established. The ancient city of Dholavira is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, belonging to the Indus Valley Civilisation. The most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. Altogether, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat. The ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by the commercial activities of its inhabitants. There is clear historical evidence of trade and commerce ties with Egypt, Bahrain and Sumer in the Persian Gulf during the time period of 1000 to 750 BC. There was a succession of Hindu and Buddhist states such as the

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam "the term Arabic (or Islamic) science denotes the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that roughly extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa to the Indus valley and from southern Arabia to the Caspian Sea - that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic language." This definition of Arabic science provides a sense that

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation charcoal samples, giving two dates of respectively 7570–7180 BCE, and 6689–6201 BCE. The earliest phase of Bhirrana concerns fourteen shallow dwelling-pits which "could accommodate about 3–4 people." According to Dikshit, in the lowest level of these pits wheel-made Hakra Ware was found which was "not well finished," together with other wares. According to the ASI, Bhirrana shows the full development of the Harappan culture, from pre-Harappan Hakra Ware to "a full-fledged Mature Harappan city." Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley near the Bolan Pass, which gave new

neg: Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation has also been called the Indus Age and the Indus Valley Tradition. The Early, Mature and Late Harappan periodisation was introduced by archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler, who "brought with them existing systems from elsewhere, such as the Three Age System," and further developed by Mughal, who "proposed the term Early Harappan to characterize the pre- or protourban phase." This classification is primarily based on Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, assuming an evolutionary sequence. According to Manuel, this division "places the Indus Valley within a tripartite evolutionary framework, of a birth a fluorescence a death of a society in a fashion familiar to

neg: Austro-Asiatic people of South Asia calls Para-Munda) being one of the languages of the erstwhile Indus Valley. One inconsistency is that the agricultural backbone of the Indus Valley civilisation was barley and wheat, while the Austro-Asiatic language family is spread across regions (such as Southeast Asia) where rice is the most important cultivar. One theory is that rice cultivation was pioneered in China from where it spread to Southeast Asia and was brought to India by the Austro-Asiatic language speakers. Austro-Asiatic people of South Asia The Austro-Asiatic people of South Asia are various distinct ethnic groups native to parts of the South Asian countries of

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts. The

neg: History of infrastructure layers that included six sided capstones, or pavers, that reduced the dust and reduced the drag from wheels. In the medieval Islamic world, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated roads were those of the Baghdad, Iraq, which were paved with tar in the 8th century. The oldest known canals were built in Mesopotamia c. 4000 BCE, in what is now Iraq and Syria. The Indus Valley Civilisation in India and Pakistan from c3300 BCE had a sophisticated canal irrigation system. In Egypt, canals date back to at least 2300 BCE, when a canal was built

neg: Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation drain, that would feed into an adjacent soakpit (cesspit). The soakpits would be periodically emptied of their solid matter, possibly to be used as fertilizer. Most houses also had private wells. City walls functioned as a barrier against floods. The urban areas of the Indus Valley provided public and private baths, sewage was disposed through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains. Mohenjo-daro, located in Sindh, Pakistan is one of the best excavated and studied settlements

neg: Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley of Darius I (circa 490 BCE), there were three Achaemenid Satrapies in the subcontinent: Sattagydia, Gandara, Hidūš. The conquered area was the most fertile and populous region of the Achaemenid Empire. An amount of tribute was fixed according to the richness of each territory. India was already fabled for its gold. Herodotus (who makes several comments on India) published a list of tribute-paying nations, classifying them in 20 Provinces. The Province of "Indos" (, the Indus valley) formed the 20th Province, and was the richest and most populous of the Achaemenid Provinces. According to Herodotus, the "Indians" ('Ινδοι, "Indoi"), as

neg: Laurence Waddell Valley or Harappan seal was published by Alexander Cunningham in 1872. It was half a century later, in 1912, when more Indus Valley seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22, resulting in the discovery of the ancient civilization at Harappa (later including Mohenjo-daro). As seals were discovered from the Indus Valley, Waddell in 1925 first attempted to decipher them and claimed they were of Sumerian origin in his "Indo-Sumerian Seals Deciphered". In the 1920s, Waddell's theory that the Indus-Valley seals were Sumerian had some academic support, despite criticisms; Ralph Turner

neg: Dholavira Dholavira Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known locally as "Kotada timba", the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city. Dholavira’s location is on the Tropic of Cancer. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having been the grandest of cities of its

neg: Shaidu kingdoms including the Maurya Empire (322 BCE 180 BCE), and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (256 BCE 125 BCE). The Buddhist based Kushan Empire (30 CE 375 CE) made Purushapura (now Peshawar) one of their capitals. As the Kushan empire fractured and declined, the Indus Valley became a suzerainty of the Gupta Empire (319 CE 605 CE) which brought Hinduism and relative peace to the valley. This peace in the northern Indus Valley, including Shaidu, was broken by an invasion of White Huns who were repelled in 455 CE. One of the feudal dynasties of the Peshawar district of the 6th century

neg: Dholavira any of Harappan sites. Dholavira Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known locally as "Kotada timba", the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city. Dholavira’s location is on the Tropic of Cancer. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having been the grandest

