query: who discovered the process of coral reef development

pos: Coral reef become drowned, without sufficient light. Coral reefs are found in the deep sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands and atolls. The majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. Others have tectonic origins where plate movements lifted the deep ocean floor. In "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs", Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the "Beagle". He theorized that uplift and subsidence of the Earth's crust under the oceans formed the atolls. Darwin set out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation.

neg: Coral coral is a sort of compromise between the two. Coral aquaculture, also known as "coral farming" or "coral gardening", is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration. Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs, which have been declining around the world. The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral fragments known as "seeds" are grown in nurseries then replanted on the reef. Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or

neg: Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site The Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site comprises the 17,292 km of oceanic island and reef habitats within the former Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve and the former Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve in the Australian Coral Sea Islands Territory. The existence of the islands and cays within the two reserves has been known to navigators since the early nineteenth century. Lihou Reef was named after Captain John Lihou of HMS "Zenobia", who discovered the reef and its cays in 1823. The Coringa Islets were named after the cargo ship "Coringa Packet", which foundered off Chilcott Islet

neg: Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site commercial tour groups is regulated and limited, though there is some visitation by private yachts. Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site The Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site comprises the 17,292 km of oceanic island and reef habitats within the former Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve and the former Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve in the Australian Coral Sea Islands Territory. The existence of the islands and cays within the two reserves has been known to navigators since the early nineteenth century. Lihou Reef was named after Captain John Lihou of HMS "Zenobia", who discovered the reef and its cays in 1823. The

neg: Coral reef protection from the reef. Coral aquaculture, the process of using coral nurseries to restore the world's reefs is a project that is capable of improving biodiversity, structural integrity and coral cover. Coral nurseries can provide young corals for transplantation to rehabilitate areas of reef decline or physical damaged. In this process, coral gametes are harvested from spawning grounds and grown in a laboratory environment, then replanted when they grow larger. This allows the coral to grow safely in controlled amounts under lab conditions. Nurseries can begin as small patches of rescued coral colonies, and may be salvaged and restored before transplantation.

neg: Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology shoreline, where coral and sand calcium carbonate reef flats are exposed at low tides. High coral and macro-algae flourish at shallow-depth zones while the deep habitats are characterized by sediment with low coral cover and colonized by slumping from upper reef zones. Within Kaneohe Bay are sheltered areas. Man-made impacts in the area include dredging, sewage release and freshwater flooding. The shores of the bay are characterized by coastal development. The HIMB research facilities are used to explore deep-sea habitats where new species may be discovered and documented, as well as shallow reefs which are rich habitats likely to contain

neg: Coral reef protection Coral reef protection Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover. The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health. One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that directly limit human activities such as fishing. It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef, and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form. Coral reefs are among

neg: Soldiers' Home Reef Soldiers' Home Reef Soldiers' Home Reef, also known as Rocky Point, National Military Asylum Reef, or Veterans' Hill is a fossilized coral reef rock formation in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The reef formation was discovered by geologist Increase A. Lapham in the 1830s. It and other fossilized coral reefs that he discovered were the first geological reef formations described in North America, and are among the first described in the world. This reef was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1993. The formation is located northeast of the junction of Wood Avenue and General Mitchell Boulevard, on the Clement J. Zablocki Veterans

neg: Soldiers' Home Reef three other formations he identified; the other two have since been destroyed by quarrying and other alterations. The formation continued to be of significant interest to paleontologists until 1939, and still exhibits the diagnostic features used to identify it as a reef. Soldiers' Home Reef Soldiers' Home Reef, also known as Rocky Point, National Military Asylum Reef, or Veterans' Hill is a fossilized coral reef rock formation in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The reef formation was discovered by geologist Increase A. Lapham in the 1830s. It and other fossilized coral reefs that he discovered were the first geological reef formations described in

neg: Maro Reef Maro Reef Maro Reef (Hawaiian: Nalukākala - "surf that arrives in combers") is a largely submerged coral atoll located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was discovered in 1820 by Captain Joseph Allen of the ship "Maro", after whose ship the reef was named. With a total area of , it is the largest coral reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It contains 37 species of stony coral. Unlike most atolls, the coral extends out from the center like spokes on a wheel. Located about northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, Maro Reef contains about of dry land which itself can be

neg: Coral reef protection significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted. Coral reef protection Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover. The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health. One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that directly limit human activities such as fishing. It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef, and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a

neg: Aquaculture of coral Aquaculture of coral Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration. Aquaculture is showing promise as a tool for restoring coral reefs, which are dying off around the world. The process protects young corals while they are most at risk of dying. Small corals are propagated in nurseries then replanted on the reef. Coral farmers live near the reefs they farm and work for reef conservation or for income. Coral is also farmed by scientists for research, by businesses for the live and ornamental coral trade,

neg: The Reef Ball Foundation The Reef Ball Foundation The Reef Ball Foundation, Inc. is a 501(c)(3) publicly supported non-profit organization that functions as an international environmental Non-governmental organization. The foundation uses Reef Ball artificial reef technology, combined with coral propagation, transplant technology, public education and community training to build, restore and protect coral reefs. The foundation has established "Reef Ball reefs" in 59 countries, and ongoing projects increase the number to more than 70. Over 550,000 Reef Balls have been deployed in more than 4,000 projects. The Reef Ball Foundation was founded in 1993 by Todd Barber, who also founded the Reef Ball Development

neg: Coral reef protection of the world's marine ecosystems. The coral reef ecosystem provides habitat to over 9 million species covering approximately one fourth of marine life. Its three dimensional structure provides hiding places for fish, shrimp and clams. Coral itself is consumed by species such as parrotfish. It provides a hunting ground for predators. Coral reefs houses plants and animals that produce chemical compounds that have found use in human medicines. As early as the 14th century, the medicinal properties of coral reef dwelling species were utilized. Antiviral extracts and tonics continue to be studied and toxic compounds such as neurotoxins discovered in

