query: within the chain of infection the disease producing agent is referred to as

pos: Infection Infection Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce. Infectious disease, also known as transmissible disease or communicable disease, is illness resulting from an infection. Infections are caused by infectious agents including viruses, viroids, prions, bacteria, nematodes such as parasitic roundworms and pinworms, arthropods such as ticks, mites, fleas, and lice, fungi such as ringworm, and other macroparasites such as tapeworms and other helminths. Hosts can fight infections using their immune system. Mammalian hosts react to infections with an

pos: Infection clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present. A short-term infection is an "acute" infection. A long-term infection is a chronic infection. Infections can be further classified by causative agent (bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic), and by the presence or absence of systemic symptoms (sepsis). Among the many varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the

pos: Infection are symptomatic. In children the presence of cyanosis, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a petechial rash increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C. Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient

pos: Infection host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host. Bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms. It can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. It's important to distinguish, because viral infections cannot be cured by antibiotics. There is a general chain of events that applies to infections.

pos: Infection the causative agent, "Trypanosoma cruzi" in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent "T. cruzi", an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of "T. cruzi" within its gut. Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be

pos: Infection between "virulence versus transmissibility" is complex; if a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can be passed along to another host. Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in

pos: Blastocystis distribution. It is the most common parasitic infection in the United States, where it infected approximately 23% of the total population during year 2000. In less developed areas, infection rates as high as 100% have been observed. High rates of infection are found in individuals in developed countries who work with animals. Although the role of "Blastocystis hominis" in human disease is often referred to as controversial, a systematic survey of research studies conducted by 11 infectious disease specialists from nine countries, found that over 95% of papers published in the 10 years prior identified it as causing illness in

pos: Infection innate response, often involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response. Specific medications used to treat infections include antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, antiprotozoals, and antihelminthics. Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of medicine that focuses on infections is referred to as infectious disease. Symptomatic infections are "apparent" and "clinical", whereas an infection that is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called "inapparent," "silent," "subclinical", or occult. An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a "latent infection". An example of a latent bacterial infection is latent tuberculosis. Some

pos: Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection ewingii ehrlichiosis has a decreased incidence of complications. Like "Anaplasma phagocytophilum", the causative agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, Ehrlichia ewingii infects neutrophils. Infection with "E. ewingii" may delay neutrophil apoptosis. In endemic areas, a high index of suspicion is warranted, especially with a known exposure to ticks. The diagnosis can be confirmed by using PCR. A peripheral blood smear can also be examined for intracytoplasmic inclusions called morulae. The treatment of choice is doxycycline. Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection is an infectious disease caused by an intracellular bacteria, "Ehrlichia ewingii". The infection is transmitted to humans by the tick,

neg: Kidney disease cholesterol, and sweets are more acid-producing, while fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains are more base-producing. IgA nephropathy is the most common glomerulonephritis throughout the world Primary IgA nephropathy is characterized by deposition of the IgA antibody in the glomerulus. The classic presentation (in 40-50% of the cases) is episodic frank hematuria which usually starts within a day or two of a non-specific upper respiratory tract infection (hence "synpharyngitic") as opposed to post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis which occurs some time (weeks) after initial infection. Less commonly gastrointestinal or urinary infection can be the inciting agent. All of these infections have in common

neg: Riemerella anatipestifer disease prevention. Riemerella anatipestifer Riemerella anatipestifer is a member of the Flavobacteriaceae family. It is a Gram-negative bacteria that causes septicaemia and death in young ducks and geese throughout the world. There are 21 known serotypes and infection is spread horizontally between birds. Infection may be referred to as Duck Septicaemia, Goose 'flu, Riemerellosis, New Duck Disease and Polyserositis. Clinical signs are most commonly seen in birds between the ages of 1–8 weeks old. Systemic infection is most common, producing a variety of clinical signs. These include diarrhoea, pyrexia, anorexia, stunted growth, respiratory signs (e.g. coughing), neurological abnormalities (e.g. convulsions),

neg: Infection The chain of events involves several steps—which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place. Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections.

neg: Camelpox symptoms under similar conditions. Therefore, the best way to diagnose Camelpox is via Transmission Electron Microscopy evaluation of skin samples from infected animals. The Camelpox virus has a unique shape that is readily identifiable using this method. In cases where TEM technology is not available, serological tests are available to identify Camelpox as the causative agent for infection. Additionally, researchers in India are working on a diagnostic polymerase chain reaction to quickly and effectively identify the Camelpox virus. When the Camelpox virus is identified as the causative agent, the disease can be treated with anti-viral medications. The most common medication

neg: Surround optical-fiber immunoassay function in the disease state is, PrP is clearly specifically associated with the disease process, and detection of it indicates infection with the agent causing prion diseases. SOFIA provides, among other things, methods to diagnose prion diseases by detection of PrP in a biological sample. This biological sample can be brain tissue, nerve tissue, blood, urine, lymphatic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, or a combination thereof. Absence of PrP indicates no infection with the infectious agent up to the detection limits of the methods. Detection of a presence of PrP indicates infection with the infectious agent associated with prion disease. Infection with

neg: Riemerella anatipestifer Riemerella anatipestifer Riemerella anatipestifer is a member of the Flavobacteriaceae family. It is a Gram-negative bacteria that causes septicaemia and death in young ducks and geese throughout the world. There are 21 known serotypes and infection is spread horizontally between birds. Infection may be referred to as Duck Septicaemia, Goose 'flu, Riemerellosis, New Duck Disease and Polyserositis. Clinical signs are most commonly seen in birds between the ages of 1–8 weeks old. Systemic infection is most common, producing a variety of clinical signs. These include diarrhoea, pyrexia, anorexia, stunted growth, respiratory signs (e.g. coughing), neurological abnormalities (e.g. convulsions), and ocular

neg: Infectious disease (medical specialty) historically associated with travel medicine and tropical medicine, as many diseases acquired in tropical and subtropical areas are infectious in nature. ID specialists employ a variety of diagnostic tests to help identify the pathogen that is causing an infection. Common tests include Gram staining, blood cultures, serological tests, genotyping, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). ID specialists employ a variety of antimicrobial agents to help treat infections. The type of agent used depends on the organism that is causing the infection. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections; antiviral agents treat viral infections; and antifungal agents treat fungal infections. In the

neg: Arabidopsis thaliana the causal agent of powdery mildew of grasses. "A. thaliana" mutants were developed using the mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate and screened to identify mutants with increased infection by "B. graminis". The mutants with higher infection rates are referred to as PEN mutants due to the ability of "B. graminis" to penetrate "A. thaliana" to begin the disease process. The PEN genes were later mapped to identify the genes responsible for nonhost resistance to "B. graminis". In general, when a plant is exposed to a pathogen, or nonpathogenic microbe, there is an initial response, known as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI), because the plant

neg: Heavy chain disease cell receptor, presumably due to the loss of the anti-aggregating properties of the light chain. There are four forms: The most common type of heavy chain disease is the IgA type, known as αHCD. The most common type of αHCD is the gastrointestinal form (known as immunoproliferative small intestine disease or IPSID), but it has also been reported in the respiratory tract, and other areas of the body. Franklin's disease (gamma heavy chain disease) It is a very rare B-cell lymphoplasma cell proliferative disorder which may be associated with autoimmune diseases and infection is a common characteristic of the disease.

