query: when does the only existing beowulf manuscript date

pos: Beowulf Beowulf Beowulf (; ) is an Old English epic story consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines. It may be the oldest surviving long story in Old English and is commonly cited as one of the most important works of Old English literature. The date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars; the only certain dating pertains to the manuscript, which was produced between 975 and 1025. The author was an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet, referred to by scholars as the ""Beowulf" author". The story is set in Scandinavia. Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar,

pos: Beowulf Beowulf Beowulf (; ) is an Old English epic story consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines. It may be the oldest surviving long story in Old English and is commonly cited as one of the most important works of Old English literature. The date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars; the only certain dating pertains to the manuscript, which was produced between 975 and 1025. The author was an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet, referred to by scholars as the ""Beowulf" author". The story is set in Scandinavia. Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar,

neg: Beowulf in his book tells strongly in favour of an eighth-century date." "Beowulf" survives in a single manuscript dated on palaeographical grounds to the late 10th or early 11th century. The manuscript measures 245 × 185 mm. The poem is known only from a single manuscript, which is estimated to date from close to AD 1000, in which it appears with other works. The "Beowulf" manuscript is known as the Nowell Codex, gaining its name from 16th-century scholar Laurence Nowell. The official designation is "British Library, Cotton Vitellius A.XV" because it was one of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the

neg: English poetry (991), appear to have been composed shortly after the events in question, and can be dated reasonably precisely in consequence. By and large, however, Anglo-Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. The most important manuscripts are the four great poetical codices of the late 10th and early 11th centuries, known as the Cædmon manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Beowulf manuscript. While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth. "Beowulf" is the only heroic epic to have survived in its

neg: Finnesburg Fragment of the Archbishops of Canterbury. This manuscript was almost certainly Lambeth Library MS 487. A British scholar, George Hickes, made the transcript some time in the late 17th century, and published it in an anthology of Anglo-Saxon and other antiquities in 1705. (This anthology also contains the first reference to the sole manuscript of "Beowulf".) Since the time when the copy was made the original manuscript folio has been lost or stolen. The fragment is only about 50 lines long and does not specify the tribal identities of those involved. It describes a battle in which Hnæf (lines 2 and

neg: Unferð Latin is given as "Hunfridus" and "Hunfertho". The first element of the name, "un", appears exclusively as "hun" in the sole manuscript of "Beowulf". There is some question as to why "hun" appears when the author means "un", and Fred C. Robinson suggests that this "h" is a Celtic scribal habit which indicates that "u" has a vocal function by adding an unpronounced graphic "h". Fulk argues, however, that this use of the letter "h" does not appear anywhere else in the "Beowulf" manuscript. In Old English, "un" usually means "not". However, some scholars have argued that it can also

neg: Beowulf entertainment, and does not separate between fictional elements and historic events, such as the raid by King Hygelac into Frisia. Though Beowulf himself is not mentioned in any other Anglo-Saxon manuscript, scholars generally agree that many of the other figures referred to in "Beowulf" also appear in Scandinavian sources. (Specific works are designated in the following section). This concerns not only individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern). In Denmark, recent archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition

neg: Judith (poem) As Holofernes was often drunk, Judith anticipated that he would attempt to seduce her. She pretended to be charmed by Holofernes, allowing herself to be taken to his bedroom. When the unsuspecting Holofernes fell into a drunken slumber, Judith severed his head with a sword. Thereafter, she proudly displayed his head to her Hebrew army and led them into a victorious battle against the Assyrians. In the Book of Judith, though, the Assyrians simply fled Bethulia after discovering the deceased body of Holofernes (Marsden, pg. 148). The only existing copy of the poem is in the Beowulf manuscript, immediately following

neg: Beowulf by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the "Beowulf" script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. Hickes replies to Wanley "I can find nothing yet of Beowulph." Kiernan theorised that Smith failed to mention the "Beowulf" manuscript because of his reliance on previous catalogues or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was temporarily out of the codex. It suffered damage in the Cotton Library fire at Ashburnham House in 1731. Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters. Rebinding efforts, though saving the manuscript from

neg: Beowulf in front of him. In the way that it is currently bound, the "Beowulf" manuscript is followed by the Old English poem "Judith". "Judith" was written by the same scribe that completed "Beowulf" as evidenced through similar writing style. Worm-holes found in the last leaves of the "Beowulf" manuscript that aren't present in the "Judith" manuscript suggest that at one point "Beowulf" ended the volume. The rubbed appearance of some leaves also suggest that the manuscript stood on a shelf unbound, as is known to have been the case with other Old English manuscripts. From knowledge of books held in

neg: Romantic nationalism another product of Romantic nationalism. The "discovery" of "Beowulf" in a single manuscript, first transcribed in 1818, came under the impetus of Romantic nationalism, after the manuscript had lain as an ignored curiosity in scholars' collections for two centuries. "Beowulf" was felt to provide people self-identified as "Anglo-Saxon" with their missing "national epic", just when the need for it was first being felt: the fact that Beowulf himself was a Geat was easily overlooked. The pseudo-Gaelic literary forgeries of "Ossian" had failed, finally, to fill the need for the first Romantic generation. The first publication of "The Tale of Igor's

neg: Nowell Codex Nowell Codex The Nowell Codex is the second of two manuscripts comprising the bound volume Cotton Vitellius A.xv, one of the four major Anglo-Saxon poetic manuscripts. It is most famous as the manuscript containing the unique copy of the epic poem "Beowulf". In addition to this, it contains first a fragment of "The Life of Saint Christopher", then the more complete texts "Wonders of the East" and "Letters of Alexander to Aristotle," and, after "Beowulf", a poetic translation of "Judith". Due to the fame of "Beowulf", the Nowell codex is also sometimes known simply as the "Beowulf" manuscript. The manuscript

neg: Kevin Kiernan the poem and the manuscript, and at this time, the early 1980s, the dating of the Beowulf manuscript was an important topic in Anglo-Saxon scholarship. In general, Kiernan argued in "Beowulf and the Beowulf manuscript", a monograph which attracted much attention, scholars have emended the manuscript too easily and have thus place too little faith in its readings. Theories of lengthy oral transmission of the poem have caused scholars to emend individual readings, even filling up what they perceived as lacunae in the text if they deemed that the metrics or the contents were faulty. Kiernan argued that the poem

neg: English literature achieved national epic status in England, despite being set in Scandinavia. The only surviving manuscript is the Nowell Codex, the precise date of which is debated, but most estimates place it close to the year 1000. Beowulf is the conventional title, and its composition is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous: twelve are known by name from medieval sources, but only four of those are known by their vernacular works with any certainty: Cædmon, Bede, Alfred the Great, and Cynewulf. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, and

neg: Beowulf to support a date of composition in the first half of the eighth century; in particular, the poem's regular observation of etymological length distinctions (Max Kaluza's law) has been thought to demonstrate a date of composition in the first half of the eighth century. However, scholars disagree about whether the metrical phenomena described by Kaluza's Law prove an early date of composition or are evidence of a longer prehistory of the Beowulf meter; B.R. Hutcheson, for instance, does not believe Kaluza's Law can be used to date the poem, while claiming that "the weight of all the evidence Fulk presents

neg: Beowa responsible for the text conflated them: at the beginning of the poem, there is a character called Beowulf (not the Beowulf of the title) who appears in the family tree of Scyld Scefing; this "Beowulf" is frequently changed to "Beow". J. R. R. Tolkien, one of the proponents of reading "Beow" here, suggested that the two scribes who produced the Beowulf manuscript were "both extremely ignorant of and careless with proper names", and called the occurrence of "Beowulf" in this place in the manuscript "one of the reddest and highest red herrings that were ever dragged across a literary trail".

neg: Kevin Kiernan Kevin Kiernan Kevin Kiernan is an American scholar of Anglo-Saxon literature. Kiernan is the editor of the "Electronic Beowulf" and an acknowledged expert on the Beowulf manuscript. Kiernan is the T. Marshall Hahn Sr. Professor of Arts and Sciences Emeritus at the University of Kentucky. He was inducted into the University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences Hall of Fame in 2015. Kiernan is active in the study of "Beowulf" and the Beowulf manuscript, and in the digital humanities, which combined in his "Electronic Beowulf". From early on in his academic career, Kiernan expressed doubt in received theory on

neg: Kevin Kiernan questions concerning the manuscript through a new and first-hand description of it". Reviewing Kiernan's monograph together with "The Dating of Beowulf" (a collection of essays including one by Kiernan, edited by Colin Chase, 1981), Trahern concluded that the two books narrowed the dating for "Beowulf" and pushed it closer to the actual production of the manuscript. A further critique of accepted scholarship on the manuscript came with "The Thorkelin Transcripts of Beowulf" in 1986, which challenged the traditional account of the transcriptions made for and by Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin, an Icelandic-Danish scholar who was the first to transcribe the manuscript

neg: Grendel (novel) movie "Grendel Grendel Grendel". The basic plot derives from "Beowulf", a heroic poem of unknown authorship written in Old English and preserved in a manuscript dating from around AD 1000. The poem deals with the heroic exploits of the Geat warrior Beowulf, who battles three antagonists: Grendel, Grendel's mother, and, later in life, an unnamed dragon. Gardner's retelling, however, presents the story from the existentialist view of Grendel, exploring the history of the characters before Beowulf arrives. Beowulf himself plays a relatively small role in the novel, but he is still the only human hero that can match and kill

neg: Hygelac to the early 8th century, but some have suggested that it was composed as late as the 10th century, the date of the sole surviving manuscript. One view considers the account to have kept alive by the oral tradition of heroic poetry until it was included in the "epos". It has also been suggested that the poem is dependent on "Liber historiae Francorum" (727), because it mentions the "Attoarii", which in "Beowulf" become "Hetware". One scholar considers it to be inconceivable that independent oral tradition would have faithfully transmitted such a detail. Walter Goffart estimated that "Beowulf" could not have

neg: Beowulf in 2014 as "". This also includes Tolkien's own retelling of the story of Beowulf in his tale, "Sellic Spell". Maria Dahvana Headley published 'The Mere Wife' in 2018, retelling the story from the point of view of Grendel's Mother. Neither identified sources nor analogues for "Beowulf" can be definitively proven, but many conjectures have been made. These are important in helping historians understand the "Beowulf" manuscript, as possible source-texts or influences would suggest time-frames of composition, geographic boundaries within which it could be composed, or range (both spatial and temporal) of influence (i.e. when it was "popular" and where

neg: Unferð Unferð In the Old English epic poem "Beowulf", Unferth or Hunferth is a thegn (a retainer, servant) of the Danish lord Hrothgar. His name appears four times in the poem (always spelled Hunferð), at lines 499, 530, 1165, and 1488, as well as in line 980 by the appellation "the son of Eclafes". The name "Unferth" does not appear in any Old English manuscript outside of the Nowell Codex, which contains "Beowulf", and the meaning of the name is disputed. Several scholarly theories about Unferth have been proposed. Unferth is also the name of a character in the modern novel

neg: Hrothgar epic poem "Beowulf", Hrothgar is mentioned as the builder of the great hall Heorot, and ruler of Denmark when the Geatish hero Beowulf arrives to defeat the monster Grendel. When Hrothgar is first introduced in "Beowulf", it is explained that he was the second of four children of King Healfdene: he had an older brother, Heorogar, who was king before him; a younger brother Halga; and a sister, who was married to the king of Sweden. The sister is not named in the manuscript and most scholars agree this is a scribal error, but suggested names are Signy and Yrsa.

neg: Judith (poem) successors (Cook, pg. xx–xxi). The existing manuscript text of "Judith", following "Beowulf" in the manuscript, was copied by the second of two scribes. Campbell, J.J. "Schematic Technique in Judith". "English Literary History" 38 (1971), 155–72 Chamberlain, D. "Judith: a Fragmentary and Political Poem". "Anglo-Saxon Poetry: Essays in Appreciation for John C. McGalliard", ed. L. E. Nicholson and D. W. Frese (Notre Dame, IN, 1975),pp. 145–59. Clayton, M. "Ælfric's Judith: manipulative or manipulated?" (1994) pp. 215–227. Cook, A.S. "Judith, an old English epic fragment. Edited, with introd., facsim., translation, complete glossary, and various indexes", (Heath, Boston, 1889) Cubitt, C. "Virginity and

neg: Beowulf much degeneration, have nonetheless covered up other letters of the poem, causing further loss. Kevin Kiernan, in preparing his electronic edition of the manuscript, used fibre-optic backlighting and ultraviolet lighting to reveal letters in the manuscript lost from binding, erasure, or ink blotting. The "Beowulf" manuscript was transcribed from an original by two scribes, one of whom wrote the prose at the beginning of the manuscript and the first 1939 lines before breaking off in mid sentence. The first scribe made a point of carefully regularizing the spelling of the original document by using the common West Saxon language and

neg: The Rhyming Poem Book and to determine if works were placed in the manuscript by date or theme. Unlike the "Monstrarum Librum" of the "Beowulf" manuscript, the Exeter Book appears to be a self-consciously archival collection. The poem concerns the troubles and transience of life. It contrasts the life of a ruler, from the time of his birth to his prosperous rule and life at court (lines 1-42), with his life after his fall, the subsequent rise of hostilities (lines 43-69) and his death (lines 70-79), ending with a reflection on the eternal glories of Heaven and the necessity of penance (lines 80-87).

neg: Wonders of the East and another scribe wrote the remainder of "Beowulf" and "Judith". This codex was most likely compiled by Sir Robert Cotton, who possessed many Old English manuscripts. In 1731 the Cotton Library, which housed this manuscript, caught on fire; therefore, the text almost did not survive and is slightly burned around the edges. The codex may have been intentionally put together because four of the manuscripts discuss monsters. Furthermore, it is a “"liber monstrorum", or book of marvels, designed for entertainment along with usual edification. The date of this manuscript is usually believed to be “within a couple of decades of

neg: Breca the Bronding phrase "on sund rēon", which would seem to mean "rowing on the sea" – but there is an Anglo-Saxon word, "onsund", which means “sound, physically strong, uninjured”, in most transcriptions of the Beowulf text it does not occur, but in the original manuscript, at line 513 "on" and "sund" have apparently been rewritten after being scraped from the parchment and seem slightly closer together than two separate words ordinarily are (although Zupitza's transcription treats them as two separate words), and in line 540 the manuscript clearly uses "onsund" as a single word and Zupitza transcribes it as a single word

neg: Voynich manuscript and represented the Nahuatl language, and date the manuscript to between 1521 (the date of the Conquest) and "circa" 1576, in contradiction of radiocarbon dating evidence of the vellum and many other elements of the manuscript. However, the vellum, while creation of it was dated earlier, could just have been stored and used at a later date for manuscript making. The analysis has been criticized by other Voynich manuscript researchers, pointing out that—among other things—a skilled forger could construct plants that have a passing resemblance to theretofore undiscovered existing plants. In 2014, a team led by Dr. Diego Amancio of

neg: Anglo-Saxon paganism "Deor's Lament" there are references to the mythological smith Weyland, and this figure also makes an appearance on the Franks Casket. There are moreover two place-names recorded in tenth century charters that include Weyland's name. This entity's mythological stories are better fleshed out in Norse stories. The only surviving Anglo-Saxon epic poem is the story of "Beowulf", known only from a surviving manuscript that was written down by the Christian monk Sepa sometime between the eighth and eleventh centuries AD. The story it tells is set not in England but in Scandinavia, and revolves around a Geatish warrior named Beowulf

neg: Hrothgar "famous warrior". These two names, both appearing as "Hróarr" in Scandinavia, did not have any corresponding Old English form, and so "Hrōðgār" was their closest equivalent. Hrothgar appears in two Anglo-Saxon poems, "Beowulf" and "Widsith". "Beowulf" gives the fuller account of Hrothgar and how the Geatish hero Beowulf visited him to free his people from the trollish creature Grendel. "Widsith" only mentions Hrothgar, Heorot, his nephew Hroðulf and their enemy Ingeld, but can complete "Beowulf" in some cases where "Beowulf" does not give enough information. This is notably the case concerning the ending of his feud with Ingeld. In the

neg: Beowulf & Grendel does raid Hrothgar's village during the night, he flees rather than fight. Selma the witch tells Beowulf that Grendel will not fight him because Beowulf has committed no wrong against him. A villager, recently baptized and thus now unafraid of death, leads Beowulf and his men to the cliff above Grendel's cave. When the villager is found dead, Beowulf and his men return with a rope and gain entry to Grendel's secret cave, where one of Beowulf's men mutilates the mummified head of Grendel's father. That night, Grendel invades Hrothgar's great hall, kills the Geat who desecrated his father's head,

neg: Jean de Joinville of Navarre died in 1305. In addition, the oldest existing manuscript ends with this note: " "Ce fu escript en l'an de grace mil .CCC. et .IX. "[1309]", ou moys d'octovre" ". This is not precisely the date of the writing of the manuscript, because it was obviously written later. Therefore it is either the date of the completion of the work by Joinville, or the date of the manuscript which served as the model to the surviving copies. The work was therefore written between 1305 and 1309. By other evidence, one can equally argue that a passage at the

neg: The dragon (Beowulf) Germanic literature and the literature of Christian hagiography featured dragons and dragon fights. Although the dragons of hagiography were less fierce than the dragon in "Beowulf", similarities exist in the stories such as presenting the journey to the dragon's lair, cowering spectators, and the sending of messages relaying the outcome of the fight. The dragon with his hoard is a common motif in early Germanic literature with the story existing to varying extents in the Norse sagas, but it is most notable in the "Völsunga saga" and in "Beowulf". "Beowulf" preserves existing medieval dragon-lore, most notably in the extended digression

neg: Beowulf the king of the Danes, whose mead hall in Heorot has been under attack by a monster known as Grendel. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother attacks the hall and is then also defeated. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland (Götaland in modern Sweden) and later becomes king of the Geats. After a period of fifty years has passed, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is mortally wounded in the battle. After his death, his attendants cremate his body and erect a tower on a headland in his memory. The full story survives in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex.

neg: Early Quranic manuscripts the Kufic script. It "can generally be dated from the late eighth century depending on the extent of development in the character of the script in each case." The Topkapi manuscript is an early manuscript of the Quran dated to the early 8th century. This manuscript is kept in the Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul, Turkey. It was wrongly attributed to Uthman Ibn Affan (d. 656), but judging from its illumination, the Topkapi manuscript does not date from the period (mid 7th century) when the copies of the Caliph Uthman were written. The Samarkand Kufic Quran, preserved at Tashkent, is a

neg: Nowell Codex a fragment of a life of Saint Quentin. The second codex begins with three prose works: a life of Saint Christopher, "Wonders of the East" (a description of various far-off lands and their fantastic inhabitants), and a translation of a "Letter of Alexander to Aristotle". These are followed by "Beowulf", which takes up the bulk of the volume, and Judith, a poetic retelling of part of the book of Judith. Great wear on the final page of Beowulf and other manuscript factors such as wormhole patterns indicate Judith was not originally the last part of the manuscript, though it is

neg: The dragon (Beowulf) Grendel's mother and Grendel, Beowulf returns to homeland and becomes king of the Geats. Fifty years pass with Beowulf leading as a wise king, when a local dragon is angered when a slave enters its lair and takes a cup from its treasure. The creature attacks the neighboring towns in revenge. Beowulf and a troop of men (“the Geats”) leave to find the dragon’s lair. The Geats run away in fear, leaving only Beowulf and his young companion Wiglaf to slay the dragon. Beowulf receives a fatal wound from the dragon, but Wiglaf impales the dragon’s belly to reduce the

neg: Beowulf nearly contemporary with its transcription, whether it was first written in the 8th century, or if a proto-version of the poem was perhaps composed at an even earlier time (possibly as one of the Bear's Son Tales) and orally transmitted for many years, then transcribed in its present form at a later date. Albert Lord felt strongly that the manuscript represents the transcription of a performance, though likely taken at more than one sitting. J. R. R. Tolkien believed that the poem retains too genuine a memory of Anglo-Saxon paganism to have been composed more than a few generations after

neg: Beowulf Genesis, the Book of Exodus, and the Book of Daniel in its inclusion of references to the Genesis creation narrative, the story of Cain and Abel, Noah and the flood, the Devil, Hell, and the Last Judgment. The poem mixes the West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though it predominantly uses West Saxon, as do other Old English poems copied at the time. There is a wide array of linguistic forms in the "Beowulf" manuscript. It is this fact that leads some scholars to believe that "Beowulf" has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main

neg: Grendel's mother Grendel's mother Grendel's mother () is one of three antagonists in the anonymous Old English poem "Beowulf" (c. 700–1000 AD). The other antagonists are Grendel and the dragon, all aligned in opposition to the hero Beowulf. She is introduced in lines 1258b to 1259a as: "Grendles modor/ides, aglæcwif". Grendel's mother, who is never given a name in the text, is the subject of ongoing controversy among medieval scholars. This is due to the ambiguity of a few words in Old English which appear in the original "Beowulf" manuscript. While there is consensus over the word "modor" (mother), the phrase "ides,

neg: Drexel 5611 music) observed that Gibbons's composition "The Queen's Command" exists both in Drexel 5611 and in British Library manuscript Add. 31723, and that the latter source was copied from the former. A note in the Add. 31723 manuscript indicates: "transcribed from an ancient ms. of 1657." Bailey wonders that, if Drexel 5611 is that 1657 manuscript, does the date mentioned in the note represent a beginning or termination date? Bailey observed that if the 1657 termination date is correct, Drexel 5611 represents the earliest sources of music composed by Matthew Locke. Bailey concluded her discussion by establishing dating at "1650s or

neg: Laurence Nowell accurate cartographic survey of the east coast of Ireland, as well as presenting him, in 1563/64, with a small, accurate pocket-sized map of Britain, entitled "A general description of England and Ireland with the costes adioyning" which Cecil supposedly always carried with him. Nowell also collected and transcribed Anglo-Saxon documents and compiled the first Anglo-Saxon dictionary, the "Vocabularium Saxonicum". In 1563, he came into possession of the only extant manuscript of "Beowulf". The manuscript is bound in what is still known as the Nowell Codex (Cotton Vitellius A. xv). He also studied the Exeter Book, annotating folios 9r and 10r

neg: Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington feet wide filled with bookpresses, each surmounted by the bust of a figure from classical antiquity. Counterclockwise, these are catalogued as Julius, Augustus, Cleopatra, Faustina, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. (Domitian had only one shelf, perhaps because it was over the door). Manuscripts are today designated by library, bookpress, and number: for example, the manuscript of "Beowulf" is designated "Cotton Vitellius A.xv", and the manuscript of "Pearl" is "Cotton Nero A.x". Sir Robert Cotton began developing the works and manuscripts into a collection for his Library shortly after the birth of his son in

neg: Beowulf (2007 film) celebrate in Heorot to lure Grendel out. When the beast attacks, Beowulf engages him unarmed and naked. During the fight, Beowulf discovers that Grendel has hypersensitive hearing and ruptures the creature's eardrum. Grendel shrinks in size and manages to escape only after Beowulf severs his arm, mortally wounding him. In thanks for freeing his kingdom from the monster, Hrothgar gives Beowulf his golden drinking horn, which commemorates Hrothgar's victory over the mighty dragon Fafnir. In his cave, Grendel's mother swears revenge over his corpse. She travels to Heorot and slaughters Beowulf's men while they are sleeping. Hrothgar tells both Beowulf

neg: Beowulf It has no title in the original manuscript, but has become known by the name of the story's protagonist. In 1731, the manuscript was badly damaged by a fire that swept through Ashburnham House in London that had a collection of medieval manuscripts assembled by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton. The Nowell Codex is currently housed in the British Library. The events in the poem take place over most of the sixth century, after the Anglo-Saxons had started migrating to England and before the beginning of the seventh century, a time when the Anglo-Saxons were either newly arrived or were still

neg: Wonders of the East or eat people. "The Wonders of the East" is found in three manuscripts. It is in the Beowulf manuscript (also known as the Nowell Codex, London, British Library, Cotton Vitellius A. xv). It is written in Late West Saxon in a Mercian dialect. Other than "Beowulf" and "The Wonders of the East", the other works in this codex include: "The Passion of St. Christopher", "The Letter of Alexander to Aristotle", and "Judith". One scribe is believed to have copied "The Passion of St. Christopher", "The Letter of Alexander to Aristotle", "The Wonders of the East", and first part of "Beowulf",

neg: Rhinelandic Rhyming Bible the work may have incorporated the Creation to the Last Judgement. The text is a series of homilies, and an important witness to the possible existence of a vernacular sermon tradition at an earlier date than existing manuscript evidence suggests. The text is also an important source for Old Dutch. Rhinelandic Rhyming Bible The Rhinelandic Rhyming Bible ( and ), or (erroneously) Central Franconian Rhyming Bible (), is a verse translation of biblical histories, attested only in a series of fragments, probably of early-twelfth-century date. It was likely composed in north-west Germany in the early 12th century, possibly in Werden

neg: The dragon (Beowulf) the beast, the thanes flee in terror, leaving only Wiglaf to battle at Beowulf's side. When the dragon wounds Beowulf fatally, Wiglaf slays it. This depiction indicates the growing importance and stabilization of the modern concept of the dragon within European mythology. "Beowulf" is the first piece of English literature to present a dragonslayer. Although many motifs common to the "Beowulf" dragon existed in the Scandinavian and Germanic literature, the "Beowulf" poet was the first to combine features and present a distinctive fire-breathing dragon. The "Beowulf" dragon was later copied in literature with similar themes such as J. R. R.

neg: Old English literature manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament. The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after "Beowulf", called "Judith", a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric's homily "Judith", which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose. Old English translations of Psalms 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. There are verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed, as well as some

neg: Annales florentini to the attention of scholars. It does not contain a record for every year between 1110 and 1173. There are only eighteen records in several different handwritings and not arranged chronologically. The writing is clearly from the twelfth century. The "Annales florentini secundi" date to the thirteenth century. There are 46 records between the years 1107 and 1247. They are found in a manuscript originating in the monastery of Santa Maria Novella, now No. 776 E. A. in the Suppressed Monasteries series of the Magliabecchian Library, now part of the National Library at Florence. This same manuscript contains a list

neg: Beowulf (2007 film) Cain, their progenitor, was outcast because he killed his brother), but in the film "Beowulf" the monsters are bad because they're outcasts [...] Contrary to the original "Beowulf", the new film wants us to understand and humanize our "monsters"." At Comic-Con International in July 2006, Gaiman said "Beowulf" would be released on November 22, 2007. The following October, "Beowulf" was announced to be projected in 3-D in over 1,000 theaters for its release date in November 2007. The studios planned to use 3-D projection technology that had been used by "Monster House" (another film that Zemeckis was involved on, but

neg: Bauyn manuscript Bauyn manuscript The Bauyn manuscript is a manuscript currently in possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris (catalogue number Rés. Vm7 674–675). It is, along with several printed collections and the Parville manuscript, one of the most important sources for French harpsichord music of the 17th century. The Bauyn manuscript was created somewhere around 1690, when the only published harpsichord pieces were those by Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, Nicolas Lebègue and perhaps, depending on the exact date, Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre (1687) and Jean-Henri d'Anglebert (1689). The name comes from the Bauyn d'Angervilliers family, who once possessed

neg: Bauyn manuscript a principal source for his harpsichord oeuvre. Bauyn manuscript The Bauyn manuscript is a manuscript currently in possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris (catalogue number Rés. Vm7 674–675). It is, along with several printed collections and the Parville manuscript, one of the most important sources for French harpsichord music of the 17th century. The Bauyn manuscript was created somewhere around 1690, when the only published harpsichord pieces were those by Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, Nicolas Lebègue and perhaps, depending on the exact date, Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre (1687) and Jean-Henri d'Anglebert (1689). The name comes from

neg: Midnight Sun (Meyer novel) her website in fairness to her readers, now that the novel has been compromised before its intended publication date. Meyer also stated that she does not believe the manuscript was leaked with any malicious intent, and would not give any names. In a November 2008 interview, Meyer said that, "It's really complicated, because everyone now is in the driver's seat, where they can make judgment calls. ... I do not feel alone with the manuscript. And I cannot write when I don't feel alone." She said that her goal was to go for around two years without hearing about "Midnight

neg: Unferð adds that Unferth "did not dare" to dive into the mere to attack Grendel's mother, and thus "his fame was lessened." Beowulf is grateful for the loan, however, and at line 1488 he tells King Hroðgar that if he, Beowulf, does not return from the mere, then his own sword should be given to Unferth. The morning after the celebratory feast on the occasion of Beowulf killing Grendel's mother, Beowulf and his people prepare to return to their home. Beowulf returns the sword Hrunting to Unferth, praising the weapon and its owner: he has "no ill word" for the sword

neg: Hrólfr Kraki kills a beast that has been ravaging the Danish court for two years. The monster in "Hrólf Kraki"'s saga, however, is quite unlike the Grendel of "Beowulf"; but it does have characteristics of a more typical dragon, a creature which appears later in "Beowulf". Just as Beowulf and Wiglaf slay a dragon at the end of "Beowulf", Bödvar Bjarki and Hjalti help each other slay the creature in Denmark. Proponents of this theory, like J. R. R. Tolkien, argue that both the names "Beowulf" (lit. "bee-wolf", a kenning for "bear") and "Bjarki" are associated with bears. Bodvar Bjarki is constantly

neg: Sutton Hoo helmet the crest on the Sutton Hoo helmet find linguistic support in "Beowulf". The helmet presented to Beowulf as a "victory gift" following his defeat of Grendel is described with identical features: This portion of the poem was thought "probably corrupt" until the helmet was discovered, with the suggestion that "the scribe himself does not appear to have understood it"; the meaning of "the notorious '," in particular, was only guessed at. The term is generally used in Old English to refer to a ridge of land, not the crest of a helmet; metaphorically termed ' in the poem, the crest

neg: On Translating Beowulf line 2846, in Clark Hall's unrevised version) as "reminiscent of the 'two tired toads that tried to trot to Tutbury'". He does not approve, either, of choosing needlessly colloquial words: "Too often notables, visitors and subalterns appeared instead of the more fitting, and indeed more literally accurate, counsellors, strangers, and young knights." Further, he points out that the language used by the Beowulf poet was already archaic, and the choice of words was at the time recognisably poetic. Tolkien gives as an example "beorn", which meant both 'bear' and 'warrior', but only in heroic poetry could it be used to

neg: Pistis Sophia all of his post-resurrection actions up to the writing of this text are lacking in divine nature. In all that time, he provided his followers only the lowest of the mysteries; only 11 years after the resurrection does he receive the garment from on high that enables him to reveal the true knowledge required for salvation. Pistis Sophia Pistis Sophia () is a gnostic text discovered in 1773, possibly written between the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The existing manuscript, which some scholars place in the late 4th century, relates one Gnostic group's teachings of the transfigured Jesus to the

neg: Beowulf dialect areas. The poem retains a complicated mix of the following dialectical forms: Mercian, Northumbrian, Early West Saxon, Kentish and Late West Saxon. There are in "Beowulf" more than 3100 distinct words, and almost 1300 occur exclusively, or almost exclusively, in this poem and in the other poetical texts. Considerably more than one-third of the total vocabulary is alien from ordinary prose use. There are, in round numbers, three hundred and sixty uncompounded verbs in "Beowulf", and forty of them are poetical words in the sense that they are unrecorded or rare in the existing prose writings. One hundred and

neg: Wiglaf to; so Wiglaf is Beowulf's distant cousin, and his only living relative at the time of Beowulf's death. Wiglaf first appears in "Beowulf" at line 2602, as a member of the band of thanes who go with Beowulf to seek out the dragon that has attacked Geat-Land. This is the first time Wiglaf has gone to war at Beowulf's side. He is called a "praise-worthy shield-warrior", a "prince of the Scylfings", and "mæg ælfheres", "kinsman of Ælfhere." When Beowulf damages his sword wounding the dragon and is burned by the dragon's fire, Wiglaf is the only man of Beowulf's band

neg: Bannatyne manuscript (Clan MacLeod) Bannatyne inherited the estate of Kames and assumed the name "Bannatyne". William Macleod Bannatyne is known to have compiled an earlier account of the clan in 1767. Another candidate for the authorship of the "Bannatyne manuscript" is Bannatyne William Macleod, a cousin of William Macleod Bannatyne (died 1857). The manuscript, therefore, seems to date from 1829 to the year of Bannatyne William Macleod's death in 1857. Bannatyne manuscript (Clan MacLeod) The Bannatyne manuscript is a traditional account of Clan MacLeod. It consists of 142 sheets of foolscap paper. The author's name does not appear in it. Although the work is

neg: Percy Folio works. Despite its losses, the Percy Folio is, like the Exeter Book, the "Pearl Manuscript," and the Cotton library's "monstrarum librarum" of the "Beowulf" manuscript, one of the most important documents in English poetry. A full edition of the folio's contents was not published until 1867, with a supplement of "loose and humorous" songs the following year. Percy Folio The Percy Folio is a folio book of English ballads used by Thomas Percy to compile his "Reliques of Ancient Poetry". Although the manuscript itself was compiled in the 17th century, some of its material goes back well into the 12th

neg: Beowulf logic and aesthetic of its own." Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcriptions of the manuscript in 1786 and published the results in 1815, working as part of a Danish government historical research commission. He made one himself, and had another done by a professional copyist who knew no Anglo-Saxon. Since that time, however, the manuscript has crumbled further, making these transcripts a prized witness to the text. While the recovery of at least 2000 letters can be attributed to them, their accuracy has been called into question, and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more

neg: Anglo-Saxons slightly different from every other one, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. We can sometimes identify individual scribes from their handwriting, and we can often guess where manuscripts were written because different scriptoria (centres of manuscript production) wrote in different styles of hand. There are four great poetic codices of Old English poetry (a codex is a book in modern format, as opposed to a scroll): the Junius Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Nowell Codex or "Beowulf" Manuscript; most of the well-known lyric poems

neg: Beowulf more than twelve hundred years ago, during the first half of the eighth century, and that the writer was a native of what was then called West Mercia, located in the Western Midlands of England. However, the late tenth-century manuscript "which alone preserves the poem" originated in the kingdom of the West Saxons – as it is more commonly known. Donaldson wrote that "the poet who put the materials into their present form was a Christian and ... poem reflects a Christian tradition". Stanley B. Greenfield has suggested that references to the human body throughout "Beowulf" emphasise the relative position

neg: Beowulf the library at Malmesbury Abbey and available as source works, and from the identification of certain words particular to the local dialect found in the text, the transcription may have taken place there. The question of whether "Beowulf" was passed down through oral tradition prior to its present manuscript form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than simply the issue of its composition. Rather, given the implications of the theory of oral-formulaic composition and oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate. Scholarly discussion about

neg: Hrethel Hrethel Hrethel (; ) is a king of the Geats in the Old English poem "Beowulf". Hrethel's name appears with both the root vowel <e> and <æ>, and with both the consonant <þ> (i.e. the phoneme /θ/, pronounced [ð] in Old English) and <d> (which would ordinarily represent the phoneme /d/). This is thought to be due to an early manuscript of "Beowulf" writing the root vowel using the early graphs <œ> (for the vowel resulting from the i-mutation of Common Germanic /o:/) and <d> (for the phoneme /θ/, pronounced [ð]). Later scribes misread the former as <æ> and failed

neg: Beowulf to the first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime between 1628 and 1650 by Franciscus Junius (the younger). The ownership of the codex before Nowell remains a mystery. The Reverend Thomas Smith (1638–1710) and Humfrey Wanley (1672–1726) both catalogued the Cotton library (in which the Nowell Codex was held). Smith's catalogue appeared in 1696, and Wanley's in 1705. The "Beowulf" manuscript itself is identified by name for the first time in an exchange of letters in 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley's assistant, and Wanley. In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made

neg: Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin had prepared "Beowulf" for publication by 1807. During the Battle of Copenhagen (1807) his house was burned, and the manuscript of his edition (the work of 20 years) was lost. The two transcripts survived, however, and Thorkelin began all over again. The poem was eventually published in 1815. Thorkelin was also the first scholar to make a full translation of the poem. The Thorkelín transcriptions are now an important textual source for "Beowulf", as the original manuscript's margins have suffered from deterioration during the 19th and 20th centuries. His early copies provide a record in many areas where the text

neg: Beowulf First published in 1928, Frederick Klaeber's "Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg" (which included the poem in Old English, an extensive glossary of Old English terms, and general background information) became the "central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations." Seamus Heaney's 1999 translation of the poem (referred to by Howell Chickering and many others as "Heaneywulf") was widely publicized. 21st century R. D. Fulk, of Indiana University, published the first facing-page edition and translation of the entire Nowell Codex manuscript in the Dumbarton Oaks

neg: Kevin Kiernan in the poem was very much a contemporary language rather than the archaic language claimed by earlier editors and critics. The latter point was supported by a linguistic analysis done by Joseph Tuso, who compared the poem's diction with three important contemporary texts. Kiernan's proposed 11th-century origin of the poem did not go unchallenged, but even critics such as Joseph Trahern who didn't accept this proposition praised "Beowulf and the Beowulf Manuscript" as "an impressive and valuable book that provides a wealth of paleographic and codicological information, [which] corrects a good deal of earlier scholarship, and clarifies a number of

neg: The Squire of Low Degree was printed by Wynkyn de Worde c. 1520 under the title "Undo Youre Dore", though only fragments totalling 180 lines survive of this book; around 1555 or 1560 another edition in 1132 lines was produced by William Copland; and a much shorter version, thought to have been orally transmitted, was copied into Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript around the middle of the 17th century. The precise date of the poem is unknown, estimates varying from 1440 to 1520, but Henry Bradley's date of c. 1475 has been quite widely adopted. Standing as it does at the very end of the English

neg: Bear's Son Tale Bear's Son Tale Bear's Son Tale () refers to an analogous group of narratives which according to 's 1910 thesis, represent the fairy tale material reworked to create the Anglo-Saxon poem "Beowulf"s first part, the Grendel-kin Story. Panzer collected over 200 analogue tales mostly from Eurasia. Others have added more examples from worldwide. The Bear's Son motif (B635.1) is exhibited only generally, not reliably. Exceptions include versions of ""Jean de l'Ours"", and the Grimms' fairy tale "". "Beowulf" itself does not explicitly reveal any bear-related origins or powers for its hero. Most of the tales are formally catalogued as either

neg: Heorogar the son of Heorogar, the eldest of Healfdene's sons, Heoroweard had greater right to the Danish throne than Hroðulf. Heorogar Heorogar was a Danish king who appears in the Old English poem "Beowulf" as the eldest son of Healfdene (Halfdan), and the brother of Hroðgar (Hroar), and Halga (Helgi). The people in parentheses are personages found also in Norse sources. He is mentioned in lines 2155-2165 of the poem, when King Hrothgar gives Beowulf the armour and weapons that originally belonged to King Heorogar: Translation: Unlike Halga, Hroðgar, Healfdene, and Heorogar's son Heoroweard, Heorogar does not appear in Norse sources.

neg: Wiglaf to overcome his fear of the dragon. He rebukes the other thanes and goes to Beowulf's aid crying words of encouragement. Wiglaf does not retreat, though his shield is consumed by fire. When Beowulf wounds the dragon a second time, striking so hard his sword shatters, Wiglaf strikes at the open wound with his own sword, tearing at the dragon's throat so it can no longer breathe fire. His hand is badly burned, but his attack allows Beowulf to close and kill the dragon. The poet says of Wiglaf, "So should a man be, a thane at need!" At Beowulf's

neg: Heorogar Heorogar Heorogar was a Danish king who appears in the Old English poem "Beowulf" as the eldest son of Healfdene (Halfdan), and the brother of Hroðgar (Hroar), and Halga (Helgi). The people in parentheses are personages found also in Norse sources. He is mentioned in lines 2155-2165 of the poem, when King Hrothgar gives Beowulf the armour and weapons that originally belonged to King Heorogar: Translation: Unlike Halga, Hroðgar, Healfdene, and Heorogar's son Heoroweard, Heorogar does not appear in Norse sources. However, Heorogar may explain why Heoroweard (according to Norse sources) rebelled against Hroðulf (Hrólf Kraki) and killed him. As

neg: Hrethel common Anglo-Saxon practice and does not indicate Beowulf's father, Ecgþeow did not want to raise him; indeed, the practice was intended to further improve relations between families and family members, and create close ties of obligation, affection and shared responsibility. As an adult, Beowulf expresses his gratitude to his foster-father explicitly: Hreðel dies of grief when his oldest son Herebeald is killed by his own brother Hæþcyn in a hunting accident, a death that could not be avenged. He is succeeded by Hæþcyn. Hrethel Hrethel (; ) is a king of the Geats in the Old English poem "Beowulf". Hrethel's

neg: The dragon (Beowulf) referred to in language which is meant to recall the powers of darkness which Christian men felt themselves to be encompassed. They are 'inmates of hell', 'adversaries of God', 'offspring of Cain', 'enemies of mankind'...And so Beowulf, for all that he moves in the world of the primitive Heroic Age of the Germans, nevertheless is almost a Christian knight". Peter Gainsford noted in the article "The Deaths of Beowulf and Odysseus: Narrative Time and Mythological Tale Types" that "In the twenty-first century "Beowulf" does not lack for commentators to defend the literary merit of the dragon episode". Adrien Bonjour opined

neg: J. R. R. Tolkien E. Nicholson said that the article Tolkien wrote about "Beowulf" is "widely recognized as a turning point in Beowulfian criticism", noting that Tolkien established the primacy of the poetic nature of the work as opposed to its purely linguistic elements. At the time, the consensus of scholarship deprecated "Beowulf" for dealing with childish battles with monsters rather than realistic tribal warfare; Tolkien argued that the author of "Beowulf" was addressing human destiny in general, not as limited by particular tribal politics, and therefore the monsters were essential to the poem. Where "Beowulf" does deal with specific tribal struggles, as at

neg: Maxims (Old English poems) well. The reference in "Maxims I" of "A king has to procure a queen with payment, with goblets and with rings". and in "Maxims II" the gnome "The king belongs in his hall, sharing out rings". are evidence of this. In addition, both poems contain themes that coincide with the most famous Old English poem "Beowulf". "Maxims I" refers to Cain just as "Beowulf" does and contains maxims for the wife of a hero returning home from his exploits which is similar to Beowulf returning home from his adventures. Like "Beowulf", "Maxims II" refers to a dragon. "The dragon belongs

neg: Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics be the focus of study. In doing so he drew attention to the previously neglected literary qualities of the poem and argued that it should be studied as a work of art, not just as a historical document. Later critics such as Hugh Magennis who agree with Tolkien on this point have cited him to defend their arguments. The essay is a redacted version of a series of lectures that Tolkien delivered to Oxford undergraduates in the 1930s. Notes for these lectures exist in two manuscript versions published together in 2002 as "Beowulf and the Critics", edited by Michael D.

neg: Nabaret Nabaret Nabaret is a short, humorous Breton lai that tells the story of a knight and his vain and prideful wife. With only 48 verses, Nabaret is the shortest of the . The actual date of composition is estimated between 1178 and 1230; and linguistic elements in the text indicate that the author may have come from England. The lai of "Nabaret" is contained in two existing manuscripts: The Old French manuscript dates from the end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century. "Nabaret" tells the story of a knight named Nabaret who has an exceedingly beautiful and

neg: Dies irae adultery with Mary Magdalene, so Mary could no longer be named in this verse. In addition, a doxology is given after stanzas 6, 12 and 18: The text of the sequence is found, with slight verbal variations, in a 13th-century manuscript in the Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples. It is a Franciscan calendar missal that must date between 1253 and 1255 for it does not contain the name of Clare of Assisi, who was canonized in 1255, and whose name would have been inserted if the manuscript were of later date. A major inspiration of the hymn seems to have come

neg: Mon Yazawin contain an origins story about the patron saint of the Lower Myanmar Mon named Gavampati. According to the only extant palm-leaf manuscript of the chronicle, now located in the National Library of Myanmar, it is a Burmese translation of a Mon manuscript, made by or for an unnamed crown prince, the eldest son of the current king. The manuscript does not state who the crown prince was, who the king was, when the original text was written, who the translator was, or when it was translated. Michael Aung-Thwin's analysis of the Burmese translation finds that the original Mon text was

neg: New Testament more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time (for example, the New Testament of the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus, once a complete Bible, contains the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas), though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well (e.g., Papyrus 72 and the Crosby-Schøyen Codex). The date when a manuscript was written, however, does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains. That is, later manuscripts can, and occasionally do, contain older forms of text or

neg: Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records series by editing volumes 6 (which came out in 1942) and 4 (which emerged in 1953). According to Henry Wiggins, the long gap before the publication of Volume 4 was partly due to Elliott's feeling that there was no urgency about completing the "Beowulf" volume, because there were so many competent editions. The Press, like any publisher, was troubled about the absence of Volume V ["recte" Volume IV] from a six-volume set, and I was assigned the duty of "prodding" Elliott. Despite all my efforts, he gave us the manuscript when he wanted to---when he felt he had something to

neg: Miscellany Library, MS Additional 43460) was made in late 8th century Italy with 202 folios of patristic writings in Latin. The 9th-century Irish Book of Armagh is also mostly in Latin but includes some of the earliest surviving Old Irish writing, as well as several texts on Saint Patrick, significant sections of the New Testament, and a 4th-century saint's "Life". The Nowell Codex (BL Cotton Vitellius A. xv, ignoring a later volume bound in with it) is an Old English manuscript of about 1000 to 1010. It is famous for the only text of "Beowulf" but also includes a life of

neg: Hygelac been written with these historical details before 923. Hygelac Hygelac (; ; ; ; died 521) was a king of the Geats according to the poem "Beowulf". It is Hygelac's presence in the poem which has allowed scholars to tentatively date the setting of the poem as well as to infer that it contains at least some points of historical fact. "Beowulf" gives Hygelac's genealogy: according to the poem, he was the son of Hrethel and had two brothers Herebeald and Hæþcyn, as well as an unnamed sister who was married to Ecgtheow and mother of the hero Beowulf. Hygelac

neg: Hygelac Hygelac Hygelac (; ; ; ; died 521) was a king of the Geats according to the poem "Beowulf". It is Hygelac's presence in the poem which has allowed scholars to tentatively date the setting of the poem as well as to infer that it contains at least some points of historical fact. "Beowulf" gives Hygelac's genealogy: according to the poem, he was the son of Hrethel and had two brothers Herebeald and Hæþcyn, as well as an unnamed sister who was married to Ecgtheow and mother of the hero Beowulf. Hygelac was married to Hygd, and they had a

neg: Beowulf (2007 film) Avary, will have you jumping out of your skin and begging for more... I've never seen a 3-D movie pop with this kind of clarity and oomph. It's outrageously entertaining." Tom Ambrose of "Empire" gave the film four out of five stars. He argues that "Beowulf" is "the finest example to date of the capabilities of this new technique [...] Previously, 3D movies were blurry, migraine-inducing affairs. "Beowulf" is a huge step forward [...] Although his Cockney accent initially seems incongruous [...] Winstone's turn ultimately reveals a burgeoning humanity and poignant humility." Ambrose also argues that "the creepy dead eyes

neg: Beowulf (hero) in favour of the young prince Heardred. However, Heardred received two Swedish princes, Eadgils and Eanmund who reported that they had fled their uncle Onela who had usurped the Swedish throne. This led to a Swedish invasion in which Heardred was killed. Beowulf was proclaimed king and decided to avenge Heardred and to help Eadgils become king of Sweden. The event when Onela was slain was probably a historic event. Even though it is only briefly mentioned in Beowulf, it occurs extensively in several Scandinavian sources where it is called the "Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern". For example,

neg: The Life of Saint Audrey The Life of Saint Audrey La Vie Seinte Audree () is a 4625-line hagiography detailing the life, death, and miracles of Saint Audrey, an Anglo-Saxon saint from Ely in Britain. The only existing copy of "La Vie Seinte Audree" is contained in a manuscript in the British Library, Additional 70513, recorded in the early 14th century. However, scholars have proposed a date of composition for the poem itself in the late 12th or early 13th centuries. "La Vie Seinte Audree" was recently attributed to the French medieval poet Marie de France. The lines in which the author declares her identity

neg: Solar deity Christ driving his chariot across the sky. This interpretation is doubted by others: "Only the "cross-shaped" nimbus makes the Christian significance apparent". and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian. The idea that Christians chose to celebrate the birth of Jesus on 25 December because this was the date of an already existing festival of the Sol Invictus was expressed in an annotation to a manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar-Salibi. The scribe who added it wrote: "It was a custom

neg: The Life of Saint Audrey combined three Latin texts to create her "Seinte Audree": the life of Saint Etheldreda, "De secunda translatione", and "Miracula Sancte Etheldrede". The Life of Saint Audrey La Vie Seinte Audree () is a 4625-line hagiography detailing the life, death, and miracles of Saint Audrey, an Anglo-Saxon saint from Ely in Britain. The only existing copy of "La Vie Seinte Audree" is contained in a manuscript in the British Library, Additional 70513, recorded in the early 14th century. However, scholars have proposed a date of composition for the poem itself in the late 12th or early 13th centuries. "La Vie Seinte

neg: Prithviraj Raso "Latiya Apabhramsha") language and style typical of 12th and 13th centuries. According to R. V. Somani, the original "Prithviraj Raso" was composed around 1235 CE, within 3-4 decades after Prithviraj's death. Other scholars, such as Cynthia Talbot, Narottamdas Swami and Namwar Singh date the text to the 16th century, during the reign of Akbar. Since 16th century, the size of the text has expanded greatly because of several interpolations and additions, resulting in multiple recensions. Only a small portion of the existing recensions is likely to have been part of the original version. A small 1300-stanza manuscript in Bikaner is

neg: Pecha palmyra and talipot palm leaves were used in the creation of texts as early as the 500 BCE. The earliest existing palm leaf manuscripts date from 200 C.E. and were in continuous use until the 19th century. The migration of India's manuscript technology to Tibet took place around the 7th century, when the scholar Thonmi Sambhota created the Tibetan script from his studies in India and Kashmir (his work is believed to be based on the Indian Brahmi and Gupta scripts). This script was then used to translate Buddhist Sanskrit texts into Tibetan. However, with the lack of traditional palm

neg: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 only known eyewitness account. Unfortunately, in the course of fourteen centuries of handwritten manuscript tradition that led up to the 1508 printing of his letters, the date given in Pliny's original letter may have been corrupted. Manuscript experts believe that the date originally given by Pliny was one of the following: August 24, October 30, November 1, or November 23. This odd, scattered, set of dates is due to the Romans' convention for describing calendar dates. The large majority of extant medieval manuscript copies - there are no surviving Roman ones - indicate a date corresponding to August 24, and

neg: The dragon (Beowulf) northern literature there are only two that are significant ... we have but the dragon of the Völsungs, Fáfnir, and Beowulf's bane." Furthermore, Tolkien believes the "Beowulf" poet emphasizes the monsters Beowulf fights in the poem and claims the dragon is as much of a plot device as anything. Tolkien expands on "Beowulf"'s dragon in his own fiction, which indicates the lasting impact of the "Beowulf" poem. Within the plot structure, however, the dragon functions differently in "Beowulf" than in Tolkien's fiction. The dragon fight ends "Beowulf", while Tolkien uses the dragon motif (and the dragon's love for treasure) to

neg: Old English literature the hero Beowulf, King of the Weder-Geats or Angles, around the middle of the 5th century. The author is unknown, and no mention of Britain occurs. Scholars are divided over the date of the present text, with hypotheses ranging from the 8th to the 11th centuries. It has achieved much acclaim as well as sustained academic and artistic interest. Other heroic poems besides "Beowulf" exist. Two have survived in fragments: "The Fight at Finnsburh", controversially interpreted by many to be a retelling of one of the battle scenes in "Beowulf", and "Waldere", a version of the events of the life