neg: Miri-Sibuti Coral Reef National Park Miri-Sibuti Coral Reef National Park The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park is a protected area of coral reefs in Miri Division, Sarawak, Malaysia, off the island of Borneo. The park is a popular dive destination. The Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park, lying at depths ranging from at the seaward edge, has an average visibility of . The best time to dive is from late March through November each year. Popular diving sites includes Luconia Area, Anemone Garden, Grouper Patch Reef, Atago Maru Wreck and Seafan Garden. There are also some wreck dives. It is one of Malaysia’s most recently discovered

neg: Reef Check coral biologist community, as the extent of impacts were not realized. "The Global Coral Reef Crisis: Trends and Solutions (1997-2001)", a five-year report on coral reefs, was released in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa. The report used data collected by thousands of volunteers worldwide, and was the first scientific document detailing the decline in coral reef health over a five-year period. In 2005, Reef Check launched its first temperate reef program in California. In 2006, Reef Check conducted 746 reef surveys, ranging from Indo-Pacific areas, the Red Sea and Caribbean Sea. In 2008,

neg: Coral reef fish complexity and diversity inherent in coral reef ecosystems, the wide variety and temporal availability of food resources available to coral reef fishes, a host of pre and post larval settlement processes, and as yet unresolved interactions between all these factors. There are two major regions of coral reef development recognized; the Indo-Pacific (which includes the Pacific and Indian Oceans as well as the Red Sea), and the tropical western Atlantic (also known as the "wider" or "greater" Caribbean). Each of these two regions contains its own unique coral reef fish fauna with no natural overlap in species. Of the two

neg: Amazon Reef reef is made up of beds of rhodolith, various species of red algae, which superficially resemble coral. While it has been described as "impoverished", and "not having the biodiversity of some of the more prominent coral reefs of the world", 61 species of sponge and 73 species of fish, in addition to various coral and starfish species, have so far been identified as inhabiting the reef, including staghorn corals, and spiny lobsters. Pockets of coral species, discovered as early as 1999, were found to be similar to those found in the Caribbean Sea, hinting at the possibility that Caribbean corals

neg: Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve is a former marine protected area covering an area of 8440 kmin the Australian Coral Sea Islands Territory that was incorporated into the new Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve in December 2012. Together with the Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, from which it is separated by about 100 km of open ocean, it forms the Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site, designated on 16 August 2002, listing it under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance. Lihou Reef and its cays were discovered by Lieutenant John Lihou, R.N., on 23

neg: Belize Barrier Reef fluctuations. But in the case of the Belize Barrier Reef, many factors which make the distinction difficult do not apply. Human population in this area is much more sparse than the corresponding areas near other coral reefs, so the human activity and pollution are much lower compared to other coral reefs and the Belize reef system is in a much more enclosed area. When coral bleaching occurs, a large part of the coral dies, and the remaining part of the ecosystem begins the process of repairing the damage. But the chances of recovery are low, as corals that are bleached

neg: The Reef Ball Foundation of Georgia, Nationwide Artificial Reef Coordinators and the Florida Institute of Technology, Barber, his colleagues and business partners worked to perfect the design. Reef balls can be found in almost every coastal state in the United States, and on every continent including Antarctica. The Foundation has expanded the scope of its projects to include coral rescue, propagation and transplant operations, beach restorations, mangrove restorations and nursery development. Reef Ball also participates in education and outreach regarding environmental stewardship and coral reefs. In 2001, The Reef Ball Foundation took control of the Reef Ball Development Group, and now operates all aspects

neg: Winslow Reef, Phoenix Islands Winslow Reef, Phoenix Islands Winslow Reef is an underwater feature of the Phoenix Islands, Republic of Kiribati, located north-northwest of McKean Island at . It is the northernmost and westernmost feature of the Phoenix Islands, not counting the outlying Baker and Howland Islands. It has a least depth of . The reef is about long east-west, and about half that wide. The bottom is pink coral and red sand. Winslow Reef is mentioned by Robert Louis Stevenson, who sailed over an area thought to be Winslow Reef in late 1889, but did not find it. The reef was discovered by

neg: Réunion's coral reef for coral at Réunion is between 23 °C and 28 °C. Increased surface water temperature related to global warming can contribute to disease and bleaching of coral reefs, as is apparent on Réunion. Natural cyclones and anthropogenic disturbances such as urban development of catchment areas affect the reefs of Réunion. These ecological disturbances have led to an increase in coral reef nutrient levels via submarine groundwater discharge. Increased nutrient levels have resulted in the modification of flora and fauna in the benthic zone. The coral reef is a natural barrier that protects the coast from typhoons. The least vulnerable sectors

neg: Wildlife of Iraq boast a living coral reef, covering an area of 28 km in the Persian Gulf, at the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab river (). The coral reef was discovered by joint Iraqi–German expeditions of scientific scuba divers carried out in September 2012 and in May 2013. Prior to its discovery, it was believed that Iraq lacks coral reefs as the local turbid waters prevented the detection of the potential presence of local coral reefs. Iraqi corals were found to be adapted to one of the most extreme coral-bearing environments in the world, as the seawater temperature in this area ranges

neg: Hermatypic coral light cannot penetrate; they form deep-water reefs but do not harbour the symbionts. Hermatypic coral Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons, forming the stony framework of the reef. Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic (non-reef-building) species. Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthellae, which contribute to their nutritional needs. The term "hermatypic" is sometimes misused, being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals. However, there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals; and not all hermatypic corals in

neg: Hermatypic coral Hermatypic coral Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons, forming the stony framework of the reef. Corals that do not contribute to coral reef development are referred to as ahermatypic (non-reef-building) species. Many reef-forming corals contain symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthellae, which contribute to their nutritional needs. The term "hermatypic" is sometimes misused, being assumed to apply to all zooxanthellate corals. However, there are zooxanthellae in many non reef-forming corals; and not all hermatypic corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae. Further, some hermatypic corals live at depths to which