neg: Bovine viral diarrhea Bovine viral diarrhea Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) or bovine viral diarrhoea (UK English), and previously referred to as bovine virus diarrhoea (BVD), is a significant economic disease of cattle that is endemic in the majority of countries throughout the world. Worldwide reviews of the economically assessed production losses and intervention programs (e.g. eradication programs, vaccination strategies and biosecurity measures) incurred by BVD infection have been published. The causative agent, bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), is a member of the genus "Pestivirus" of the family Flaviviridae. BVD infection results in a wide variety of clinical signs, due to its immunosuppressive effects,

neg: Urinary bladder disease Urinary bladder disease Urinary bladder disease includes urinary bladder inflammation such as cystitis, bladder rupture and bladder obstruction (tamponade). Cystitis is common, sometimes referred to as urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by bacteria, bladder rupture occurs when the bladder is overfilled and not emptied while bladder tamponade is a result of blood clot formation near the bladder outlet. Cystitis is a urinary bladder inflammation that results from any one of a number of distinct syndromes. It is most commonly caused by a bacterial infection in which case it is referred to as a urinary tract infection. Bladder rupture (rupture of

neg: Cunninghamella echinulata "Memnoniella echinata." Disease caused by this fungus and other species of Mucorales is referred to as mucormycosis characterized by a rapidly progressive and destructively invasive disease with relatively low survival. Literature reporting this agent in healthy people is lacking. As a consequence, this species is thought to be exclusively an opportunistic pathogen, affecting individuals with pre-existing health conditions. People with underlying health conditions such as HIV infection and diabetes are at heightened risk for mucormycosis. Infections by "C. echinulata" are thought to arise from inhalation of fungal spores and are not communicable. Relatively few case reports implicating "C. echinulata" are

neg: Helen Purdy Beale was caused by a bacterial infection. Setting out to investigate, Beale published she was "unable to obtain any evidence that the active agent producing mosaic disease in tobacco and tomato plants multiplies outside the living plants", casting suspicion on a bacterial cause. Turning to investigate the leaves of infected plant leaves, Beale developed a bioassay to track the development of an infection with a 0.5% aqueous solution of iodine green. Beale's landmark contribution to the application of serology in the field of plant virology precipitated as a result of her dissertation work in 1929. She demonstrated infected leaf sap injected

neg: Plasma cell dyscrasia neoplasm. A majority of the latter patients have an autoimmune disease or a chronic infection which may be responsible for, or contribute to, production of the α heavy chain. Studies indicated that a sub-set particularly of the digestive form of heavy chain disease is caused by infection. This is based on findings that the majority of α heavy chain disease patients are in the lower economic class living under unsanitary conditions, that gastrointestinal bacterial and parasitic infections have been documented in many of these patients, and that long-term (>6 months) appropriately selected antibiotic therapy has improved the condition in 33%

neg: Light chain deposition disease 37% of patients with LCDD are alive and do not have end stage renal disease. Light chain deposition disease Light chain deposition disease (LCDD) is a rare blood cell disease which is characterized by deposition of fragments of infection-fighting immunoglobulins, called light chains (LCs), in the body. LCs are normally cleared by the kidneys, but in LCDD, these light chain deposits damage organs and cause disease. The kidneys are almost always affected and this often leads to kidney failure. About half of people with light chain deposition disease also have a plasma cell dyscrasia, a spectrum of diseases that includes

neg: Renibacterium salmoninarum infection. Intraperitoneal vaccination can also be used to treat fish in an outbreak. Prevention is very important, and husbandry measures such as segregation, culling and decontamination should be used to ensure infection is not introduced. Renibacterium salmoninarum Renibacterium salmoninarum is a member of the Micrococcaceae family. It is a Gram-positive, intracellular bacterium that causes disease in young salmonid fish. The infection is most commonly known as "bacterial kidney disease" but may also be referred to as BKD, White Boil Disease, Dee Disease, Salmonid Kidney Disease and Corynebacterial Kidney Disease. It is of significant ecologic importance due to its effect on

neg: Light chain deposition disease Light chain deposition disease Light chain deposition disease (LCDD) is a rare blood cell disease which is characterized by deposition of fragments of infection-fighting immunoglobulins, called light chains (LCs), in the body. LCs are normally cleared by the kidneys, but in LCDD, these light chain deposits damage organs and cause disease. The kidneys are almost always affected and this often leads to kidney failure. About half of people with light chain deposition disease also have a plasma cell dyscrasia, a spectrum of diseases that includes multiple myeloma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, and the monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance premalignant stages of these

neg: Schistosomiasis listed as a neglected tropical disease. Many individuals do not experience symptoms. If symptoms do appear, they usually take 4-6 weeks from the time of infection. The first symptom of the disease may be a general feeling of illness. Within 12 hours of infection, an individual may complain of a tingling sensation or light rash, commonly referred to as "swimmer's itch", due to irritation at the point of entrance. The rash that may develop can mimic scabies and other types of rashes. Other symptoms can occur 2-10 weeks later and can include fever, aching, a cough, diarrhea, chills, or gland

neg: Favus "Microsporum gypseum", the most common soil-borne dermatophyte fungus, and "Trichophyton mentagrophytes" (name used in post-1999 sense for a phylogenetic species formerly referred to as "Trichophyton mentagrophytes" var. "quinckeanum"), the agent of favid infection of the mouse. Up until the advent of modern therapies, favid was widespread worldwide; prior to Schönlein's recognition of it as a fungal disease, it was frequently confused with Hansen's disease, better known as leprosy, and European sufferers were sometimes committed to leprosaria. Today, due to this species' high susceptibility to the antifungal drug griseofulvin, it has been eliminated from most parts of the world except rural

