query: where does the pancreas secrete digestive enzymes into

pos: Pancreas the duodenum. These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates (usually starch), proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the "exocrine" role of the pancreas. Cells are arranged in clusters called "acini". Secretes into the middle of the acinus, which accumulates in intralobular ducts, which drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum. The cells are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive form termed zymogens or proenzymes. When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are

pos: Human digestive system fats to some degree though is not as efficient as the pancreatic lipase. The pylorus, the lowest section of the stomach which attaches to the duodenum via the pyloric canal, contains countless glands which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called chyme is produced. When the pyloric sphincter, or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs

pos: Secretin be released. Secretin primarily functions to neutralize the pH in the duodenum, allowing digestive enzymes from the pancreas (e.g., pancreatic amylase and pancreatic lipase) to function optimally. Secretin targets the pancreas; pancreatic centroacinar cells have secretin receptors in their plasma membrane. As secretin binds to these receptors, it stimulates adenylate cyclase activity and converts ATP to cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP acts as second messenger in intracellular signal transduction and causes the organ to secrete a bicarbonate-rich fluid that flows into the intestine. Bicarbonate is a base that neutralizes the acid, thus establishing a pH favorable to the action of other

pos: Duodenum stomach via hormonal pathways. Secretin and cholecystokinin are released from cells in the duodenal epithelium in response to acidic and fatty stimuli present there when the pylorus opens and emits gastric chyme into the duodenum for further digestion. These cause the liver and gall bladder to release bile, and the pancreas to release bicarbonate and digestive enzymes such as trypsin, lipase and amylase into the duodenum as they are needed. The villi of the duodenum have a leafy-looking appearance, which is a histologically identifiable structure. Brunner's glands, which secrete mucus, are found in the duodenum "only". The duodenum wall consists

pos: Pancreas the culinary name of sweetbread. Pancreas The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach. The pancreas is a mixed gland, having both an endocrine and an exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it secretes into the blood several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates,

pos: Pancreas Pancreas The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach. The pancreas is a mixed gland, having both an endocrine and an exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it secretes into the blood several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in ingested

pos: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency genetic conditions, a blocked pancreatic duct, or prior infection. The exocrine pancreas is a portion of this organ that contains clusters of ducts (acini) producing bicarbonate anion, a mild alkali, as well as an array of digestive enzymes that together empty by way of the interlobular and main pancreatic ducts into the duodenum (upper small intestine). The hormones cholecystokinin and secretin secreted by the stomach and duodenum in response to distension and the presence of food in turn stimulate the production of digestive enzymes by the exocrine pancreas. The alkalization of the duodenum neutralizes the acidic chyme produced by the

pos: Human digestive system gland in the digestive system. It is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland. The endocrine part secretes insulin when the blood sugar becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases glucagon when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose by the liver in order to re-balance the sugar levels. The pancreas produces and releases important digestive enzymes in the pancreatic juice that it delivers to the duodenum. The pancreas lies below and at the back of

pos: Digestion that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small

pos: Cat anatomy acid and other digestive enzymes to break down food. Food moves from the stomach into the small intestine. The first part of the small intestine is the duodenum. As food moves through the duodenum, it mixes with bile, a fluid that neutralizes stomach acid and emulsifies fat. The pancreas releases enzymes that aid in digestion so that nutrients can be broken down and pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood and travel to the rest of the body. The pancreas doesn't produce starch processing enzymes because cats don't eat a diet high in carbohydrates. Since the cat digests low

pos: Pancreas the duodenum. These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates (usually starch), proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the "exocrine" role of the pancreas. Cells are arranged in clusters called "acini". Secretes into the middle of the acinus, which accumulates in intralobular ducts, which drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum. The cells are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive form termed zymogens or proenzymes. When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are

pos: Cystic fibrosis many as 10% of children with CF, and it is caused by increased fecal volume, malnutrition, and increased intra–abdominal pressure due to coughing. The thick mucus seen in the lungs has a counterpart in thickened secretions from the pancreas, an organ responsible for providing digestive juices that help break down food. These secretions block the exocrine movement of the digestive enzymes into the duodenum and result in irreversible damage to the pancreas, often with painful inflammation (pancreatitis). The pancreatic ducts are totally plugged in more advanced cases, usually seen in older children or adolescents. This causes atrophy of the exocrine

pos: Small intestine and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine. Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter. The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from

pos: Human digestive system a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus to enter the stomach. Here it is mixed with gastric acid until it passes into the duodenum where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another digestive enzyme called lingual lipase is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the muscles of mastication, by the

pos: Pancreatic lipase family is also present in lipases of prokaryotic origin and in lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase () (LCAT), which catalyzes fatty acid transfer between phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol. "Pancreatic lipase", also known as "pancreatic triacylglycerol lipase" or "steapsin", is an enzyme secreted from the pancreas. As the primary lipase enzyme that hydrolyzes (breaks down) dietary fat molecules in the human digestive system, it is one of the main digestive enzymes, converting triglyceride substrates found in ingested oils to monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Bile salts secreted from the liver and stored in gallbladder are released into the duodenum, where they coat and emulsify large fat

pos: Human digestive system the duodenum. (The enzymes that digest polysaccharides, by contrast, are primarily produced by the walls of the intestines.) The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive enzymes. The major proteases, the pancreatic enzymes which work on proteins, are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. Elastase is also produced. Smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are secreted. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase. The precursor zymogens, are inactive variants of the enzymes; which avoids the onset of pancreatitis caused by autodegradation. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by