neg: Miami Terrace Reef Miami Terrace Reef The Miami Terrace Reef () is a coral reef off the coast of Florida stretching from South Miami to Boca Raton, in the Atlantic Ocean. It lies in depths of on top of a geological formation known as the Miami Terrace, a long shelf about off shore. Much of the platform remains unexplored, and new portions of the reef are still being discovered. University of Miami researchers discovered new reef sites there in December 2005. The terrace consists of long and well-defined rocky ridges made of limestone that provide a habitat for many types of corals, sponges,

neg: Aquaculture of coral ~85% of coral reef products. Indonesia requires 10% of coral production to be transplanted into the ocean. As of 2012, a majority of coral imports to the US were wild-caught, although an increasing proportion were cultured. From 1990 to 2010, imports increased by some 8% annually. Imports declined thereafter the wake of the Great Recession and from increasing domestic production. Commercial trade in stony and reef-building corals is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). In Indonesia, most production is located around airports to speed the shipping process. Aquaculture of coral Coral aquaculture, also known as

neg: Hogsty Reef The name is still plainly visible: "Lady Eagle". Hogsty Reef Hogsty Reef is a uninhabited coral atoll located in the southern Bahamas. It is located between Great Inagua (to the South) and Acklins Island (to the North). Hogsty is a bit of an oddity in the Atlantic basin. It is a 5×3 mile coral atoll rising up from 6,000 ft deep surrounding waters. Atolls are presumed to form from extinct volcanoes – in a process whereby the volcano creates the sea mount which rises from the ocean depths, then subsides leaving a coral atoll. There are just a handful of

neg: Hogsty Reef Hogsty Reef Hogsty Reef is a uninhabited coral atoll located in the southern Bahamas. It is located between Great Inagua (to the South) and Acklins Island (to the North). Hogsty is a bit of an oddity in the Atlantic basin. It is a 5×3 mile coral atoll rising up from 6,000 ft deep surrounding waters. Atolls are presumed to form from extinct volcanoes – in a process whereby the volcano creates the sea mount which rises from the ocean depths, then subsides leaving a coral atoll. There are just a handful of these geological formations in the Atlantic, whereas there

neg: Coral reef According to the Caribbean Coral Reefs - Status Report 19702-2012, states that; stop overfishing especially fishes key to coral reef like parrotfish, coastal zone management that reduce human pressure on reef, (for example restricting coastal settlement, development and tourism) and control pollution specially sewage, may reduce coral decline or even reverse it. The report shows that healthier reefs in the Caribbean are those with large populations of parrotfish in countries that protect these key fishes and sea urchins, banning fish trapping and spearfishing, creating "resilient reefs". To help combat ocean acidification, some laws are in place to reduce greenhouse gases

neg: Coral reef education on the "rainforests of the sea" and how people can reduce carbon emissions. Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but no net or spear fishing. Both biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted. Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs. The "gardening" process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they

neg: Geography of Iraq conclusion of a peace settlement, problems of irrigation and flooding would receive top priority from the government. Iraqi coastal waters boast a living coral reef, covering an area of 28 km in the Persian Gulf, at the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab river (). The coral reef was discovered by joint Iraqi–German expeditions of scientific scuba divers carried out in September 2012 and in May 2013. Prior to its discovery, it was believed that Iraq lacks coral reefs as the local turbid waters prevented the detection of the potential presence of local coral reefs. Iraqi corals were found to be

neg: Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary importance to the coral reef ecosystem. It is the largest known seagrass bed in the world. Population growth and urban development may impact the health of coral reefs. Development activities may cause erosion resulting in the runoff of sediments which eventually reach the coral reefs. Storm water runoff may carry fertilizers into the ocean causing damage to the coral reefs, and an increase of nutrient concentrations in the reef may cause an increase of algae which may smother the corals. Sizable foreign objects such as sunken boats and planes provide rich micro-sanctuaries for a plethora of sea life that otherwise

neg: Coral reef fish protection from their predators, who are not immune to anemone stings. As a further benefit to the anemone, waste ammonia from the clownfish feed symbiotic algae found in the anemone's tentacles. As with all fish, coral reef fish harbour parasites. Since coral reef fish are characterized by high biodiversity, parasites of coral reef fish show tremendous variety. Parasites of coral reef fish include nematodes, Platyhelminthes (cestodes, digeneans, and monogeneans), leeches, parasitic crustaceans such as isopods and copepods, and various microorganisms such as myxosporidia and microsporidia. Some of these fish parasites have heteroxenous life cycles (i.e. they have several hosts) among

neg: Aquaculture of coral stressors to the coral reef are further aggravated by the human impact on coral reefs. Anthropogenic stressors such as runoff, coastal development, dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, overexploitation of resources and marine pollution, put 58% percent of the world's reefs under threat as of 2009. An example is the exploitation of mushroom coral in Indonesia which is harvested for supply of the jewelry and curio trades. Harvesting of living reef organisms, including coral, is increasing around the world. Coral is often overharvested to supply growing demand. Overharvesting weakens the ability of reefs to replenish after other harmful events. Coral aquaculture/transplantation can

neg: Algae scrubber alkalinity needed to be added to an enclosed reef tank, in order to replace that which is utilized by the growing calcifying organisms. Even five years after that, the Pittsburgh Zoo was just starting to test a "mesocosm" scrubber reef tank to see if calcium levels would drop: "It was hypothesized that Ca and the substitutive elements Sr and Mg might have reduced concentrations in a coral reef microcosm due to continuous reuse of the same seawater as a consequence of the recycling process inherent in the coral reef mesocosm." [...] "The scleractinians (Montastrea, Madracis, Porites, Diploria, and Acropora) and

neg: Palmerston Island Palmerston Island Palmerston Island is a coral atoll in the Cook Islands in the Pacific Ocean about 500 km northwest of Rarotonga. It was discovered by James Cook on 16 June 1774. A true atoll, Palmerston Island consists of a number of sandy islets on a continuous ring of coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The largest of the islets include Palmerston, North Island, Lee To Us, Leicester, Primrose, Toms, and Cooks. The total land area of the islets is approximately . The coral reef covers about . The lagoon is some across, covering an area of . There are several

