query: at the site of cellular respiration glucose converts to

pos: Cellular respiration ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose. Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose).

pos: Cellular waste product of oxygen, not all of the carbon-carbon bonds in glucose can be broken to release energy. A great deal of extractable energy is left in the waste products. Anaerobic respiration generally occurs in prokaryotes in environments that do not contain oxygen. Fermentation is another process by which cells can extract energy from glucose. It is not a form of cellular respiration, but it does generate ATP, break down glucose, and produce waste products. Fermentation, like aerobic respiration, begins by breaking glucose into two pyruvate molecules. From here, it proceeds using endogenous organic electron receptors, whereas cellular respiration uses exogenous receptors,

pos: Cellular respiration lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two

pos: Cellular waste product Cellular waste product Cellular waste products are formed as a by-product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of ATP. Two examples of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. Each pathway generates different waste products. When in the presence of oxygen, cells use aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose molecules. Simplified Theoretical Reaction: CHO + 6O → 6CO + 6HO + ~ 30ATP Cells undergoing aerobic respiration produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 6 molecules of water, and up to 30 molecules

pos: Cellular respiration ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose. Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose).

pos: Cellular waste product fatigue. It also creates a gradient which induces water to flow out of cells and increases blood pressure. Research suggests that lactic acid may also play a role in lowering levels of potassium in the blood. It can also be converted back to pyruvate or converted back to glucose in the liver and fully metabolized by aerobic respiration. Cellular waste product Cellular waste products are formed as a by-product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of ATP. Two examples of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic

pos: Cellular waste product of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is directly used to produce energy, from each molecule of glucose in the presence of surplus oxygen. In aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the electron transport chain. Aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong oxidant. Aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and ATP is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat. This strategy results in the waste products HO and CO being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration.

pos: Cellular respiration glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen. Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by

pos: Cellular respiration to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals. According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose , because: So finally we have, per molecule of glucose Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the

pos: Plant nutrition photosynthesis and for respiration. Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and is acquired in many forms. These include: O and CO (mainly from the air via leaves) and HO, NO, HPO and SO (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants produce oxygen gas (O) along with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP. Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances. For example, nitrogen compounds comprise 40% to 50% of the dry matter of

pos: Cellular respiration coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation. Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient. The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical

pos: Cellular respiration NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate. Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting". Pyruvate is

pos: Carbohydrate catabolism molecules of ATP is therefore one of the most important biochemical pathways found in living organisms. Glycolysis, which means “sugar splitting,” is the initial process in the cellular respiration pathway. Glycolysis can be either an aerobic or anaerobic process. When oxygen is present, glycolysis continues along the aerobic respiration pathway. If oxygen is not present, then ATP production is restricted to anaerobic respiration. The location where glycolysis, aerobic or anaerobic, occurs is in the cytosol of the cell. In glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is split into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. These carbon molecules are oxidized into NADH and

pos: Adenosine triphosphate pathways in eukaryotes are (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and (3) beta-oxidation. The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide, the combination of pathways 1 and 2, is known as cellular respiration, produces about 30 equivalents of ATP from each molecule of glucose. ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote occurs mainly in the mitochondria, which comprise nearly 25% of the volume of a typical cell. In glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate. Glycolysis generates two equivalents of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes, PGK and pyruvate kinase. Two equivalents of NADH

pos: Cellular respiration However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells. 1. Glycolysis: --- "2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs" 2. Formation of Acetyl CoA: --- "2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 CoA → 2

pos: Mitochondrion cycle. However, the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP. A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task. This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose: pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol. This type of cellular respiration known as aerobic respiration, is dependent on the presence of oxygen. When oxygen is limited, the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic fermentation, a process that is independent of the mitochondria. The production of

pos: Cellular waste product along the same pathway as aerobic respiration, but once glucose is converted to pyruvate proceeds down one of two pathways and produces only two molecules of ATP from each molecule of glucose. In the homolactic pathway, it produces lactic acid as waste. In the heterolactic pathway, it produces lactic acid as well as ethanol and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid fermentation is relatively inefficient. The waste products lactic acid and ethanol have not been fully oxidized and still contain energy, but it requires the addition of oxygen to extract this energy. Generally, lactic acid fermentation occurs only when aerobic cells are

pos: Cellular respiration pace themselves, such as sprinting. Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP. Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean. Cellular respiration Cellular respiration is

pos: Cellular respiration Cellular respiration Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called "high-energy" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in

pos: Respiration (physiology) Respiration (physiology) In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. The physiological definition of respiration differs from the biochemical definition, which refers to cellular respiration, a metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy (in the form of ATP) by oxidizing nutrients and releasing waste products. Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the organism, while physiologic respiration concerns the diffusion and

pos: Glucose for subsequent breakdown in later steps of glycolysis. At physiological conditions, this initial reaction is irreversible. In anaerobic respiration, one glucose molecule produces a net gain of two ATP molecules (four ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis through substrate-level phosphorylation, but two are required by enzymes used during the process). In aerobic respiration, a molecule of glucose is much more profitable in that a maximum net production of 30 or 32 ATP molecules (depending on the organism) through oxidative phosphorylation is generated. Tumor cells often grow comparatively quickly and consume an above-average amount of glucose by glycolysis, which leads to