pos: Lundh's test Lundh's test Lundh's test is a test of function of the exocrine function of the pancreas gland. The exocrine role of the pancreas involves release of various digestive enzymes, including lipase and proteases, such as trypsin, in response to hormonal stimulation after eating. Disorders of the pancreas including chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis and pancreatic cancer can lead to decreased pancreatic exocrine activity. Lundh's test involves placing a tube with multiple channels in to the duodenum. This tube has holes in the stomach and in the duodenum. A meal consisting of proteins, carbohydrates and fats is injected into the stomach. Typically

pos: Lundh's test release of cholecystokinin. Lundh's test Lundh's test is a test of function of the exocrine function of the pancreas gland. The exocrine role of the pancreas involves release of various digestive enzymes, including lipase and proteases, such as trypsin, in response to hormonal stimulation after eating. Disorders of the pancreas including chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis and pancreatic cancer can lead to decreased pancreatic exocrine activity. Lundh's test involves placing a tube with multiple channels in to the duodenum. This tube has holes in the stomach and in the duodenum. A meal consisting of proteins, carbohydrates and fats is injected into

pos: Digestion proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides. Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate

pos: Human digestive system the stomach. It connects to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct which it joins near to the bile duct's connection where both the bile and pancreatic juice can act on the chyme that is released from the stomach into the duodenum. Aqueous pancreatic secretions from pancreatic duct cells contain bicarbonate ions which are alkaline and help with the bile to neutralise the acidic chyme that is churned out by the stomach. The pancreas is also the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats and proteins. Some of these are released in response to the production of CKK in

neg: Fish physiology food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it

neg: Gastrointestinal disease use. Other rarer diseases affecting the pancreas may include pancreatic pseudocysts, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, and pancreatic fistulas. Pancreatic disease may present with or without symptoms. When symptoms occur, such as in acute pancreatitis, a person may suffer from acute-onset, severe mid-abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. In severe cases, pancreatitis may lead to rapid blood loss and systemic inflammatory response syndrome. When the pancreas is unable to secrete digestive enzymes, such as with a pancreatic cancer occluding the pancreatic duct, result in jaundice. Pancreatic disease might be investigated using abdominal x-rays, MRCP or ERCP, CT scans, and through blood tests such

neg: Fish pumps the blood, first to the fourth part, bulbus arteriosus, a large tube, and then out of the heart. The bulbus arteriosus connects to the aorta, through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation. Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals

neg: Digestive enzyme system) activates the ENS, in turn leading to the release of acetylcholine. Once present, acetylcholine activates G cells and parietal cells. Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function. Two of the population of cells in the pancreatic parenchyma make up its

neg: Pancreas as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. A perforation of the pancreas, which may lead to the secretion of digestive enzymes such as lipase and amylase into the abdominal cavity as well as subsequent pancreatic self-digestion and digestion and damage to organs within the abdomen, generally requires prompt and experienced medical intervention. It is possible for one to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood

neg: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency stomach that is passing into it; the digestive enzymes serve to catalyze the breakdown of complex foodstuffs into smaller molecules for absorption and integration into metabolic pathways. The enzymes include proteases (trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen), hydrolytic enzymes that cleave lipids (the lipases phospholipase A2 and lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase), and amylase to digest starches. EPI results from progressive failure in the exocrine function of the pancreas to provide its digestive enzymes, often in response to a genetic condition or other disease state, resulting in the inability of the animal involved to properly digest food. Loss of pancreatic enzymes leads to maldigestion

neg: Convergent evolution species studied, "Cephalotus follicularis", "Nepenthes alata" and "Sarracenia purpurea", there has been convergence at the molecular level. Carnivorous plants secrete enzymes into the digestive fluid they produce. By studying phosphatase, glycoside hydrolase, glucanase, RNAse and chitinase enzymes as well as a pathogenesis-related protein and a thaumatin-related protein, the authors found many convergent amino acid substitutions. These changes were not at the enzymes' catalytic sites, but rather on the exposed surfaces of the proteins, where they might interact with other components of the cell or the digestive fluid. The authors also found that homologous genes in the non-carnivorous plant "Arabidopsis thaliana"

neg: Metabolism dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) into NADH. Macromolecules such as starch, cellulose or proteins cannot be rapidly taken up by cells and must be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides. Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only

neg: Cholecystokinin stimulates the acinar cells of the pancreas to release a juice rich in pancreatic digestive enzymes (hence an alternate name, "pancreozymin") that catalyze the digestion of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Thus, as the levels of the substances that stimulated the release of CCK drop, the concentration of the hormone drops as well. The release of CCK is also inhibited by somatostatin and pancreatic peptide. Trypsin, a protease released by pancreatic acinar cells, hydrolyzes CCK-releasing peptide and monitor peptide, in effect turning off the additional signals to secrete CCK. CCK also causes the increased production of hepatic bile, and stimulates the

neg: Chewing gum processes that neutralize acid in the esophagus. However, chewing gum is sometimes considered to contribute to the development of stomach ulcers. It stimulates the stomach to secrete acid and the pancreas to produce digestive enzymes that aren't required. In some cases, when consuming large quantities of gum containing sorbitol, gas and/or diarrhea may occur. Controversy arises as to health concerns surrounding the questionable classification of gum as food, particularly in regard to some alternative uses for gum base ingredients. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), chewing gum is considered a food, as the term “food” means “a

neg: Metabolism secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and salivary glands. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins. Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA through

neg: Pancreatectomy insulin or digestive enzymes. The patient immediately develops type 1 diabetes, with little hope for future type 1 diabetes treatments involving the restoration of endocrine function to a damaged pancreas, since the pancreas is either partially or completely absent. Type 1 diabetes can be treated with careful blood glucose monitoring and insulin therapy. Because the pancreas is responsible for the production of many digestive enzymes, a pancreatectomy should only be given as an option for pancreatic disease which is life-threatening, such as pancreatic cancers. It is very important to note that even after a pancreatectomy, pain still exists in most