neg: Coral with a naturally low pH (relatively high acidity) providing conditions similar to those expected to become widespread as the oceans absorb carbon dioxide. Surveys discovered multiple species of live coral that appeared to tolerate the acidity. The colonies were small and patchily distributed, and had not formed structurally complex reefs such as those that compose the nearby Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Biosphere reserves, marine parks, national monuments world heritage status, fishery management and habitat protection can protect reefs from anthropogenic damage. Many governments now prohibit removal of coral from reefs, and inform coastal residents about reef

neg: Southeast Asian coral reefs development have been the major drivers of massive and accelerating decreases in abundance of coral reef species, causing widespread changes in reef ecosystems. Philippines is covered with 35,000 km² coral reefs. But 70% of them are degraded. The conditions of coral reefs are deteriorating on a dramatic rate. Global climate change has caused serious troubles on coral reefs. Changes in ocean chemistry due to increasing carbon dioxide level cause weakening of coral skeletons and reduce the accretion of reefs, especially at higher latitudes. Hurricanes, rising sea levels and Greenhouse are also great threats. However, the most pressing impact of climate

neg: Symbiodinium the most studied symbionts. Their mutualistic relationships with reef-building corals form the basis of a highly diverse and productive ecosystem. Coral reefs have economic benefits – valued at hundreds of billions of dollars each year – in the form of ornamental, subsistence and commercial fisheries, tourism and recreation, coastal protection from storms, a source of bioactive compounds for pharmaceutical development, and more. The study of "Symbiodinium" biology is driven largely by a desire to understand global coral reef decline. A chief mechanism for widespread reef degradation has been stress-induced coral bleaching caused by unusually high seawater temperature. Bleaching is the

neg: Agaricia agaricites of reef in the western Atlantic but could be considered a "coral weed" as it contributes little to reef development. In the United States Virgin Islands, where a plume of sediment had killed a section of fore-reef, within a few years "A. agaricites" had proliferated and provided almost complete cover. "A. agaricites" is susceptible to bleaching. In 1997, during an El Niño Southern Oscillation year with raised seawater temperatures off the coast of Brazil, this coral was the most affected coral species, with 80% of the individual colonies being bleached. When the water temperature returned to more normal levels, the

neg: Thomas J. Goreau work focuses on coral reef restoration, fisheries restoration, shore line protection, renewable energy, community based coral reef management, mariculture, soil metabolism, and stabilization of global carbon dioxide. He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development. He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance. Thomas J. Goreau Thomas J. Goreau (Tom Goreau, * in Jamaica) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau. After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools, he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of

neg: Coral reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years. The age of living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world's largest barrier reef, from shore, stretching for . Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from per year, and grow vertically anywhere from per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than because of their need for sunlight, and

neg: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs. The Great Barrier Reef, considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot, is located in Australia. Similar to other coral reefs, it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification. Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is taken up by the ocean. This process can increase sea surface temperature, decrease aragonite, and lower the pH of the ocean. Calcifying organisms are under risk, due to

neg: Deep-water coral off Africa’s west coast. In addition to ocean bottoms, scientists find "Lophelia" colonies on North Sea oil installations, although oil and gas production may introduce noxious substances into the local environment. The world's largest known deep-water "Lophelia" coral complex is the Røst Reef. It lies between deep, west of Røst island in the Lofoten archipelago, in Norway, inside the Arctic Circle. Discovered during a routine survey in May 2002, the reef is still largely intact. It is approximately long by wide. Some further south is the Sula Reef, located on the Sula Ridge, west of Trondheim on the mid-Norwegian Shelf,

neg: Agaricia tenuifolia "A. tenuifolia" is susceptible to bleaching, a process where the coral expels the zooxanthellae from its tissues and turns white. This happens under adverse circumstances, such as when the water temperature becomes too high. This coral recruits readily to open patches of reef in the Meso-American barrier reef off Belize, but could be considered a "coral weed" as it prevents other, more long-lived corals from recruiting. In this location, corals were affected by a severe bleaching event in 1999 and although other species later recovered, "A. tenuifolia" suffered 100% mortality. "A. tenuifolia" is susceptible to bleaching and coral diseases, which

neg: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific (CRISP) is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002. Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries. Programme coordination is provided by the CRISP Coordination Unit and a programme manager who is supported by scientific counselors. The programme is hosted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community who is located in Nouméa, New-Caledonia. CRISP is under the institutional protection from the Secretariat of

neg: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef, while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff, impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities. The reef is also threatened by storms, coral bleaching and ocean acidification. The 2014 report also shows that, while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines, the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline. Terry Hughes, Federation Fellow, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook

neg: Adam's Bridge 103 small patch reefs lying in a linear pattern. The feature consists of the reef crest (flattened, emergent, especially during low tides, or nearly emergent segment of a reef), sand cays (accumulations of loose coral sands and beach rock) and intermittent deep channels. The coral reefs are variously designated by other studies as ribbon and atoll reefs. The geological process that gave rise to this structure has been attributed in one study to crustal down warping, block faulting, and mantle plume activity while another theory attributes it to continuous sand deposition and the natural process of sedimentation leading to the

neg: Osprey Reef by more than . "Schindleria brevipinguis", one of the world's smallest fish, is found in the Osprey Reef lagoon. The reef has no intertidal or emerged sand cay. The surrounding waters are part of the South Equatorial Current. The reef is protected within the Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve. A 2009 expedition aimed to make discoveries in the deeper parts of the reef between below sea level. Relict fauna communities consisting of rock sponges, glass sponges, brachiopods and stalked sea lilies were discovered. The reef has been described as the "ultimate reef diving adventure". The reef is home to large

neg: Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park The Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park () is a state park in the state of Maranhão, Brazil. It protects the Manuel Luis Reefs, an important coral reef of the south Atlantic. The reefs contain the wrecks of many ships. The Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park is in the Atlantic ocean offshore from the municipality of Cururupu, Maranhão. The reef is named for the fisherman Manuel Luís, who discovered the rock formation in the late nineteenth century. The corals grow on a granite reef and cover an area of .

