query: legal age for marriage for girl in india

pos: Marriageable age girls and 18 for boys. In 2006, the marriageable age for women was increased to 18, the same as for men. In jurisdictions where the ages are not the same, the marriageable age for girls is more commonly two or three years lower than that for boys. In the majority of countries the marriageable age "as a right" is 18. However, most of these countries have exceptions for minors, usually requiring parental or judicial authorization. These exceptions vary considerably by country. The United Nations Population Fund stated the following: In recent years, many countries in the EU have tightened their

pos: Memory Banda and at the Oslo Freedom Forum. She advocated for traditional leaders to formulate by-laws that protect the girl child and at national level she advocated for the legal age of marriage to be raised from 15 to 18 years of age. This led to the law being changed to recognize 18 years as the legal age of marriage in Malawi. But Memory is more concerned about the enforcement of the law and she continues to advocate for the girl-child empowerment. Memory has created Malawi’s Girls Empowerment Network (GENET) and Let Girls Lead girls community groups in an effort to keep

pos: Ages of consent in Asia Korea is 15. Article 153 of the criminal law states that a man who has sexual intercourse with a girl under the age of 15 shall be "punished gravely." Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Oman. Sexual activity outside marriage is illegal in Pakistan. The normal minimum legal age for marriage is 18 for boys and 16 for girls. In the Gaza Strip, any kind of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. The age of sexual consent is the same as in Jordanian Article 306 of the Penal Code. Consensual sex is legal at the age of 16 years.

pos: Child marriage in Afghanistan to work independently. Girls may also suffer physical harm, as their bodies are often not developed for childbirth, resulting in emotional, mental, and physical trauma for both the girl and her child. According to Afghan Civil Law Article 40, "marriage is a contract between a male and female for the establishment of a family." Article 70 sets the legal age of marriage to be 16 for females and 18 for males; Article 71 (subsection 1) gives a girl's marriage rights to her father or guardian before the legal age of 16, and marriages for minors under the age of 15

pos: Child marriage in India the child marriage act has undergone several revisions. The minimum legal age for marriage, since 1978, has been 18 for women and 21 for men. The child marriage prevention laws have been challenged in Indian courts, with some Muslim Indian organizations seeking no minimum age and that the age matter be left to their personal law. Child marriage is an active political subject as well as a subject of continuing cases under review in the highest courts of India. Several states of India have introduced incentives to delay marriages. For example, the state of Haryana introduced the so-called "Apni Beti,

pos: Child marriage in Turkey in Turkey and is punishable by imprisonment for the man who marries an underage girl and for third parties who plan the marriage. However, there is a discrepancy in the legal framework regarding child marriage: the minimum age for the marriage of girls is 15 according to the Turkish Penal Code, 17 (for both sexes) according to the Turkish Civil Code and 18 according to the Child Protection Act. Turkish Civil Code also maintained a minimum marriageable age of 15 for girls until a change in 2002. According to activists, the legal framework is not the limiting factor in the

pos: Child marriage in India have different methods of estimating overall child marriages in India, some using multi-year basis data. For example, NFHS-3 data for 2005 mentioned in above table, used a survey of women aged 20–24, where they were asked if they were married before they were 18. The NFHS-3 also surveyed older women, up to the age of 49, asking the same question. The survey found that many more 40-49 were married before they turned 18, than 20-24 age women who were interviewed. In 1970s, the minimum legal age of marriage, in India, for women was 15. The states with highest observed marriage

pos: Ages of consent in Asia interpreted by ulama to be at the age of nine, was set as a requirement for consummation of marriage. In April 2008, the case of Nujood Ali, a 10-year-old girl who successfully obtained a divorce, sparked headlines around the world, and prompted calls to raise the legal age for marriage to 18. Later in 2008, the Supreme Council for Motherhood and Childhood proposed to define the minimum age for marriage at 18 years. The law was passed in April 2009, but dropped the following day following maneuvers by opposing parliamentarians. Negotiations to pass the legislation continue. In September 2013, an

pos: Child marriage it forbids sex with them until the indefinite time they're 'suitable for sexual intercourse'." As with Africa, the marriage incidence data for Yemen in HRW report is from surveys between 1990 and 2000. Current data is difficult to obtain, given regional violence. In April 2008, Nujood Ali, a 10-year-old girl, successfully obtained a divorce after being raped under these conditions. Her case prompted calls to raise the legal age for marriage to 18. Later in 2008, the Supreme Council for Motherhood and Childhood proposed to define the minimum age for marriage at 18 years. The law was passed in April

pos: Child marriage in India India (14.1%), while Tamilnadu is the only state where child marriage rates have increased in recent years. Rural rates of child marriages were three times higher than urban India rates in 2009. Child marriage was outlawed in 1929, under Indian law. However, in the British colonial times, the legal minimum age of marriage was set at 15 for girls and 18 for boys. Under protests from Muslim organizations in the undivided British India, a personal law Shariat Act was passed in 1937 that allowed child marriages with consent from girl's guardian. After independence and adoption of Indian constitution in 1950,

pos: Violence against women in Guatemala youth foundation) together put forth an initiative to change the legal age of marriage in Guatemala from 14 to 18. These advocates had integral roles in the passing of the legislation in January 2016. The leaders of both The Angélica Fuentes Foundation and Girl Up stated that their main goal of pushing for a higher marriage age was to aid the children in Guatemala. Young girls often would be forced to give up their education and be constricted to a life devoted to marriage, however with the marriage age raised young women would be free to pursue other interests. The

pos: Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent Child marriages are also in steady decline and deemed unlawful in India (with legal age of marriage at 21 years for men and 18 years for women), so the term "arranged marriage" now increasingly refers to marriages between consenting adults well past the age of sexual maturity. Due to this, a strong distinction is now drawn by sociologists and policymakers between arranged marriages (which involve consenting adults that have choice and unhindered rights of refusal) and forced marriages. Another significant trend in arranged marriages is related to the loosening of traditional clan-bonds in India. Where potential spouses for sons and