neg: Inclusion body disease the wild is unknown. The disease has only been identified in adult and subadult specimens, not neonates. Even so, all age groups are considered susceptible, and anecdotal reports of the infection in neonates have been made. A retro-like virus infection was suspected as the causative agent of IBD, but identification of highly divergent arenavirus sequences from boa constrictors with IBD suggested arenaviruses to be the etiological agent of IBD. Cell culture isolation of several arenaviruses from boid snakes with IBD further solidified, but did not yet confirm, the etiological relationship between IBD and arenaviruses. In python species, the disease presents

neg: Infection ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as "primary pathogens" or as "opportunistic pathogens": One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates

neg: Oak wilt response to infection. Oak trees, in response to wounding or infection often produce tyloses, balloon-like outgrowths of the vessels' cell walls that can function to wall-off pathogens and prevent infections from spreading. Red oaks appear to lack a host-response mechanism that restricts the pathogen's movement, and infection usually kills the tree by wilting the entire crown. White oaks, which produce tyloses more quickly and in greater numbers, are more resistant to the disease, though the exact mechanism for this resistance is unknown. The causal agent, "Bretziella fagacearum", is found only within the borders of the United States, but the origin

neg: Bartonella bacilliformis as "verruga peruana". This phase consists of a benign skin eruption with raised, reddish-purple nodules (angiomatous tumours). Visualization of the bacteria is possible using silver stain (the Warthin–Starry method) on biopsies. "Bartonella bacilliformis" is the etiologic agent of Carrion's disease or Oroya fever (acute phase of infection), and "verruga peruana" or Peruvian wart (chronic phase of infection). The acute phase of the disease is a life-threatening disease characterized by massive invasion of "Bartonella" to human red blood cells and consequently acute hemolysis and fever. If the infection is not treated, the case fatality rate is 40 to 85% Patients in

neg: Infectious coryza in chickens disease or chronically sick chickens. The disease affects all ages of chickens. The disease can persist in the flock for 2-3 weeks and signs of the disease are seen between 1–3 days post infection. Transmission of the disease is through direct interaction, airborne droplets and drinking contaminated water. Chicken having infection and those carriers contribute highly to the disease transmission It is done through isolation of bacteria from chickens suspected to have history of coryza and clinical finds from infected chickens also is used in the disease diagnosis. Polymerase chain reaction is a reliable means of diagnosis of the disease

neg: Pelvic inflammatory disease do not identify women with subclinical disease. Regular testing for sexually transmitted infections is encouraged for prevention. The risk of contracting pelvic inflammatory disease can be reduced by the following: Treatment is often started without confirmation of infection because of the serious complications that may result from delayed treatment. Treatment depends on the infectious agent and generally involves the use of antibiotic therapy although there is no clear evidence of which antibiotic regimen is more effective and safe in the management of PID. If there is no improvement within two to three days, the patient is typically advised to seek

neg: Crohn's disease associated with all three diseases. Regional and temporal variations in those illnesses follow those associated with infection with the protozoan Blastocystis. The "cold-chain" hypothesis is that psychrotrophic bacteria such as "Yersinia" and "Listeria" species contribute to the disease. A statistical correlation was found between the advent of the use of refrigeration in the United States and various parts of Europe and the rise of the disease. There is an apparent connection between Crohn's disease, "Mycobacterium", other pathogenic bacteria, and genetic markers. In many individuals, genetic factors predispose individuals to "Mycobacterium avium" subsp." paratuberculosis" infection. This bacterium then produces mannins, which

neg: Photorhabdus and are restricted to Texas, US and the Gold Coast of Australia. The first case of human infection was reported by the Centers for Disease Control in the United States in 1989. In 1999, a study reported another four cases of "Photorhabdus luminescens" infection in South Eastern Australia, one in 1994 and three in 1998. Photorhabdus Photorhabdus is a genus of bioluminescent, gram-negative bacilli which lives symbiotically within entomopathogenic nematodes, hence the name "photo" (which means light-producing) and "rhabdus" (rod-shape). "Photorhabdus" is known to be pathogenic to a wide range of insects and has been used as biopesticide in agriculture.

neg: Hygiene of those who are at greater risk of infection). At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread of diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. Simply put, if the chain of infection is broken, infection cannot spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in home and everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk-based approach based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), also referred to as "targeted hygiene." Targeted hygiene is based

neg: Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis clarithromycin, however the capacity of these antibiotics to eradicate MAP infection in vivo has not been established. MAP is recognized as a multi-host mycobacterial pathogen with a proven specific ability to initiate and maintain systemic infection and chronic inflammation of the intestine of a range of histopathological types in many animal species, including primates. MAP has been found in larger numbers within the intestines of Crohn's disease patients and in significant amount of irritable bowel syndrome patients compared to those suffering from ulcerative colitis or otherwise healthy controls. One study concluded that MAP "may act as a causative agent, have

neg: Infection particular agent. In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as "Mycobacterium leprae" and "Treponema pallidum" can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of

neg: Infection several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they

neg: Heavy chain disease misdiagnosed as chronic lymphoid leukemia (CLL) because the two diseases are often associated with each other and show similar symptoms. Heavy chain disease Heavy chain disease is a form of paraproteinemia and plasma cell dyscrasia that involves the proliferation of cells producing immunoglobulin heavy chains. This disease is characterized by an excessive production of heavy chains that are short and truncated. These heavy chain disease proteins have various deletions, mainly in their amino-terminal part, which causes the heavy chains to lose the ability to form disulfide bonds with the light chains. The defect in the immunoglobulins presumably arises during somatic

neg: Risk of infection signs of infection and how to reduce their risk. Surgery is a frequent risk factor for infection and a physician may prescribe antibiotics prophylactically. Immunization is another common medical intervention for those who are at high risk for infection. Hand washing is the best way to break the chain of infection. Risk of infection Risk of infection is a nursing diagnosis which is defined as "the state in which an individual is at risk to be invaded by an opportunistic or pathogenic agent (virus, fungus, bacteria, protozoa, or other parasite) from endogenous or exogenous sources" and was approved by NANDA

neg: Heavy chain disease Heavy chain disease Heavy chain disease is a form of paraproteinemia and plasma cell dyscrasia that involves the proliferation of cells producing immunoglobulin heavy chains. This disease is characterized by an excessive production of heavy chains that are short and truncated. These heavy chain disease proteins have various deletions, mainly in their amino-terminal part, which causes the heavy chains to lose the ability to form disulfide bonds with the light chains. The defect in the immunoglobulins presumably arises during somatic hypermutation. Deletion of the N-terminal part of the heavy chain disease protein leads to aggregation and signaling of the B