pos: Cellular respiration to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, HO and CO, are created during this

pos: Biomedicine up the four big macromolecules that living organisms need to survive- carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates, made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are energy storing molecules. The simplest one of carbohydrates is glucose, CHO, is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which supplies cells with energy. Proteins are chains of amino acids that function to contract skeletal muscle, function catalysts, transport molecules, and storage molecules. Proteins can facilitate biochemical processes, by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. Hemoglobins are also proteins, that carry oxygen to the cells in an organisms body. Lipids, also

pos: Chemiosmosis from the cytoplasm. This "costs" one "extra" proton import per ATP, hence the actual efficiency is only 65% (= 2.4/3.67). The complete breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen is called cellular respiration. The last steps of this process occur in mitochondria. The reduced molecules NADH and FADH are generated by the Krebs cycle, glycolysis, and pyruvate processing. These molecules pass electrons to an electron transport chain, which uses the energy released to create a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase then uses the energy stored in this gradient to make ATP. This process is called

pos: Cellular respiration ATP. In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed. The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced

pos: Glucokinase cells, the beta cells of the pancreatic islets are the most-studied and best-understood. It is likely that many of the regulatory relationships discovered in the beta cells will also exist in the other neuroendocrine tissues with glucokinase. In islet beta cells, glucokinase activity serves as a principal control for the secretion of insulin in response to rising levels of blood glucose. As G6P is consumed, increasing amounts of ATP initiate a series of processes that result in release of insulin. One of the immediate consequences of increased cellular respiration is a rise in the NADH and NADPH concentrations (collectively referred

pos: Vitamin K with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone. The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor). Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively. Some of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate

pos: Cellular respiration cycle. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate. The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2

pos: Bioenergetic systems Bioenergetic systems Bioenergetic systems are metabolic processes that relate to the flow of energy in living organisms. Those processes convert energy into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the form suitable for muscular activity. There are two main forms of synthesis of ATP: "aerobic", which involves oxygen from the bloodstream, and "anaerobic", which does not. Bioenergetics is the field of biology that studies bioenergetic systems. The cellular respiration process that converts food energy into ATP (a form of energy) is largely dependent on oxygen availability. During exercise, the supply and demand of oxygen available to muscle cells is affected by duration

pos: Electron transport chain aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in

pos: Maintenance respiration Maintenance respiration Maintenance respiration (or maintenance energy) refers to metabolism occurring in an organism that is needed to maintain that organism in a healthy, living state. Maintenance respiration in plants refers to the amount of cellular respiration, measured by the carbon dioxide (CO) released or oxygen (O) consumed, during the generation of usable energy (mainly ATP, NADPH, and NADH) and metabolic intermediates used for (i) resynthesis of compounds that undergo renewal (turnover) in the normal process of metabolism (examples are enzymatic proteins, ribonucleic acids, and membrane lipids); (ii) maintenance of chemical gradients of ions and metabolites across cellular membranes that

pos: Glycolysis as part of glycolysis. These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H from glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a vastly different mechanism to the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis. The lower-energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration relative to aerobic respiration, results in greater flux through the pathway under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, unless alternative sources of anaerobically oxidizable substrates, such as fatty acids, are found. The pathway of glycolysis as it is known today took almost 100 years to fully discover. The

pos:
Photosynthetic efficiency d-glucose
 35–45% of the glucose is consumed by the leaf in the processes of dark and photo respiration Stated another way:
 100% sunlight → non-bioavailable photons waste is 47%, leaving
 53% (in the 400–700 nm range) → 30% of photons are lost due to incomplete absorption, leaving
 37% (absorbed photon energy) → 24% is lost due to wavelength-mismatch degradation to 700 nm energy, leaving
 28.2% (sunlight energy collected by chlorophyll) → 32% efficient conversion of ATP and NADPH to d-glucose, leaving
 9% (collected as sugar) → 35–40% of sugar is recycled/consumed by the leaf in dark and photo-respiration, leaving
 5.4%

pos: Cellular respiration a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions. Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing

pos: Glucose Glucose is the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing about 3.75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g., starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, glucose is oxidized to eventually form carbon dioxide and water, yielding energy mostly in the form of ATP. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. The physiological caloric value of glucose, depending on the source, is 16.2 kilojoules per gram and

pos: Flutamide of action of flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity is thought to be due to mitochondrial toxicity. Specifically, flutamide and particularly its major metabolite hydroxyflutamide inhibit enzymes in the mitochondrial electron transport chain in hepatocytes, including respiratory complexes I (), II (succinate dehydrogenase), and V (ATP synthase), and thereby reduce cellular respiration via ATP depletion and hence decrease cell survival. Inhibition of taurocholate (a bile acid) efflux has also been implicated in flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity. In contrast to flutamide and hydroxyflutamide, which severely compromise hepatocyte cellular respiration "in vitro", bicalutamide does not significantly do so at the same concentrations and is regarded as non-mitotoxic. It

