query: what type of reproduction takes place in plasmodium

pos: Plasmodium mosquito bites, repeating the cycle. "Plasmodium" belongs to the phylum Apicomplexa, a taxonomic group of single-celled parasites with characteristic secretory organelles at one end of the cell. Within Apicomplexa, "Plasmodium" is within the order Haemosporida, a group that includes all apicomplexans that live within blood cells. Based on the presence of the pigment hemozoin and the method of asexual reproduction, the order is further split into four families, of which "Plasmodium" is in the family Plasmodiidae. The genus "Plasmodium" consists of over 200 species, generally described on the basis of their appearance in blood smears of infected vertebrates. These speces

pos: Plasmodium cynomolgi Plasmodium cynomolgi Plasmodium cynomolgi is a non-human primate parasite which usually been found in the Asian Old World monkeys. This species has been used as a model for human "Plasmodium vivax" because "Plasmodium cynomolgi" shares the same life cycle and some important biological features with "P. vivax". "Plasmodium cynomolgi" has a similar life cycle to "P. vivax". The sexual reproduction stage occurs in the mosquito (definitive host), and the asexual reproduction stage occurs in the monkey (intermediate host) in this case. The whole life cycle contains 12 steps: 1. Sporozoites in mosquito’s salivary glands 2. The Sporozoites would infect into

pos: Apicomplexan life cycle infects new hosts. In "Plasmodium", for instance, the sporozoites are cells that develop in the mosquito's salivary glands, leave the mosquito during a blood meal, and enter liver cells (hepatocytes), where they multiply. Cells infected with sporozoites eventually burst, releasing merozoites into the bloodstream. Sporozoites are motile and they move by gliding. A (G. "meros", part [of a series] +"zōon", animal) is the result of merogony that takes place within a host cell. During this stage, the parasite infects the host's cells and then replicates its own nucleus and induces cell segmentation in a form of asexual reproduction. (In coccidiosis,

pos: Chlorophyceae different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplast. Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets. Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made up of an inner layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectose. Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation. Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores. And haplospore, perrination (akinate and palmellastage). Asexual reproduction by mytospore absent in spyrogyra. Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and it may be isogamous e.g.

pos: Plasmodium vaughani Plasmodium vaughani Plasmodium vaughani is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium", and the type species of the subgenus "Novyella". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. vaughani" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Novy & MacNeal in 1904. The length of the asexual cycle is 24 hours. Trophozoites: Ring forms are unusual. The trophozoite is usually irregular in outline. The nucleus is small and there may be a single clear outgrowth of the cytoplasm. One or two small pigment granules may be seen. These forms are found in

pos: Plasmodium vaughani magna"), starling ("Sturnus vulgaris") black-faced grassquit ("Tiaris bicolor"), white-eyed thrush ("Turdus jamaicensis"), the blackbird ("Turdus merula") and American sparrows ("Zonotrichia" species). Naturally and experimentally infected birds do not appear to show signs of illness from infection with "P. vaughani". Plasmodium vaughani Plasmodium vaughani is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium", and the type species of the subgenus "Novyella". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. vaughani" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Novy & MacNeal in 1904. The length of the asexual cycle is 24 hours. Trophozoites: Ring

pos: Plasmodium falciparum the mitochondria. Humans are the intermediate hosts in which asexual reproduction occurs, and female anopheline mosquitos are the definitive hosts harbouring the sexual reproduction stage. Infection in humans begins with the bite of an infected female "Anopheles" mosquito. Out of about 460 species of "Anopheles" mosquito, more than 70 species transmit falciparum malaria. "Anopheles gambiae" is one of the best known and most prevalent vectors, particularly in Africa. The infective stage called sporozoites released from the salivary glands through the proboscis of the mosquito enter the bloodstream during feeding. The mosquito saliva contains antihemostatic and anti-inflammatory enzymes that disrupt blood

pos: Coevolution race is known as the Red Queen hypothesis. The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in "Through the Looking-Glass": "it takes all the running "you" can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response. The parasite/host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing

pos: Asexual reproduction in starfish Asexual reproduction in starfish Asexual reproduction in starfish takes place by fission or through autotomy of arms. In fission, the central disc breaks into two pieces and each portion then regenerates the missing parts. In autotomy, an arm is shed which continues to live independently as a "comet", eventually growing a new disc and further arms. Only certain genera of starfish are able to reproduce in these ways. Fissiparity in the starfish family Asteriidae is confined to the genera "Coscinasterias", "Stephanasterias" and "Sclerasterias". Another family in which asexual reproduction by fission has independently arisen is the Asterinidae. The life span