neg: Digestive enzyme of digestion are the oral cavity, the stomach, and the small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by different exocrine glands including: Complex food substances that are taken by animals and humans must be broken down into simple, soluble, and diffusible substances before they can be absorbed. In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete an array of enzymes and substances that aid in digestion and also disinfection. They include the following: Of note is the diversity of the salivary glands. There are two types of salivary glands: The enzymes that are secreted in the stomach are "gastric enzymes". The stomach plays

neg: Pancreas secretion of enzymes involved in digesting substances from outside of the body. Approximately 3 million cell clusters called pancreatic islets are present in the pancreas. Within these islets are four main types of cells which are involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels. Each type of cell secretes a different type of hormone: α alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood), β beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), δ delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells) and PP cells, or γ (gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide. These act to control blood glucose through secreting

neg: Monogastric the food enters the mouth. Saliva moistens the food and begins the digestive process. (Note that horses have no (or negligible amounts of) amylase in their saliva). After being swallowed, the food passes from the esophagus into the stomach, where stomach acid and enzymes help to break down the food. Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder (note that horses do not have a gall bladder and bile is directly secreted into the small intestine) and secreted once the contents of the stomach have reached the small intestines where most fats are broken down. The pancreas secretes enzymes and

neg: Pancreas glucagon to increase the levels of glucose, and insulin to decrease it. The islets are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of islet cells, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, either by cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition. The islets function independently from the digestive role played by the majority of pancreatic cells. Activity of the cells in the islets is affected by the autonomic nervous system: The pancreas plays a vital role in the digestive system. It secretes a fluid that contains enzymes into

neg: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food due to a lack of digestive enzymes made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and Shwachman–Diamond syndrome, and is common in dogs. EPI is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes; loss of digestive enzymes leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients from normal digestive processes. Chronic pancreatitis is the most common cause of EPI in humans and cats. In dogs, the most common cause is "pancreatic acinar atrophy", arising as a result of

neg: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency on a case-by-case basis. One possible sequela, volvulus (mesenteric torsion), is a rare consequence of EPI in dogs. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food due to a lack of digestive enzymes made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and Shwachman–Diamond syndrome, and is common in dogs. EPI is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes; loss of digestive enzymes leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients from normal digestive processes. Chronic pancreatitis is the most common cause of EPI in

neg: Creatorrhea therefore released in the feces. Trypsinogen is produced in the pancreas and released into the alimentary canal where it is converted to the active enzyme trypsin. Inflammation of the pancreas, or pancreatitis can therefore precipitate this condition, as can cystic fibrosis which also affects the production of digestive enzymes. Creatorrhea Creatorrhea is the abnormal excretion of muscle fibre in feces. The term is made from the prefix "creat-" or "creato-" which comes from Greek "kreas" meaning "flesh". The suffix "-rrhea" (or "-rrhoea") comes from Greek "-rrhoia" meaning "flow," hence discharge. Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical

neg: Canine pancreatitis Pancreatitis is caused by autodigestion of the pancreas thought to begin with an increase in secretion of pancreatic enzymes in response to a stimulus, which can be anything from table scraps to getting into the garbage to drugs, toxins, and trauma. The digestive enzymes are released too quickly and begin acting on the pancreas instead of the food they normally digest. Once the process cascades, inflammatory mediators and free radicals are released and pancreatitis develops, causing amplification of the process. The clinical signs can vary from mild gastrointestinal upset to death, with most dogs presenting with common gastrointestinal signs of

neg: Hepatic caecum found in certain crustaceans. In some insects, such as the grasshopper, several pairs of hepatic caeca secrete enzymes into the stomach where they assist in the digestive process. Hepatic caecum Hepatic caecum or hepatic cecum is a name used in describing various physiological structures in some crustaceans, insects and cephalochordates. "Hepatic" refers to the liver, and the hepatic caecum may perform some functions that are analogous to the functions of the liver in vertebrates. A digestive organ called the hepatic caecum is found in the cephalochordate amphioxus, or lancelet. The hepatic caecum of the amphioxus is a presumed homologue of

neg: Pancreas of the pancreas and lies behind the pylorus, at the same level as the transpyloric plane. The "tail" ends by abutting the spleen. The pancreas is a secretory structure with an internal hormonal role (endocrine) and an external digestive role (exocrine). The endocrine part is composed of hormonal tissue distributed along the pancreas in discrete units called islets of Langerhans. Islets of Langerhans have a well-established structure and form density routes through the exocrine tissue. The exocrine part has two main ducts, the main pancreatic duct and the accessory pancreatic duct. These drain enzymes through the ampulla of Vater into

neg: Pancreatic disease due to a lack of digestive enzymes made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and Shwachman–Diamond syndrome. It is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes. Chronic pancreatitis is the most common cause of EPI in humans. Loss of digestive enzymes leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients. Cystic fibrosis, is a hereditary disease that affects the entire body, causing progressive disability and early death. It is caused by a mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. The product of this gene helps create sweat,

neg: Frog eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat. The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where

neg: Gastrointestinal physiology relaxing while circular muscles contract at alternating sections thereby mixing the food. This mixing allows food and digestive enzymes to maintain a uniform composition, as well as to ensure contact with the epithelium for proper absorption. Every day, seven liters of fluid are secreted by the digestive system. This fluid is composed of four primary components: ions, digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the digestive system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells. The

neg: Digestive system of gastropods the food forward in a steady stream from the mouth. Usually, the food is embedded in a string of mucus produced in the mouth, creating a coiled conical mass in the style sac. This action, rather than muscular peristalsis, is responsible for the movement of food through the gastropod digestive tract. Two diverticular glands open into the stomach, and secrete enzymes that help to break down the food. In the more primitive species, these glands may also absorb the food particles directly and digest them intracellularly. The hepatopancreas is the largest organ in stylommatophoran gastropods. It produces enzymes, and absorbs

neg: Canine pancreatitis Canine pancreatitis Canine pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that can occur in two very different forms. Acute pancreatitis is sudden while chronic pancreatitis is characterized by recurring or persistent form of pancreatic inflammation. Cases of both can be considered mild or severe. The pancreas is composed of two sections: the smaller endocrine portion, which is responsible for producing hormones such as insulin, somatostatin, and glucagon, and the larger, exocrine portion, which produces enzymes needed for the digestion of food. Acinar cells make up 82% of the total pancreas; these cells are responsible for the production of the digestive enzymes.