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism breaks down complex carbohydrates into a few simple monomers (monosaccharides) for metabolism: glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose constitutes about 80% of the products, and is the primary structure that is distributed to cells in the tissues, where it is broken down or stored as glycogen. In aerobic respiration, the main form of cellular respiration used by humans, glucose and oxygen are metabolized to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Most of the fructose and galactose travel to the liver, where they can be converted to glucose. Some simple carbohydrates have their own enzymatic oxidation pathways, as do

neg: Redox the pure metals are extracted by smelting at high temperature in the presence of a reducing agent. The process of electroplating uses redox reactions to coat objects with a thin layer of a material, as in chrome-plated automotive parts, silver plating cutlery, galvanization and gold-plated jewelry. Many important biological processes involve redox reactions. Cellular respiration, for instance, is the oxidation of glucose (CHO) to CO and the reduction of oxygen to water. The summary equation for cell respiration is: The process of cell respiration also depends heavily on the reduction of NAD to NADH and the reverse reaction (the oxidation

neg: Beer chemistry yeast is a significant factor. In aerobic conditions, the yeast will use the simple sugars from the malting process in glycolysis, and send the major organic product of glycolysis (pyruvate) into carbon dioxide and water via cellular respiration, many homebrewers use this aspect of yeast metabolism to carbonate their beers. However, under anaerobic conditions yeast cannot use the end products of glycolysis to generate energy in cellular respiration. Instead, they rely on a process called fermentation. Fermentation converts pyruvate into ethanol through the intermediate acetaldehyde. Water can often play a very important role in the way a beer tastes, as

neg: Lactic acid fermentation Lactic acid fermentation Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose and other six-carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells. If oxygen is present in the cell, many organisms will bypass fermentation and undergo cellular respiration; however, facultative anaerobic organisms will both ferment and undergo respiration in the presence of oxygen. Sometimes even when oxygen is present and aerobic metabolism is

neg: Glycolysis NADPH is also formed by the pentose phosphate pathway which converts glucose into ribose, which can be used in synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids, or it can be catabolized to pyruvate. Cellular uptake of glucose occurs in response to insulin signals, and glucose is subsequently broken down through glycolysis, lowering blood sugar levels. However, the low insulin levels seen in diabetes result in hyperglycemia, where glucose levels in the blood rise and glucose is not properly taken up by cells. Hepatocytes further contribute to this hyperglycemia through gluconeogenesis. Glycolysis in hepatocytes controls hepatic glucose production, and when glucose is

neg: Carbon dioxide ethanol, also known as alcohol, as follows: All aerobic organisms produce when they oxidize carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins. The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily. Refer to (cellular respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis). The equation for the respiration of glucose and other monosaccharides is: Anaerobic organisms decompose organic material producing methane and carbon dioxide together with traces of other compounds. Regardless of the type of organic material, the production of gases follows well defined kinetic pattern. Carbon dioxide comprises about 40–45% of the gas that emanates from decomposition in landfills (termed "landfill gas").

neg: Cellular waste product CO is formed in Pyruvate decarboxylation, HO is formed in oxidative phosphorylation, and both are formed in the citric acid cycle. The simple nature of the final products also indicates the efficiency of this method of respiration. All of the energy stored in the carbon-carbon bonds of glucose is released, leaving CO and HO. Although there is energy stored in the bonds of these molecules, this energy is not easily accessible by the cell. All usable energy is efficiently extracted. Anaerobic respiration is done by aerobic organisms when there is not sufficient oxygen in a cell to undergo aerobic respiration

neg: G0 phase it is not clear how Rim15 activates Gis1 and Msn2/4, there is some speculation that it may directly phosphorylate them or be involved in chromatin remodeling. Rim15 has also been found to contain a PAS domain at its N terminal, making it a newly discovered member of the PAS kinase family. The PAS domain is a regulatory unit of the Rim15 protein that may play a role in sensing oxidative stress in yeast. Yeast grows exponentially through fermentation of glucose. When glucose levels drop, yeast shift from fermentation to cellular respiration, metabolizing the fermentative products from their exponential growth phase.

neg: Active transport is then used to power the active transport of a second ion or molecule against its gradient. In bacteria and small yeast cells, a commonly cotransported ion is hydrogen. Hydrogen pumps are also used to create an electrochemical gradient to carry out processes within cells such as in the electron transport chain, an important function of cellular respiration that happens in the mitochondrion of the cell. In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever

neg: Warburg hypothesis Warburg hypothesis The Warburg hypothesis (), sometimes known as the Warburg theory of cancer, postulates that the driver of tumorigenesis is an insufficient cellular respiration caused by insult to mitochondria. The term "Warburg effect" in oncology describes the observation that cancer cells, and many cells grown "in vitro", exhibit glucose fermentation even when enough oxygen is present to properly respire. In other words, instead of fully respiring in the presence of adequate oxygen, cancer cells ferment. The Warburg hypothesis was that the Warburg effect was the root cause of cancer. The current popular opinion is that cancer cells ferment glucose

neg: Glucose the formation of lactate, the end product of fermentation in mammals, even in the presence of oxygen. This effect is called the Warburg effect. For the increased uptake of glucose in tumors various SGLT and GLUT are overly produced. In yeast, ethanol is fermented at high glucose concentrations, even in the presence of oxygen (which normally leads to respiration but not to fermentation). This effect is called the Crabtree effect. Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology. It is used as an energy source in organisms, from bacteria to humans, through either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration (in bacteria), or fermentation.