pos: Phyllium bioculatum A study was done in Sri Lanka, based on the leaf insect's diet. The specimens mainly fed on guava. Accordingly, the local name for the species in Sri Lanka is "pera kolaya" (guava leaf). In many places they are colloquially referred to on the basis of what they eat. The females lay eggs in months. Incubation takes place from 5–7 months at . Eggs are beige-brown and about . However, many times the eggs laid are not fertilized due to parthenogenesis. This is a form of asexual reproduction found in females, where growth and development of embryos occurs without fertilization

pos: Dinoflagellate rapidly to the seafloor in marine snow. Dinoflagellates have a haplontic life cycle, with the possible exception of "Noctiluca" and its relatives. The life cycle usually involves asexual reproduction by means of mitosis, either through desmoschisis or eleuteroschisis. More complex life cycles occur, more particularly with parasitic dinoflagellates. Sexual reproduction also occurs, though this mode of reproduction is only known in a small percentage of dinoflagellates. This takes place by fusion of two individuals to form a zygote, which may remain mobile in typical dinoflagellate fashion and is then called a planozygote. This zygote may later form a resting stage

pos: Karenia (dinoflagellate) life cycle of a dinoflagellate with a motile, haploid, asexual cell with regular mitotic divisions. This binary fission reproduction occurs once about every 2–10 days, and division occurs primarily at night (Brand et al., 2012). They occasionally produce diploid planozygotes (mobile zygotes) implying they are capable of sexual reproduction. They have been observed to be in what appears to be the process of conjugation, a type of unicellular sexual reproduction. They can enter a hypnozygote cyst stage, which is an often thick walled, resting cyst that results from sexual fusion. This occurs when environmental conditions are adverse and allows it

pos: Asexual reproduction in starfish the disc begins to develop and eventually a madreporite appears. This process lasts for some time, and about 10 months after separation, the comet has a half disc and 4 arms about 1 cm (0.4 in) long. Asexual reproduction in starfish Asexual reproduction in starfish takes place by fission or through autotomy of arms. In fission, the central disc breaks into two pieces and each portion then regenerates the missing parts. In autotomy, an arm is shed which continues to live independently as a "comet", eventually growing a new disc and further arms. Only certain genera of starfish are able

pos: Plasmodium knowlesi zygotes within the midgut of the mosquito. The zygotes mature into ookinetes, then into oocysts. Finally, the oocysts mature to release sporozoites which move to salivary gland of the mosquito. Summary: gametocytes → (microgamete or macrogamete) → zygote → ookinete → oocyst → sporozoites. In man: exoerythrocytic stage (in the liver): The sporozoites are injected into humans when the mosquito bites and they travel to the liver through blood stream and undergo asexual reproduction to become merozoites through schizonts in the liver cell. Hypnozoites in the liver have not yet been found. Summary: sporozoites → schizonts → merozoites. In man:

pos: Botryotinia Botryotinia Botryotinia is a genus of ascomycete fungi causing several plant diseases. The anamorphs of "Botryotinia" are mostly included in the "imperfect fungi" genus Botrytis. The genus contains 22 species and one hybrid. Plant diseases caused by "Botryotinia" species appear primarily as blossom blights and fruit rots but also as leaf spots and bulb rots in the field and in stored products. The fungi induce host cell death resulting in progressive decay of infected plant tissue, whence they take nutrients. Sexual reproduction takes place with ascospores produced in apothecia, conidia are the means of asexual reproduction. Sclerotia of plano-convexoid shape

pos: Pseudogamy Pseudogamy Pseudogamy refers to aspects of reproduction. It has different (but related) meanings in zoology and in botany. In zoology it means a type of parthenogenesis in which the sperm stimulates the egg cell to develop into an embryo, but no genes from the male are inherited. Gynogenesis is a synonym. In botany, "pseudogamy" is also related to asexual reproduction. Wilhelm Olbers Focke (1881) is usually cited for the definition of the term. What he actually said was (page 525, translated) Thus in botany, "pseudogamy" means any reproductive process that requires pollination but does not involve male inheritance. It is

pos: Ulothrix chloroplast Reproduction in "Ulothrix" takes place by means of vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. The common vegetative methods of reproduction are fragmentation and akinete formation. Vegetative cells of "Ulothrix" break into small pieces accidentally. Each fragment develops into a new filament. Some of the vegetative cells of "Ulothrix" are converted into thick walled akinetes. Food reserves are accumulated within the akinetes. When the conditions are favourable each akinete develops into a new plant. Ulothrix Ulothrix is a genus of green algae in the family Ulotrichaceae. Ulothrix is a genus of filamentous green algae, generally found in fresh and marine water.