pos: The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 came into force on 1 November 2007 in India. In October 2017, Supreme Court of India gave a landmark judgement criminalising sex with a child bride , hence removing an exception in India’s criminal jurisprudence which had until then accorded legal protection to men who raped their minor wives. UNICEF defines child marriage as marriage before 18 years of age and considers this practice as violation of human right. Child marriage has been an issue in India for a long time, because of its root in

pos: Human rights in Mauritania are still observed in agriculture and cattle herding. The legal marriage age is 18, but the law was rarely enforced, and reports of child marriage were widespread. Because consensual sex outside of marriage is illegal, a "weli" (tutor) can present a case to local authorities requesting permission for a girl younger than 18 years old to marry. In practice, authorities frequently granted this permission. Female genital mutilation (FGM) was practiced in 2011 by all ethnic groups and performed on young girls, often on the seventh day after birth and almost always before the age of six months. The child protection

pos: Age of consent reform Southern India suggested that the age of consent should be raised from 16 to 18 in that state. Justice R. Basant said he considered "illogic(al)" that a legal system in which an age of 18 is used for other purposes – like the Indian Majority Act, the Contract Act, the Juvenile Justice Act, the Child Marriage Restraint Act and the Representation of People Act – has a different approach in the case of sexual consent. The age of consent in India was raised from 16 to 18 in 2012. Over the course of American history, the most commonly observed age

pos: Buster Martin a year later in France. Martin stated: ""I got married in 1920 and had to go over to France as I couldn't get married here due to my legal status."" It has to be noted, however, that the legal age for contracting marriage in France at the time was 18 for a boy and 15 for a girl, with the consent of their parents, or 21 without the consent of father and mother. The couple stayed together for 35 years until Iriana reportedly died in 1955, although no death certificate has been uncovered. They reportedly had 17 children, born between

pos: Law Commission of India also been requested to work upon specific issues and submit its views by the Supreme Court on various occasions. The latest in regard has been the 205th report of the commission which has been prepared in view of the Supreme Court's request for assistance in determination of "certain legal issues relating to child marriage, and the different ages at which a person is defined as a child in different laws." The report stirred a public debate in India for recommending "inter alia", a reduction in marriage age of boys to be at par with girls at 18, instead of the

pos: The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 21, 2013, to move the Supreme Court to get Muslim women excluded from the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006. Bare Act The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 came into force on 1 November 2007 in India. In October 2017, Supreme Court of India gave a landmark judgement criminalising sex with a child bride , hence removing an exception in India’s criminal jurisprudence which had until then accorded legal protection to men who raped their minor wives. UNICEF defines child marriage as marriage before 18 years of age and considers this

pos: Feminism in India This is evidence of natality inequality, and an indication that sex-selective abortion has become more pervasive. The Indian parliament has banned the use of sex determination techniques for foetuses due to this, but enforcement of this law has been largely ignored. Most of the average Indian woman's life is spent in marriage; many women are still married before the legal age of 18, and the incidence of non-marriage is low in India. Childbearing and raising children are the priorities of early adulthood for Indian women. Thus, if they enter the workforce at all, it is far later than Indian men.

pos: Domestic violence in India is often a disconnect between law and practice in India. For example, according to a 2012 United Nations report, 47% of Indian women marry younger than 18 (the legal marriage age is 21 for men and 18 for women). Men's rights activists in India have argued that some domestic violence laws in India are discriminatory against men. In particular, Section 498A, the act that criminalizes cruelty against women by husband and his relatives, has been at the center of much controversy. Men's rights activists such as the "Save the family foundation" in India argue that the law is often misused

pos: Gender inequality in India has been prohibited under The 1961 Dowry Prohibition Act in Indian civil law and subsequently by Sections 304B and 498a of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). Several studies show that while attitudes of people are changing about dowry, the institution has changed very little, and even continues to prevail. Men and women have equal rights within marriage under Indian law, with the exception of all men who are allowed to unilaterally divorce their wife. The legal minimum age for marriage is 18 for women and 21 for men, except for those Indians whose religion is Islam for whom child marriage

pos: Rape in India legal framework, except during the period of judicial separation of the partners. The marital rape exception, that is exception 2 of section 375 of the Indian Penal Code states that sexual intercourse by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under 18 years of age, is not rape. In the 1980s, women's rights groups lobbied for marital rape to be declared unlawful. Government officials argued that the contract of marriage presupposes consent to sex and that criminalising marital rape in turn would degrade family values in India. Forced sex by husbands upon wives does have legal consequences

pos: Forum for Fact-finding Documentation and Advocacy goal is a just social and humane order without class and caste-dominated economic, social, cultural, civil, and political structures. FFDA's goals are: Child marriages persist in rural India, although prohibited by Indian legislation since 1929. Such traditional marriages continue to be organised in massive numbers, principally in the poorest of families. Today, 33% of girls in India are married before they reach the age of 15. Another third are already married by 18, the legal age limit for marriage. It is a traditional ritual that affects primarily girls: apart from the fact that they are not physically equipped to give

pos: Child marriage be the minimum age for a legal marriage for both men and women (previously the legal age had been 16 for women and 18 for men). The law took effect immediately, and was hailed by a number of human rights, women's rights, medical and legal groups as a landmark ruling for the country. The UN states that although the number of child marriages has declined on a worldwide scale, the problem remains most severe in Africa, despite the fact that Ethiopia cut child marriage rates by a third. Child marriage is common in Latin America and the Caribbean island nations.