neg: Heavy chain disease is considered secondary to impaired cellular and humoral immunity, and thus recurrent infections are the common clinical presentation in Franklin disease. Weng et al. described the first case of Penicillium sp. infection in a patient with Franklin disease and emphasized the importance of proper preparation for biopsy, complete hematologic investigation, culture preparation and early antifungal coverage to improve the outcome. The γHCD can be divided into three categories based on the various clinical and pathological features. These categories are disseminated lymphoproliferative disease, localized proliferative disease and no apparent proliferative disease. The IgM type of heavy chain disease, μHCD, is often

neg: Chancroid sore of primary syphilis, as opposed to the "soft chancre" of chancroid. Approximately one-third of the infected individuals will develop enlargements of the inguinal lymph nodes, the nodes located in the fold between the leg and the lower abdomen. Half of those who develop swelling of the inguinal lymph nodes will progress to a point where the nodes rupture through the skin, producing draining abscesses. The swollen lymph nodes and abscesses are often referred to as buboes. Chancroid is a bacterial infection caused by the fastidious Gram-negative streptobacillus "Haemophilus ducreyi". It is a disease found primarily in developing countries, most

neg: Sporotrichosis Sporotrichosis Sporotrichosis (also known as "rose gardener's disease") is a disease caused by the infection of the fungus "Sporothrix schenckii". This fungal disease usually affects the skin, although other rare forms can affect the lungs, joints, bones, and even the brain. Because roses can spread the disease, it is one of a few diseases referred to as "rose-thorn" or "rose-gardeners' disease". Because "S. schenckii" is naturally found in soil, hay, sphagnum moss, and plants, it usually affects farmers, gardeners, and agricultural workers. It enters through small cuts and abrasions in the skin to cause the infection. In case of sporotrichosis

neg: Ferritin to be common among ferritins of all three kingdoms of life. The light chain of ferritin has no ferroxidase activity but may be responsible for the electron transfer across the protein cage. Ferritin concentrations increase drastically in the presence of an infection or cancer. Endotoxins are an up-regulator of the gene coding for ferritin, thus causing the concentration of ferritin to rise. By contrast, organisms such as "Pseudomonas", although possessing endotoxin, cause plasma ferritin levels to drop significantly within the first 48 hours of infection. Thus, the iron stores of the infected body are denied to the infective agent, impeding

neg: Sexually transmitted infection The term "sexually transmitted infection" is generally preferred over "sexually transmitted disease" or "venereal disease", as it includes those who do not have symptomatic disease. Until the 1990s, STIs were commonly known as "venereal diseases", the word "venereal" being derived from the Latin word venereus, and meaning relating to sexual intercourse or desire, ultimately derived from Venus, the Roman goddess of love. STIs have been euphemistically referred to as "blood diseases" and "social diseases" in the past. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the more inclusive term "sexually transmitted infection" since 1999. Public health officials originally introduced the term

neg: Ferret health is highly contagious to other unvaccinated ferrets and canines. If the ferret survives the initial acute phase of the disease, they will die within a few weeks from a progressive and incurable neurological infection, progressing to severe epileptic seizures and death. Influenza, essentially the same disease and same agent that occur in humans, is caused by an othomyxovirus that can be passed from ferrets to humans and from humans to ferrets. Ferrets have served as experimental animal models in the study of influenza virus. Smith, Andrews, Laidlaw (1933) inoculated ferrets intra-nasally with human naso-pharyngeal washes, which produced a form of

neg: Prevention of HIV/AIDS "We now know that pre-exposure prophylaxis can be a potentially vital option for HIV prevention in people at very high risk for infection, whether through sexual transmission or injecting drug use." A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after exposure to HIV-positive blood or genital secretions is referred to as post-exposure prophylaxis. The use of the single agent zidovudine reduces the risk of subsequent HIV infection fivefold following a needle stick injury. Treatment is recommended after sexual assault when the perpetrators are known to be HIV positive, but is controversial when their HIV status is unknown. Current

neg: Bovine respiratory disease Bovine respiratory disease Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting beef cattle in the world. It is a complex, bacterial infection that causes pneumonia in calves which can be fatal. The infection is usually a sum of three codependent factors: stress, an underlying viral infection, and a new bacterial infection. The diagnosis of the disease is complex since there are multiple possible causes. The disease manifests itself most often in calves within four weeks of weaning, when calves are sorted and often sold to different farms; a common nickname for BRD is "shipping fever." It

neg: Emmonsia parva risks development of pulmonary disease. This is referred to as acute pulmonary adiaspiromycosis, primary progressive pulmonary adiaspiromycosis or disseminated pulmonary adiaspiromycosis. It is characterized by widespread lesions caused by granulomas within both lungs. There are 3 forms of manifestation: The onset of symptoms is dependent on 2 factors: the dosage of conidia and the immune status of the host. Usually infection is asymptomatic with pulmonary disease developing very rarely. Fatality rates are low. If however the level of spores inhaled is sufficient or the immune system of the host is adequately compromised clinical symptoms may develop which include coughing, dyspnea,

neg: Guttural pouch any reason, the mucous secretions can accumulate and cause the pouch to distend, producing a visible and palpable protrusion behind the mandible. The exudate may become contaminated with pathogens. The bacteria Streptococcus equi, the causative agent of strangles, is commonly involved. Mycotic infections can also occur. Some visible symptoms of guttural pouch disease include abnormal head and neck carriage, nasal discharge, painful swelling and occasional abnormal functioning of the structures associated with the pouch. Secondary problems may include inflammation of the middle ear due to migration of the infection along the auditory tube; nasal bleeding caused by damage to the

neg: Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae new agents are in development. The main areas where scientists are focusing is new β-lactamase inhibitors with activity against carbapenemases. Some of these include MK-7655, NXL104, and 6-alkylidenepenam sulfones. The exact way they affect the carbapenemases is unknown. Another experimental agent with activity against CRE is eravacycline. Prior to 1992, CRE were relatively uncommon in the U.S. According to data from the National Nosocomial Infection Service, between 1986 and 1990, only 2.3% of 1825 Enterobacteriaceae isolates sampled were found to be resistant. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, CRE producing what was the most common type of carbapenem-destroying

neg: Vaccine Vaccine A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be prophylactic (example: to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by