pos: Thalassia testudinum with a temperature range of . It is found from low-tide mark down to depths of depending on water clarity. It often grows in meadows with other seagrasses where it is the climax species. Its temporal range spans from the Middle Eocene to present. Turtle grass can reproduce both through vegetative and sexual reproduction. The main propagation method is by extension of the underground rhizome, or stem. This increase in rhizome length results in asexual ramets, or clonal colonies which are genetic replicates of the parent plant. A sexual reproduction mainly takes place in spring and early summer when productivity

pos: Seriatopora hystrix up further afield. "S. hystrix" is a zooxanthellate species of coral, housing symbiotic dinoflagellates within its tissues. It has been found that these symbionts are transferred during the brooding of the larvae and that different species of "Symbiodinium" are associated with the coral in different parts of its range, a likely example of coevolution and specialization. Another means of reproduction is by asexual means; fragments of coral that become detached from branches can form new colonies if they are deposited in suitable locations. At times of stress, another form of asexual reproduction takes place that may allow some of the

pos: Sipuncula tubes have been reported in the Fauvelopsid annelids. In addition, all sipunculans have numerous sensory nerve endings on the body, especially at the forward end of the introvert. Both asexual and sexual reproduction can be found in sipunculans, although asexual reproduction is uncommon. Sipunculans reproduce asexually via transverse fission followed by regeneration of vital body components. Most sipunculan species are dioecious. Their gametes are produced in the coelomic lining, where they are released into the coelom to mature. These gametes are then picked up by the metanephridia system and released into the aquatic environment, where fertilisation takes place. Although some

pos: Euglenid separate genera such as "Astasia" (colourless "Euglena") and "Hyalophacus" (colourless "Phacus"). Due to the lack of a developed cytostome, these forms feed exclusively by osmotrophic absorption. Although euglenids share several common characteristics with animals, which is why they were originally classified as so, there is no evidence of euglenids ever using sexual reproduction. This is one of the reasons they could no longer be classified as animals. For euglenids to reproduce, asexual reproduction takes place in the form of binary fission, and the cells replicate and divide during mitosis and cytokinesis. This process occurs in a very distinct order. First,

pos: Dinocyst by phagocytosis as in " Katodinium fungiforme ". Division cysts refer to non-motile division stages wherein asexual reproduction takes place through division. These are not pellicle or resting cysts since they are not dormant. Similarly, palmelloid or mucilage stages are not pellicle or resting cysts, but stages in which the monad loses its flagella and becomes enveloped in multilayered mucilage wherein division takes place. Dinoflagellate cysts described in the literature have been linked to a particular motile stage through morphological similarities and/or co-occurrence in the same population/culture or through the technique of establishing the so-called cyst-theca relation by incubation of

pos: Didemnum molle where it is common and widely distributed. It grows on rock or dead coral on shallow reefs. In New Caledonia there is a green variant that grows direct onto sand. "Didemnum molle" is a suspension feeder. Water is drawn into the body of each zooid through the numerous buccal siphons, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fine organic particles are filtered out and the water is exhaled through the atrial siphon. Asexual reproduction takes place by budding. A new bud will form and begin to actively feed while the zooid from which it emerged gradually regresses and is eventually re-adsorbed. Sexual reproduction also

pos: Trophozoite Trophozoite A trophozoite (G. "trope", nourishment + "zoon", animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoan parasites such as in the malaria-causing "Plasmodium falciparum" and those of the "Giardia" group. (The opposite of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled cyst form). Trophozoite and cyst stages are shown in the life cycle of "Balantidium coli" the causative agent of balantidiasis. In the apicomplexan life cycle the trophozoite undergoes schizogony (asexual reproduction) and develops into a schizont which contains merozoites. The trophozoite life stage of "Giardia" colonizes and proliferates in the small intestine. Trophozoites develop during the

pos: Trophozoite course of the infection into cysts which is the infectious life stage. Trophozoite A trophozoite (G. "trope", nourishment + "zoon", animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoan parasites such as in the malaria-causing "Plasmodium falciparum" and those of the "Giardia" group. (The opposite of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled cyst form). Trophozoite and cyst stages are shown in the life cycle of "Balantidium coli" the causative agent of balantidiasis. In the apicomplexan life cycle the trophozoite undergoes schizogony (asexual reproduction) and develops into a schizont which contains merozoites. The trophozoite life stage of

neg: Plasmodium coatneyi haploid gametocytes. The gametocyte is the sexual stage of the life cycle, with female macrogametocytes and male microgametocytes. Sexual reproduction does not occur in the human host. Instead, the gametocytes only fuse to form a diploid zygote when ingested by the female "Anopheles". The fertilization takes place in the stomach, where the zygotes can move into the midgut after they differentiate into motile version of the zygote, an ookinetes. Ookinetes then mature into oocytes inside the epithelial tissue of the midgut. Once grown, the oocyte ruptures and releases sporozoites into the salivary glands of the mosquito. The process then repeats