pos: Child marriage in India rates for under-18 girls in 2009, according to a Registrar General of India report, were Jharkhand (14.1%), West Bengal (13.6%), Bihar (9.3%), Uttar Pradesh (8.9%) and Assam (8.8%). According to this report, despite sharp reductions in child marriage rates since 1991, still 7% of women passing the age of 18 in India were married as of 2009. UNICEF India has played a significant role in highlighting the Indian child marriage rate prevalence data from its 1990s study. According to 2011 nationwide census of India, the average age of marriage for women in India is 21.2. In the age group 15-19,

pos: Child sexual abuse laws in India 6yrs was raped. The victim's advocate argues that "failure to consider the mental age will be an attack on the very purpose of act." SC has reserved the case for judgement and is determined to interpret whether the 2012 act encompasses the mental age or whether only biological age is inclusive in the definition. The POCSO Act was passed to strengthen legal provisions for the protection of children below 18 years of age from sexual abuse and exploitation. Under this Act, if any girl under 18 is seeking abortion the service provider is compelled to register a complaint of sexual

pos: Adult just by an adult. Sometimes there is no requirement, but rather a recommendation. Using the example of pornography, one can distinguish between: With regard to films with violence, etc.: The age of majority ranges internationally from ages 15 to 21, with 18 being the most common age. Niger, Mali, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon define adulthood at age 15, but marriage of girls at an earlier age is common. In most of the world, including most of the United States, India and China, the legal adult age is 18 (historically 21) for most purposes, with some notable exceptions: In

pos: Women in India practice. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 is the relevant legislation in the country. According to UNICEF’s "State of the World’s Children-2009" report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, rising to 56% in rural areas. The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India. Domestic violence in India is endemic. Around 70% of women in India are victims of domestic violence, according to Renuka Chowdhury, former Union minister for Women and Child Development. Domestic violence was legally addressed in the 1980s when the 1983 Criminal Law Act

pos: Bride Trafficking in Haryana (Prevention) Act 1956, it pertains only to commercial sexual activities in brothels and public places. The law conflates prostitution and forced sexual exploitation and fails to distinguish between the victims and perpetrators of the crime. While bride trafficking is not explicitly prohibited in Indian law, it does criminalize many aspects of the practice in statutes. The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 provides the legal age of marriage is 21 for males and 18 for females. On 11 December 1992, India signed the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and has subsequently passed the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection

pos: Child marriage survey, dropped to 7%. In its 2001 demographic report, the Census of India stated zero married girls below age 10, 1.4 million married girls out of 59.2 million girls in the age 10–14, and 11.3 million married girls out of 46.3 million girls in the age 15–19 (which includes 18–19 age group). For 2011, the Census of India reports child marriage rates dropping further to 3.7% of females aged less than 18 being married. The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 was passed during the tenure of British rule on Colonial India. It forbade the marriage of a male younger than

pos: Child marriage in India in certain circumstances, marriages of minors can be null and void before they reach adulthood. All valuables, money, and gifts must be returned if the marriage is nullified, and the girl must be provided with a place of residency until she marries or becomes an adult. Children born from child marriages are considered legitimate, and the courts are expected to give parental custody with the children's best interests in mind. Any male over 18 years of age who enters into a marriage with a minor or anyone who directs or conducts a child marriage ceremony can be punished with up

pos: Recognition of same-sex unions in India 18% support other forms of legal recognition. Among the 23 countries polled, India had the fifth lowest support for same-sex marriage, in front of only South Korea (27%), Turkey (27%), Poland (21%) and Russia (11%). According to a 2016 poll by the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association, 35% of Indian people were in favour of legalising same-sex marriage, while 35% were opposed to its legalisation. A survey by the Varkey Foundation found that support for same-sex marriage was higher among 18 to 21-year-olds at 53%. Recognition of same-sex unions in India India does not recognise same-sex marriage

pos: Child marriage are neither limited to developing countries, nor to state religion. In some countries a religious marriage by itself has legal validity, while in others it does not, as civil marriage is obligatory. For Catholics incorporated into the Latin Church, the 1983 Code of Canon Law sets the minimum age for a valid marriage at 16 for males and 14 for females. In 2015, Spain raised its minimum marriageable age to 18 (16 with court consent) from the previous 14. In Mexico, marriage under 18 is allowed with parental consent, from age 14 for girls and age 16 for boys. In

pos: Child marriage in India Child marriage in India Child marriage in India, according to the Indian law, is a marriage where either the woman is below age 18 or the man is below age 21. Most child marriages involve underage women, many of whom are in poor socio-economic conditions. Child marriages were prevalent in India in the very recent past. Estimates vary widely between sources as to the extent and scale of child marriages. The International Center for Research on Women-UNICEF publications have estimated India's child marriage rate to be 47% from small sample surveys of 1998, while the United Nations reports it to

pos: India India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas. An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other elders in the family. Marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low. , just 1.6 percent of Indian women were divorced but this figure was rising due to their education and economic independence. Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age. Female infanticide and female foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the

pos: Child marriage in the United States every state except Delaware and New Jersey allows exceptions to their general age of marriage in one or more of the following cases: So, given one or more of these exceptions, as of October 2018: From 2017 to 2018 several states changed their law to set a minimum age, or to raise their minimum age higher. In 2018, Delaware and New Jersey banned child marriage with no exceptions. For more detailed information on recent changes in state marriage laws, see the section below. While the general legal age for marriage in Massachusetts is 18, children may be married with judicial

pos: Child marriage in South Sudan Child marriage in South Sudan Child marriage is a worldwide phenomenon, in which children are forced to enter into a marriage bond. Child marriage is an increasing problem within many African countries. In South Sudan, child marriage is a growing epidemic. Child Marriage is a violation of women's and children's rights. The age range for these children to marry is between the age of twelve and eighteen. Although, 18 is the legal age to marry, many cultural practices are placed higher that the actual law in underrepresented countries. Marriages are granted approval with a parental consent. Underage marriage is an

pos: Women's rights China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This outlawed marriage by proxy and made marriage legal so long as both partners consent. The New Marriage Law raised the legal age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women. This was an essential part of countryside land reform as women could no longer legally be sold to landlords. The official slogan was "Men and women are equal; everyone is worth his (or her) salt". Both before and during biblical times, the roles of women in society were severely restricted. Nonetheless, in the