neg: Digestive enzyme these enzymes include: Digestive enzyme Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining In the human digestive system,

neg: Digestive enzyme Digestive enzyme Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining In the human digestive system, the main sites

neg: Intestinal gland duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, and in the large intestine (colon), where they are sometimes called "colonic crypts". Intestinal glands of the small intestine contain a base of replicating stem cells, Paneth cells of the innate immune system, and goblet cells, which produce mucus. In the colon, crypts do not have Paneth cells. The enterocytes in the small intestinal mucosa contain digestive enzymes that digest specific foods while they are being absorbed through the epithelium. These enzymes include peptidase, sucrase, maltase, lactase and intestinal lipase. This is in contrast to the gastric glands of the stomach where chief cells secrete pepsinogen.

neg: Zymogen is blocked by a gallstone resulting in acute pancreatitis. Fungi also secrete digestive enzymes into the environment as zymogens. The external environment has a different pH than inside the fungal cell and this changes the zymogen's structure into an active enzyme. Another way that enzymes can exist in inactive forms and later be converted to active forms is by activating only when a cofactor, called a coenzyme, is bound. In this system, the inactive form (the apoenzyme) becomes the active form (the holoenzyme) when the coenzyme binds. Examples of zymogens: Zymogen A zymogen (), also called a proenzyme (), is

neg: Dopamine edema, and either genetic or essential hypertension. Oxidative stress can itself cause hypertension. Defects in the system can also be caused by genetic factors or high blood pressure. In the pancreas the role of dopamine is somewhat complex. The pancreas consists of two parts, an exocrine and an endocrine component. The exocrine part synthesizes and secretes digestive enzymes and other substances, including dopamine, into the small intestine. The function of this secreted dopamine after it enters the small intestine is not clearly established—the possibilities include protecting the intestinal mucosa from damage and reducing gastrointestinal motility (the rate at which content

neg: Pancreatitis Pancreatitis Pancreatitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the pancreas. The pancreas is a large organ behind the stomach that produces digestive enzymes and a number of hormones. There are two main types, acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis. Signs and symptoms of pancreatitis include pain in the upper abdomen, nausea and vomiting. The pain often goes into the back and is usually severe. In acute pancreatitis a fever may occur and symptoms typically resolve in a few days. In chronic pancreatitis weight loss, fatty stool, and diarrhea may occur. Complications may include infection, bleeding, diabetes mellitus, or problems with

neg: Human digestive system starts to work on breaking down fats. Lipase is further produced in the pancreas where it is released to continue this digestion of fats. The presence of salivary lipase is of prime importance in young babies whose pancreatic lipase has yet to be developed. As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis. Saliva also contains a

neg: Acute pancreatitis pleural effusion, sterile/infected pancreatic necrosis. Systemic complications include ARDS, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, DIC, hypocalcemia (from fat saponification), hyperglycemia and insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (from pancreatic insulin-producing beta cell damage), malabsorption due to exocrine failure Acute pancreatitis occurs when there is abnormal activation of digestive enzymes within the pancreas. This occurs through inappropriate activation of inactive enzyme precursors called zymogens (or proenzymes) inside the pancreas, most notably trypsinogen. Normally, trypsinogen is converted to its active form (trypsin) in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum), where the enzyme assists in the digestion of proteins. During an episode of acute

neg: Scyphozoa system of radial canals, with or without an additional ring canal towards the edge of the dome. Some genera, such as "Cassiopea", even have additional, smaller mouths in the oral arms. The lining of the digestive system includes further stinging nematocysts, along with cells that secrete digestive enzymes. The nervous system usually consists of a distributed net of cells, although some species possess more organised nerve rings. In species lacking nerve rings, the nerve cells are instead concentrated into small structures called "rhopalia". There are between four and sixteen of these small lobes arranged around the rim of the umbrella,

neg: Bivalvia allows the water to pass over its gills and extracts fine organic particles. To prevent itself from being swept away, it attaches itself with byssal threads to the host's throat. The sea cucumber is unharmed. The digestive tract of typical bivalves consists of an oesophagus, stomach, and intestine. A number of digestive glands open into the stomach, often via a pair of diverticula; these secrete enzymes to digest food in the stomach, but also include cells that phagocytose food particles, and digest them intracellularly. In filter-feeding bivalves, an elongated rod of solidified mucus referred to as the "crystalline style" projects

neg: Serine protease activation energy of the reaction. This "preferential binding" is responsible for much of the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme. Host organisms must ensure that the activity of serine proteases is adequately regulated. This is achieved by a requirement for initial protease activation, and the secretion of inhibitors. Zymogens are the usually inactive precursors of an enzyme. If the digestive enzymes were active when synthesized, they would immediately start chewing up the synthesizing organs and tissues. Acute pancreatitis is such a condition, in which there is premature activation of the digestive enzymes in the pancreas, resulting in self-digestion (autolysis). It also