neg: Chronic lymphocytic leukemia This is referred to as small lymphocytic lymphoma. In some individuals, the disease comes to light only after the cancerous cells overwhelm the bone marrow resulting in anemia producing tiredness or weakness. Complications include hypogammaglobulinemia leading to recurrent infection, warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia in 10–15% of patients, and marrow failure. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia may also transform into Richter's syndrome, the development of fast-growing diffuse large B cell lymphoma, prolymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, or acute leukemia in some patients. Its incidence is estimated to be around 5% in patients with CLL. Gastrointestinal (GI) involvement can rarely occur with chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

neg: Cherry X Disease after the infection, with the rare exception that the infection and first symptoms occur both in the same spring season. In high cherry producing areas, such as California, Washington, and Oregon, this disease could be devastating if left unchecked. For instance in 2002, 57,000 tons of cherries were harvested from 24,000 acres in California. The year grossed a total of over $152 million. If, in 2002, this disease was allowed to incubate, the results would show a drastic decline of production and huge loss of revenue as early as 2003. This disease does not take long to develop and since

neg: Reactive arthritis Reactive arthritis Reactive arthritis, formerly known as Reiter's syndrome, is a form of inflammatory arthritis that develops in response to an infection in another part of the body (cross-reactivity). Coming into contact with bacteria and developing an infection can trigger the disease. By the time the patient presents with symptoms, often the "trigger" infection has been cured or is in remission in chronic cases, thus making determination of the initial cause difficult. The arthritis often is coupled with other characteristic symptoms; this was previously referred to as Reiter's syndrome, Reiter's disease or Reiter's arthritis. The term "reactive arthritis" is preferred

neg: Borrelia miyamotoi Borrelia miyamotoi Borrelia miyamotoi is a spirochete bacterium in the genus "Borrelia". A zoonotic bacterium, "B. miyamotoi" can be transferred to humans through the hard ("Ixodes") ticks, the same tick species that spread "B. burgdorferi", the causative agent of Lyme disease, and "Babesia microti", the causative agent of babesiosis. Although infection can cause some similar symptoms including fever, headache, fatigue, and muscle aches, acute Lyme disease often presents with rash, while infection with "B. miyamotoi" does not; it remains unclear whether "B. miyamotoi" causes a relapsing fever syndrome. A genus of Gram-negative, anaerobic, spirochete bacteria, "Borrelia" was named after French

neg: Sarcocystis hameorrhage, necrosis and degeration. Infection by "S. tilopodi" of muscle tissue in the Guanaco has been reported. "S. hemionilatrantis" infects mule deer. Death from experimental inoculation have been reported. These parasites can also infect birds producing three different clinical forms: an acute pulmonary disease, muscular disease and neurological disease. Symptoms include lethargy, shortness of breath, tail bobbing, yellow tinted droppings and sudden death. The presence of the cysts in the muscle of wild birds is known as "rice breast". Infection with "Sarcocystis" is common. Rates in pigs vary: 18% in Iowa, 27% in the Philippines, 43% in Spain, 57% in

neg: Epizootic hemorrhagic disease North America. Diseases such as blackleg, blacktongue, bluetongue, mycotic stomatitis or hemorrhagic septicemia were thought to have been the cause of many of these die-offs. After further analysis the true causative agent was never confirmed. After further review of the case history and other telltale signs and lesions, seasonal occurrence, and lack of a bacterial agent suggests that they might have been EHD. Epizootic hemorrhagic disease Epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) is a hemorrhagic disease of white-tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus") caused by an infection of a virus from the genus "Orbivirus". It is an infectious, and sometimes fatal, virus that is

neg: Nipah virus infection likely than those without respiratory illness to transmit the virus. The disease is suspected in symptomatic individuals in the context of an epidemic outbreak. The risk of exposure is high for hospital workers and caretakers of those infected with the virus. In Malaysia and Singapore, Nipah virus infection occurred in those with close contact to infected pigs. In Bangladesh and India, the disease has been linked to consumption of raw date palm sap (toddy) and contact with bats. Laboratory diagnosis of Nipah virus infection is made using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from throat swabs, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and

neg: Buruli ulcer ulceration is a secondary event. "M. ulcerans" releases a lipid toxin, mycolactone, which functions as an immune suppressant, necrotising agent and activator of cellular death. Healing may occur spontaneously but more often the disease is slowly progressive with further ulceration, granulation, scarring, and contractures. Satellite infection may occur with other nodules developing and infection may occur into bone. Although seldom fatal, the disease results in considerable morbidity and deformity. Th1-mediated immune responses are protective against "M. ulcerans" infection, whereas Th2-mediated responses are not. The diagnosis of Buruli ulcer is usually based on the characteristic appearance of the ulcer in an

neg: Sporothrix schenckii and these antibodies may actually be protective against the disease. Sporothrix schenckii Sporothrix schenckii is a fungus that can be found worldwide in the environment. The species is present in soil as well as in and on living and decomposing plant material such as peat moss. It can infect humans as well as animals and is the causative agent of sporotrichosis, commonly known as "rose handler's disease". The most common route of infection is the introduction of spores to the body through a cut or puncture wound in the skin. Infection commonly occurs in otherwise healthy individuals but is rarely

neg: Histoplasma duboisii the fungus prior to evolving into cold abscesses. Subcutaneous lesions may also develop draining sinuses. Lesions can be localised or disseminated, appearing simultaneously and sometimes in large numbers. Disseminated disease is especially common in immunocompromised individuals, and can involve any organs but infection of the heart and central nervous system are rare. Dissemination to lymph nodes and visceral organs is associated with high mortality. The ability of yeast cells to multiply within phagocytic cells contributes to the formation of pus-producing necrotic granulomas. Uncommonly, both "H. duboisii" and "H. capsulatum" have been found to co-occur in immunosuppressed patients with HIV disease.