pos: Child Marriage Restraint Act Child Marriage Restraint Act Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929" passed on 28 September 1929 in the British India Legislature of India, fixed the age of marriage for girls at 14 years and boys at 18 years which was later amended to 18 for girls and 21 for boys. It is popularly known as the Sharda Act"', after its sponsor Harbilas Sarda. It came into effect six months later on 1 April 1930 and it applies to all of British India, not just to Hindus. It was a result of social reform movement in India. Despite strong opposition from the British

pos: Minimum legal age in Romania Minimum legal age in Romania As in most other countries, minimum ages apply in Romania for various activities involving minors. The following minimum legal ages apply in Romania: Under Romanian law, minors are persons under 18. Nevertheless, civil law differentiates between minors under 14, who are completely devoid of legal capacity, and minors age 14-17, who have a limited form of legal capacity. Emancipation of minors under the law occurs either through marriage or by court order, if there are strong reasons, from age 16. The marriageable age is defined in Art 272 of the Civil Code of Romania. This

pos: Child marriage in India Kerala, 3400 girls of 13-18 age were married in 2012 in the district of Malappuram. Of these, 2800 were Muslim (82%). Efforts to stop this practice with law enforcement have been protested and challenged in courts by Indian Union Muslim League and other Islamic organizations, with the petition that setting a minimum age for marriage of Muslim girls challenges their religious rights. Child marriage rate estimates vary significantly between sources, with some based on small local survey samples. The table below provides some of child marriage estimates for India along with the nature of data collection. The small sample surveys

pos: Age of marriage in the United States the state set a minimum age of 17 in 2018. Age of marriage in the United States The minimum age for marriage in the United States is set by each state. Unlike most Western countries, 18 of the U.S. states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. Individuals aged 18 have the free ability to marry in the United States states, except in Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, no state, except Delaware and New Jersey, forbid minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. In

pos: Child marriage in Afghanistan Child marriage in Afghanistan According to UNICEF, child marriage is the "formal marriage or informal union before age 18," and it affects more girls than boys. In Afghanistan, 57% of girls are married before they are 19. The most common ages for girls to get married are 15 and 16. Factors such as gender dynamics, family structure, cultural, political, and economic perceptions/ideologies all play a role in determining if a girl is married at a young age. The practice of child marriage has been linked to detrimental consequences for girls, such as the inability to obtain an education and skills

pos: Child marriage in Zimbabwe to be married with the consent of their parents, was unconstitutional and recognised 18 years as the legal minimum age of marriage, after pressures from various international organizations. Child marriage in Zimbabwe Child Marriage in Zimbabwe. In 2017 in Zimbabwe, 32% of girls are married off before the 18 yo. 4% are married before they turn 15. Approximately 1 in 3 girls in Zimbabwe are married before the 18 years old. Laws pertaining to marriage in Zimbabwe are discriminatory against girls: the Marriage Act allows girls age 16 to marry while the minimum age for boy is 18. The Customary

pos: Education in Ethiopia the mothers' average age of marriage was 11 years while their daughters' average age of marriage was 8 years. Early marriage allowed formation of bonds between families and, when families were land rich, it maintained their land holdings. Sons from land poor families, who had reached the age of 18, could obtain land from the peasants association if they married. There was no need for brides to be 18 and they were often under 11 years old. Boys, but not girls, were expected to be successful at the local school. Success for a girl was as a wife and mother

pos: Child marriage in India contracting parties is a child; and "child" for purposes of marriage is defined based on gender of the person - if a male, it is 21 years of age, and if a female, 18 years of age. UNICEF defines child marriage as a formal marriage or informal union before 18 years of age. UN Women has proposed that child marriage be defined as a forced marriage because they believe children under age 18 are incapable of giving a legally valid consent. In a 1998 New York Times report, sociologists stated that some communities trace its origin to the Muslim invasions.

pos: Weddings in India customs similar to those practiced in the Christian countries in the West in states like Goa but have more Indian customs in other states. In the past, the age of marriage was young. The average age of marriage for women in India has increased to 21 years, according to 2011 Census of India. In 2009, about 7% of women got married before the age of 18. Arranged marriages have long been the norm in Indian society. Even today, the majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family members. Recent studies suggest that Indian culture

pos: Child marriage in Afghanistan have outlined regulations that prohibit child marriage. The following are organizations that have taken a stance against the practice of child marriage: Child marriage in Afghanistan According to UNICEF, child marriage is the "formal marriage or informal union before age 18," and it affects more girls than boys. In Afghanistan, 57% of girls are married before they are 19. The most common ages for girls to get married are 15 and 16. Factors such as gender dynamics, family structure, cultural, political, and economic perceptions/ideologies all play a role in determining if a girl is married at a young age. The

pos: Age of marriage in the United States Age of marriage in the United States The minimum age for marriage in the United States is set by each state. Unlike most Western countries, 18 of the U.S. states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. Individuals aged 18 have the free ability to marry in the United States states, except in Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, no state, except Delaware and New Jersey, forbid minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. In half of the states, children under 16 can be married

pos: The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872 The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872 The Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872 is an act of the Parliament of India regulating the legal marriage of Indian Christians. It was enacted on July 18, 1872, and applies throughout India, excluding territories such as Cochin, Manipur, Jammu, and Kashmir. According to the act, a marriage is legitimate if at least one of the parties is Christian. An ordained minister of any church in India, a clergyman of the Church of Scotland, a marriage registrar or a special licensee may marry an aspiring couple under the act. The marriage performer issues a

pos: Child marriage in Sudan Child marriage in Sudan Child Marriage in Sudan. In 2017 in Sudan, 34% of girls are married off before the 18 years old. 12% are married before they turn 15. Sudan is the 29th highest nation in the world for child marriage. Approximately 1 in 3 girls in Sudan are married before the 18 years old. In a 2017 report in Sudan, 10.7% of women aged 15 to 49 were married before the age of 15 yo, and 38% were married before the age of 18. The current legal marriage of girls in Sudan is at age 10. The Personal