neg: Indus Valley Civilisation partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations. , archaeological data suggests that the material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000–900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE. In the aftermath of the Indus Civilisation's localisation, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilisation. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found

neg: Cockfight according to a recent study, "it is not known whether these birds made much contribution to the modern domestic fowl. Chickens from the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley (2500–2100 BC) may have been the main source of diffusion throughout the world." "Within the Indus Valley, indications are that chickens were used for sport and not for food" (Zeuner 1963) and that by 1000 BC they had assumed "religious significance". Some additional insight into the pre-history of European and American secular cockfighting may be taken from "The London Encyclopaedia": An early image of a fighting rooster has been found on

neg: Darius I spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in Gandhara, preparing to conquer the Indus Valley. Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia. After Bardiya was murdered, widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire, especially on the eastern side. Darius asserted his position as king by force, taking his armies throughout the

neg: Surkotada significant observation with respect to Indus Valley Civilisation. Sándor Bökönyi (1997), on examining the bone samples found at Surkotada, opined that at least six samples probably belonged to true horse. During 1974, Archaeological Survey of India undertook excavation in this site and J.P.Joshi and A.K.Sharma reported findings of horse bones at all levels (cicra 2100-1700 BCE). The chronology of the occupation of the site at Surkotada is not the same as other Harappan / Indus Valley Civilization sites. The dates from Surkotada are later than most Harappan sites but conform well with the occupational dates from Lothal and Kalibangan. In

neg: Indus River several other tributaries nearby, which may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but unlike the Senge Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point. The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum

neg: Indus Valley Desert Indian wolf, striped hyena, caracal, Indian leopard and the urial ("Ovis orientalis punjabensis") along with many rodents and other mammals. Meanwhile, the 190 species of bird in the desert include the red-necked falcon. Like the nearby Thar Desert the Indus Valley desert has little farming or grazing due to its hard climate and therefore the natural habitats are almost intact. However hunting still goes on and is a threat to caracals, wolves and other mammals. Indus Valley Desert The Indus Valley Desert is an almost uninhabited desert ecoregion of northern Pakistan. The Indus Valley desert covers an area of in

neg: Ratha as 3500 BC during the Ravi Phase. During the Harappan Period (Harappa Phase, 2600–1900 BC) there was a dramatic increase in terracotta cart and wheel types at Harappa and other sites throughout the Indus region. The diversity in carts and wheels, including depictions of what may be spoked wheels, during this period of urban expansion and trade may reflect different functional needs, as well as stylistic and cultural preferences. The unique fonns and the early appearance of carts in the Indus valley region suggest that they are the result of indigenous technological development and not diffusion from West Asia or

neg: History of measurement systems in India used in the planning of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro. The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified. Shigeo Iwata describes the excavated weights unearthed from the Indus civilisation: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilisation prior to 1500 BCE. Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about . Ian Whitelaw (2007)—on the subject of a ruler excavated from the Mohenjo-daro site—writes that: 'the Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches

neg: History of Pakistan as not a single archaeological site that can be positively identified with the Achaemenid Empire has been found anywhere in Pakistan, including at Taxila. What is known about the easternmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Empire is alluded to in the Darius inscriptions and from Greek sources such as the "Histories" of Herodotus and the later "Alexander Chronicles" (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources list three Indus Valley tributaries or conquered territories that were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings: Gandhara, Sattagydia and Hindush. The Ror dynasty () was a Sindhi

neg: Punjab, Pakistan main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilization. The Vedic civilisation flourished along the length of the Indus River. This civilization shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and Afghanistan. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Achaemenids, Macedonians, Mauryas, Kushans, Guptas and

neg: Chronology of the ancient Near East civilization of the Indus Valley traded with the region. This is demonstrated by clay seals found at Ur III and in the Persian Gulf. Seals and beads were also found at the site of Esnunna. In addition, if the land of Meluhha does indeed refer to the Indus Valley, then there are extensive trade records ranging from the Akkadian Empire until the Babylonian Dynasty I. Goods from Greece made their way into the ancient Near East, directly in Anatolia and via the island of Cyprus in the rest of the region and Egypt. A Hittite king, Tudhaliya IV, even captured

neg: Dancing Girl (sculpture) claiming that it had been "taken from Pakistan 60 years ago on the request of the National Arts Council in Delhi but never returned." According to him, the Dancing Girl was to Pakistan what Da Vinci's Mona Lisa was to Europe. Another version of events, however, "suggests the statue was taken to Delhi before Partition by Mortimer Wheeler". General references Dancing Girl (sculpture) Dancing Girl is a prehistoric bronze sculpture made in approximately 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilisation city of Mohenjo-daro (in modern-day Pakistan), which was one of the earliest human cities. The statue is tall, and depicts

neg: History of Afghanistan a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. The first known people were Indo-Iranians, but their date of arrival has been estimated widely from as early as about 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE. (For further detail see Indo-Aryan migration.) The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from present-day northwest Pakistan to present-day northwest India and present-day northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. Apart from Shortughai, Mundigak is another known site. There are several other smaller IVC sites to