neg: Carbohydrate for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 9 kJ (4 kcal) of energy, while the oxidation of

neg: Randle cycle (fatty acid translocase)/CD36. CD36 deletion rescues lipotoxic cardiomyopathy. FAT/CD36 may be controlled by insulin and AMPK. Increased transport coupled to the formation of the CoA derivatives and the resulting AMPK activation should ensure efficient fatty acid uptake and metabolism. Fatty acids are preferentially oxidized because of the inactivation of PDH by fatty acid oxidation inhibiting glucose oxidation. This suggests that mitochondrial metabolism may control fuel selection. Cellular respiration is stimulated by fatty acids and this relates to an increase in the mitochondrial NADH to NAD+ ratio, suggesting that energy provision overtakes energy consumption. Switching from glucose to fatty acid oxidation

neg: North American Carbon Program are bicarbonate ions. They are converted into organic compounds like glucose. Heterotrophs consume the glucose, which further breaks down the compounds and passes them through webs (this process is called cellular respiration). Living systems and decomposers release the carbons as carbon dioxide.This carbon is cycled quickly, with estimates of 1,000 to 1000,000 million metric tons of carbon cycling through these pathways in a single year. Like its name implies, this pathway takes longer than the pathway above, sometimes lasting millions of years. This form of carbon is found in rocks, in the ocean and other bodies of water, inside the

neg: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both the source of energy to drive this process and the electrons needed to convert into a carbohydrate. This addition of the electrons is a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce and water, and to release exothermic chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism. However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments. Most

neg: Diauxie is plenty of glucose and oxygen available, the yeast cells prefer glucose fermentation to aerobic respiration even though aerobic respiration is the more efficient pathway to grow on glucose. Contrary to the more commonly invoked Pasteur effect, this phenomenon of preferring the faster growth supporting fermentation is closer to the Warburg effect observed in faster growing tumors. The intracellular genetic regulatory mechanisms have evolved to enforce this choice, as fermentation provides a faster growth rate for the yeast cells than the aerobic respiration of glucose. After glucose is depleted, the fermentative product ethanol is oxidised in a noticeably slower second

neg: Mesosome observed in 1953 by George B. Chapman and James Hillier, who referred to them as "peripheral bodies." They were termed "mesosomes" by J. D. Robertson in 1959. Initially, it was thought that mesosomes might play a role in several cellular processes, such as cell wall formation during cell division, chromosome replication, or as a site for oxidative phosphorylation. The mesosome was thought to increase the surface area of the cell, aiding the cell in cellular respiration. This is analogous to cristae in the mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells, which are finger-like projections and help eukaryotic cells undergo cellular respiration. Mesosomes were

neg: Suksin Lee While in his final year of studies, Lee obtained a position as a research assistant at a national hospital in Berlin, where he worked and researched until 1927. During this time he published and co-published several papers on the effects of photosensitive substances on glucose metabolism and cellular respiration. Returning to his native Korea, he began studies of the staple Korean diet and its effects on metabolism as a research assistant at Kyŏngsŏng Medical College in February 1928. He was appointed an instructor of physiology in the department of biochemistry of Severance Union Medical College (now Yonsei University College of

neg: Glucose containing glucose as the sole carbon source. In some bacteria and, in modified form, also in archaea, glucose is degraded via the Entner-Doudoroff pathway. Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation. The first step of glycolysis is the phosphorylation of glucose by a hexokinase to form glucose 6-phosphate. The main reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose is to prevent its diffusion out of the cell as the charged phosphate group prevents glucose 6-phosphate from easily crossing the cell membrane. Furthermore, addition of the high-energy phosphate group activates glucose

neg: Hans Adolf Krebs intermediate reactions. Krebs started working on the possible method for the synthesis of arginine. Using his Warburg manometer, he mixed a slice of liver with purified ornithine and citrulline. He found that citrulline acted as a catalyst in the metabolic reactions of urea from ammonia and carbon dioxide. He and Henseleit published their discovery in 1932. Thus the urea cycle (or "ornithine cycle") was established, and it was the first metabolic cycle to be discovered. At the University of Sheffield, Krebs and William Johnson investigated cellular respiration by which oxygen was consumed to produce energy from the breakdown of glucose.

neg: Yeast at the Centennial Exposition in 1876 in Philadelphia, where Charles L. Fleischmann exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread. Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic compounds as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can metabolize pentose sugars such as ribose, alcohols, and organic acids. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration (obligate aerobes) or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods

neg: TP53-inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator mutase. TIGAR also inhibit the Phosphofructokinase (PFK) by lowering the level of fructose-2,6,bisphosphate, therefore, glycolysis is inhibited and pentose phosphate pathway is promoted. TIGAR decreases cellular fructose-2,6-bisphosphate levels. It catalyses the removal of a phosphate group from fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP): Fructose-2,6-Bisphosphate->Fructose-6-phosphate (F-6-P) + phosphate F-2,6-BP is an allosteric regulator of cellular glucose metabolism pathways. Ordinarily F-2,6-BP binds to and increases the activity of phosphofructokinase 1. Phosphofructokinase-1 catalyses the addition of a phosphate to F-6-P to form Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP). This is an essential step in the glycolysis pathway, which forms the first part of aerobic respiration in mammals.F-2,6-BP also binds to and