pos: Child marriage in the United States consent with no minimum age limit. In the absence of any statutory minimum age, one opinion is that the traditional minimum common law marriageable age of 12 for girls and 14 for boys may still be in effect. Unlike many other states, in Massachusetts a child's marriage does not automatically emancipate the minor, or increase his or her legal rights beyond allowing the minor to consent to certain medical treatments. Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States, and its people are American citizens. The general age of marriage in Puerto Rico is 21, however males aged 18 and

neg: Hindu cultural identity and religious rights of Muslims, and people of Islamic faith have a constitutional right to Islamic shariah-based personal laws. A specific law, contentious between Hindu nationalists and their opponents in India, relates to the legal age of marriage for girls. Hindu nationalists seek that the legal age for marriage be eighteen that is universally applied to all girls regardless of their religion and that marriages be registered with local government to verify the age of marriage. Muslim clerics consider this proposal as unacceptable because under the shariah-derived personal law, a Muslim girl can be married at any age

neg: Child marriage in India considered to have wronged his daughter if he fails to marry her before puberty and if the girl is not married under 3 years of reaching puberty, she can search for the husband herself. Medhātithi's "Bhashya" states the right age for marriage of a girl is eight-years-old, this can also be deduced from Manusmriti. According to the Tolkāppiyam, a boy should be married before he is sixteen-years-old and a girl before she is twelve. The Greek historian Megasthenes though talks about early puberty of girls in South India. According to Edgar Thurston, in South India a candlelight ceremony was held

neg: Jewish views on marriage marry his daughter to anyone until she grows up and says, "I want this one". A marriage that takes place without the consent of the girl is not an effective legal marriage. Despite the young threshold for marriage, a large age gap between the spouses was opposed, and, in particular, marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution. A "ketannah" (literally meaning "little [one]") was any girl between the age of 3 years and that of 12 years plus one day; she was subject to her father's authority, and he could

neg: Child marriage civil laws that were derived from Roman laws, marriages before the age of 16 were common. In Imperial China, child marriage was the norm. Most religions, over history, influenced the marriageable age. For example, Christian ecclesiastical law forbade marriage of a girl before the age of puberty. Hindu vedic scriptures mandated the age of a girl's marriage to be adulthood which they defined as three years after the onset of puberty. Jewish scholars and rabbis strongly discouraged marriages before the onset of puberty, but at the same time, in exceptional cases, girls ages 3 through 12 (the legal age of

neg: Child marriage in India personal law (including Muslim personal law). There is a standing legal confusion as to Marital Rape within prohibited Child Marriages in India. Marital rape per se is not a crime in India; but the position with regard to children is confusing. While the exception under the criminal law (section 375, Indian Penal Code, 1860) applicable to adults puts an exception and allows marital rape of a girl child between the age of 15–18 years by her husband; another new and progressive legislation Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 disallows any such sexual relationships and puts such crimes with

neg: Islamic marital jurisprudence arranged between families for their children, but Islamic requirements for a legal marriage include the requirement that both parties, bride, groom and guardian for the bride ("wali"), give their legal consent. A marriage without the consent of the bride or performed under coercion is illegal according to the majority of scholars. If a girl has not attained the age of puberty, the vast majority of scholars hold that she cannot be married; and many stipulate that it must be in her best interest in order to be considered a valid marriage. There is some dispute as to whether or not

neg: Women's health concepts together as Child, Early and Forced Marriage (CEFM), as did the 2014 Girl Summit (see below). In addition the likely pregnancies at a young age are associated with higher medical risks for both mother and child, multiple pregnancies and less access to care with pregnancy being amongst the leading causes of death amongst girls aged 15–19. Girls married under age are also more likely to be the victims of domestic violence. There has been an international effort to reduce this practice, and in many countries eighteen is the legal age of marriage. Organizations with campaigns to end child marriage

neg: Women in India the earliest Indian women to obtain a degree. In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women's political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women's Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927, it became a major organisation in the movement for social change. In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl. Though Mahatma Gandhi himself married at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon young men to marry child widows.

neg: Women in Islam of the girl that determines when she can be married under Islamic law. According to these Islamic scholars, marriageable age in Islam is when a girl has reached sexual maturity, as determined by her nearest male guardian; this age can be, claim these Islamic scholars, less than 10 years, or 12, or another age depending on each girl. Some clerics and conservative elements of Muslim communities in Yemen, Saudi Arabia, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, Egypt, Nigeria and elsewhere have insisted that it is their Islamic right to marry girls below age 15. According to sharī'ah law, it is legal for

neg: Child marriage in India faiths in India, and the amount of dowry demanded and given by the bride's family has been correlated to the age of girl. Nagi, in 1993, suggested that the practice of dowry creates a fear and pressure to avoid late marriages, and encourages early marriage. Poverty in India has been cited as a cause of early marriages. Child marriages of girls is a way out of desperate economic conditions, and way to reduce the expenses of a poor family. In some parts of India, the existence of personal laws for Muslims are a cause of child marriages. For example, in

neg: Piplantri 10,000 from the parents and put it in a fixed deposit bank account, which can be used only after she turns 20. To make sure that girl child receives proper education, the villagers make the parents sign an affidavit (legal contract) which restricts them from marrying her off before she attains the legal age for marriage. Shyam Sundar Paliwal, the former sarpanch (elected village head) started this initiative in the memory of his daughter Kiran, who died a few years ago. The initiative that began in 2006 has turned Piplantri village into an oasis. The birth of a girl child

neg: Brahmo Samaj of the affirmation "I am not Hindu, nor a Mussalman, nor a Christian" for solemnising a marriage under this Act. The requirement of this declaration was imposed by Henry James Sumner Maine, legal member of Governor General's Council appointed by Britain. The 1872 Act was repealed by the Special Marriage Act, 1954 under which any person of any religion could marry. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 applies to all Hindus including followers of the Brahmo Samaj. In India the statutory minimum age of marriage for followers of Brahmo Samaj is the same as for all Indians, viz., 21 years for