neg: Mating in fungi is still not observed in "C. albicans". A picture of the mating type mechanism has begun to emerge from studies of particular fungi such as "S. cerevisiae". The mating type genes are located in homeobox and encode enzymes for production of pheromones and pheromone receptors. Sexual reproduction thereby depends on pheromones produced from variant alleles of the same gene. Since sexual reproduction takes place in haploid organisms, it cannot proceed until complementary genes are provided by a suitable partner through cell or hyphal fusion. The number of mating types depends on the number of genes and the number of alleles

neg: Parthenogenesis of anaphase II are joined together. The criterion for "sexuality" varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis, to those where the nuclei fuse or to only those where gametes are mature at the time of fusion. Those cases of automixis that are classified as sexual reproduction are compared to self-fertilization in their mechanism and consequences. The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of apomixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis or when "central fusion" occurs (restitutional meiosis of anaphase I or the fusion of its products), the offspring get all to more than half of the

neg: Plasmodium dominicana Plasmodium dominicana Plasmodium dominicana is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium". The species is only known from a mosquito fossil, dating from the Cenozoic era, that was found embedded in amber. The mosquito vector was identified as "Culex malariager". The fossil was found in what is now the Dominican Republic. The vertebrate host of this species is unknown but it seems likely that it may have been a bird. The parasite was first described by Poinar in 2005. It appears that it may have been a relation of "Plasmodium juxtanucleare" which would place it in the subgenus "Bennettinia". Fossil found

neg: Mating in fungi for each. Depending of the species, sexual reproduction takes place through gametes or hyphal fusion. When a receptor on one haploid detects a pheromone from a complementary mating type, it approaches the source through chemotropic growth or chemotactic movement if it is a gamete. Some of the species within Basidiomycota have the most complex systems of sexual reproduction known among Fungi. In general for Fungi there are two main types of sexual reproduction: homothallism, when mating occurs within a single individual, or in other words each individual is self-fertile; and heterothallism, when hyphae from a single individual is self-sterile and

neg: Hemitrichia if conditions improve. The amoeboflagellated stage will undergo sexual reproduction, as two cells fuse to create a diploid cell. This cell will then undergo many rounds of nuclear division without any cellular division, resulting in a rapidly growing, membrane-bound cell with multiple nuclei known as the plasmodium. Fusion with more diploid stage cells, and even with other plasmodium of the same species, will continue to increase the size of the plasmodium. These macroscopic forms of the slime mold are the most well-known and best-studied stage of the life cycle. The plasmodium feeds on bacteria, other microorganisms and can even cannibalize

neg: Hypothallus the fruit body. In the "epihypothallic" Stemonitida, the hypothallus forms hollow, tubular stems and a columella, up which the remaining plasmodium then rises, producing the spores. In all other myxogastria "subhypothallic" development takes place. Here, the hypothallus produces a layer on the plasmodium, which creates the rooms of the single fruit bodies during fructification. As the surrounding plasmodium flows in the fruit body, the hypothallus will lie directly on the substrate, shrinking and creating the edge of the mature fruit body. Here, the hypothallus is part of a morphological unit with peridium and stem, which serves as a membranous surface

neg: Stimulator of interferon genes the "Plasmodium falciparum" and "Plasmodium berghei" genome and extracellular DNA from "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" have been shown to activate type I interferon through STING. Perforation of the phagosome membrane mediated by ESX1 secretion system allows extracellular mycobacterial DNA to access host cytosolic DNA sensors, thus inducing the production of type I interferon in macrophages. High type I interferon signature leads to the "M. tuberculosis" pathogenesis and prolonged infection. STING-TBK1-IRF mediated type I interferon response is central to the pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria in laboratory animals infected with "Plasmodium berghei". Laboratory mice deficient in type I interferon response are resistant to

neg: Malaria vaccine considerations to be made concerning what strategy a potential vaccine should adopt. "P. falciparum" has demonstrated the capability, through the development of multiple drug-resistant parasites, for evolutionary change. The "Plasmodium" species has a very high rate of replication, much higher than that actually needed to ensure transmission in the parasite’s life cycle. This enables pharmaceutical treatments that are effective at reducing the reproduction rate, but not halting it, to exert a high selection pressure, thus favoring the development of resistance. The process of evolutionary change is one of the key considerations necessary when considering potential vaccine candidates. The development of

neg: Plasmodium gabaldoni Merogony usually takes 24 hours. Gametocytes surround the host nucleus and cause rounding of the host cell. This parasite is found in Venezuela. "P. gabaldoni" infects muscovy ducks ("Cairina moschata") and rock pigeons ("Columba livia"). Plasmodium gabaldoni Plasmodium gabaldoni is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Giovannolaia". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. gabaldoni" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Garnham in 1977. The trophozoites are round, have a large vacuole and a large nucleus. Up to five pigment granules may be present clumped into a

neg: Protist cellular structures and functions of animal and plants, it can be found a heritage among protists. Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually by binary fission. Some species, for example "Plasmodium falciparum", have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually. However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of "Plasmodium" in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species. Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5