neg: Epidemiology is concerned with the incidence of disease in populations and does not address the question of the cause of an individual's disease. This question, sometimes referred to as specific causation, is beyond the domain of the science of epidemiology. Epidemiology has its limits at the point where an inference is made that the relationship between an agent and a disease is causal (general causation) and where the magnitude of excess risk attributed to the agent has been determined; that is, epidemiology addresses whether an agent can cause a disease, not whether an agent did cause a specific plaintiff's disease." In

neg: Columnaris Columnaris Columnaris (also referred to as cottonmouth) is a symptom of disease in fish which results from an infection caused by the Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacterium "Flavobacterium columnare". It was previously known as "Bacillus columnaris, Chondrococcus columnaris, Cytophaga columnaris" and "Flexibacter columnaris". The bacteria are ubiquitous in fresh water, and cultured fish reared in ponds or raceways are the primary concern – with disease most prevalent in air temperatures above 12–14 °C. It is often mistaken for a fungal infection. The disease is highly contagious and the outcome is often fatal. It is not zoonotic. The bacteria usually enter fish

neg: Mycobacterium ulcerans ulcer is often diagnosed late, when treatment can be very difficult and frustrating. Confirmation by culture takes 6–8 weeks. Rapid diagnostic methods for "M. ulcerans" infection, as well as methods of rapid identification of the organism in clinical and environmental specimens would be a significant advance in the management of "M. ulcerans" infection. Screening to detect early infection could guide early intervention. There are several polymerase chain reaction PCR methods available that could increase the speed of diagnosis of "M. ulcerans" infection. PCR is relatively expensive compared to microscopy, and is notorious for producing false-positive results in laboratories that lack

neg: Infectious necrotic hepatitis Infectious necrotic hepatitis Infectious necrotic hepatitis is a disease of large animals, especially sheep, caused by "Clostridium novyi" infection. The primary infection is intestinal and transferred by the faecal-oral route. Spores of "C. novyi" escape from the gut and lodge in the liver, where they remain dormant until some injury creates anaerobic conditions for them to germinate, causing local necrosis and widespread damage to the microvascular system, resulting in subcutaneous bleeding and blackening of the skin, hence the common name "black disease." In sheep, the disease, referred to as "black disease", results from interaction of bacteria (especially Clostridium novyi) and

neg: Multiple sclerosis of infection, produced by a widespread microbe rather than a rare one, is related to the disease. Proposed mechanisms include the hygiene hypothesis and the prevalence hypothesis. The hygiene hypothesis proposes that exposure to certain infectious agents early in life is protective, the disease is a response to a late encounter with such agents. The prevalence hypothesis proposes that the disease is due to an infectious agent more common in regions where MS is common and where, in most individuals, it causes an ongoing infection without symptoms. Only in a few cases and after many years does it cause demyelination.

neg: Tuberculosis in relation to HIV background risk of the general population even with effective immune reconstitution with ART maintaining high CD4 cell counts. "Mycobacterium" Tuberculosis is the most common cause of Tuberculosis disease (TB). Airborne transmission typically causes TB infection in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. Tuberculosis, is categorized into two types of infection: latent infection or active TB disease. After penetration into the respiratory tract, the "Mycobacterium" bacilli infect macrophages. T-lymphocytes start producing many cytokines (interferon gamma, interleukin-2, tumour necrosis factor alpha, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor) to activate macrophages and cytotoxic cells to inhibit their intracellular growth. In those infected, there is a 5–10%

neg: Chickenpox to the fetus. Varicella infection in pregnant women could lead to spread via the placenta and infection of the fetus. If infection occurs during the first 28 weeks of gestation, this can lead to fetal varicella syndrome (also known as "congenital varicella syndrome"). Effects on the fetus can range in severity from underdeveloped toes and fingers to severe anal and bladder malformation. Possible problems include: Infection late in gestation or immediately following birth is referred to as ""neonatal varicella"". Maternal infection is associated with premature delivery. The risk of the baby developing the disease is greatest following exposure to infection

neg: Mucor racemosus of the fungus to switch between the yeast and the mould phases. Genomic analysis of "M. racemosus" has revealed genes similar to human RAS genes, and it is proposed that these genes help with germination and dimorphism. Protein kinase A (PKA) genes such as pkaR are highly also expressed during dimorphic shift. "M. racemosus" is a rare agent of human disease, typically only associated with opportunistic infection of immunocompromised individuals such as children, elderly and diseased patients (HIV, Ebola etc.). It is an agent of Mucormycosis, a potentially life-threatening infection often involving the head airways. Pulmonary, cutaneous, and gastrointestinal (GI)

neg: Aspergillus ustus The most common clinical presentations of "A. ustus" infection involve onychomycosis and otitis media. It only rarely found to cause serious infection (e.g., endocarditis, pneumonia, disseminated disease), typically as an opportunist in severely immunocompromised people, often secondary to immunosuppressive chemotherapy following hematopoietic stem cells transplant. Mortality is high (50%) and survival is generally short (e.g., eight days). The apparent recent increase in serious infections coupled with the propensity of this species to resist antifungal therapy has raised concern about "A. ustus" as an emerging agent of opportunistic fungal infection. However, the true incidence of "A. ustus" infection is very difficult

neg: Banana freckle Banana freckle Banana Freckle is a disease caused by the fungus "Guignardia musae" (telomorph) or "Phyllosticta musarum" (anamorph). Generally, the causal agent of disease is referred to as Guignardia-Phyllosticta sp. There are several different strains of the fungus that exist to infect different banana varieties around the globe. Symptoms include yellowing of the tissue and formation of small dark brown spots on the leaves and fruit. Within the spots, conidia or pycnidia can be found. Banana Freckle is easily propagated and spread from plant to plant by rain splash and movement of infected tissue or fruit. Management of the disease

neg: Ochroconis gallopava transplantation, such as kidney, liver, heart, and lung. The first "O. gallopava" infection in human was reported in 1986. Prior to 1986, "O. gallopava" was known as an agent of phaeohyphomycosis and fatal encephalitis mainly in poultry. Even though reports of human infection by this species have increased, "O. gallopava" remains an extremely uncommon agent of human disease. When it does occur in humans, a wide range of sites may become involved, including the lung, heart, brain, the superficial cutaneous or subcutaneous areas, and other parts of the body. Infection accompanies brain involvement, respiratory tract involvement, pulmonary infections, and skin

neg: Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio vulnificus is a species of Gram-negative, motile, curved rod-shaped (bacillus), pathogenic bacteria of the genus "Vibrio". Present in marine environments such as estuaries, brackish ponds, or coastal areas, "V. vulnificus" is related to ""V. cholerae"", the causative agent of cholera. Infection with "V. vulnificus" leads to rapidly expanding cellulitis or sepsis. It was first isolated as a source of disease in 1976. The capsule, made of polysaccharides, is thought to protect against phagocytosis. The observed association of the infection with liver disease (associated with increased serum iron) might be due to the capability of more virulent strains

neg: Legionella the growth and proliferation of "Legionella" within cooling towers. Research in the "Journal of Infectious Diseases" (2006) provided evidence that "L. pneumophila", the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, can travel at least 6 km from its source by airborne spread. It was previously believed that transmission of the bacterium was restricted to much shorter distances. A team of French scientists reviewed the details of an epidemic of Legionnaires' disease that took place in Pas-de-Calais, northern France, in 2003–2004. Of 86 confirmed cases during the outbreak, 18 resulted in death. The source of infection was identified as a cooling tower in