neg: Marriage in England and Wales who had attained the legal age of puberty could contract a valid marriage. A marriage contracted by persons either of whom was under the legal age of puberty was voidable. The legal age of puberty was fourteen years for males and twelve years for females. This section amended the law so that a marriage contracted by persons either of whom was under the age of sixteen years was void. The Marriage Act 1949 prohibited solemnizing marriages during evenings and at night; since the Marriage Act 1836 it had been forbidden to marry between the hours of six in the evening

neg: Age of Marriage Act 1929 had attained the legal age of puberty could contract a valid marriage. A marriage contracted by persons either of whom was under the legal age of puberty was voidable. The legal age of puberty was fourteen years for males and twelve years for females. This section amended the law so that a marriage contracted by persons either of whom was under the age of sixteen years was void. This provision is re-enacted by section 2 of the Marriage Act 1949. In section 1(1), the words from the beginning to "Provided that" were repealed by Part I of the Fifth Schedule

neg: Peniel Missionary Society field. By 1902 Peniel missionaries were running an orphanage for 20 girls at Jalgaon borrowing facilities from the Christian and Missionary Alliance. (CMA Report 1902, 133) In 1909 Mrs Caroline P. Wallace and Miss Carrie A. Tennant of the Peniel Mission went to India to work with the Hindu Marriage Reform League (organised December 1909), an organization that opposed the practice of child brides and sought to raise the legal marriage age from 12 to 16. Eventually the Dharangaon Mission Station was established in Dharangaon, East Khandesh, India for 30 years before being given to the Scandinavian Alliance Mission (now

neg: Islam and children her. This is the legal right given to the guardian for girls by Maliki school of thought. In addition, Islam requires that parents be followed in almost every circumstances, hence parents may ask their children to divorce a certain person, but this cannot be upheld in an Islamic court of law and is not a legal right of the parent. No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage according to Reuben Levy, and "quite young children may be legally married". The girl may not live with the husband however until she is fit for marital sexual relations. The

neg: Legal rights of women in history bequests from the other half. In 1911, under English law, the earliest age at which a girl could contract a valid marriage was 12; boys had to be 14. Under the lnfants Settlement Act 1855, a valid settlement could be made by a woman at 17 with the approval of the court, while the age for a man was 20; by the Married Women's Property Act 1907, any settlement by a husband of his wife's property was not valid unless executed by her if she was of full age, or confirmed by her after she attained full age. An unmarried

neg: Romani society and culture of residence. A Romani patriarch, Florin Cioabă, ran afoul of Romanian authorities in late 2003 when he married off his youngest daughter, Ana-Maria at the age of twelve, well below the legal marriageable age. Bride kidnapping is thought to be a traditional Romani practice. Girls as young as twelve years old may be kidnapped for marriage to teenage boys. This practice has been reported in Ireland, England, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Slovakia. Kidnapping has been seen as a way to avoid a bride price or a way for a girl to marry a boy she wants but

neg: Islamic sexual jurisprudence child circumcised before the age of ten. The preferred age is usually seven although some Muslims are circumcised as early as on the seventh day after birth and as late as at the commencement of puberty. "Bāligh" or "bulūgh" () refers to a person who has reached maturity or puberty, and has full responsibility under Islamic law. For example, in issues pertaining to marriage, "baligh" is related to the Arabic legal expression, "hatta tutiqa'l-rijal", which means that a wedding may not take place until the girl is physically fit to engage in sexual intercourse. In comparison, "baligh" or "balaghat" concerns

neg: Child marriage in India marriages as an aggravated offense. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international bill attempting to end discrimination against women. Article 16, Marriage and Family Life, states that all women, as well as men, have the right to choose their spouse, to have the same responsibilities, and to decide on how many children and the spacing between them. This convention states that child marriage should not have a legal effect, all action must be taken to enforce a minimum age, and that all marriages must be put into an official registry. India

neg: Vedanayagam Samuel Azariah Azariah married Ambu Mariammal Samuel, one of the first Christian women in South India to take a college course, whom he described as "the most spiritually minded girl in Tirunelveli." Their marriage broke or reinterpreted several native religious traditions, since the bride and groom corresponded with each other before marriage, disregarded dowry customs, set a mere 40 rupee budget for the ceremony, and married on a Wednesday.The couple eventually had four sons (George, Henry, Edwin, and Ambrose) and two daughters (Grace and Mercy). In 1909, at age 35, Azariah was ordained as an Anglican priest, left his positions with the

neg: Public interest litigation in India and a social action group for the enforcement of legal or Constitutional rights to any person who are not able to approach the court for redress. Any citizen can file a public case by filing a petition: This case was against sexual harassment at work place, brought by Bhanwari Devi to stop the marriage of a one year old girl in rural Rajasthan. Five men raped her. She faced numerous problems when she attempted to seek justice. Naina Kapoor decided to initiate a PIL to challenge sexual harassment at work place, in this supreme court. The judgement of the case

neg: Child marriage that is derived from a small sample survey in 1999. The latest available UNICEF report for India uses 2004–2005 household survey data, on a small sample, and other scholars report lower incidence rates for India. According to Raj et al., the 2005 small sample household survey data suggests 22% of girls ever married aged 16–18, 20% of girls in India were married between 13–16, and 2.6% were married before age 13. According to 2011 nationwide census of India, the average age of marriage for women in India is 21. The child marriage rates in India, according to a 2009 representative

neg: Ritu Kala Samskaram menarche or first menstruation. This milestone in a girl's life is observed by her family and friends, with gifts and her wearing a sari for the ritual. The rite of passage is celebrated, in modern times, as a "half-saree party" or half-sari function, where the female relatives and friends of the girl gather, and she receives and wears a half-saree and other gifts. Thereafter, at ceremonious events, she wears the half-sarees, until her marriage when she puts on a full sari. In South India coming of age ceremony or rites of passage is celebrated when a girl reaches puberty. She

neg: Phulmoni Dasi rape case Phulmoni Dasi rape case The Phulmoni Dasi rape case was a case of child marriage and subsequent marital rape in India in 1889, which resulted in the death of the 10-year-old girl, Phulmoni Dasi. The case led to the conviction of the husband in 1890 and triggered several legal reforms. Phulmoni Dasi was a ten-year-old Bengali girl with a 30-year-old husband named Hari Mohan Maiti. She died after being raped by her husband. The case went to trial in the Calcutta Sessions Court on 6 July 1890. The girl's mother provided testimony against the husband. The husband was convicted under