neg: The Ocean Agency International Year of the Reef 2018 by the International Coral Reef Initiative, working in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme. The Ocean Agency has launched a bank of coral reef imagery, Year of the Reef Image Bank, to supply imagery to media outlets, organizations and citizens who want to help promote the Year of the Reef. The Ocean Agency The Ocean Agency is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to marine conservation. Currently, The Ocean Agency is focused on coral reef conservation. In 2012, The Ocean Agency launched the XL Catlin Seaview Survey to create an underwater Google Street View

neg: Biorock reefs after meeting Thomas J. Goreau in the 1980s. They formed a partnership. Goreau continued work on biorock technologies and coral reef restoration after Hilbertz' death in 2007. Because the biorock process uses such simple materials, electrode forms can be constructed in to mimic natural reefs. Since the combined hydrated magnesium oxychloride, brucite (magnesium hydroxide) - later hydromagnesite (magnesium chlorocarbonate) and aragonite (calcium carbonate) coating that forms is so similar to natural reef substrate, corals readily take to biorock reefs. Coral thrive on the electrified and oxygenated reef environment. One prominent example was in the Maldives during the 1998 warming,

neg: The Reef Ball Foundation reef development has been toward the construction of designed artificial reefs, built from materials specifically designed to function as reefs. Designed systems (such as reef balls) can be modified to achieve a variety of goals. These include coral reef rehabilitation, fishery enhancement, snorkeling and diving trails, beach erosion protection, surfing enhancement, fish spawning sites, planters for mangrove replanting, enhancement of lobster fisheries, creation of oyster reefs, estuary rehabilitation, and even exotic uses such as deep water "Oculina" coral replanting. Designed systems can overcome many of the problems associated with "materials of opportunity" such as stability in storms, durability, biological fit,

neg: Endeavour Reef 1969 an underwater search discovered the six abandoned cannons, ballast and an anchor which had been discarded by the "Endeavour" crew in 1770 whilst attempting to refloat the ship. A replica cannon is on display at the Australian National Maritime Museum in Darling Harbour, Sydney, while the six original cannons are on display at Botany Bay, Cooktown, Canberra, Philadelphia (USA), Wellington (NZ). and London (UK). Endeavour Reef Endeavour Reef is a coral reef within the Great Barrier Reef. It is within the Shire of Cook, Queensland, Australia. The reef is about long and runs in an east-west direction. The center

neg: Central America The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and is one of the most diverse ecosystems of the world. It is home to 70 hard coral species, 36 soft coral species, 500 species of fish and hundreds of invertebrate species. So far only about 10% of the species in the Belize barrier reef have been discovered. From 2001 to 2010, of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63% of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46%, Panama 45%, Honduras 41%, Guatemala 37%, Nicaragua 29%, and El Salvador 21%. Most of the

neg: Impacts of tourism The increase in the amount of CO dissolved into the oceans is changing its chemical composition, leading to acidification of the oceans, which in turn has led to bleaching of coral reefs worldwide. In 2016 it was determined that the world's largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, is so badly affected by bleaching that only 10 percent remained unspoiled and the remaining 90 percent has varying degrees of degradation A recently discovered issue in the Pacific Northwest caused by acidification, is the decreased survival of pteropods, a key source of food for salmon. These microscopic invertebrates, known as sea

neg: Tsushima Island northernmost coral reef in the world, surpassing the Iki Island reef discovered in 2001. It is dominated by cool-tolerant stony or Scleractinian "Favia" corals but the observed settling of tropical "Acropora" coral is expected to provide an ongoing indicator for continuing global warming. According to a 2000 census, 23.9% of the local population is employed in primary industries while 19.7% and 56.4% of the population are employed in secondary and tertiary industries, respectively. Of these economic activities, fishing amounts to 82.6% of the primary industry, with much of it dedicated to catching squid on the eastern coast of the island.

neg: Faial Island Forest Services"): Other areas of geological or environmental interest: In 2013, the submarine Lula1000, while diving in the Faial-Pico canal discovered a coral reef situated in depth and covering an area of . In a communiqué to the Rebikoff–Niggeler Foundation, the group suggested that the reef formation was an important first discovery for the submarine team, which was located in the waters of the Azores since 1994, in order to document sea depth. Until this time, there were no documented records of coral reeks at such a depth in the waters of the Azores, nor at such a distance from

neg: Southern Mandarin dogfish Ningaloo Reef on the northwest coast of Australia. In the Ningaloo Reef, many species were discovered, but no specimens were found. The expedition was a great success, and Australia now has more information on the marine flora and fauna that dominate their coral reefs. Southern Mandarin dogfish The southern Mandarin dogfish ("Cirrhigaleus australis") is a species of Mandarin dogfish shark in the genus "Cirrhigaleus". It was distinguished from "Cirrhigaleus barbifer", which lives in the North Pacific, on an expedition in the coral reefs near Australia in 2007. It is now known to live in the temperate waters east of Australia

neg: Maro Reef submerged depending on the tides. Some scientists believe that it "may be on the verge of drowning" because the reefs are detached and are vulnerable to strong storm waves. USNS "Mission San Miguel" (T-AO-129) ran aground on the reef, while running at full speed and in ballast, and sank on October 8, 1957. Maro Reef Maro Reef (Hawaiian: Nalukākala - "surf that arrives in combers") is a largely submerged coral atoll located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was discovered in 1820 by Captain Joseph Allen of the ship "Maro", after whose ship the reef was named. With a total

neg: Coral Reef Alliance Coral Reef Alliance was selected to appear in a 30-minute PBS documentary entitled The Visionaries, filmed on Palau Island, Micronesia. The show documented CORAL's work to promote coral reef conservation and was distributed to 175 television markets across the country to be aired four times throughout each market. In 1999, CORAL became a founding member of the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN), a coalition formed to implement the international Coral Reef Initiative Framework for Action. In 2002, CORAL expanded its focus to building strong marine protected areas to restore coral reefs worldwide. In 2005, it completed design of its