neg: Microsporidiosis causes are "Enterocytozoon bieneusi" and "Encephalitozoon intestinalis". "(Coded to at right)." Fumagillin has been used in the treatment. Another agent used is albendazole. Microsporidiosis Microsporidiosis is an opportunistic intestinal infection that causes diarrhea and wasting in immunocompromised individuals (HIV, for example). It results from different species of microsporidia, a group of microbial (unicellular) fungi. In HIV infected individuals, microsporidiosis generally occurs when CD4+ T cell counts fall below 150. Although it is classified as a protozoal disease in ICD-10, their phylogenetic placement has been resolved to be within the Fungi, and some sources classify microsporidiosis as a mycosis, however, they

neg: HIV/AIDS high risk. Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to be effective in decreasing the risk of HIV. Intravenous drug use is an important risk factor and harm reduction strategies such as needle-exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy appear effective in decreasing this risk. A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after exposure to HIV-positive blood or genital secretions is referred to as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). The use of the single agent zidovudine reduces the risk of a HIV infection five-fold following a needle-stick injury. , the prevention regimen recommended in the United States consists

neg: Subclinical infection occur without eventual overt sign, their existence is only identified by microbiological culture or DNA techniques such as polymerase chain reaction. An individual may only develop signs of an infection after a period of subclinical infection, a duration that is called the incubation period. This is the case, for example, for subclinical sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS and genital warts. Individuals with such subclinical infections, and those that never develop overt illness, creates a reserve of individuals that can transmit an infectious agent to infect other individuals. Because such cases of infections do not come to clinical attention, health

neg: Skeletal eroding band the disease across an infected coral has been measured at in the Red Sea and around the Great Barrier Reef. Corals of the families Acroporidae and Pocilloporidae are the most vulnerable to infection. A study in 2008 found that the infection spread at about per day in colonies of "Acropora muricata", eventually wiping out 95% of its victims. However, experiments showed that the disease easily spread to already dead and dying areas of corals but did not attack undamaged corals. So far one agent has been identified, the ciliate protozoan "Halofolliculina corallasia". Skeletal eroding band is the first recorded disease

neg: Renibacterium salmoninarum Renibacterium salmoninarum Renibacterium salmoninarum is a member of the Micrococcaceae family. It is a Gram-positive, intracellular bacterium that causes disease in young salmonid fish. The infection is most commonly known as "bacterial kidney disease" but may also be referred to as BKD, White Boil Disease, Dee Disease, Salmonid Kidney Disease and Corynebacterial Kidney Disease. It is of significant ecologic importance due to its effect on both farmed and wild salmonids. The disease is found in North America, Europe, Japan, Chile and Scandinavia, and is spread both vertically and horizontally. Pacific salmon appear to be the most susceptible to the disease.

neg: Childhood immunizations in the United States someone who has the disease are at increased risk of infection. In the case of infection, these people are contacted to receive prophylaxis which is when a person is treated with antibiotics to prevent infection from the disease. Symptoms appear quickly over the course of several days and develop within 3–7 days after exposure. The symptoms of meningococcal disease are In newborns and infants classic symptoms may be absent or difficult to notice. They may appear slow or inactive, irritable, vomiting or feeding poorly. Meningococcal Septicemis (aka. Meningococcemia) is a bloodstream infection caused by the Neisseria meningitidis bacteria. This is

neg: Foot-and-mouth disease efforts to eradicate the disease, infection would also lead to trade bans being imposed on affected countries. Critics of current policies to cull infected herds argue that the financial imperative needs to be balanced against the killing of many animals, especially when a significant proportion of infected animals, most notably those producing milk, would recover from infection and live normal lives, albeit with reduced milk production. On the ethical side, one must also consider FMD is a painful disease for the affected animals. The vesicles/blisters are painful in themselves, and restrict both eating and movement. Through ruptured blisters, the animal

neg: Diplomatic Security Service The Director of DSS is an active DSS Special Agent. Within DOS, all employees who work for DS (the bureau) are referred to as DS employees. Even within DSS, agents refer to themselves as DS Agents. This usage is also used in DOS press releases, although recently multi-agency press releases from the U.S. Attorney’s offices use the technically correct Diplomatic Security Service. Additionally, agents are frequently assigned to positions within DS (the bureau) but outside of the DSS chain of command hierarchy. This may seem a little counterintuitive but is a common practice within the Department of State. For example,

neg: Serial interval period' between infection and disease onset; the 'latent period' between infection and infectiousness. Serial interval The serial interval, in the epidemiology of communicable (infectious) diseases, refers to the time between successive cases in a chain of transmission. The serial interval is generally estimated from the interval between clinical onsets, in which case it is the 'clinical onset serial interval' when these quantities are observable. It could, in principle, be estimated by the time interval between infection and subsequent transmission. If the timing of infection transmission in deference to a person's clinical onset is TA, and the incubation period of a

neg: Enterovirus E hygiene measures should be employed to minimise the spread of disease during an outbreak. The virus has been investigated for its antitumor capabilities, as it is capable of replicating within breast cancer cell lines and producing a cytopathic effect in human monocytes. Enterovirus E Enterovirus E (formerly bovine enterovirus (BEV)) is a picornavirus of the genus "Enterovirus". The virus may also be referred to as enteric cytopathic bovine orphan virus (ECBO). It is endemic in cattle populations worldwide, and although normally fairly nonpathogenic, it can cause reproductive, respiratory, or enteric disease – particularly when the animal is concurrently infected with

neg: Diphyllobothriasis per 100,000 population, suggesting that "D. nihonkaiense" infection is equally as prevalent in Japan as "D. latum" is in some European countries. The disease is rare in the United States. It was, however, once more common and was referred to as "Jewish housewife's disease" because Jewish housewives preparing the traditional "gefilte fish" frequently tasted the fish before it was cooked. Diphyllobothriasis Diphyllobothriasis is the infection caused by tapeworms of the "Diphyllobothrium" genus, commonly "Diphyllobothrium latum" and "Diphyllobothrium nihonkaiense". Diphyllobothriasis can last for decades if untreated. Most infections are asymptomatic. Manifestations may include abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, vomiting and weight loss. Vitamin

neg: AL amyloidosis AL amyloidosis Amyloid light-chain (AL) amyloidosis, primary systemic amyloidosis (PSA) or just primary amyloidosis is the most common form of systemic amyloidosis in the US. The disease is caused when a person's antibody-producing cells do not function properly and produce abnormal protein fibers made of components of antibodies called light chains. These light chains come together to form amyloid deposits which can cause serious damage to different organs. Abnormal light chains in urine are sometimes referred to as "Bence Jones protein". AL amyloidosis can affect a wide range of organs, and consequently present with a range of symptoms. The kidneys

neg: Borna disease The first antibodies to BoDV-1 in humans were discovered in the mid-1980s. Since then, there have been conflicting results from various studies in regards to whether an association exists between the agent and clinical disease. Antibodies to BoDV-1, which indicate prior infection, and BoDV-1 antigen have also been detected in blood donors. There is some evidence that there may be a relationship between BoDV-1 infection and psychiatric disease. In 1990, Janice E. Clements and colleagues reported in the journal "Science" that antibodies to a protein encoded by the BoDV-1 genome are found in the blood of patients with behavioral disorders.