neg: Ann Bishop (biologist) the disease. Between 1937 and 1938, Bishop studied the effects of various factors, including different substances in blood and different temperatures, on the feeding behaviour of the chicken malaria ("Plasmodium gallinaceum") vector, "Aedes aegypti". She also examined factors that contributed to "Plasmodium" reproduction. This work became the basis for subsequent ongoing research into a malaria vaccine. Her subsequent work was spurred by the outbreak of the Second World War. During the war, she investigated alternative chemotherapies for malaria. Her research aided the British war effort because the most prevalent antimalarial, quinine, was difficult to obtain due to the Japanese occupation

neg: Plasmodium diploglossi vacuole may be present in some gametocytes. This species is found in eastern Panama. This species infects the anguid lizard "Diploglossus fasciatus" and "Mabuya mabouya". Plasmodium diploglossi Plasmodium diploglossi is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Sauramoeba". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. diploglossi" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles. The parasite was first described by Aragio and Neiva in 1909. It is the type species of the subgenus "Sauramoeba". Pigment does not occupy a distinct vacuole but may be clumped. The large schizonts considerably enlarge the host erythrocyte and may completely

neg: Plasmodium alaudae "P. vaughani" may also produce 8 merozoites per schizont, it possesses a bluish refractile globule that is not found in "P. alaudae". This parasite is found in France and Italy. Not known. "P. alaudae" infects the magpie ("Pica pica") - the type host - and the skylark ("Alauda arvensis"). Plasmodium alaudae Plasmodium alaudae is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. alaudae" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. This species was originally described by Celli & Sanfelice in 1891 as "Haemoproteus alaudae", and it was first discovered in

neg: Plasmodium diploglossi Plasmodium diploglossi Plasmodium diploglossi is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Sauramoeba". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. diploglossi" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles. The parasite was first described by Aragio and Neiva in 1909. It is the type species of the subgenus "Sauramoeba". Pigment does not occupy a distinct vacuole but may be clumped. The large schizonts considerably enlarge the host erythrocyte and may completely encircle the host cell nucleus. The mature gametocytes are broad. Like the schizonts, the gametocytes may almost encircle the host cell nucleus. A small cytoplasmic

neg: Intermittent fever types. Bouts of fever occurs daily (24-hour periodicity) for few hours, typical of Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium knowlesi. Fever occurs after an interval of two days (48-hour periodicity), typical of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale. Fever occurs after an interval of three days (72-hour periodicity), typical of Plasmodium malariae. Following examples of infectious diseases show intermittent fever. Antipyretics like ibuprofen and paracetamol are used for fever and body aches. Antibiotics are also used for any underlying infection. For treating malaria, anti-malarial drugs like quinine, chloroquine and primaquine are given. Intermittent fever Intermittent fever is a type or pattern of fever

neg: DSCAM phagocytosis in insects. The splicing pattern of the gene accompanying the phagocytic activity is specific to the type of infectious pathogen. In mosquitoes, the silencing of the Anopheles gambiae Dscam (AgDscam) disables its capacity to fight Plasmodium. The specificity of the Dscam recognition mechanism allows the mosquitoes of this species to differentiate the infection between bacteria and Plasmodium, and between Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium falciparum. Self-avoidance is a mechanism where the neuronal processes from the cell repel each other during arborization and axon branching to avoid fasciculation and clumping. Self-avoidance is necessary to prevent extensive overlapping in the arborization pattern

neg: Reproduction (economics) Reproduction (economics) In Marxian economics, economic reproduction refers to recurrent (or cyclical) processes. Michel Aglietta views economic reproduction as the process whereby the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created. Marx viewed reproduction as the process by which society re-created itself, both materially and socially. Economic reproduction involves: Karl Marx developed the original insights of Quesnay to model the circulation of capital, money, and commodities in the second volume of "Das Kapital" to show how the reproduction process that must occur in any type of society can take place in capitalist society by means of the

neg: Coenobita scaevola Coenobita scaevola Coenobita scaevola is a species of terrestrial hermit crab from the western Indian Ocean and Red Sea. "Coenobita scaevola" lives around parts of the Indian Ocean, including the Gulf of Aden and the coasts of Somalia and Pakistan. Although the hermit crabs of the Red Sea are poorly studied, they include "C. scaevola" as the region's only species of terrestrial hermit crab. "Coenobita scaevola" was first described in 1775 by Peter Forsskål, under the name "Cancer scaevola", with a type locality of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Reproduction takes place during the hottest months of the year, when temperatures are