neg: Enteropeptidase these proteins. Enteropeptidase was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, who was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his studies of gastrointestinal physiology. It is the first known enzyme to activate other enzymes, and it remains a remarkable example of how serine proteases have been crafted by evolution to regulate metabolic pathways. The inert function of digestive enzymes within the pancreas was known, as compared to their potent activity within the intestine, but the basis of this difference was unknown. In 1899, Pavlov’s student, N. P. Schepowalnikov, demonstrated that canine duodenal secretions dramatically stimulated the digestive activity of

neg: Brachiopod passes through the mouth, muscular pharynx ("throat") and oesophagus ("gullet"), all of which are lined with cilia and cells that secrete mucus and digestive enzymes. The stomach wall has branched ceca ("pouches") where food is digested, mainly within the cells. Nutrients are transported throughout the coelom, including the mantle lobes, by cilia. The wastes produced by metabolism are broken into ammonia, which is eliminated by diffusion through the mantle and lophophore. Brachiopods have metanephridia, used by many phyla to excrete ammonia and other dissolved wastes. However, brachiopods have no sign of the podocytes, which perform the first phase of excretion

neg: Equine nutrition digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. Bile from the liver acts here, combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine itself. Equids do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly, an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food, and another reason for providing fodder to horses in several small feedings. The cecum is the first section of the large intestine. It is also known as the "water gut" or "hind gut." It is a blind-ended pouch, about long that holds to . The small intestine opens

neg: Carnivorous plant an operculum, which is essentially a flared leaflet that covers the opening of the rolled-leaf tube and protects it from rain. Possibly because of this improved waterproofing, "Sarracenia" species secrete enzymes such as proteases and phosphatases into the digestive fluid at the bottom of the pitcher; "Heliamphora" relies on bacterial digestion alone. The enzymes digest the proteins and nucleic acids in the prey, releasing amino acids and phosphate ions, which the plant absorbs. In at least one species, "Sarracenia flava", the nectar bribe is laced with coniine, a toxic alkaloid also found in hemlock, which probably increases the efficiency of

neg: Pancreatic enzymes (medication) Pancreatic enzymes (medication) Pancreatic enzymes also known as pancrelipase and pancreatin, are commercial mixtures of amylase, lipase, and protease. They are used to treat malabsorption syndrome due to pancreatic problems. These pancreatic problems may be due to cystic fibrosis, surgical removal of the pancreas, long term pancreatitis, or pancreatic cancer among others. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include vomiting, abdominal pain, constipation, and diarrhea. Other side effects include perianal irritation and high blood uric acid. The enzymes are from pigs. Use is believed to be safe during pregnancy. The components are digestive enzymes similar to those normally

neg: Enteroendocrine cell act as chemoreceptors, initiating digestive actions and detecting harmful substances and initiating protective responses. Enteroendocrine cells are located in the stomach, in the intestine and in the pancreas. Intestinal enteroendocrine cells are not clustered together but spread as single cells throughout the intestinal tract. Hormones secreted include somatostatin, motilin, cholecystokinin, neurotensin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and enteroglucagon. K cells secrete gastric inhibitory peptide, an incretin, which also promotes triglyceride storage. L cells secrete glucagon-like peptide-1, an incretin, pancreatic peptide YY, oxyntomodulin and glucagon-like peptide-2. L cells are primarily found in the ileum and large intestine (colon), but some are also found

neg: Enzyme inhibitor specific protein inhibitors. This mechanism occurs in the pancreas, which synthesises many digestive precursor enzymes known as zymogens. Many of these are activated by the trypsin protease, so it is important to inhibit the activity of trypsin in the pancreas to prevent the organ from digesting itself. One way in which the activity of trypsin is controlled is the production of a specific and potent trypsin inhibitor protein in the pancreas. This inhibitor binds tightly to trypsin, preventing the trypsin activity that would otherwise be detrimental to the organ. Although the trypsin inhibitor is a protein, it avoids being hydrolysed

neg: Pancreatic disease digestive juices, and mucus. The name "cystic fibrosis" refers to the characteristic 'fibrosis' (tissue scarring) and cyst formation within the pancreas, causing irreversible damage, and often resulting in painful inflammation (pancreatitis). A pancreatic pseudocyst is a circumscribed collection of fluid rich in amylase and other pancreatic enzymes, blood and necrotic tissue, typically located in the lesser sac. X-ray computed tomography (CT scan) findings of cysts in the pancreas are common, and often are benign. In a study of 2,832 patients without pancreatic disease, 73 patients (2.6%) had cysts in the pancreas. About 85% of these patients had a single cyst.

neg: Roridula that prevents direct contact between the resin on "Roridula" tentacles and the insect's cuticle. This way it does not stick to the tentacles and can roam freely across the plants. "R. dentata" also has a hemipteran resident, "Pameridea marlothi", and may receive nitrogen nutrients in much the same way. In addition, several crab spider species of the genus "Synema" can be found on the plant and these may both prey on the captive insects as well as on the resident bugs. The unrelated Australian genus "Byblis" resembles "Roridula" in having sticky tentacles, which do not secrete digestive enzymes and also

neg: Secretin digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Secretin also increases water and bicarbonate secretion from duodenal Brunner's glands to buffer the incoming protons of the acidic chyme, and also reduces acid secretion by parietal cells of the stomach. It does this through at least three mechanisms: 1) By stimulating release of somatostatin, 2) By inhibiting release of gastrin in the pyloric antrum, and 3) By direct downregulation of the parietal cell acid secretory mechanics. It counteracts blood glucose concentration spikes by triggering increased insulin release from pancreas, following oral glucose intake. Secretin modulates water and electrolyte transport in pancreatic duct cells,