neg: Mycoplasma synoviae Mycoplasma synoviae The bacteria M. synoviae is a member of the mycoplasma genus. It causes disease in the joints, bones and respiratory system of birds. It is found throughout the world and infection may be referred to as Infectious Synovitis, Avian Mycoplasmosis, Infectious Sinusitis and Mycoplasma Arthritis. It is of economic importance because infection can cause a drop in egg production. The disease is most commonly seen in chickens, and transmission occurs both vertically and horizontally. Common clinical signs include lameness, a stiff gait and abnormal curvature of the limbs. Respiratory and neurological signs are also reported. As mentioned, a

neg: Paget's disease of bone also known as burned-out Paget's disease. A later phase of the disease is characterized by the replacement of normal bone marrow with highly vascular fibrous tissue. Sir James Paget first suggested the disease was due to an inflammatory process. Some evidence suggests that a paramyxovirus infection is the underlying cause of Paget's disease, which may support the possible role of inflammation in the pathogenesis. However, no infectious virus has yet been isolated as a causative agent, and other evidence suggests an intrinsic hyperresponsive reaction to vitamin D and RANK ligand is the cause. Further research is therefore necessary. The first

neg: Echovirus system disease start to appear. Enteroviruses are capable of infecting any cell in the body. These viruses are highly infectious. They can spread through the air to other hosts 1–3 weeks after infection and can spread through feces to other hosts eight weeks after infection. Echovirus disease occurs disproportionately in males and children. Infection within the first two weeks of birth can cause devastating and potentially fatal disease. In this population, death usually results from overwhelming liver failure or myocarditis, rather than infection of the central nervous system. Older children and adults have a better prognosis. Myocarditis is the most

neg: Acanthamoeba keratitis for infection. Once the organism has gained access to the surface of the eye, it is able to invade through the epithelium and Bowman's layer. It some cases, the infection can then group around corneal nerves, producing radial deposits (radial keratoneuritis), and causing extreme pain. These are features also seen in viral and bacterial keratitis, and may be misleading. The organism is also capable of invading deeper into the cornea; using metalloproteases it is able to penetrate deep into the stroma of the cornea. As the disease progresses, it may penetrate through cornea but very rarely causes infection inside the

neg: Hedgehog protein-rich insects, this leads to common problems of obesity. Fatty liver disease is one sign, heart disease is another. Hedgehogs uncommonly transmit a characteristic fungal skin infection to human handlers as well as other hedgehogs. This ringworm or dermatophytosis infection is caused by "Trichophyton erinacei", which forms a distinct mating group within the "Arthroderma benhamiae" species complex. Hedgehogs can suffer from balloon syndrome, a rare condition in which gas is trapped under the skin as a result of injury or infection and which causes the animal to inflate; in 2017 the BBC reported a case in which a male hedgehog

neg: Herpesviridae considered endemic in humans, some viruses associated primarily with animals may infect humans. These are zoonotic infections: In animal virology, the best known herpesviruses belong to the subfamily "Alphaherpesvirinae". Research on pseudorabies virus (PrV), the causative agent of Aujeszky's disease in pigs, has pioneered animal disease control with genetically modified vaccines. PrV is now extensively studied as a model for basic processes during lytic herpesvirus infection, and for unraveling molecular mechanisms of herpesvirus neurotropism, whereas bovine herpesvirus 1, the causative agent of bovine infectious rhinotracheitis and pustular vulvovaginitis, is analyzed to elucidate molecular mechanisms of latency. The avian infectious laryngotracheitis

neg: Slow virus Slow virus A slow virus is a virus, or a viruslike agent, etiologically associated with a slow virus disease. A slow virus disease is a disease that, after an extended period of latency, follows a slow, progressive course spanning months to years, frequently involves the central nervous system, and in most cases progresses inexorably to death. Examples of slow virus diseases include subacute sclerosing panencephalitis which is the rare result of a measles virus infection, as well as Paget's Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans) which seems to be associated with paramyxoviruses, especially the measles virus and the human respiratory syncytial

neg: Entomophthora muscae Entomophthora muscae Entomophthora muscae is a species of pathogenic fungus in the order Entomophthorales which causes a fatal disease in flies. It can cause epizootic outbreaks of disease in houseflies and has been investigated as a potential biological control agent. Soon after a fly dies from infection with this pathogenic fungus, large primary conidia are produced at the apex of a conidiophore which emerge from the intersegmental membranes. When the spores are mature they are forcibly ejected and may fall onto flies resting nearby. If no hosts are available for infection, a smaller secondary conidium may develop. Once on a

neg: Penicillium digitatum impact relates to the post-harvest disease it causes in citrus fruits known as green rot or mould. As a wound pathogen, the disease cycle begins when "P. digitatum" conidia germinate with release of water and nutrients from the site of injury on the fruit surface. After infection at 24 °C, rapid growth ensues with active infection taking place within 48 hours and initial symptom onset occurring within 3 days. As temperature at time of infection decreases, the delay of initial symptom onset increases. Initial symptoms include a moist depression on the surface which expands as white mycelium colonizes much of

neg: Subtypes of HIV contracted together in what is referred to as co-infection. HIV-2 seems to have lower mortality rates, less severe symptoms and slower progression to AIDS than HIV-1 alone or the co-infection. In co-infection, however, this is largely dependent on which virus was contracted first. HIV-1 tends to out compete HIV-2 for disease progression. Co-infection seems to be a growing problem globally as time progresses, with most cases being identified in West African countries, as well as some cases in the US. If a pregnant mother is exposed, screening is performed as normal. If HIV-2 is present, a number of perinatal ART