neg: Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument km) of federal submerged lands within the 3 mile (5 km) belt off Saint John, including Hurricane Hole and areas north and south of Saint John. The coral reefs of the U.S. Virgin Islands suffered severely from coral bleaching in 2005, which led to a 60% decline in coral activity. The USGS began extensive research in the area and scientists discovered previously unknown coral ecosystems at the submerged stems of mangrove trees in the "Hurricane Hole" area of the National Monument. They found about 30 of the 45 coral species in the Virgin Islands, which is an astonishing diversity for

neg: Fringing reef meadows and patch reefs. This type of coral reef is the most common type of reef found in the Caribbean and Red Sea. Darwin believed that fringing reefs are the first kind of reefs to form around a landmass in a long-term reef growth process. Sometimes it is hard to tell the difference between fringing reefs and another type of reef called a barrier reef. One of the ways that these two types of reefs are separated is based on the depth of the lagoon in the back reef which is the area near to shore. Barrier reefs have at

neg: Wildlife of Maldives species have been severely threatened or destroyed during the past decades of development. Coral reef habitats have also been damaged, as the pressure for land has brought about the creation of artificial islands. Some reefs have been filled with rubble with little regard for the changes in the currents on the reef shelf and how the new pattern would affect coral growth and its related life forms on the reef edges. Maldivian sealife Flora Birds Wildlife of Maldives The wildlife of Maldives includes the flora and fauna of the islands, reefs, and the surrounding ocean. Recent scientific studies suggest that

neg: Aquaculture of coral improve coral cover, biodiversity, and structural heterogeneity of a degraded reef. Success has been achieved with fire coral, "Pocillopora verrucosa" and "Acropora hemprichii". A restored reef hosts organisms associated with the reef, such as reef fishes. Nursery-grown coral promote reef resilience by making contributions to the larval pool. This could have a positive effect on new growth if transplanting of the new coral is made just before a larval release season. Oceanographer Baruch Rinkevich coined the term "active restoration" to describe coral reef farming, in contrast with what he described as "passive restoration" efforts focused on mitigation of stressors by

neg: Hawaiian Trough the Hawaiian Arch. The Hawaiian Arch extends about 200 meters above the surrounding ocean floor, and contains tilted coral reefs. The coral reefs in the Hawaiian Tough are described as mesophotic coral ecosystems, which can be found between 100 and 500 feet below sea level. 43 percent of fish species documented at the mesophotic reefs are unique to the Hawaiian Islands. At Maui’s ‘Au’au channel the largest uninterrupted mesophotic coral ecosystem was discovered, with an area larger than 3 square miles. These reefs contained many stony, reef building coral that belong to the genus Leptoseris, which are adapted for deep

neg: Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument The Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument is a U.S. National Monument located off Saint John, Virgin Islands. The clear waters surrounding Saint John support a diverse and complex system of coral reefs. The health of these reefs is closely tied to its component plants and animals as well as adjacent non-coral marine environments such as sandy bottoms, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests. Seeking to provide greater protection to the sensitive coral reef resources, President Clinton established the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument on January 17, 2001. The monument includes 12,708 acres (51

neg: Coral Reef Alliance new approach, the Coral Reef Sustainable Destination (CRSD) model, which is still used today and is increasingly validated by the scientific community. The Coral Reef Alliance or CORAL is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization. They depend on the support of individual donors, foundations, and corporate and government grants to build grassroots conservation partnerships among local community members, government leaders, and marine recreation providers in coral reef destinations around the world. Many of CORAL's employees are stationed in Hawaii and around the world in countries such as Indonesia, Fiji, Honduras, and Mexico. CORAL promotes conservation through its Coral Reef Sustainable Destination (CRSD)

neg: Coral sand sand mining, the Convention on international trade in endangered species urged parties to the convention to work for the conservation and sustainable use of the coral reef ecosystems. Coral sand Coral sand is a collection of sand of particles originating in tropical and sub-tropical marine environments from bioerosion of limestone skeletal material of marine organisms. One example of this process is that of parrot fishes which bite off pieces of coral, digest the living tissue, and excrete the inorganic component as silt and sand. However, the term "coral" in "coral sand" is used loosely in this sense to mean limestone

neg: Lord Howe Island Marine Park reef ecosystem, making Lord Howe Island Marine Park the southernmost true coral reef in the world. Lord Howe Island Marine Park is also home to a high diversity of marine benthic algae, fishes and marine invertebrates and is associated with high levels of endemicity. Lord Howe Island was only discovered by humans in 1778, consequently the original flora and fauna has remained relatively untouched. Three distinct marine habitat community types have been identified within the Marine Park: coral reefs, macroalgal beds, and offshore/open coast communities. The distribution of these depends on wave exposure. The Lord Howe Island Group supports more

neg: Census of Coral Reefs Census of Coral Reefs The Census of Coral Reefs (CReefs) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that surveys the biodiversity of coral reef ecosystems internationally. The project works to study what species live in coral reef ecosystems, to develop standardized protocols for studying coral reef ecosystems, and to increase access to and exchange of information about coral reefs scattered throughout the globe. The CReefs project uses the implementation of autonomous reef-monitoring structures (ARMS) to study the species that inhabit coral reefs. These structures are placed on the sea floor in areas where coral reefs exist, where

neg: Coral reef fish Coral reef fish Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs. Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans, but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine

neg: Coral reef infer a region's paleoclimate. Coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. Coral belongs to the class "Anthozoa" in the animal phylum "Cnidaria", which includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. Often called "rainforests of the sea", shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most

neg: Coral reef Coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. Coral belongs to the class "Anthozoa" in the animal phylum "Cnidaria", which includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. Often called "rainforests of the sea", shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. They occupy

neg: Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific Pacific Island countries and three French Pacific Territories, (New Caledonia, French Polynesia, and Wallis and Futuna) envisioned as a "driving belt" between these locales. The programme's implementation was facilitated by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its establishment also included a political desire for local oversight in the Pacific region. Some of CRISP's components include integrated coastal and watershed management, and development of coral ecosystems. The ReefBase Pacific project is a collaborative programme with Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). International Coral Reef Action Network (IRCAN) projects have also been incorporated into CRISP. An additional component is educational,