neg: Hiromi Shinya There he cites a medical paper that reports a decrease in the secretion quantity of three kinds of digestive enzyme (and bicarbonate) from the pancreas. The article speculates that this is due to aging, and does not discuss intake of nutrients, so it is irrelevant to his claim. He also says that in recent years vegetables are poorer sources of nutrients, and that it is difficult to obtain sufficient enzymes from consumed food alone. His evidence for this is a chart based on references for 1963 and 2008 which shows values of beta-carotene, vitamin C and iron found in spinach

neg: Dopamine moves through the digestive system). The pancreatic islets make up the endocrine part of the pancreas, and synthesize and secrete hormones including insulin into the bloodstream. There is evidence that the beta cells in the islets that synthesize insulin contain dopamine receptors, and that dopamine acts to reduce the amount of insulin they release. The source of their dopamine input is not clearly established—it may come from dopamine that circulates in the bloodstream and derives from the sympathetic nervous system, or it may be synthesized locally by other types of pancreatic cells. Dopamine as a manufactured medication is sold under

neg: Hepatopancreas spiders of the genus "Dysdera" which feed on woodlice, including their hepatopancreas, the major metal storage organ of isopods in polluted sites. The hepatopancreas is a centre for lipid metabolism and for storage of lipids in gastropods. Some species in the genus "Phyllodesmium" contains active zooxanthellae of the genus "Symbiodinium" in the hepatopancreas. Hepatopancreas The hepatopancreas, digestive gland or midgut gland is an organ of the digestive tract of arthropods and molluscs. It provides the functions which in mammals are provided separately by the liver and pancreas, including the production of digestive enzymes, and absorption of digested food. Arthropods, especially

neg: Hepatopancreas Hepatopancreas The hepatopancreas, digestive gland or midgut gland is an organ of the digestive tract of arthropods and molluscs. It provides the functions which in mammals are provided separately by the liver and pancreas, including the production of digestive enzymes, and absorption of digested food. Arthropods, especially detritivores in the Order Isopoda, Suborder Oniscidea (woodlice), have been shown to be able to store heavy metals in their hepatopancreas. This could lead to bioaccumulation through the food chain and implications for food web destruction, if the accumulation gets high enough in polluted areas; for example, high metal concentrations are seen in

neg: Acute pancreatitis half-life and repeated doses can lead to accumulation of the metabolite normeperidine, which causes neuromuscular side effects and, rarely, seizures. In the management of acute pancreatitis, the treatment is to stop feeding the patient, giving them nothing by mouth, giving intravenous fluids to prevent dehydration, and sufficient pain control. As the pancreas is stimulated to secrete enzymes by the presence of food in the stomach, having no food pass through the system allows the pancreas to rest. Approximately 20% of patients have a relapse of pain during acute pancreatitis. Approximately 75% of relapses occur within 48 hours of oral refeeding.

neg: PLA2G1B al., 1986) . PLA2G1B Phospholipase A2, group 1B is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the "PLA2G1B" gene. Phospholipase A2 (EC 3.1.1.4) catalyzes the release of fatty acids from glycero-3-phosphocholines. The best known varieties are the digestive enzymes secreted as zymogens by the pancreas of mammals as well as fish. Sequences of pancreatic PLA2 enzymes from a variety of mammals have been reported. One striking feature of these enzymes is their close homology to venom phospholipases of snakes. Other forms of PLA2 have been isolated from brain, liver, lung, spleen, intestine, macrophages, leukocytes, erythrocytes, inflammatory exudates, chondrocytes, and

neg: PLA2G1B PLA2G1B Phospholipase A2, group 1B is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the "PLA2G1B" gene. Phospholipase A2 (EC 3.1.1.4) catalyzes the release of fatty acids from glycero-3-phosphocholines. The best known varieties are the digestive enzymes secreted as zymogens by the pancreas of mammals as well as fish. Sequences of pancreatic PLA2 enzymes from a variety of mammals have been reported. One striking feature of these enzymes is their close homology to venom phospholipases of snakes. Other forms of PLA2 have been isolated from brain, liver, lung, spleen, intestine, macrophages, leukocytes, erythrocytes, inflammatory exudates, chondrocytes, and platelets (Seilhamer et

neg: Pulsatile insulin Pulsatile insulin Pulsatile intravenous insulin therapy, sometimes called metabolic activation therapy, or cellular activation therapy describes in a literal sense the intravenous injection of insulin in pulses versus continuous infusions. Injection of insulin in pulses mimics the physiological secretions of insulin by the pancreas into the portal vein which then drains into the liver. In healthy, non-diabetic individuals, pancreatic secretions of insulin correspond to the intake of food. The pancreas will secrete variable amounts of insulin based upon the amount of food consumed (basically speaking, the more food that is consumed, the more insulin the pancreas will secrete) among other

neg: Tissue engineering was produced in vitro. Clusters of small numbers of cells proliferated into 40,000 cells within one week. The clusters transform into cells that make either digestive enzymes or hormones like insulin, self-organizing into branched pancreatic organoids that resemble the pancreas. The cells are sensitive to the environment, such as gel stiffness and contact with other cells. Individual cells do not thrive; a minimum of four proximate cells was required for subsequent organoid development. Modifications to the medium composition produced either hollow spheres mainly composed of pancreatic progenitors, or complex organoids that spontaneously undergo pancreatic morphogenesis and differentiation. Maintenance and expansion

neg: Starfish and a smaller pyloric portion. The cardiac stomach is glandular and pouched, and is supported by ligaments attached to ossicles in the arms so it can be pulled back into position after it has been everted. The pyloric stomach has two extensions into each arm: the pyloric caeca. These are elongated, branched hollow tubes that are lined by a series of glands, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients from the food. A short intestine and rectum run from the pyloric stomach to open at a small anus at the apex of the aboral surface of the disc. Primitive starfish,