neg: Cellular respiration Acetyl CoA + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen" 3. Krebs Cycle: --- "2 Acetyl CoA + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs" 4. Electron Transport System: --- "12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs" Overall Reaction: --- "Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs" Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce

neg: Water with CO (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform water and CO in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as a hydroxide ion (OH) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have

neg: Warburg hypothesis or causes. Warburg hypothesis The Warburg hypothesis (), sometimes known as the Warburg theory of cancer, postulates that the driver of tumorigenesis is an insufficient cellular respiration caused by insult to mitochondria. The term "Warburg effect" in oncology describes the observation that cancer cells, and many cells grown "in vitro", exhibit glucose fermentation even when enough oxygen is present to properly respire. In other words, instead of fully respiring in the presence of adequate oxygen, cancer cells ferment. The Warburg hypothesis was that the Warburg effect was the root cause of cancer. The current popular opinion is that cancer cells

neg: Metabolism in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism). Metabolic reactions may be categorized as "catabolic" - the "breaking down" of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or "anabolic" - the "building up" (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific

neg: Seahorse Bioscience instruments measure cellular bioenergies in real time, in a microplate, and are used for scientific research, . as well as drug discovery and development. Seahorse Bioscience bought BioProcessors Corp in 2009. BioProcessors Corp manufactured systems for optimizing drug manufacturing. XF Analyzers are capable of measuring the two major energy producing pathways of the cell simultaneously, mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis, allowing scientists to get the most physiologically relevant bioenergetic assay available, resulting in a better overall view of metabolism. XF technology also measures fatty acid oxidation, and metabolism of glucose and amino acids for kinetic metabolic information. Research on obesity, diabetes,

neg: Photosynthesis of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate, cellular respiration is the oxidation of carbohydrate or other nutrients to carbon dioxide. Nutrients used in cellular respiration include carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids. These nutrients are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are distinct processes, as they take place through different sequences of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments. The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelis van Niel is therefore: Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for

neg: Reducing agent "reduced" by) reducers. In their pre-reaction states, reducers have more electrons (that is, they are by themselves reduced) and oxidizers have fewer electrons (that is, they are by themselves oxidized). A reducing agent typically is in one of its lower possible oxidation states and is known as the electron donor. Examples of reducing agents include the earth metals, formic acid, and sulfite compounds. For example, consider the overall reaction for aerobic cellular respiration: The oxygen (O) is being reduced, so it is the oxidizing agent. The glucose (CHO) is being oxidized, so it is the reducing agent. In organic chemistry,

neg: Gibberellin begins shortly after the seed is exposed to water. Gibberellins in the seed embryo are believed to signal starch hydrolysis through inducing the synthesis of the enzyme α-amylase in the aleurone cells. In the model for gibberellin-induced production of α-amylase, it is demonstrated that gibberellins (denoted by GA) produced in the scutellum diffuse to the aleurone cells, where they stimulate the secretion α-amylase. α-Amylase then hydrolyses starch, which is abundant in many seeds, into glucose that can be used in cellular respiration to produce energy for the seed embryo. Studies of this process have indicated gibberellins cause higher levels of

neg: Thenoyltrifluoroacetone Thenoyltrifluoroacetone Thenoyltrifluoroacetone, CHFOS, is a chemical compound used pharmacologically as a chelating agent. It is an inhibitor of cellular respiration by blocking the respiratory chain at complex II. Perhaps the first report of TTFA as an inhibitor of respiration was by A. L. Tappel in 1960. Tappel had the (erroneous) idea that inhibitors like antimycin and alkyl hydroxyquinoline-N-oxide might work by chelating iron in the hydrophobic milieu of respiratory membrane proteins, so he tested a series of hydrophobic chelating agents. TTFA was a potent inhibitor, but not because of its chelating ability. TTFA binds at the quinone reduction site in

neg: Malolactic fermentation inoculation (such as "wild" ferments versus an inoculation of cultured "O. oeni"). The genus "Oenococcus" has one main member involved in winemaking, "O. oeni", once known as "Leuconostoc oeni". Despite having the name "Oenococcus", under the microscope, the bacterium has a bacillus (shape) rod shape. The bacteria is a Gram-positive, facultative anaerobe that can utilize some oxygen for aerobic respiration but usually produces cellular energy through fermentation. "O. oeni" is a heterofermenter that create multiple end products from the use of glucose with D-lactic acid and carbon dioxide being produced in roughly equal amounts to either ethanol or acetate. In

neg: Compensation point Compensation point The (light) compensation point is the light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of cellular respiration. At this point, the uptake of CO through photosynthetic pathways is equal to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide, and the uptake of O by respiration is equal to the photosynthetic release of oxygen. In assimilation terms, at the compensation point, the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero. Leaves release CO by photorespiration and cellular respiration, but CO is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis. Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of

neg: Gliflozin the proximal convoluted tubule. By inhibiting SGLT2, gliflozins prevent the kidneys' reuptake of glucose from the glomerular filtrate and subsequently lower the glucose level in the blood and promote the excretion of glucose in the urine (glucosuria). The mechanism of action on a cellular level is not well understood. However, it has been shown that binding of different sugars to the glucose site affects the orientation of the aglycone in the access vestibule. So when the aglycone binds it affects the entire inhibitor. Together these mechanisms lead to a synergistic interaction. Therefore, variations in the structure of both the sugar