neg: Virgin Islands patch reefs share with zooxanthellae. How large and strong a coral is, is dependent on the area it grew in. aside from their symbiont relationships they can also receive nutrients from the water itself. Coral reefs are usually found in specific zones. These zones depict different habitats. The known zones are the fore reef, reef crest, and backreef. All zones are connected and have important roles in the growth and development of the reefs. Coral reefs that are found surrounding islands were created when islands recede into the ocean. The benefits of these reefs include tourism, fisheries, and coastline protection. They give

neg: Great Barrier Reef Queensland inland. Also during this time, Queensland experienced volcanic eruptions leading to central and shield volcanoes and basalt flows. Some of these became high islands. After the Coral Sea Basin formed, coral reefs began to grow in the Basin, but until about 25 million years ago, northern Queensland was still in temperate waters south of the tropics—too cool to support coral growth. The Great Barrier Reef's development history is complex; after Queensland drifted into tropical waters, it was largely influenced by reef growth and decline as sea level changed. Reefs can increase in diameter by per year, and grow vertically

neg: International Society for Reef Studies four years at the International Coral Reef Symposium. It is awarded to a senior ISRS member who is recognized worldwide for major contributions throughout her or his career. The medal has been awarded seven times; recipients are David Stoddart, Peter Glynn, Ian Macintyre, Yossi Loya, Charlie Veron, Terry Hughes, and Jeremy Jackson. International Society for Reef Studies The International Society for Reef Studies (ISRS) is an international, not-for profit, scientific society dedicated to the conservation of coral reefs through science and understanding. Founded in 1980, the primary objective of ISRS is the improvement of scientific knowledge and understanding of coral

neg: Coral Reef Alliance Coral Reef Alliance The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California, that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs. CORAL was founded in Berkeley, California, in 1994 by Stephen Colwell, and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster. With 19% of the world's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35% at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures, organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need. The organization was founded in 1994 by Stephen Colwell in Berkeley, California. In the beginning, the goal was simple: to engage the

neg: Coral Reef Alliance approach, a holistic model that combines marine protected area (MPA) management and sustainable business operation for community benefit. Coral Reef Alliance The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) is a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California, that partners with local reef communities around the world to protect coral reefs. CORAL was founded in Berkeley, California, in 1994 by Stephen Colwell, and is currently headed by Dr. Michael Webster. With 19% of the world's coral reefs already destroyed and another 35% at immediate risk or threatened due to human pressures, organizations like CORAL are addressing an urgent need. The organization was founded

neg: Southeast Asian coral reefs in the last fifty years, overexploitation has become the most prevalent threat." The explosion of the live reef food fish and aquarium trades as markets has been detrimental to the coral reef. Economic incentives have led to the over fishing of the coral reef and the creation of new technologies to create higher yields of harvest. The use of cyanide and blast fishing has begun to destroy one of the largest coral reef environments in the world. Furthermore, the increased populations have affected the coral reef indirectly. Besides using the reef for economic gain, the increase of people has created

neg: Coral reef of Varadero Coral reef of Varadero Coral reef of Varadero is a coral reef located in the Bay of Cartagena, Colombia. Its paradoxical existence, harboring high coral cover and diversity despite the poor water quality and sediments discharged during the last 500 years by the Canal del Dique into the Bay, has drawn special interest by the scientific community and local and international media. The persistence of the Varadero reef is currently threatened by a project to modernize Cartagena’s port, not only by the direct damage produced by the dredging of a new shipping lane through the reef, but also by the

neg: Coral reef of Varadero such as in Varadero, to understand reef resilience. Coral reef of Varadero Coral reef of Varadero is a coral reef located in the Bay of Cartagena, Colombia. Its paradoxical existence, harboring high coral cover and diversity despite the poor water quality and sediments discharged during the last 500 years by the Canal del Dique into the Bay, has drawn special interest by the scientific community and local and international media. The persistence of the Varadero reef is currently threatened by a project to modernize Cartagena’s port, not only by the direct damage produced by the dredging of a new shipping

neg: Coral Reef Adventure Coral Reef Adventure Coral Reef Adventure is a 70mm American documentary film released in 2003 to IMAX theaters. It is narrated by actor Liam Neeson, and directed by Greg MacGillivray. Embarking on a 10-month expedition through the islands of the South Pacific, husband and wife underwater photography-duo Michele and Howard Hall explore the declining reefs and failing health of the world's oceans. From Australia's Great Barrier Reef, to a friend's coral reef-sustained village in Fiji, the diving expeditions show a range of coral reefs, from flourishing ones filled with unusual and exotic inhabitants, to vast stretches of bleached coral decline

neg: Environmental issues with coral reefs to one source, Indonesia will lose 70 percent of its coral reef by 2050 if restoration action does not occur. In 2007, Reef Check, the world's largest reef conservation organization, stated that only 5% of Philippines of coral reef are in ""excellent condition"": Tubbataha Reef, Marine Park in Palawan, Apo Island in Negros Oriental, Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island Passage off Batangas. Philippine coral reefs is Asia's second largest. Coral reefs in Taiwan are being threatened by human population growth. Many corals are affected by untreated sewage and souvenir-hunting tourists, not knowing that this practice destroys

neg: Kenn Reef drifted from Australia around 64 to 52 million years ago. The atoll is believed to be volcanic in origin. The reef was discovered by Mr. Alexander Kenn, Master of the ship "William Shand", on her passage from Sydney to Batavia, Kenn Reef is a remotely situated reef in the south eastern waters of the Coral Sea, it lies approximately 100 km northeast from Bird Islet part of the Wreck Reefs and 140 km southeast from the Frederick Reefs; the Bellona Reefs of New Caledonia are located a further 277 km to the east, with the Australian mainland being located over