neg: Ascomycota organisms that require organic compounds as energy sources. These are obtained by feeding on a variety of organic substrates including dead matter, foodstuffs, or as symbionts in or on other living organisms. To obtain these nutrients from their surroundings, ascomycetous fungi secrete powerful digestive enzymes that break down organic substances into smaller molecules, which are then taken up into the cell. Many species live on dead plant material such as leaves, twigs, or logs. Several species colonize plants, animals, or other fungi as parasites or mutualistic symbionts and derive all their metabolic energy in form of nutrients from the tissues

neg: Secretion humans that produce secretions include the gastrointestinal tract which secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid, the lung which secretes surfactants, and sebaceous glands which secrete sebum to lubricate the skin and hair. Meibomian glands in the eyelid secrete sebum to lubricate and protect the eye. Secretion is not unique to eukaryotes alone - it is present in bacteria and archaea as well. ATP binding cassette (ABC) type transporters are common to all the three domains of life. The Sec system constituting the Sec Y-E-G complex (see Type II secretion system (T2SS), below) is another conserved secretion system, homologous to the

neg: Pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer arises when cells in the pancreas, a glandular organ behind the stomach, begin to multiply out of control and form a mass. These cancerous cells have the ability to invade other parts of the body. There are a number of types of pancreatic cancer. The most common, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, accounts for about 85% of cases, and the term "pancreatic cancer" is sometimes used to refer only to that type. These adenocarcinomas start within the part of the pancreas which makes digestive enzymes. Several other types of cancer, which collectively represent the majority of the non-adenocarcinomas, can

neg: Pancreatic juice Pancreatic juice Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas, which contains a variety of enzymes, including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, nucleases and amylase. The pancreas is located in the visceral region, and is a major part of the digestive system required for proper digestion and subsequent assimilation of macronutrient substances required for living. Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature due to the high concentration of bicarbonate ions. Bicarbonate is useful in neutralizing the acidic gastric acid, allowing for effective enzymic changes. Pancreatic juice secretion is principally regulated by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin, which are produced

neg: Pancreatitis In adults in the United Kingdom, the estimated average total direct and indirect costs of chronic pancreatitis is roughly £79,000 per person on an annual basis. Acute recurrent pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis occur infrequently in children, but are associated with high healthcare costs due to substantial disease burden. Globally, the estimated average total cost of treatment for children with these conditions is approximately $40,500 annually. Fatty food may cause Canine pancreatitis in dogs. Pancreatitis Pancreatitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the pancreas. The pancreas is a large organ behind the stomach that produces digestive enzymes and a number

neg: Squid The food bolus is moved along the gut by peristalsis. The long oesophagus leads to a muscular stomach roughly in the middle of the visceral mass. The digestive gland, which is equivalent to a vertebrate liver, diverticulates here, as does the pancreas, and both of these empty into the caecum, a pouch-shaped sac where most of the absorption of nutrients takes place. Indigestible food can be passed directly from the stomach to the rectum where it joins the flow from the caecum and is voided through the anus into the mantle cavity. Cephalopods are short-lived, and in mature squid, priority

neg: Fetal pig have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the gallbladder, pancreas and spleen are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system because they contain digestive enzymes that will perform chemical digestion of food. After food is digested and nutrients are absorbed,

neg: Salivary gland pathology and mucous saliva via the submandibular duct (Wharton duct) into the mouth, usually opening in a punctum located in the floor of mouth. The sublingual gland is located below the tongue, in the floor of the mouth. It drains its mostly mucous saliva into the mouth via about 8-20 ducts which open along the plica sublingualis (a fold of tissue under the tongue). The function of the salivary glands is to secrete saliva, which has a lubricating function, which protects the oral mucosa of the mouth during eating and speaking. Saliva also contains digestive enzymes (e.g. salivary amylase) and has

neg: Protocarnivorous plant is a species of teasel, "Dipsacus fullonum", which has been only suggested as a possible carnivore. Only one major study has examined "D. fullonum" for carnivory and no evidence of digestive enzymes or foliar nutrient absorption was revealed. "Capsella bursa-pastoris", shepherd's purse, is another plant where the claim of carnivory is contested. This unique protocarnivorous plant is only capable of capturing prey during one stage of its life cycle. The seeds of the plant, when moistened, secrete a viscous fluid that actively attracts and kills prey. There is also evidence of protease activity and absorption of nutrients. The only carnivory

neg: Creatorrhea Creatorrhea Creatorrhea is the abnormal excretion of muscle fibre in feces. The term is made from the prefix "creat-" or "creato-" which comes from Greek "kreas" meaning "flesh". The suffix "-rrhea" (or "-rrhoea") comes from Greek "-rrhoia" meaning "flow," hence discharge. Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical and chemical processes. Failure to produce or secrete chemicals known as digestive enzymes can lead to failure digesting or breaking down specific components of ingested food. Where there is a failure to produce, release, or convert trypsinogen—an inactive enzyme precursor or zymogen—muscle fibres are not properly digested and are

neg: Pancreatitis shown to improve clinical outcomes. Fluids and electrolytes are replaced intravenously. Nutritional support is initiated via tube feeding to surpass the portion of the digestive tract most affected by secreted pancreatic enzymes if there is no improvement in the first 72–96 hours of treatment. Severe acute pancreatitis has mortality rates around 2–9%, higher where necrosis of the pancreas has occurred. Several scoring systems are used to predict the severity of an attack of pancreatitis. They each combine demographic and laboratory data to estimate severity or probability of death. Examples include APACHE II, Ranson, BISAP, and Glasgow. The Modified Glasgow criteria