neg: Plasmodium beltrani also been found in "Sceloporus teapensis" and "Sceloporus malachiticus". In all known vertebrate hosts, "P. beltrani" appears to infect red blood cells. This infection deforms the red blood cells, however it is not known whether or to what extent this affects the health of the host. Plasmodium beltrani Plasmodium beltrani is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Sauramoeba". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. beltrani" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are spiny lizards. This species was described by Peláez and Perez-Reyes in "Sceloporus variabilis" in 1952. "P. beltrani" infects some lizards of the

neg: Centimorgan takes place is a part of oogenesis (formation of female gametes) or spermatogenesis (formation of male gametes). One centimorgan corresponds to about 1 million base pairs in humans on average. The relationship is only rough as the physical chromosomal distance corresponding to one centimorgan varies from place to place in the genome, and also varies between men and women since recombination during gamete formation in females is significantly more frequent than in males. Morton et al. calculated that the female genome is 4782 centimorgans long, while the male genome is only 2809 centimorgans long. "Plasmodium falciparum" has an average recombination

neg: Mertensophryne melanopleura species seems to prefer gallery forests and woodland; reproduction takes place in water. Most Upemba specimens were collected from about above sea level. Its habitats are believed not to face major threats. It occurs in Upemba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Mertensophryne melanopleura Mertensophryne melanopleura (common names: Kankunde toad, dark-sided toad) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is known from its type locality, the Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from eastern Angola and south of Ndola in northern Zambia. Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The

neg: Hylarana maosonensis Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Hylarana maosonensis Hylarana maosonensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is found in the mountains of central and northeastern in Vietnam, Annamite Range in Laos, and southern Guanxi, China. Its common name is either Mao-Son frog or Maoson frog, after its type locality in Vietnam. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical evergreen forests where it can be found from leaf-litter banks and in shallow water along rocky streams. Reproduction takes place in pools and slow moving streams in forest. It is a locally common frog that is not considered threatened by

neg: Hylarana maosonensis Hylarana maosonensis Hylarana maosonensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is found in the mountains of central and northeastern in Vietnam, Annamite Range in Laos, and southern Guanxi, China. Its common name is either Mao-Son frog or Maoson frog, after its type locality in Vietnam. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical evergreen forests where it can be found from leaf-litter banks and in shallow water along rocky streams. Reproduction takes place in pools and slow moving streams in forest. It is a locally common frog that is not considered threatened by the International Union for

neg: Asexual reproduction in starfish fission. In Brazil, only male individuals have been found and fission takes place all the year round, though primarily in the winter. Fission seems to be correlated with certain stress factors such as particularly low tides, when many starfish may be exposed to the air. "Nepanthia belcheri" has a variable number of arms and divides by fission in a similar manner. It is a hermaphrodite, some individuals having gonads that function as testes and others gonads that function as ovaries. After fission, the gonads regress and individuals that previously had mature female gonads become masculinized, developing male-type gonads. Many larger

neg: Plasmodium malariae lasts for seventy two hours on average, six to fourteen merozoites are released to reinvade other erythrocytes. Finally, some of the merozoites develop into either micro- or macrogametocytes. The two types of gametocytes are taken into the mosquito during feeding and the cycle is repeated. There are no animal reservoirs for "P. malariae." Similar to the other human-infecting "Plasmodium" parasites, "Plasmodium malariae" has distinct developmental cycles in the Anopheles mosquito and in the human host. The mosquito serves as the definitive host and the human host is the intermediate. When the Anopheles mosquito takes a blood meal from an infected

neg: Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction means of local clone selection in old plantations, as well as the importation of high quality clones from abroad, for local evaluation. A clone is the vegetative offspring of one specific mother plant; it does not show any genetic, morphologic or physiologic deviations from the mother plant. Evaluation takes place with the different selected clones after selection. Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction Plant breeders use different methods depending on the mode of reproduction of crops, which include: The mode of reproduction of a crop determines its genetic composition, which, in turn, is the deciding factor

neg: Plasmodium dominicana in the Dominican Republic. The host seems likely to have been a member of the order Galliformes but this cannot be confirmed. Plasmodium dominicana Plasmodium dominicana is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium". The species is only known from a mosquito fossil, dating from the Cenozoic era, that was found embedded in amber. The mosquito vector was identified as "Culex malariager". The fossil was found in what is now the Dominican Republic. The vertebrate host of this species is unknown but it seems likely that it may have been a bird. The parasite was first described by Poinar in 2005.