neg: Phulmoni Dasi rape case the "Age of Consent". It sought to amend Section 376 of the Indian Penal Code. Previously, the age of consent had been set at 10 in 1860. After the bill was passed on 29 March 1891, the Section 376 included sex with a girl under 12 even if the person is the wife of the perpetrator, as rape. Phulmoni Dasi rape case The Phulmoni Dasi rape case was a case of child marriage and subsequent marital rape in India in 1889, which resulted in the death of the 10-year-old girl, Phulmoni Dasi. The case led to the conviction of the

neg: Kee Mu it was all acting. Ramya felt guilty for breaking his heart, so she tried to apologize but Saravanan kept avoiding her. One day, Ramya kissed her in public and confessed her love for him, then he fell in love with her as well. When Bhavani got to know of his daughter's love, he decided to arrange his daughter's marriage as soon as possible. Ramya took a bundle of notes and her jewellery and she fled from her home. Ramya was still an underage girl, but in seven days, she will reach the legal age of majority and could get married

neg: Wife selling (English custom) formal ceremony of marriage before a clergyman was not a legal requirement in England, and marriages were unregistered. All that was required was for both parties to agree to the union, so long as each had reached the legal age of consent, which was 12 for girls and 14 for boys. Women were completely subordinated to their husbands after marriage, the husband and wife becoming one legal entity, a legal status known as coverture. As the eminent English judge Sir William Blackstone wrote in 1753: "the very being, or legal existence of the woman, is suspended during the marriage, or

neg: Rukhmabai Rukhmabai Rukhmabai (22 November 1864 - 25 September 1955) was an Indian physician and feminist. She is best known for being one of the first practicing women doctors in colonial India as well as being involved in a landmark legal case involving her marriage as a child bride between 1884 and 1888. The case raised significant public debate across several topics, which most prominently included law vs tradition, social reform vs conservatism and feminism in both British-ruled India and England. This ultimately contributed to the "Age of Consent Act" in 1891. Rukhmabai was born to Janardhan Pandurang and Jayantibai in

neg: Feminism in India of nationalism and introspection of discriminatory practices brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations. This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the social evils of sati (widow immolation), to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints they faced under Brahminical traditions. However, efforts for improving the status of women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late

neg: Badri Maharaj religious marriage amongst the Fiji Indians. Badri Maharaj introduced an amendment to raise the legal age for marriage but retain lower age limits of thirteen for girls and sixteen for boys for legal betrothal ceremonies. He explained the Hindu culture regarding marriage at that time but the Legislative Council ignored him and never considered the possibility of granting the Fiji Indians authority to define their law. Madri Maharaj was seen as a "man of character" by the Government but had little following amongst the Fiji Indian community. When Vashist Muni arrived in Fiji, in 1920, and conducted meetings in different

neg: Hindu law personal laws for Muslims remained sharia-based, while the Anglo-Hindu law was enacted independent of any text on matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and the Anglo-Hindu law covered all Hindus, Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists in India. In 1872, the British crown enacted the Indian Christian Marriage Act which covered marriage, divorce and alimony laws for Indian Christians of all denominations except the Roman Catholics. The development of legal pluralism, that is separate law based on individual's religion was controversial in India, from the very start. After the independence of India from the colonial rule of Britain in 1947, India adopted

neg: Missing women of China sex ratio at birth. The Chinese government pays more attention to women's legal rights, especially their economic development. More emphasis has been placed on forming laws and regulations for women's economic status, education opportunities, inheritance of family property, willingness of marriage, and old-age supports. From 2005, 600 Chinese yuan per month is given as a pension to parents in rural areas who have daughters. In 2000, in order to establish a better survival environment for girls in Chaohu city, Anhui province, the "Chaohu Experimental Zone Improving Girl-Child Survival Environment" was established and implemented in 2003. The main activities were "establishing

neg: Hindu wedding marriage differ by religion. According to the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, passed by the Parliament of India, for all legal purposes, all Hindus of any caste, creed or sect, Sikh, Buddhists and Jains are deemed Hindus and can intermarry. By the Special Marriage Act, 1954, a Hindu can marry a person who is not Hindu, employing any ceremony, provided specified legal conditions are fulfilled. By Section 7 of Hindu Marriage Act, and tradition, no Hindu marriage is binding and complete before the seventh step of the "Saptapadi" ritual, in presence of fire, by the bride and the groom together.

neg: Gandharva marriage rules that declared Gandharva marriage for most Hindus as inappropriate and disapproved ("aprasasta"), because traditional marriages were a source of their income, and Gandharva marriages made them poorer or obsolete. In 1817 AD, Gandharva marriages in India were ruled legal for some social groups by the Bengal Saddar Court. In 1930, Justice Abdur Rahim held that the marriage in Gandharva form was not valid in India. This ruling came from the Madras High Court, with the statement that amongst the Hindus, the Gandharva form of marriage was obsolete (as of 1930). This was appealed with the note that the fact

neg: Alcohol laws of India Alcohol laws of India The legal drinking age in India and the laws which regulate the sale and consumption of alcohol vary significantly from state to state. In India, consumption of alcohol is prohibited in the states of Bihar, Gujarat and Nagaland as well as the union territory of Lakshadweep. There is a partial ban on alcohol in some districts of Manipur. All other Indian states permit alcohol consumption but fix a legal drinking age, which ranges at different ages per region. In some states, the legal drinking age can be different for different types of alcoholic beverage. In spite

neg: Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991 as to when contracts did or did not require consent, and which were potentially reducible by court were complex. The age to enter into marriage was originally the age of minority, but this was raised to 16 years by the Age of Marriage Act 1929, and confirmed in the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1977. Under the Age Legal Capacity Scotland Act 1991 the old rules and terms were replaced. The basic rule under the replacement regime is that under 16s have no legal capacity. This is qualified by section 2 which provides that under 16s can: 1) enter into a contract