neg: Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is a complex of three enzymes that converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation. Acetyl-CoA may then be used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration, and this complex links the glycolysis metabolic pathway to the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate decarboxylation is also known as the "pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction" because it also involves the oxidation of pyruvate. This multi-enzyme complex is related structurally and functionally to the oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and branched-chain oxo-acid dehydrogenase multi-enzyme complexes. The reaction catalysed by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is: Initially, pyruvate and thiamine

neg: Emmett Chappelle This ability to photosynthesize atmospheric carbon dioxide to oxygen is characteristic of all plants that is the opposite process of cellular respiration, that all animals and non-photosynthetic organism rely on to sustain life. Both photosynthesis and cellular respiration are used to create energy that is used to carry out all functions in an organism. Since humans rely on cellular respiration, the conversion of oxygen to carbon dioxide, and algae relies on photosynthesis, the conversion of carbon dioxide to oxygen, astronauts were able to survive in space with a constant renewal of oxygen. This knowledge was not only beneficial to astronauts

neg: Kluyveromyces marxianus In a glucose-yeast extract broth, "K. marxianus" grows to produce a ring composed of sediment. A thin pellicle may be formed. In a Dalmau plate culture containing cornmeal agar and Polysorbate 80, "K. marxianus" forms a rudimentary to branched pseudomycelium with few blastospores. "K. marxianus" is thermotolerant, exhibiting a high growth rate at . "Kluyveromyces marxianus" is an aerobic yeast capable of respiro-fermentative metabolism that consists of simultaneously generating energy from both respiration via the TCA cycle and ethanol fermentation. The balance between respiration and fermentation metabolisms is strain specific. This species also ferments inulin, glucose, raffinose, sucrose and lactose

neg: Breathing Breathing Breathing (or respiration, or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly by bringing in oxygen and flushing out carbon dioxide. All aerobic creatures need oxygen for cellular respiration, which uses the oxygen to break down foods for energy and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product. Breathing, or "external respiration", brings air into the lungs where gas exchange takes place in the alveoli through diffusion. The body's circulatory system transports these gases to and from the cells, where "cellular respiration" takes place. The breathing

neg: Food energy Food energy Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the process of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration may either involve the chemical reaction of food molecules with molecular oxygen (aerobic respiration) or the process of reorganizing the food molecules without additional oxygen (anaerobic respiration). Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of food energy to sustain their metabolism and to drive their muscles. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only

neg: Cellular waste product lacking oxygen. However, some aerobic mammalian cells will preferentially use lactic acid fermentation over aerobic respiration. This phenomenon is called the Warburg effect and is found primarily in cancer cells. Muscles cells under great exertion will also use lactic acid fermentation to supplement aerobic respiration. Lactic acid fermentation is somewhat faster, although less efficient, than aerobic respiration, so in activities like sprinting it can help quickly provide needed energy to muscles. Cellular respiration takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria within cells. Depending on the pathways followed, the products are dealt with in different ways. CO is excreted from

neg: Food energy or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates. Food energy Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the process of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration may either involve the chemical reaction of food molecules with molecular oxygen (aerobic respiration) or the process of reorganizing the food molecules without additional oxygen (anaerobic respiration). Humans and other animals need a minimum

neg: Proofing (baking technique) is added to flour and water. Enzymes in the flour and yeast create sugars, which are consumed by the yeast, which in turn produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. Specifically, the grain enzyme diastase begins to convert starch in the grain to maltose. The baker's yeast enzyme maltase converts maltose into glucose, invertase converts any added sucrose to glucose and fructose, and zymase converts glucose and fructose to carbon dioxide gas which makes the dough rise, and alcohol which gives the baked bread flavor. Sourdough starters also produce lactic and acetic acids, further contributing to flavor. When the yeast cells die,

neg: Atmospheric carbon cycle and other components of the global carbon cycle. Carbon is exchanged with varying speed with the terrestrial biosphere. It is absorbed in the form of carbon dioxide by autotrophs and converted into organic compounds. Carbon is also released from the biosphere into the atmosphere in the course of biological processes. Aerobic respiration converts organic carbon into carbon dioxide and a particular type of anaerobic respiration converts it into methane. After respiration, both carbon dioxide and methane are typically emitted into the atmosphere. Organic carbon is also released into the atmosphere during burning. The residence time of carbon in the terrestrial

neg: Ethanol fermentation Ethanol fermentation Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce. Ethanol fermentation has many uses, including the production of alcoholic beverages, the production of ethanol fuel, and bread cooking. The chemical equations below summarize the fermentation

neg: Ethanol fermentation Grains with Solubles", respectively. Ethanol fermentation Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce. Ethanol fermentation has many uses, including the production of alcoholic beverages, the production of ethanol fuel, and bread cooking. The chemical equations

neg: Inositol oxygenase Release of D-glucuronic acid is achieved in the fourth step. "Myo"-inositol can be ingested from fruits and vegetables and actively transported into cells or instead directly synthesized from glucose. In the kidney, MIOX converts "myo-"inositol to glucuronic acid which is then able to enter the glucuronate-xylulose pathway for conversion to xylulose-5-phosphate. This product can then easily enter the pentose phosphate pathway. Hence, MIOX enables the conversion and catabolism of inositol to generate NADPH and other pentose sugars. "Myo"-inositol is a component of the inositol phosphates and phosphoinositides that serve as secondary messengers in many cellular processes including insulin action. Due