neg: Cutibacterium acnes bacteria secrete many proteins, including several digestive enzymes. These enzymes are involved in the digestion of sebum and the acquisition of other nutrients. They can also destabilize the layers of cells that form the walls of the follicle. The cellular damage, metabolic byproducts and bacterial debris produced by the rapid growth of "C. acnes" in follicles can trigger inflammation. This inflammation can lead to the symptoms associated with some common skin disorders, such as folliculitis and acne vulgaris. The damage caused by "C. acnes" and the associated inflammation make the affected tissue more susceptible to colonization by opportunistic bacteria, such

neg: Parasitic nutrition the host small intestine wall, preventing the tapeworm from being egested following peristalsis. Tapeworms have a flattened body with microtriches to maximise the surface area available for nutrient absorption and they additionally have various transporter molecules. Tapeworms have to compete with the host epithelium for nutrients, so it is essential that they compete more efficiently for nutrients. They also secrete enzymes to enhance host digestive enzymes e.g. pancreatic α-amylase. Schistosomes, another type of endoparasite, also live inside the body of the host but instead these parasites acquire their nutrients from host blood. Schistosomes are in direct contact with host blood,

neg: Henricia sanguinolenta each arm called the pyloric caeca. These secrete digestive enzymes into the pyloric stomach. Then, the waste is transported through a short intestine, and rectum. The material that is left is secreted through a small anus on the oral side of the disc. The papulae are small are small gills on the rays and disc. Waste ammonia is transported to the tips of the papulae using phagocytic cells, and is then excreted. "Henricia sanguinolenta" has a circulatory system that forms three rings of vessels. They are called the hyponeural haemal ring, the gastric ring, and the genital ring. The heart

neg: Western honey bee the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for about 30 minutes, using digestive enzymes to break down the complex sugars into simpler ones. Raw honey is then spread in empty honeycomb cells to dry, reducing its water content to less than 20 percent. When nectar is being processed, honey bees create a draft through the hive by fanning with their wings. When the honey has dried, the honeycomb cells are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve it. Mature worker bees secrete beeswax from glands on their abdomen, using it to form the walls and caps of the comb.

neg: Kinorhyncha pharynx and then an oesophagus, both of which are lined by cuticle. Two pairs of salivary glands and one or more pairs of "pancreatic glands" connect to the oesophagus and presumably secrete digestive enzymes. Beyond the oesophagus lies a midgut that combines the functions of a stomach and intestine, and lacks a cuticle, enabling it to absorb nutrients. The short hind-gut is lined by cuticle, and empties into an anus at the posterior end of the trunk. There is no circulatory system, although the body cavity (or pseudocoel) is well developed, and includes amoebocytes. The excretory system consists of two

neg: Parasitic nutrition available on the outer surface of the host, so they need adaptations to access host nutrients. This requires penetrating features they can insert into the host, as well as the ability to secrete digestive enzymes and the presence of a gut to digest host-derived nutrients. Ectoparasites also have a variety of parasite transporters and permeases to enable them to acquire nutrition from their host, across numerous membranes. Many ectoparasites are known pathogen vectors, so they transmit these pathogens during nutrient acquisition. Tsetse flies, the insect vector of Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African trypanosomiasis are an example of an

neg: Digestion they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled. Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a

neg: Pinguicula cell. These cells produce a mucilagenous secretion which forms visible droplets across the leaf surface. This wet appearance probably helps lure prey in search of water (a similar phenomenon is observed in the sundews). The droplets secrete limited amounts of digestive enzymes, and serve mainly to entrap insects. On contact with an insect, the peduncular glands release additional mucilage from special reservoir cells located at the base of their stalks. The insect will begin to struggle, triggering more glands and encasing itself in mucilage. Some species can bend their leaf edges slightly by thigmotropism, bringing additional glands into contact with

neg: Pancreatic enzymes (medication) produced by the human pancreas. They help the person digest fats, starches, and proteins. Pancreatic enzymes have been used as medications since at least the 1800s. They are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. In the United Kingdom a typical month's supply costs the NHS about £11.64. In the United States a month of treatment typically costs $50 to $100. Pancrelipases are generally a first line approach in treatment of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and other digestive disorders, accompanying cystic fibrosis, complicating surgical pancreatectomy, or resulting from

neg: Pancreatectomy patients. A distal pancreatectomy is removal of the body and tail of the pancreas. After a total pancreatectomy, the body no longer produces its own insulin or pancreatic enzymes, so patients have to take insulin and enzyme supplements. Those who were not already diabetic become so. Glycemic control is challenging even for relatively young and healthy apancreatic people, owing to the digestive challenges of not having endogenous insulin and pancreatic enzymes under autonomic control. It can be insurmountably challenging depending on age and comorbidities. But overall, quality of life in patients after total pancreatectomy is comparable with quality of life

neg: Pancreatic cancer arises in the clusters of cells that produce these enzymes, and represents 5% of exocrine pancreas cancers. Like the 'functioning' endocrine cancers described below, acinar cell carcinomas may cause over-production of certain molecules, in this case digestive enzymes, which may cause symptoms such as skin rashes and joint pain. Cystadenocarcinomas account for 1% of pancreatic cancers, and they have a better prognosis than the other exocrine types. Pancreatoblastoma is a rare form, mostly occurring in childhood, and with a relatively good prognosis. Other exocrine cancers include adenosquamous carcinomas, signet ring cell carcinomas, hepatoid carcinomas, colloid carcinomas, undifferentiated carcinomas, and undifferentiated

neg: Gut-associated lymphoid tissue with its germinal centers, T cells areas between them in a smaller number and dendritic cells are found. In this area, the subepithelial dome is separated from the intestinal lumen by a layer of follicle-associated epithelium. This contains conventional intestinal epithelial cells and a small number of specialized epitheial cells called microfold cells (M cells) in between. Unlike enterocytes, these M cells present a folded luminal surface instead of the microvilli, do not secrete digestive enzymes or mucus and lack a thick surface of glycocalix. The digestive tract is an important component of the body's immune system. In fact, the