neg: Green card marriage TV show "Malcolm in the Middle", Reese is tricked by Raduca, his grandmother's servant from Eastern Europe, to marry her and study for the green card exam to gain her citizenship. In the 7th and 8th season of House MD House is married to a Russian cam girl for her green card. Green card marriage A green card marriage is a marriage of convenience between a legal resident of the United States of America and a person who would be ineligible for residency but for being married to the resident. The term derives from the availability of permanent resident documents

neg: Child marriage many countries and most countries increasing the minimum marriage age. In ancient and medieval societies it was common for girls to be betrothed at, or even before, puberty. As Friedman claims, "arranging and contracting the marriage of a young girl were the undisputed prerogatives of her father in ancient Israel." Most girls were married before the age of 15, often at the start of their puberty. In the Middle Ages the age at marriage seems to have been around puberty throughout the Jewish world. Ruth Lamdan writes: “The numerous references to child marriage in the 16th- century Responsa literature and

neg: Coming of age was called "recta" because it was woven by tradition on a type of upright loom that had become archaic in later periods. Roman girls were expected to remain virgins until marriage, but boys were often introduced to heterosexual behaviors by a prostitute. The higher the social rank of a girl, the sooner she was likely to become betrothed and married. The general age of betrothal for women of the upper classes was fourteen, but for patricians as early as twelve. Weddings, however, were often postponed until the girl was considered mature enough. Males typically postponed marriage till they had served

neg: Ancient Celtic women the wealth brought into the marriage by each of them is the indirect trigger for the "Táin Bó Cuailnge" (The Cattle Raid of Cooley). All kinds of legal issues in marriage are described in the Celtic myths: The marriage of a sister by her brother ("Branwen ferch Llŷr", "Branwen, daughter of Llŷr"), the marriage of a widowed mother by her son ("Manawydan fab Llŷr", "Manawydan, the son of Llŷr"), rape and divorce ("Math fab Mathonwy", "Math, the son of Mathonwy"), marriage of a daughter against the will of her father ("Culhwch and Olwen"). If the girl objected to the marriage,

neg: Dina Wadia driver, Abdul Hai, to the newly married couple. Their relationship is a matter of legal conjecture as Pakistani laws allow for a person to be disinherited for violating Islamic rules (in this case by a Muslim woman marrying a non-Muslim), and hence no claim of hers was entertained on the Pakistani properties of Jinnah. The Wadias lived in Mumbai and had two children, a boy and a girl. But the marriage did not last long and the couple divorced in 1943. Following the marriage the father-daughter relationship became extremely formal. However, the legal notice of disowning never came, which is

neg: Religion and children such as earthquakes, always starting with a myth or folklore of world's major religions followed by an actual scientific explanation that debunks the latter. Islam has permitted the child marriage of older men to girls as young as 10 years of age if they have entered puberty. The Seyaj Organization for the Protection of Children describes cases of a 10-year-old girl being married and raped in Yemen (Nujood Ali), a 13-year-old Yemeni girl dying of internal bleeding three days after marriage, and a 12-year-old girl dying in childbirth after marriage. Latter Day Saint church founder Joseph Smith married girls as

neg: Anne-Antoinette Diderot on the matter. Diderot was 29 at this time. The story of the prelude to the marriage between Denis and Anne-Antoinette Diderot is often repeated, incorporating the information that a decree of 1697 meant that a man marrying without his father's consent before he reached the age of 30 (or a girl marrying under a similar interdict before reaching the age of 25) must be disinherited by his (or her) parents. Other sources suggest that this simplifies the legal context to the point of misrepresenting it. In any event, after a few weeks Denis Diderot managed to escape his monastic

neg: Francis Rombouts Masschop. Widowed a second time, he married, on September 8, 1683, Helena Teller Bogardus Van Bael. It was the third marriage for both of them. Helena Teller was born about 1645, the daughter of William and Margaret Doncheson Teller of Schenectady. Helena had seven children from her previous marriages, and from this marriage another three were born. She and Rombouts had two boys and a girl. The boys died young but the girl, Catharyna, born on 5 September 1687, survived. Catharyna later married Lieutenant Roger Brett. The Rombout Patent is a legal instrument that was issued by King James II

neg: Child marriage in India to two years of imprisonment or a fine. Muslim organizations of India have long argued that Indian laws, passed by its parliament, such as the 2006 child marriage law do not apply to Muslims, because marriage is a personal law subject. The Delhi High Court, as well as other state high courts of India, have disagreed. The Delhi Court, for example, ruled that Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 overrides all personal laws and governs each and every citizen of India The ruling stated that an under-age marriage, where either the man or woman is over 16 years old, would

neg: Sarita Skagnes Sarita Skagnes Sarita Skagnes, (born "Satwant Kaur" 1969 in Punjab, India) is a Norwegian author. Skagnes was born and grew up in India. As the third, and unwanted, girl she was exchanged for a male cousin and instead grew up as a servant girl for another family. Her parents and siblings moved to Norway. When the father returned to India Skagnes' grandmother pleaded with him to take Sarita to Norway as well. Sarita came to the country at the age of sixteen, and has since broken all contact with her birth family. At the age of nineteen she met the

neg: Teen marriage child abuse. Teen marriage continues to be most prevalent in culturally or geographically isolated parts of the world, and it is decreasing where education is the main focus of the population. The legal status of circumstances surrounding teenage marriage varies from one area or era to the next. Marriage has often been used as a tool to create allegiances or agreements, rather than a link between two people in love. Almost every country has a legal minimum age for marriage, which ranges from as low as 12 in some Latin American countries to as high as 22 in China. The

neg: Dowry system in India Indian literature suggesting bridewealth was paid even in brahma- and daiva-types of marriage associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) upper caste. Dowry was not infrequent when the girl suffered from some bodily defect. Property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Epics era (200 BC to 700 AD). Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage'