query: who owned america when it was the 13 colonies

pos: Thirteen Colonies Thirteen Colonies The Thirteen Colonies, also known as the Thirteen British Colonies or Thirteen American Colonies, were a group of British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries. They declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and were dominated by Protestant English-speakers. They were part of Britain's possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in Canada, the Caribbean, and the Floridas. Between 1625 and 1775, the colonial population grew from roughly 2,000 to over 2

pos: The impact of geography on colonial America The impact of geography on colonial America Before the foundation of the United States in 1776,Kingdom of Great Britain owned Thirteen Colonies on eastern shore of North America. The geography and climate of the area had a significant impact on the economy and survival of the colonies. The New England colonies tried to help the Native Americans and also, known as the North-Eastern, included Massachusetts Colony, Rhode Island Colony, Connecticut Colony, and New Hampshire Colony. The region was first found by people from Britain in 1620. These colonies provided fish, whale products, and lumber. They imported agricultural products from other

pos: British America created for America, but it was disbanded in 1782 when the Home Office took responsibility. The Thirteen Colonies formed the original states of the United States: Several British colonies and territories were ruled by Britain from 1763 after the Seven Years' War, but were ceded to Spain (the Floridas) or the United States (the Indian Reserve and Southwestern Quebec). Others became part of Canada. Territories that became part of the United States of America: British colonies and territories that became part of Canada: British America British America comprised the British Empire's colonial territories in North America, Bermuda, Central America, the

pos: Early modern period resulted in the transfer of New France to Great Britain. The Thirteen Colonies, in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule in 1775, largely due to the taxation that Great Britain was imposing on the colonies. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on July 4, 1776 and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War, Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence. A recent development in early modern history is the

pos: History of the Catholic Church in the United States Catholic bishops became involved in politics, especially on issues relating to abortion and sexuality. In the 2014 Religious Landscape Survey published by the Pew Research Center, 20.8% of Americans identified themselves as Roman Catholic. The history of Roman Catholicism in the United States – prior to 1776 – often focuses on the 13 English-speaking colonies along the Atlantic seaboard, as it was they who declared independence from Great Britain in 1776, to form the United States of America. However, this history – of Roman Catholicism in the United States – also includes the French and Spanish colonies, because they later

pos: British America British America British America comprised the British Empire's colonial territories in North America, Bermuda, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. The American colonies were formally known as British America and the British West Indies before 1776, when the Thirteen Colonies declared their independence in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and formed the United States of America. After that, the term British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britain's continental North American possessions. That term was first used informally in 1783 by the end of the American Revolution, but it was uncommon before the

pos: The impact of geography on colonial America million pounds were exported to England. South Carolina's swampy wetlands also made it a prime area for the cultivation of rice. In the 1700s, the South Carolina economy was based upon the exportation of rice from its tidewater region. The first attempts at cultivation were failures, and South Carolinian planters began to pay premiums to have slaves imported from specific regions in Africa where rice was grown. The impact of geography on colonial America Before the foundation of the United States in 1776,Kingdom of Great Britain owned Thirteen Colonies on eastern shore of North America. The geography and climate of

pos: William Smith of Carbeth Guthrie Brown who owned the Jordanhill sugar plantation o the Naparima Plain on Trinidad in the West Indies. He also owned the Wotten Waven estate on Dominica. When Britain abolished slavery in is colonies he received two-thirds of the compensation for the Jordanhill estate (Brown receiving one third). He purchased the estate of Carbeth in 1834 from his cousin John Guthrie and renamed it "Carbeth Guthrie". It laid in his family's ancestral home of Strathblane. He sold the Carbeth house to Rev. John C. C. Smith of Ceres in 1861. When he died in 1871, he left £4639. He married twice:

pos: Cornwallis in North America Cornwallis in North America Charles, Earl Cornwallis (1738–1805) was a military officer who served in the British Army during the American War of Independence. He is best known for surrendering his army after the 1781 Siege of Yorktown, an act that ended major hostilities in North America and led directly to peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war. Born into an aristocratic family with a history of public service, Cornwallis was politically opposed to the war, but agreed to serve when it became clear that Britain would require a significant military presence in the Thirteen Colonies. First arriving

pos: Portuguese cuisine responsible for introducing corn in the African continent. The 18th century was the "golden age" for Madeira. The wine's popularity extended from the American colonies and Brazil in the New World to Great Britain, Russia, and Northern Africa. The American colonies, in particular, were enthusiastic customers, consuming as much as a quarter of all wine produced on the island each year. Madeira was an important wine in the history of the United States of America. No wine-quality grapes could be grown among the 13 colonies, so imports were needed, with a great focus on Madeira. One of the major events

pos: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore 13 private high schools, and 4 Catholic colleges/universities The Archdiocese of Baltimore has two major seminaries: St. Mary's Seminary and University in Baltimore and Mount St. Mary's Seminary in Emmitsburg. This archdiocese was featured in the Netflix documentary "The Keepers" exposing the sexual abuse history at Archbishop Keough High School and the murder of Sister Catherine Cesnik in 1969. It was revealed in late 2016 that the Archdiocese of Baltimore had paid off numerous settlements since 2011 for abuse victims. Before and during the American Revolutionary War, the Catholics in Great Britain's thirteen colonies in America (and also its colonies

pos: Tea Act taxes it was paying in London: "to export such tea to any of the British colonies or plantations in America, or to foreign parts, import duty of three pence a pound." The administration of Lord North saw an opportunity to achieve several goals with a single bill. If the Company were permitted to directly ship tea to the colonies, this would remove the markups of the middlemen from the cost of its tea, and reducing or eliminating the duties paid when the tea was landed in Britain (if it was shipped onward to the colonies) would further reduce the final

pos: Former colonies and territories in Canada of Canada by Europeans began in the 10th century, when Norsemen explored and, ultimately unsuccessfully, attempted to settle areas of the northeastern fringes of North America. Early permanent European settlements in what is now Canada included the late 16th and 17th century French colonies of Acadia and Canada (New France), the English colonies of Newfoundland (island) and Rupert's Land, the Scottish colonies of Nova Scotia and Port Royal. France lost nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War to the British Empire. Britain's imperial government over a century later then ceded the land

pos: Economic history of Argentina and the loss of their 13 colonies in North America during the American Revolution. To achieve their economic objectives, Britain initially launched the British invasions of the Río de la Plata to conquer key cities in Spanish America but they were defeated by the local forces of what is now Argentina and Uruguay not once but twice without the help of Spain. When they allied to Spain during the Napoleonic Wars, they requested the Spanish authorities to open commerce to Britain in return. The first Argentine historians, such as Bartolomé Mitre, attributed the free trade to "The Representation of the

pos: Colonial molasses trade the years to come. When the trading of molasses first began, it was unrestrained, apart from small local taxes. The colonies began to prefer French molasses to British because of the price difference. French policy provided incredibly cheap prices, and the British could no longer compete. In order to control the molasses trade with the English colonies, the Parliament of Great Britain decided to place high taxes on any molasses that was shipped from a foreign power to the colonies in North America. The Molasses Act of 1733 imposed a fee of six pence per gallon on foreign molasses. This

pos: Martin Bladen first suggested by William Penn in his 1697 'Plan of Union'. Bladen was convinced that Britain’s power and ability to trade favourably with other countries was greatly enhanced by the income from her colonies and, for economic reasons, it was vital for the colonies to serve the mother country and the appearance of a unified Britain with her colonies would deter other European colonial powers from attempting encroachment. A final report on British Colonies in America was produced in 1739 "Reasons for Appointing a Captain General for the Continent of North America" which was more conciliatory in tone than previous

pos: Militia (British Dominions and Crown Colonies) in the field, as professional full-time military forces were usually far away. Even when the English colonies around the world became the British Empire, and regular forces began to become available for garrison duty, militias were still a vital part of Great Britain's military power in the Americas, and British victory over Spain and France during the Seven Years' War, and its resulting hegemony in North America, could not have been realised without the colonial militias and their Native allies. It was the presence of their militia that allowed thirteen American colonies to launch the secessionist American War of Independence.

pos: North America of the 19th, independence movements that sprung up across the continent, led to the creation of the modern countries in the area. The 13 British colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, becoming the United States of America. Canada was formed from the unification of northern territories controlled by Britain and France. New Spain, a territory that stretched from modern-day southern US to Central America, declared independence in 1810, becoming the First Mexican Empire. In 1823 the former Captaincy General of Guatemala, then part of the Mexican Empire, became the first independent state in Central America, officially

pos: Monarchy of the United Kingdom Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created

pos: Military history of the United States Beginning in 1689, the colonies became involved in a series of wars between Great Britain and France for control of North America, the most important of which were Queen Anne's War, in which the British conquered French colony Acadia, and the final French and Indian War (1754–63) when Britain was victorious over all the French colonies in North America. This final war was to give thousands of colonists, including Virginia colonel George Washington, military experience which they put to use during the American Revolutionary War. In the struggle for control of North America, the contest between Great Britain and France

pos: Slavery in Britain Act of 1718 . Tens of thousands children and vulnerable adults were kidnapped from Britain and transported by sail ship to the emerging lands of America, as a source of expendable labour for the numerous plantations of the colonies. During the same period, workhouses employed people whose poverty left them no other alternative than to work under forced labour conditions. British merchants were among the largest participants in the Atlantic slave trade. And British owners living within the home British isles, as well as within its colonies, owned African slaves. Ship owners transported enslaved West Africans, as well as British

pos: International relations, 1648–1814 growing American colonies, with 2.5 million population in contrast to Britain's 6 million. The new policy in 1765 of imposing new taxes, without seeking the consent of colonial parliaments, was highly controversial in Britain itself, and deeply unpopular in the 13 American colonies. The Americans claimed it violated their privileges as Englishmen. For a dozen years different solutions were attempted, but London kept insisting on imposing taxes without consultation. When American patriots in 1773 destroyed a shipment of taxed British tea in Boston Harbor in the Boston Tea Party, London responded with severe punishment. The colonies rallied, and set up

pos: Intercolonial Railway Intercolonial Railway The Intercolonial Railway of Canada , also referred to as the Intercolonial Railway (ICR), was a historic Canadian railway that operated from 1872 to 1918, when it became part of Canadian National Railways. As the railway was also completely owned and controlled by the federal government, the Intercolonial was also one of Canada's first Crown corporations. The idea of a railway connecting Britain's North American colonies arose as soon as the railway age began in the 1830s. In the decades following the War of 1812 and ever-mindful of the issue of security, the colonies of Upper and Lower

pos: Treaty of Alliance (1778) separate and secret clause dealing with future Spanish involvement, at the hôtel de Coislin (4, place de la Concorde) in Paris on February 6, 1778. The Franco-American alliance would technically remain in effect until the 1800 Treaty of Mortefontaine, despite being annulled by the United States Congress in 1793 when George Washington gave his Neutrality Proclamation speech saying that America would stay neutral in the French Revolution. When the thirteen British colonies in America declared their independence from Great Britain in 1776, their most obvious potential ally was France, a long-time enemy of Britain and a colonial rival who had

pos: Alternative versions of Captain America and Bucky Barnes. When Barnes is murdered by the Red Skull, Jones takes his place as the new Bucky for a mission to stop Zemo's missile. At the end, with another time jump, Jones encounters a President Stephenson who needs his help. A member of the Captain Britain Corps, Captain Colonies (Stephen Rogers) appears in "Excalibur" #44. The Battleworld domain of the Warzone seen in "Secret Wars" contains a world in which Civil War never ended where it did in the original comics and continued for six more years. Captain America now runs the west side of the United States

neg: Middle Colonies Rebellion in New York. Growing unrest in the Middle Colonies eventually led the region to become the meeting place for the Continental Congress, and a center for revolution. However, there were numerous pockets of neutrals and Loyalists. The Middle Colonies tended to mix aspects of the New England and Southern Colonies. Landholdings were generally farms of , owned by the family that worked it. In New York's Hudson Valley, however, the Dutch patroons operated very large landed estates and rented land to tenant farmers. Ethnically, the Middle Colonies were more diverse than the other British colonial regions in North America

neg: English diaspora The 'Great Migration' between 1620 and 1640 to America led to the establishment of the first 13 Colonies. It is estimated that over 50,000 undertook the 3,000 mile journey to America during the Great Migration. The overwhelming majority of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America were of English extraction, including Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, John Adams, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. The table shows the ethnic English population in the United States from 1700 to 2013. In 1700 the total population of the American colonies was 250,888 of which 223,071 (89%) were white and 80% were ethnically

neg: Jalpa, Zacatecas Casta system that was in use during the Spanish empire's control of its American colonies; it was used to describe those who had one European-born parent and one who was member of an indigenous American population. In the Casta system mestizos had fewer rights than European born persons called "Peninsulares", and "Criollos" who were persons born in the new world of two European born parents. During the colonial period, mestizos quickly became the majority group in much of what is today Latin America and the southwestern United States (which used to belong to Mexico); and when the colonies started achieving

neg: Colonial Dames of America the Daughters of the American Revolution. In the early 2000's the National Society of Colonial Dames of America in the State of West Virginia were responsible for saving the Craik-Patton House from demolition and relocating it. Colonial Dames of America The Colonial Dames of America (CDA) is an American organization composed of women who are descended from an ancestor who lived in British America from 1607–1775, and was of service to the colonies by either holding public office, being in the military, or serving the Colonies in some other "eligible" way. The National Headquarters is at Mount Vernon Hotel Museum

neg: Mary Hayley Ayliff Street on Goodman's Fields, he operated as both Hayley and Rotch and as Hayley and Hopkins. The firm was involved in the importation of whale oil from the American Colonies and had extensive business dealings with the New Bedford and Nantucket Rotch family, becoming a business partner of Francis Rotch in operating the Falkland Fleet. Rotch and Hayley owned several ships together, including the "Abigail", the "America", and the "Egmont". Hayley also owned a ship with John Hancock, which was used to transport tea to the colonies. In addition, Hayley acted as a broker and agent for other cargo

neg: British colonization of the Americas century. These were charter colonies, proprietary colonies, and royal colonies. A group of 13 British American colonies collectively broke from the British Empire in the 1770s through a successful revolution, establishing the modern United States. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–15), the remaining British territories in North America were slowly granted more responsible government. In 1838 the Durham Report recommended full responsible government for Canada, but this was not fully implemented for another decade. Eventually, with the Confederation of Canada, the Canadian colonies were granted significant autonomy and became a self-governing Dominion in 1867. Other colonies in the

neg: Richard John Uniacke 1819, Uniacke's son Richard John Uniacke, Jr. killed his opponent in a duel. He was tried for murder and acquitted. Uniacke was the first public figure to advocate for the Confederation of Canada, 51 years before it became a reality. He wanted to save the colonies from republicanism and atheism of the United States. As a result, Uniacke advocated unions of the Maritime colonies and of the Canadas, beginning in 1806 when he presented a memoir on British North America at the Colonial Office. In 1826 Uniacke brought his “"Observations on the British colonies in North America with a proposal

neg: History of the New England Patriots History of the New England Patriots The history of the New England Patriots began when Boston business executive William "Billy" Sullivan and Sullivan Brother Printers, owned by Joseph Sullivan, were awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL) on November 16, 1959. The following winter, locals submitted thousands of ideas for the Boston football team's official name. On February 20, 1960, Sullivan chose "Boston Patriots", with "Patriots" referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an

neg: No taxation without representation it was incorporated." He then said, I am no courtier of America. I stand up for this kingdom. I maintain that the Parliament has a right to bind, to restrain America. Our legislative power over the colonies is sovereign and supreme. When it ceases to be sovereign and supreme, I would advise every gentleman to sell his lands, if he can, and embark for that country. When two countries are connected together like England and her colonies, without being incorporated, the one must necessarily govern. The greater must rule the less. But she must so rule it as not to

neg: Atlantic World approached the task of governing its New World territories in less centralized manner, establishing about twenty distinct colonies in North America and the Caribbean from 1585 onward. Each British colony had its own governor and an assembly. The North American Thirteen Colonies developed a system of home rule and democratic self-government. Usually only property owners could vote but since so many free men owned property a majority could and did vote. It was the British threat against home rule, and its demand for control of taxation, that led to the American Revolution in the 1770s. A wave of revolutions shook

neg: Isham Randolph family of Virginia. He was 13 years old when the American Civil War began, and lost two brothers who fought for the Confederate States of America. Randolph's family owned slaves, and Randolph learned the beginnings of his engineering skills from a slave his family owned. In 1868, Randolph became an axeman working on the Winchester and Strasburg Railroad, part of the Winchester and Potomac Railroad operated at the time by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Following his service with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, he was the Assistant Engineer for the Scioto Valley Railroad. Randolph Street in Ashville, Ohio is

neg: Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas neighboring tribes, were frustrated by the possibilities for profits to colonial traders who build the foundations of substantial fortunes on Indian and African slavery. It was only in the 1750s that there was substantial migration of subsistence farmers to the Carolinas, prior to that the economy was based on plantations, manned by Indian, then, as more were imported, by African slaves. What set Carolina apart from the other English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America was not allowing slavery, the other colonies also had some slavery at points in their history when Indian captives were available, but a

neg: Portuguese colonization of the Americas by the general elections to its first "Câmara" (City Council) on August 22, 1532, is symbolically considered the birthplace of democracy in the Americas. From 1534 to 1536, 15 Captaincy colonies were created in Portuguese America. The captaincies were autonomous, and mostly private, colonies of the Portuguese Empire, each owned and run by a Captain-major. In 1549, due to their failure and limited success, the Captaincy Colonies of Brazil were united into the Governorate General of Brazil. The captaincy colonies were reorganized as provincial districts to the Governorate. The captaincies continued to be ruled by their hereditary captain-majors but they

neg: Dominion of New England number of English colonies were established in North America and in the West Indies during the first half of the 17th century, with varying attributes. Some originated as commercial ventures, such as the Virginia Colony, while others were founded for religious reasons, such as Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony. The governments of the colonies also varied. Virginia became a crown colony, despite its corporate beginning, while Massachusetts and other New England colonies had corporate charters and a great deal of administrative freedom. Other areas were proprietary colonies, such as Maryland and Carolina, owned and operated by one or a

neg: History of the Episcopal Church (United States) so that when war broke out in 1775, these clergy looked to England for both their paycheck and their direction. Where the Church of England was established, mainly the southern colonies, financial support was local and loyalties were local. Of the approximately three hundred clergy in the Church of England in America between 1776 and 1783, over 80 percent in New England, New York, and New Jersey were Loyalists. This is in contrast to the less than 23 percent Loyalist clergy in the four southern colonies. In two northern colonies, only one priest was a Patriot—Samuel Provoost, who would become

neg: Colonial Dames of America Colonial Dames of America The Colonial Dames of America (CDA) is an American organization composed of women who are descended from an ancestor who lived in British America from 1607–1775, and was of service to the colonies by either holding public office, being in the military, or serving the Colonies in some other "eligible" way. The National Headquarters is at Mount Vernon Hotel Museum in New York City, which was purchased by the CDA in 1924. The organization was founded in 1890, shortly before the founding of two similar societies, The National Society of the Colonial Dames of America and

neg: State cessions of five more states. Most of colonies British America were established in the 17th and early 18th century, when geographical knowledge of North America was incomplete. Many of these colonies were established by royal proclamation or charter that defined their boundaries as stretching "from sea to sea"; others did not have western boundaries established at all. These colonies thus ended up with theoretical extents that overlapped each other, and conflicted with the claims and settlements established by other European powers. The British government's Royal Proclamation of 1763, while not resolving the disputes over the colonies' trans-Appalachian claims, succeeded in slowing

neg: Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson of a respected Virginia attorney (there were no official law schools in America at the time), and began working as a lawyer in 1767. As a member of colonial Virginia’s House of Burgesses from 1769 to 1775, Jefferson, who was known for his reserved manner, gained recognition for penning a pamphlet, “A Summary View of the Rights of British America” (1774), which declared that the British Parliament had no right to exercise authority over the American colonies. Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell, a plantation on a large tract of land near present-day Charlottesville, Virginia. His

neg: 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) landed in America, he discovered that Major General John Small, was already mobilizing American Loyalists from the 13 Colonies as well as present day Ontario, Quebec and Atlantic Canada to create a Highland Regiment. Along with getting soldiers who fought in 77th Regiment of Foot (Montgomerie's Highlanders) and 78th Regiment of Foot (Fraser's Highlanders), Small was recruiting soldiers from the 42nd Regiment of Foot (Black Watch); the same regiment that he had served with in the Seven Years' War. The regiment was known as the "Young Royal Highlanders" until it turned into the 84th Regiment. Small was involved with also

neg: Sertum laetitiae Sertum laetitiae Sertum laetitiae (November 1, 1939) was an encyclical from Pope Pius XII to the Catholic Church of the United States of America in memory of the 150th anniversary of the installation of the first American bishop. The encyclical recalls Pope Pius VI, who appointed bishop John Carroll (bishop) of Baltimore in 1789. It took the help of George Washington, a friend of Carroll, to formalize the erection of the first bishopric of the Catholic Church in the 13 colonies forming USA. One hundred years later, in 1889, Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical "Longinqua Oceani" addressed the Church

neg: Proprietary colony 1830 and for good reason: remoteness, poor communications, governance carried out under difficult circumstances. The monarch and his or her government, retained its usual right to separate head and body, figuratively or literally, at any time. (See also the hereditary title "marquess".) Proprietary colonies in America were governed by a lord proprietor, who, holding authority by virtue of a royal charter, usually exercised that authority almost as an independent sovereign. Eventually, these were converted to royal colonies. The British America colonies before the American Revolution consisted of thirteen colonies that became states of the United States of America. In 1603,

neg: Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire is more statistically dense. Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire (or more completely, Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire in the West Indies, South America, North America, Asia, Austral-Asia, Africa, and Europe) is a work by Robert Montgomery Martin which comprises a number of different statistics to measure the well-being of the British Colonies in the late 18th until mid 19th century. It was first published in 1839 by W. H. Allen & Co. roughly a year after the it was commenced in February 1838. The book was

neg: Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire (or more completely, Statistics of the Colonies of the British Empire in the West Indies, South America, North America, Asia, Austral-Asia, Africa, and Europe) is a work by Robert Montgomery Martin which comprises a number of different statistics to measure the well-being of the British Colonies in the late 18th until mid 19th century. It was first published in 1839 by W. H. Allen & Co. roughly a year after the it was commenced in February 1838. The book was published in Royal Octavo

neg: Anglican Church of Canada among the United Empire Loyalists who fled to Canada after the American Revolution than Anglicans had been in the Thirteen Colonies as a whole (in 1775, 70–90% of the white population was not formally affiliated with a church). The Anglican Church was a dominant feature of the compact governments that presided over the colonies in British North America. One of the former Americans was Charles Inglis who was rector of Trinity Church in New York when George Washington was in the congregation. He became the first bishop of the diocese of Nova Scotia on 12 August 1787 and the first

neg: Episcopal Diocese of Ohio is assisted by two assisting bishops: the Right Reverend William Persell, retired bishop of the Diocese of Chicago; and the Right Reverend Arthur Williams, retired bishop suffragan of the Diocese of Ohio. Bishops who have served the diocese include: Episcopal Diocese of Ohio The Episcopal Diocese of Ohio is a diocese of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America comprising the northern 48 counties of the state of Ohio. Established in 1818, it was the first diocese of the Episcopal Church to be established outside the original 13 colonies and presently consists of 95 parishes, with a membership

neg: Russian Mennonite Fernheim and Friesland Colonies were formed in the 1930s by Mennonites from the Soviet Union who were fleeing starvation (Holodomor), persecution of religion and Collectivization under Stalin. Neuland and Volendam Colonies were founded 1947 by Mennonites who fled the Soviet Union at the end of World War II. All other Mennonite colonies in Latin America were formed by Mennonites who settled in North America since 1870, partly via Mexico and Belize. Beginning in 1954 conservative Mennonites settled in East-Bolivia, in the Santa Cruz Department. Bolivia soon became the refuge for Mennonites who wanted to flee the influences of modern society.

neg: Mahogany England (and excluding those to Scotland, which were recorded separately) reached 525 tons per annum by 1740, 3,688 tons by 1750, and more than 30,000 tons in 1788, the peak year of the 18th century trade. At the same time, the 1721 Act had the effect of substantially increasing exports of mahogany from the West Indies to the British colonies in North America. Although initially regarded as a joinery wood, mahogany rapidly became the timber of choice for makers of high quality furniture in both the British Isles and the 13 colonies of North America. Until the 1760s over 90

neg: Plantation Act 1740 Plantation Act 1740 The Plantation Act 1740 (referring to colonies) or the Naturalization Act 1740 are common names used for an act of the British Parliament (13 Geo. 2 c.7) that was officially titled "An Act for Naturalizing such foreign Protestants and others therein mentioned, as are settled or shall settle in any of His Majesty's Colonies in America". The act became effective 1 June 1740 and allowed any Protestant alien residing in any of their American colonies for seven years, without being absent from that colony for more than two months, would be deemed to be one of "his

neg: Maryland Toleration Act but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne, a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell; he was an Anglican, a Puritan sympathizer, and strongly hostile to the Catholic Religion. When the Calverts regained control of Maryland, the Act was reinstated, before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution, and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland. As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America, it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed

neg: Window shutter hardware and finished hardware as their masters had taught them. Examples of hardware excavated from the Jamestown and Plymouth colonies of the 17th century were very ornate in design – typical of that being produced in England at the time. In Colonial America, all of the hardware was made in England and imported to the colonies. Period. That was the law; it was illegal for the colonials to produce manufactured goods. America sold iron and charcoal to the British, who used those raw materials and their resident labor force to produce hardware which was then sold back to the captive market

neg: Tobacco in the United States among the Indian Doctors in The United States of America. It became one of the very first commodities in world trade and one of the first bartering systems in The United States of America. Commercial tobacco production dates back to the 17th century when the first commercial crop was planted. The industry originated in the production of tobacco for pipes and snuff. Different war efforts in the world created a shift in demand and production of tobacco in the world and the American colonies. With the advent of the American Revolution trade with the colonies was interrupted which shifted trade

neg: Thirteen Colonies were complete with the establishment of the Province of Georgia in 1732, although the term "Thirteen Colonies" became current only in the context of the American Revolution. In London beginning in 1660, all colonies were governed through a state department known as the Southern Department, and a committee of the Privy Council called the Board of Trade and Plantations. In 1768, a specific state department was created for America, but it was disbanded in 1782 when the Home Office took responsibility. The first successful English colony was Jamestown, established May 14, 1607 near Chesapeake Bay. The business venture was financed

neg: Amanda America Dickson Dickson was born into slavery in Hancock County, Georgia. Her enslaved mother, Julia Frances Lewis Dickson, was 13 when she was born. Her father, David Dickson, was a white planter who owned her mother; he was one of the eight wealthiest planters in the county. When he was 40 years old, David Dickson had raped 12-year-old Julia Dickson, and she became pregnant. After Amanda was weaned, she was taken from her enslaved mother and maternal grandmother, Rose Dickson, to be raised in the household of her white grandmother and owner, Elizabeth Sholars Dickson. As Amanda grew, her grandmother used her

neg: William Edmeston was buried at Hanwell, Middlesex on 3 July 1804. William Edmeston General William Edmeston (died 1804) was a British Army officer who owned an estate in New York State. As a captain in the 48th Regiment of Foot, he was posted to North America in 1755 with his brother, Lieutenant Robert Edmeston, to fight in the French and Indian War. In 1763, by royal proclamation, the brothers were each awarded 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land in the colonies for their military service. They attempted to establish their claims in what was then a disputed part of the New Hampshire

neg: William Henry Prestele William Henry Prestele Wilhelm Heinrich Prestele (or William Henry Prestele) (13 October 1838 – 16 August 1895) was a botanical artist known for his lithographs and watercolor work commissioned by the US Department of Agriculture. Prestele was born on October 13, 1838, in Hesse-Darmstadt, Germany, to Franz Joseph Martin Prestele and Karoline Russ. The family emigrated to America in 1843, settling first in New York and later in the Amana Colonies in Iowa. His father, known in America as Joseph Prestele, was also a painter and lithographer of flowers and fruits and prior to emigrating had been head gardener for

neg: William Edmeston William Edmeston General William Edmeston (died 1804) was a British Army officer who owned an estate in New York State. As a captain in the 48th Regiment of Foot, he was posted to North America in 1755 with his brother, Lieutenant Robert Edmeston, to fight in the French and Indian War. In 1763, by royal proclamation, the brothers were each awarded 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land in the colonies for their military service. They attempted to establish their claims in what was then a disputed part of the New Hampshire Grants, now Vermont. However, in 1770 they decided to

neg: John III of Portugal hands until 1658, when it was seized by the Dutch after an epic siege. During the reign of King John III, the Portuguese Empire established itself in South America with the foundation of the twelve Captaincy Colonies of Brazil (from 1534 onwards). Each with its own donatary captain, the twelve colonies struggled independently. In 1549, John III established the Governorate General of Brazil, and the twelve captaincy colonies became subordinate to it. The first Governor-General appointed by John III, Tomé de Sousa, founded the city of Salvador, Bahia (São Salvador da Bahia de Todos os Santos) in 1549. Immediately following

neg: Dutch people owned and regulated by the Dutch Republic, which later became part of the Thirteen Colonies. Nevertheless, many Dutch communities remained virtually isolated towards the rest of America up until the American Civil War, in which the Dutch fought for the North and adopted many American ways. Most future waves of Dutch immigrants were quickly assimilated. There have been five American presidents of Dutch descent: Martin Van Buren (8th, first president who was not of British descent, first language was Dutch), Franklin D. Roosevelt (32nd, elected to four terms in office, he served from 1933 to 1945, the only U.S. president

neg: On American Taxation therefore less carefully constructed but more passionate. It is also more hopeful, having been delivered a year before "Conciliation in America", when Burke apparently still believed that there was a chance to alter British policy towards the colonies. Could anything be a subject of more just alarm to America, than to see you go out of the plain high road of finance, and give up your most certain revenues and your clearest interests, merely for the sake of insulting your Colonies? No man ever doubted that the commodity of Tea could bear an imposition of three-pence. But no commodity will

neg: Colonial history of the United States in Philadelphia and New York. Some emigrants who came to Colonial America were in search of religious freedom. London did not make the Church of England official in the colonies—it never sent a bishop—so religious practice became diverse. The "Great Awakening" was a major religious revival movement that took place in most colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The movement began with Jonathan Edwards, a Massachusetts preacher who sought to return to the Pilgrims' Calvinist roots and to reawaken the "Fear of God." English preacher George Whitefield and other itinerant preachers continued the movement, traveling throughout the colonies and preaching

neg: Mary and John Mary and John Mary and John was a 400-ton ship that is known to have sailed between England and the American colonies four times from 1607 to 1633. She was during the later voyages captained by Robert Davies and owned by Roger Ludlow (1590–1664), one of the assistants of the Massachusetts Bay Company. The ship's first two voyages to North America were to what is now Maine in June 1607 and September 1608, transporting emigrants to the colonies and back to England. The third voyage was on March 20, 1630, bearing 130 colonists, and the fourth on March 26, 1634,

neg: Jewish views on slavery factors in the transatlantic or Caribbean slave trades. They possessed far fewer slaves than non-Jews in every British territory in North America and the Caribbean. Even when Jews in a handful of places owned slaves in proportions slightly above their representation among a town's families, such cases do not come close to corroborating the assertions of "The Secret Relationship"". David Brion Davis wrote that "Jews had no major or continuing impact on the history of New World slavery." Jacob R. Marcus wrote that Jewish participation in the American Colonies was "minimal" and inconsistent. Bertram Korn wrote "all of the Jewish

neg: Penal colony The British used colonial North America as a penal colony through a system of indentured servitude. Merchants would transport the convicts and auction them off (for example) to plantation owners upon arrival in the colonies. It is estimated that some 50,000 British convicts were sent to colonial America and the majority landed in the Chesapeake colonies of Maryland and Virginia. Transported convicts represented perhaps one-quarter of all British emigrants during the 18th century. The colony of Georgia, for example, was first founded by James Edward Oglethorpe who originally intended to use prisoners taken largely from debtors' prison, creating a "Debtor's

neg: Margaret Hardenbroeck businesses, and with her wealth her husband was able to expand his holdings and become one of the wealthiest men in New York. Together the couple purchased many properties, and expanded their transatlantic trading ventures, From her first marriage, Margaret owned several ships, one of them the "King Charles". She made several voyages between Europe and America on these as supercargo responsible for all the purchases and sales of goods. Among the Philipses' top cargoes were slaves, being regarded among the biggest slaver traders in the northern Colonies, who also used slave labor extensively in their businesses and operation of

neg: British North America then from 1801 to 1854 under the War Office and Secretary of State for War and Colonies. When the Colonial Office was reestablished it was under the responsibility of the Colonial Secretary. British North America The term "British North America" refers to the former territories of the British Empire in North America, not including the Caribbean. The term was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839), called the Durham Report. These territories today form modern-day Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. English and later

neg: Queen Anne's War was restricted to a few powers in Europe, but it widened in May 1702 when England declared war on Spain and France. The hostilities in North America were further encouraged by existing frictions along the frontier areas separating the colonies of these powers. This dis-harmony was most pronounced along the northern and southwestern frontiers of the English colonies, which then stretched from the Province of Carolina in the south to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the north, with additional colonial settlements or trading outposts on Newfoundland and at Hudson Bay. The total population of the English colonies at the

neg: Canarian Americans of both the United States and the Canary Islands. Canarian emigration to North America started in the 16th century, when Spain had several colonies stretching around the Gulf of Mexico. The first Canarians arrived in the region as early as 1539, when the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto recruited Canary Islanders to join his expeditions to explore the wilderness of La Florida. The Canarian scholar Javier González Antón says some Canary Islanders went to Florida with Pedro Menéndez, who founded St. Augustine, the first permanent European settlement in what is now the United States, in 1565. The other Spanish colonies

neg: Sephardi Jews yet another group of descendants of conversos who settled in the Iberian colonies of the Americas who could not revert to Judaism. These comprise the related but distinct group known as Sephardic Bnei Anusim (see section below). Due to the presence of the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisition in the Iberian American territories, initially converso immigration was barred throughout much of Ibero-America. Because of this, very few converso immigrants in Iberian American colonies ever reverted to Judaism. Of those conversos in the New World who did return to Judaism, it was principally those who had come via an initial respite of

neg: Confederate colonies the victors who had spent years fighting foreign intervention and occupation. Confederate colonies Confederate colonies were made up of refugees from the Confederate States of America who fled the United States after the Union won the American Civil War (1861–1865). They settled in many Latin American countries like Brazil and Mexico. Many Southerners had lost their land during the war and were unwilling to live under the government of the United States of America. They did not expect an improvement in the South's economic position. Most of the emigrants were from the states of Alabama, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia, South

neg: African Journey: A Search for the Roots of the Blues and southern Guinea. Then he discusses the distribution of individual tribes in the colonies. Because the Europeans generally didn't actually capture the slaves, who was shipped to the colonies was in the hands of the African rulers. At the time of the slave trades, West Africa was in constant internal struggle so it was the losers of the wars that were enslaved. Thus, tribes of fierce warriors were hardly ever found in America. Two tribes that were often found in slave colonies were the Wollofs and the Mandingoes. The end of the introduction draws the connection between these tribes and

neg: Martin Bladen Marie d'Estrées, Duke of Estrées and Cardinal-Statesman Guillaume Dubois, when news came in that the French had captured the island of St Lucia. Bladen immediately raised the issue with his hosts who seemed initially unaware of the news. In 1721 Bladen produced a lengthy report on the status of the colonies in America which was along the lines of William Blathwayt's report of 1701 which sought revocation of proprietary charters, though he offered up the suggestion of the colonies being unified under a single military figurehead, a Captain-General, and suggested New York as a suitable geographical base – an idea

neg: Canadians France was preceded by a small number of Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal, Nova Scotia, while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland. In the wake of the British Conquest of 1760 and the Expulsion of the Acadians, many families from the British colonies in New England moved over into Nova Scotia and other colonies in Canada, where the British made farmland available to British settlers on easy terms. More settlers arrived during and after the American Revolutionary War, when approximately 60,000 United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America, a large portion

neg: Battle of Quebec (1775) tenant farmers who made up the vast majority of Quebec's population were known - would deferentially obey their social superiors while the Americans believed that the "habitants" would welcome them as liberators from their feudal society. In fact, the "habitants", despite being tenant farmers, tended to display many of the same traits displayed by the farmers in the 13 colonies who mostly owned their land, being described variously as individualistic, stubborn, and spirited together with a tendency to be rude and disrespectful of authority figures if their actions were seen as unjust. Most of the "habitants" wanted to be neutral

neg: Francis Asbury age 18. At age 22, John Wesley appointed him as a traveling preacher. In 1771 he volunteered to travel to America. Ashbury's first sermon in the Colonies took place with the Methodist congregation in Woodrow, Staten Island. Within the first 17 days of being in the colonies, Asbury had preached in Philadelphia and New York. During the first year he was Wesley's assistant and preached in 25 different settlements. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, he and James Dempster were the only Methodist ministers to remain in America. "During his early years in North America, Asbury devoted

neg: New Jersey ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged

neg: Betchworth others) Reigate and Betchworth in 1279. Hamelin's grandson John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey owned much land in Surrey and his widow left the land to his nephew the Earl of Arundel, who eventually left the manor to Lord Abergavenny; the 9th Lord Abergavenny sold it in 1629 for £1,080 to Sir Ralph Freeman in whose family's hands it remained until 1817 when it was sold to Henry Goulburn, later Chancellor then Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. Two manors existed in today's village, "Wonham" (which still stands today) and "Betchworth" with the third, "Brockham", becoming a

neg: Halfpenny Yellow Colonies were informed, and they commissioned De La Rue to engrave a die for the stamp. The engraving was done by Jean Ferdinand Joubert de la Ferté, who later engraved stamps of the Confederate States of America. Specimen stamps were sent to Malta later in 1859, and they were approved. The stamp, in buff on blued, unwatermarked paper, was sent to Malta on 21 July 1859 and was issued on 1 December 1860. The new stamp was sold from the Post Office at Valletta, police stations and various stationers. The earliest known use is 13 December 1860, on a cover

neg: George Mason did not attend the sessions between 1759 and 1761. Although the British were victorious over the French in the war, King George III's government felt that the North American colonies were not paying their way, since little direct tax revenue from the colonies was received. The Sugar Act of 1764 had its greatest effect in New England and did not cause widespread objection. The Stamp Act the following year affected all 13 colonies, as it required revenue stamps to be used on papers required in trade and in the law. When word of passage of the Stamp Act reached Williamsburg,

neg: Lewis Evans (surveyor) In 1751 Evans taught a class in geography and natural philosophy, as it was known, in Philadelphia, Newark, and New York. In his "A General Map of the Middle British Colonies in America" (1755), Evans expanded his reach to include Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and part of New England. He published this map in his book "Geographical Essays" (formally, "Geographical, Historical, Philosophical and Mechanical Essays Containing an Analysis of a General Map of the Middle British Colonies in America, and the Country of the Confederate Indians, with a General Map of the Middle British Colonies in America"), also published in 1755

neg: British North America British North America The term "British North America" refers to the former territories of the British Empire in North America, not including the Caribbean. The term was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839), called the Durham Report. These territories today form modern-day Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. English and later Scottish colonization of North America began in the 16th century in Newfoundland, then began further south at Roanoke and Jamestown, Virginia, and reached its peak when colonies had been established through much

neg: Aapravasi Ghat of Mauritius's export earnings, and occupies about 80 percent of the total arable land. Mauritius was not the pioneering site for the use of indentured labor. In the 17th century, substantial numbers of indentured servants, of European origin, arrived in America, in what were then the British Thirteen Colonies. By the 18th century, it has been estimated that over half of the population of white immigrants in the English colonies of North America may have been indentured servants. However, the scale of the system that was put into operation in Mauritius was unprecedented. It immediately spread throughout the colonies of

neg: Gunpowder Incident of the gunpowder to the colony's control. The matter was resolved without conflict when a payment of £330 was made to Henry. Dunmore, fearing for his personal safety, later retreated to a naval vessel, ending royal control of the colony. Military tensions began to rise in the British colonies of North America in 1774 when a series of legislative acts by the British Parliament known as the Intolerable Acts began to be implemented in the colonies. The colonies, in solidarity with the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which had been singled out for punishment by those acts in the wake of

neg: BioShock: The Collection console editions when configured to use its highest graphical settings. News of the remastered collection leaked from retailers and trademarks several times in advance of its June 2016 announcement. The collection was released on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One platforms in North America on September 13, 2016, and worldwide two days later, on September 15, 2016. The collection was released for Microsoft Windows on September 15, 2016, and its remastered versions of "BioShock" and "BioShock 2" were given as upgrades for those who owned the original Windows PC editions. On release, players of the Windows versions noted that the remastered

neg: Free Negro Free Negro In United States history, a free Negro or free black was the legal status, in the geographic area of the United States, of blacks who were not slaves. This term was in use before the independence of the Thirteen Colonies and elsewhere in British North America, until the abolition of slavery in the United States in December 1865, which rendered the term unnecessary. Slavery was legal and practiced in each of the European colonies at various times. Not all Africans who came to America were slaves; a few came even in the 17th century as free men, sailors