neg: Respirometer Respirometer A respirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration of a living organism by measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide. They allow investigation into how factors such as age, or chemicals affect the rate of respiration. Respirometers are designed to measure respiration either on the level of a whole animal or plant or on the cellular level. These fields are covered by whole animal and cellular (or mitochondrial) respirometry, respectively. A simple whole plant respirometer designed to measure oxygen uptake or CO release consists of a sealed container with the living specimen

neg: Maintenance respiration for plant respiration, more than one quarter of global terrestrial plant photosynthesis is presumably consumed in maintenance respiration. Maintenance respiration is a key component of most physiologically based mathematical models of plant growth, including models of crop growth and yield and models of ecosystem primary production and carbon balance. Maintenance respiration Maintenance respiration (or maintenance energy) refers to metabolism occurring in an organism that is needed to maintain that organism in a healthy, living state. Maintenance respiration in plants refers to the amount of cellular respiration, measured by the carbon dioxide (CO) released or oxygen (O) consumed, during the generation

neg: Ethanol fermentation Other microorganisms can produce ethanol from sugars by fermentation but often only as a side product. Examples are Fermentation does not require oxygen. If oxygen is present, some species of yeast (e.g., "Kluyveromyces lactis" or "Kluyveromyces lipolytica") will oxidize pyruvate completely to carbon dioxide and water in a process called cellular respiration, hence these species of yeast will produce ethanol only in an anaerobic environment (not cellular respiration). However, many yeasts such as the commonly used baker's yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", or fission yeast "Schizosaccharomyces pombe", prefer fermentation to respiration. These yeasts will produce ethanol even under aerobic conditions, if they

neg: SLC25A46 Overexpression of this protein causes mitochondrial fragmentation while knockdown of this protein causes mitochondrial hyperfusion and hyperfilamentous mitochondria due to decreased mitochondrial fission. Loss of this gene also has many other effects: premature cellular senescence, impaired cellular respiration, destabilization of the MICOS (mitochondrial contact site and cristae organizing system) complex, loss of and shortened cristae, altered ER morphology, impaired cell migration, and changes in mitochondrial phospholipid composition. This protein interacts with IMMT, a component of the MICOS complex, along with other components of this complex and components of an ER membrane protein complex involved in transferring lipids to mitochondria. Additionally,

neg: Respirometer whole animal respirometers are e.g. Sable Systems,Respirometer Systems and Applications, Qubit Systems, Eco-environment Technology, or Challenge Technology; for mitochondrial respirometers Oroboros Instruments, Hansatech Instruments, or YSI. Respirometer A respirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration of a living organism by measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide. They allow investigation into how factors such as age, or chemicals affect the rate of respiration. Respirometers are designed to measure respiration either on the level of a whole animal or plant or on the cellular level. These fields are covered by whole animal and cellular

neg: SGK1 stimuli, as alterations in these stimuli accompany many neurodegenerative diseases. Other stimuli include neuronal injury, neuronal excitotoxicity, increased cytosolic Ca concentration, ischemia, and nitric oxide. SGK1, along with SGK3, has been shown to stimulate the absorption of intestinal glucose by the Na-glucose cotransporter SGLT1. "SGK1 also favors cellular glucose uptake from the circulation into several tissues including brain, fat, and skeletal muscle". SGK1 also plays a critical role in the stimulation of cellular glucose uptake by insulin. Accordingly, SGK1 does not only integrate effects of mineralocorticoids and insulin on renal tubular Na transport but similarly affects glucose transport". By aldosterone,

neg: Aerobic fermentation yeast species' tolerance for ethanol and allowed Crabtree-positive species to consume the ethanol they produced after depleting sugars. However, Adh2 and consumption of ethanol is not essential for aerobic fermentation. "Sch. pombe" and other Crabtree positive species do not have the "ADH2" gene and consumes ethanol very poorly. In Crabtree-negative species, respiration related genes are highly expressed in the presence of oxygen. However, when "S. cerevisiae" is grown on glucose in aerobic conditions, respiration-related gene expression is repressed. Mitochondrial ribosomal proteins expression is only induced under environmental stress conditions, specifically low glucose availability. Genes involving mitochondrial energy generation and phosphorylation

neg: Hypofrontality strength. This recurrent activation of the GABAergic cells produces a strong inhibitory signal back to the limbic striatum and mediodorsal thalamus, which inhibits the dopaminergic activity in those parts of the brain. This resulting inhibition of dopaminergic activity produces reduced activity at the mRNA and protein level in cells. These cellular changes could call for less blood flow and glucose use specifically, or the less blood flow and glucose metabolism could simply be a result of the lowered cellular activity. Since hypofrontality is a condition that alters blood flow and brain glucose metabolism levels, fMRIs or PET scans are used

neg: Soil respiration tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle – or citric acid cycle – is an important step in cellular respiration. In the TCA cycle, a six carbon sugar will be oxidized. This oxidation produces the CO and HO from the sugar. Plants, fungi, animals and bacteria all use this cycle to convert organic compounds to energy. This is how the majority of soil respiration occurs at its most basic level. Since the process relies on oxygen to occur, this is referred to as aerobic respiration. Fermentation is another process in which cells gain energy from organic compounds. In this metabolic pathway, energy is

neg: Cellular waste product as well as by cells called anaerobes that selectively perform anaerobic respiration even in the presence of oxygen. In anaerobic respiration, weak oxidants like sulfate and nitrate serve as oxidants in the place of oxygen. Generally, in anaerobic respiration sugars are broken down into carbon dioxide and other waste products that are dictated by the oxidant the cell uses. Whereas in aerobic respiration the oxidant is always oxygen, in anaerobic respiration it varies. Each oxidant produces a different waste product, such as nitrite, succinate, sulfide, methane, and acetate. Anaerobic respiration is correspondingly less efficient than aerobic respiration. In the absence

neg: Soil respiration structures releases not only CO but also other nutrients in those structures, such as nitrogen. Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change. Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change. Therefore, soil respiration rates can be affected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change. All cellular respiration releases energy, water and CO from organic compounds. Any respiration that occurs below-ground is considered soil respiration. Respiration by plant roots, bacteria, fungi and soil animals all release CO in soils, as described below. The

neg: GLUT1 is believed to form a membrane-spanning helix. The detailed structure of GLUT1 is not known yet, but one plausible model suggests that the side-by-side assembly of several helices produces a transmembrane channel lined with hydrophilic residues that can hydrogen-bond with glucose as it moves through the channel. GLUT1 is responsible for the low level of basal glucose uptake required to sustain respiration in all cells. Expression levels of GLUT1 in cell membranes are increased by reduced glucose levels and decreased by increased glucose levels. GLUT1 is also a major receptor for uptake of Vitamin C as well as glucose, especially

neg: Glucose 6-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphate (sometimes called the Robison ester) is a glucose sugar phosphorylated at the hydroxy group on carbon 6. This dianion is very common in cells as the majority of glucose entering a cell will become phosphorylated in this way. Because of its prominent position in cellular chemistry, glucose 6-phosphate has many possible fates within the cell. It lies at the start of two major metabolic pathways: glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway. In addition to these two metabolic pathways, glucose 6-phosphate may also be converted to glycogen or starch for storage. This storage is in the liver

neg: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase near the structural site, thus affecting the long term stability of these enzymes in the body, ultimately resulting in G6PD deficiency. For example, two severe class I mutations, G488S and G488V, drastically increase the dissociation constant between NADP and the structural site by a factor of 7 to 13. With the proximity of residue 488 to Arg487, it is thought that a mutation at position 488 could affect the positioning of Arg487 relative to NADP, and thus disrupt binding. G6PD converts G6P into 6-phosphoglucono-δ-lactone and is the rate-limiting enzyme of the "pentose phosphate pathway". Thus, regulation of G6PD has downstream

neg: Glucose meter development of glucose meters that directly integrate cellular data transmission capability, enabling the user to both transmit glucose data to the medical caregiver and receive direct guidance from the caregiver on the screen of the glucose meter. The first such device, from Telcare, Inc., was exhibited at the 2010 CTIA International Wireless Expo, where it won an E-Tech award. This device is currently undergoing clinical testing in the US and internationally. In early 2014 Google reported testing prototypes of contact lenses that monitor glucose levels and alert users when glucose levels cross certain thresholds. Many glucose meters employ the oxidation

neg: Primary production as biomass that primary producers create in a given length of time. (GPP is sometimes confused with Net Primary "productivity", which is the rate at which photosynthesis or chemosynthesis occurs.) Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration"). The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as "net primary production" (NPP). Net primary production is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate at

neg: Randle cycle acids as the preferred fuel source for respiration. In the liver β-oxidation of fatty acids fulfills the local energy needs and may lead to ketogenesis (creating ketone bodies out of fatty acids.) The ketone bodies are then used to meet the demands of tissues other than the liver. The inhibition of glucose oxidation causes fatty acids and ketone bodies to contribute to a glucose-sparing effect, which is an essential survival mechanism for the brain during times of starvation. This inhibition of glucose oxidation at the level of pyruvate dehydrogenase preserves pyruvate and lactate, both of which are gluconeogenic precursors. The

neg: Cytochrome c oxidase to the enzyme, reverses cyanide inhibition of COX. Nitric oxide can reversibly bind to either metal ion in the binuclear center to be oxidized to nitrite. NO and CN will compete with oxygen to bind at the site, reducing the rate of cellular respiration. Endogenous NO, however, which is produced at lower levels, augments CN inhibition. Higher levels of NO, which correlate with the existence of more enzyme in the reduced state, lead to a greater inhibition of cyanide. At these basal concentrations, NO inhibition of Complex IV is known to have beneficial effects, such as increasing oxygen levels in

neg: Glucose 6-phosphate this enzyme, so myofibers use glucose-6-phosphate in their own metabolic pathways such as glycolysis. Importantly, this prevents myocytes from releasing glycogen stores they have obtained into the blood. Glucose 6-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphate (sometimes called the Robison ester) is a glucose sugar phosphorylated at the hydroxy group on carbon 6. This dianion is very common in cells as the majority of glucose entering a cell will become phosphorylated in this way. Because of its prominent position in cellular chemistry, glucose 6-phosphate has many possible fates within the cell. It lies at the start of two major metabolic pathways: glycolysis and the