neg: Plasmodium the insect and vertebrate hosts. Parasites are generally introduced into a vertebrate host by the bite of an insect host (generally a mosquito, with the exception of some "Plasmodium" species of reptiles). Parasites first infect the liver or other tissue, where they undergo a single large round of replication before exiting the host cell to infect erythrocytes. At this point, some species of "Plasmodium" of primates can form a long-lived dormant stage called a hypnozoite. It can remain in the liver for more than a year. However, for most "Plasmodium" species, the parasites in infected liver cells are only what

neg: Plasmodium minasense ameiva" This is recognised as the type species. It was described by Carini and Rudolphi in 1912 in a lizard "Mabuya agilis". Geographical occurrence: Found in Brazil, Central America. Clinical features and host pathology: Known hosts include the lizards "Mabuya agilis" and "Mabuya mabouya". This species was described by Telford in 1979. Geographical occurrence: Found in Guyana, South America. Clinical features and host pathology: The only known host is the lizard "Plica umbra" Geographical occurrence: Found in Venezuela, South America. Clinical features and host pathology: The only known host is the lizard "Tupinambis teguixin" Plasmodium minasense Plasmodium minasense is a

neg: SN 1993J in SN 1993J's luminosity over time were not like the variations observed in other type II supernovae but did resemble the variations observed in type Ib supernovae. Hence, the supernova has been classified as a type IIb supernova, an intermediate class between type II and type Ib. The scientific results from this supernova suggested that type Ib and Ic supernovae were actually formed through the explosions of giant stars through processes similar to what takes place in type II supernovae. The supernova was also used to estimate a distance of 8.5 ± 1.3 Mly (2.6 ± 0.4 Mpc) to Messier

neg: KAHRP KAHRP KAHRP (Plasmodium falciparum knob-associated histidine-rich protein) is a protein expressed in erythrocytes infected by "Plasmodium falciparum". KAHRP is a major component of knobs, feature found on Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes. It has been suggested that KAHRP may play a role in trafficking or docking PfEMP1, major malarial cytoadherence protein to the erythrocyte membrane; however, these findings were disputed by recent NMR and fluorescence anisotropy studies showing no interaction between PfEMP1 and KAHRP. Instead, KAHRP was shown to interact with Ankyrin, more precisely the D3 subunit of the Membrane-binding domain of Ankyrin type 1. This interaction was suggested via SPR,

neg: Erythranthe michiganensis lip is coated in yellow hairs. It serves as a landing spot for pollinating insects, however, the plant produces little viable pollen, so it is likely that most of the reproduction is vegetative via stolons, rather than sexual via seed. Biological dispersal then takes place as pieces break off and float downstream. Blooming occurs in mid-June through mid-July, and sometimes extends into August, or rarely September or October. "Erythranthe michiganensis" is found almost exclusively on the shores of the Great Lakes, or what were ancient shorelines. It grows on lakesides and stream banks in wet, saturated soils or in very

neg: Venturia inaequalis the conidia, that germinate on fresh areas of the host tree, which in turn produce another generation of conidial spores. This cycle of secondary infections continues throughout the summer, until the leaves and fruit fall from the tree at the onset of winter. "V. inaequalis" overwinters mostly as immature Perithecia, where sexual reproduction takes place, producing a new generation of ascospores that are released the following spring. Scab lesions located on the woody tissues may also overwinter in place, but will not undergo a sexual reproduction cycle; these lesions can still produce ineffective conidial spores in the spring. Effectors are

neg: Pallid sturgeon 5 and 7 years, while females are believed to become capable of reproduction when they are at least 15 years old. One study of nine females indicated that they begin egg development between the ages of 9 and 12 years, but do not reach reproductive maturity until they are 15 years old. Reproduction does not take place every year; the average interval between spawnings is three years, although other studies suggest an interval as long as 10 years. Spawning usually takes place May to July. Prior to the construction of dams on the Missouri, pallid sturgeon migrated hundreds of miles

neg: Cycas can be subterranean with the leaf crown appearing to arise directly from the ground. There are two types of leaves - foliage leaves and scaly leaves. The foliage leaves are pinnate (or more rarely bipinnate) and arranged spirally, with thick and hard keratinose. They are not permanent and fall off leaving back leaf-bases. The leaflets are articulated, have midrib but lack secondary veins. The scaly leaves are persistent, brown in colour and protective in function. Megasporophylls are not gathered in cones. Pollination takes place by air. The plant takes several years to grow, sexual reproduction takes place after 10 years

neg: Crescendo Association has been running what is referred to as a "Festival In" and a "Festival Off". The first one takes place just before the great festival in Saint-Palais-sur-Mer, whereas the second one takes place a few days after the great festival. Both of them run around Saint-Palais-sur-Mer, in different local towns. Thanks to the support of the Regional Council, the General Council, the Cultural Commission, the local towns, the Tourist Office and shopkeepers, the popularity of Crescendo and Progressive Rock music in general is increasing massively. The audience is able to discover or rediscover an "unrecognized type of music", closely liked

neg: Gregarious slender salamander in coniferous forest with sugar pine ("Pinus lambertiana") and giant sequoias ("Sequoiadendron giganteum") and near the Kern River, in the south of its range, it is found in dry grassland with scattered boulders. Reproduction is seasonal in this species. In the southern part of its range and at lower elevations, egg laying usually takes place soon after the start of the rainy season, but at higher elevations it takes place later. The female deposits a clutch of eggs in a well-hidden location, under bark, under a fallen log or a rock, or in leaf-litter in a moist place, often near