neg: The Bastard (novel) and learn the trade. When Philippe confides to Solomon his desire to emigrate to America, Solomon introduces him to Benjamin Franklin, who is currently an American trade representative to England. To convince Philippe that America was the place he should be, Franklin praised his native country for its boundless opportunities, but also warns that trouble between the British and the colonies are brewing. Marie is adamantly opposed to leaving England without settling the claim for her son, but Philippe is attacked by an agent hired by Roger, who has never given up on trying to eliminate his rival claimant. London

neg: Cornwallis in North America proposed expedition to the southern colonies, even though the number of officers that were senior to him in rank meant he was unlikely to get an independent command. This generosity was appreciated by the king and by Lord George Germain, the secretary of state for the colonies. On January 1, 1776 he was given the rank of lieutenant general in North America. His orders from Lord Germain were to accompany a convoy of troops from Cork, Ireland to North America, where he was to join at Cape Fear, North Carolina with General Henry Clinton, who was bringing troops from Boston

neg: History of slavery in Florida fewer slaves to the Carolina colonies and were unable to effectively continue the trade. The retreat of the Spanish was only ended when the Yamasee and Creek entered what would later be known as the Yamasee War with the Carolina colony. Since the beginning of the 18th century, Spanish Florida attracted numerous African slaves who had escaped from British slavery in the thirteen colonies. Once the slaves reached Florida, the Spanish freed them if they converted to Roman Catholicism. Most settled in Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first settlement of free slaves in North America. Another, smaller

neg: Plantation Act 1740 some consider that surprising. Despite being a British law, the Plantation Act "was the model upon which the first U.S. naturalization act, with respect to time, oath of allegiance, process of swearing before a judge, and the like, was clearly based." Plantation Act 1740 The Plantation Act 1740 (referring to colonies) or the Naturalization Act 1740 are common names used for an act of the British Parliament (13 Geo. 2 c.7) that was officially titled "An Act for Naturalizing such foreign Protestants and others therein mentioned, as are settled or shall settle in any of His Majesty's Colonies in America".

neg: United States increase in the numbers of slaves. Colonial society was largely divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery, and colonies passed acts for and against the practice. But by the turn of the 18th century, African slaves were replacing indentured servants for cash crop labor, especially in southern regions. With the British colonization of Georgia in 1732, the 13 colonies that would become the United States of America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for

neg: Russian Australians Russian Australians Russian Australians comprise Australian citizens who have full or partial Russian heritage or people who emigrated from Russia and reside in Australia. In 1807 the sloop "Neva" sailed to Port Jackson, under the command of Captain lieutenant Ludwig von Hagemeister, where it loaded provisions on its way to Russian America. As this was the first Russian vessel to travel to the Australian mainland, this is occasionally considered the start of relations between Australian colonies and Russia. Contacts continued in 1820 when the Russian ships "Vostok" (meaning 'East'), and the "Mirny" (Peaceful), under the command of captains Mikhail Lazarev

neg: Board of Trade useful to England. The act's statesmanlike and comprehensive instructions, along with an October act prohibiting trade with pro-royalist colonies and the Navigation Act of October 1651, formed the first definitive expression of England's commercial policy. They represent the first attempt to establish a legitimate control of commercial and colonial affairs, and the instructions indicate the beginnings of a policy which had the prosperity and wealth of England exclusively at heart. It was the Lords of Trade who, in 1675, originated the idea of transforming all of the colonies in America into Royal Colonies for the purpose of securing English trade

neg: Catholic Church in the Thirteen Colonies Catholic Church in the Thirteen Colonies The situation of the Catholic Church in the Thirteen Colonies was characterized by an extensive religious persecution originating from Protestant sects, which would barely allow religious toleration to Catholics living on American territory. American Anti-Catholicism has its origins in the Reformation. British colonists, who were predominantly Protestant, opposed not only the Catholic Church but also the Church of England, which they believed perpetuated some Catholic doctrine and practices, and for that reason deemed it to be insufficiently Reformed. Protestants discontented with the Church of England formed the earliest religious settlements in North America. Monsignor

neg: Currency Act colonies of North America. Unlike the earlier Act, this statute did not prohibit the colonies from issuing paper money, but it did forbid them from designating future currency issues as legal tender for public and private debts. This tight money policy created financial difficulties in the colonies, where gold and silver were in short supply. Benjamin Franklin, a colonial agent in London, lobbied for repeal of the Act over the next several years, as did other agents. The act arose when Virginia farmers continued to import during the French and Indian War. Virginia issued 250,000 pounds in bills of credit

neg: Bird colony colony, or densely packed like an auk colony. In most seabird colonies several different species will nest on the same colony, often exhibiting some niche separation. Seabirds can nest in trees (if any are available), on the ground (with or without nests), on cliffs, in burrows under the ground and in rocky crevices. Colony size is a major aspect of the social environment of colonial birds. Some birds are known to nest in colonies when conditions are suitable, but not always. The white-winged dove of southwestern North America was known to nest in large colonies when foraging areas could support

neg: Peace of Paris (1783) could expand from the east coast of America to the west coast. Franklin became ill with gout towards the end of summer, but when John Jay learned in September of the secret French mission to England, and the French position on the fisheries, he sent a message to Shelburne himself, explaining in some detail why he should avoid being influenced too much by the French and Spanish. At the same time Richard Oswald was asking if the terms of his commission to negotiate with the Americans could be slightly reworded to acknowledge that the 13 so-called colonies referred to themselves

neg: Crown corporations of Canada century, many British North American colonies that now comprise the Canadian federation had Crown corporations, often in the form of railways, such as the Nova Scotia Railway, since there was limited private capital available for such endeavours. When four British colonies joined to create the Canadian federation in 1867, these railways were transferred to the new central government. As well, the construction of the Intercolonial Railway between them was one of the terms of the new constitution. The first section of this entirely government-owned railway was completed in 1872. Western Canada's early railways were all run by privately owned companies