neg: Kingman Reef pre-20th century names Danger Reef, Caldew Reef, Maria Shoal and Crane Shoal refer to this atoll, which by then was entirely submerged at high tide. Thomas Hale Streets described its state in the 1870s, when it had: ... hardly, as yet, assumed the distinctive features of an island. It is entirely under water at high tide, and but a few coral heads project here and there above the surface at low water. In the course of time, however, it will undoubtedly be added to the [northern Line Islands]. Kingman Reef was discovered by the American Captain Edmund Fanning of the

neg: International Coral Reef Initiative tackle specialized topics related to coral reef management. The most well-known Operational Network is the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network which produces global and regional reports on the status of coral reefs on a regular basis. Information provided in these reports intends to help management and conservation decisions. Although ICRI is not a United Nations body, it is regularly cited in UN documents such as Secretary General Reports. Most recently, it was cited in resolution adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its 67th session in November 2012. International Coral Reef Initiative The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is

neg: Coral island can explode and choke out coral reef systems. Adding too many sediments can cause a similar problem by blocking out the sun starving the zooxanthellae that live on coral causing it to undergo a process known as coral bleaching. The oceans acidity is also a factor. Coral is made of calcium carbonate and is dissolved by carbonic acid. With the increase in carbon dioxide from combustion reactions in the atmosphere through precipitation carbon dioxide mixes with water and forms carbonic acid raising the oceans acidity which slows coral growth. Through chemical and physical changes humans can cause significant harm to

neg: Fringing reef sand and coral rubble. These types of algae include "Lyngbia" sp. and "Oscilatoria" sp. Over recent years the dominant species in the reef flat have been affected by environmental changes. On fringing reefs in Barbados, species such as "Diploria strigosa", "Palythoa mamillosa", and "Diadema antillarum" are found. The reef crest's most common species is "Porites porites", a type of stony coral, although there are also significant areas covered in flesh-like algae. Fringing reef A fringing reef is one of the four main types of coral reef recognized by most coral reef scientists. It is distinguished from the other main types

neg: Reef Check Reef Check Reef Check is an international non-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of two reef ecosystems: tropical coral reefs and Californian rocky reefs. The Foundation is headquartered in Los Angeles, California, United States, but uses data from volunteer scuba diver teams in over 80 countries, ranging from Australia, Japan, to even Germany. It is the United Nations’ official coral reef monitoring program. Reef Check first conducted a global survey of coral reef health in 1997. The data confirmed that coral reefs were in crisis due to overfishing, pollution and other human impacts. The published results in 1999 unsettled the

neg: Anthony Larkum Anthony Larkum Anthony W D Larkum is a plant scientist and academic based in Sydney. He is Professor Emeritus of Plant Sciences at the University of Sydney and Adjunct Professor at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS). Much of Larkum's research has been on marine algae, seagrasses and coral reef. He has done considerable research on photoinhibition, UV inhibition, photosynthesis and light harvesting. Since 1997, a great part of his research has been devoted to understanding the process of mass coral bleaching, more specifically the bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef. Some of his research has also studied novel cyanobacteria,

neg: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument the NWHI as seabird nesting sites. President Franklin D. Roosevelt converted it into the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge in 1940. A series of incremental protections followed, leading to the establishment of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge in 1988, Kure Atoll State Wildlife Sanctuary in 1993, and the NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve in 2000. President Bill Clinton established the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve on December 4, 2000, with . Clinton's executive order initiated a process to designate the waters of the NWHI as a National Marine Sanctuary. A public comment period began in 2002. In 2005,

neg: Environmental issues with coral reefs for their livelihoods. The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system. The reef is located in the Coral Sea and a large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Particular environmental pressures include surface runoff, salinity fluctuations, climate change, cyclic crown-of-thorns outbreaks, overfishing, and spills or improper ballast discharge. According to the 2014 report of the Government of Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef. Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging fishing practices (such

neg: Réunion's coral reef Réunion's coral reef Réunion is an island located near the eastern coast of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. Its coral reef covers a concentrated part of the western littoral. The coral reef is located between St Leu and St Gilles. It is more than long and ranges in width from in its northern part at St. Gilles to in the south. Since the island is close to the continental shelf, the sea becomes deep not far from the coast. The presence of nearby deeper ocean currents supports a rich biodiversity fauna and flora in the reef environment. Coral reefs are

neg: Resilience of coral reefs Resilience of coral reefs The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes. Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change. Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry, sea level, and sea surface temperature. Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification. Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs

neg: Chesterfield Islands Bampton Island , lies on Bampton Reefs 20 nm NW of Renard Island. It is 180 m long, 110 m across and 5 m high. It had trees when discovered in 1793, but has seldom been visited since then except by castaways. The reefs and islands west of the Chesterfield Islands, the closest being Mellish Reef with Herald's Beacon Islet at , at a distance of 180 nm northwest of Bampton Island, belong to the Coral Sea Islands Territory. Booby Reef in the center of the eastern chain of reefs and islets comprising Chesterfield Reefs appears to have been discovered

neg: Coral reef the transplant site, they found that coral placed on hard rock grew well, including on the wires that attached the corals to the site. No environmental effects were seen from the transplantation process, recreational activities were not decreased, and no scenic areas were affected. Another possibility for coral restoration is gene therapy: inoculating coral with genetically modified bacteria, or naturally-occurring heat-tolerant varieties of coral symbiotes, may make it possible to grow corals that are more resistant to climate change and other threats. Hawaiian coral reefs smothered by the spread of invasive algae were managed with a two-prong approach: divers manually

neg: Bar Reef Bar Reef The Bar Reef is a system of coral reefs just offshore from Sri Lanka's Kalpitiya peninsula. It has the greatest biodiversity of any coral reef in the waters around India and is one of the few pristine coral reef systems in Sri Lanka. It is a complex of reefs which stretch parallel to the coast from the northern end of the Kalpitiya peninsula to the islands which separate Portugal Bay from the Gulf of Mannar. It has high ecological, biological and aesthetic significance, being home to 156 species of coral and 283 species of fish. The Bar Reef