neg: Vinckeia and the grey duiker ("Sylvicapra grimmia") "Plasmodium cercopitheci" "Plasmodium chabaudi" — "Anopheles stephensi" "Plasmodium coulangesi" "Plasmodium cyclopsi" — the bat ("Hipposideros cyclops") "Plasmodium foleyi" "Plasmodium girardi" "Plasmodium incertae" — flying squirrel "Plasmodium inopinatum" "Plasmodium joyeuxi" "Plasmodium landauae" — African flying squirrel ("Anomalurus" species) "Plasmodium lemuris" "Plasmodium melanipherum" — Schreibers' bat ("Miniopterus schreibersii") "Plasmodium narayani" "Plasmodium odocoilei" — white tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus") "Plasmodium percygarnhami" "Plasmodium pulmophilium" — African flying squirrel ("Anomalurus" species) "Plasmodium sandoshami" — the Sunda flying lemur ("Galeopterus variegatus") "Plasmodium semnopitheci" "Plasmodium traguli" — the mouse deer "Plasmodium tyrio" — the pangolin ("Manis pentadactyla") "Plasmodium uilenbergi" "Plasmodium vassali"

neg: Plasmodium falciparum It traverses the peritrophic membrane of the mosquito midgut and crosses the midgut epithelium. Once through the epithelium, the ookinete enters the basal lamina, and settles to an immotile oocyst. For several days, the oocyst undergoes 10 to 11 rounds of cell division to create a syncytial cell (sporoblast) containing thousands of nuclei. Meiosis takes place inside the sporoblast to produce over 3,000 haploid daughter cells called sporozoites on the surface of the mother cell. Immature sporozoites break through the oocyst wall into the haemolymph. They migrate to the mosquito salivary glands where they undergo further development and become infective

neg: Oscillatoria princeps found at the inner side of the cell corresponding the slit on the trichome. When such cells were stacked one above the other, it results in the crack like structure on the trichome. Thus, the number of notches in a single cell equals the number of slits on the trichome. One to three notches / slits were observed in the study by Uma Rani et al. 2015. Reproduction takes place only by vegetative methods namely fragmentation and hormogonia. Both the methods were observed in the most of the study. Fragmentation takes place by the degradation of weakened cells or mechanically

neg: Plasmodium polare "Plasmodium circumflexum" "Plasmodium durae" "Plasmodium fallax" "Plasmodium formosanum" "Plasmodium gabaldoni" "Plasmodium hegneri" "Plasmodium lophrae" "Plasmodium lophrae" "Plasmodium pediocetti" "Plasmodium pinotti" Plasmodium polare Plasmodium polare is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Papernaia". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. polare" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Manwell in 1934. It is relatively small and produces on the average nine merozoites per infection. It has abundant cytoplasm. This parasite occurs in the United States. Hosts of this species include the bald eagle ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"), the barn swallow ("Hirundo

neg: Hartebeest Mating in hartebeest takes place throughout the year, with one or two peaks that can be influenced by the availability of food. Both males and females reach sexual maturity at one to two years of age. Reproduction varies by the subspecies and local factors. Mating takes place in the territories defended by a single male, mostly in open areas. The males may fight fiercely for dominance, following which the dominant male smells the female's genitalia, and follows her if she is in oestrus. Sometimes a female in oestrus holds out her tail slightly to signal her receptivity, and the male

neg: Ophiothrix angulata and detritus drifting past. The particles are trapped by strands of mucus which dangle from the arms, and passed to the mouth by the tube feet. If an arm is damaged or lost by predation, it can be regenerated. The reproduction of this species has been little studied, but it is thought that breeding takes place by releasing gametes into the sea in response to variations in environmental cues such as changes in temperature. This brittle star forms large aggregations before spawning takes place. After settling, juveniles of this species are able to become planktonic again, enabling them to disperse

neg: Astrangia poculata and Caribbean Sea where its range extends from Cape Cod in Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico. It also occurs on the western coast of Africa. It occurs in encrusting clumps on rocks and is common under ledges and boulders, on pilings and on wrecks. It also occurs in deep water and detached clumps sometimes get washed up on shore. Reproduction of "Astrangia poculata" takes place during the summer when eggs and sperm are liberated into the water column and fertilisation takes place. The embryos hatch into planula larvae which drift with the plankton before settling to the seabed and

neg:
Plasmodium durae Plasmodium durae Plasmodium durae is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Giovannolaia". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. durae" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Herman in 1941. Mature gametocytes tend to lie obliquely within the host cell, displace the nucleus to one pole of the cell and possess one or more clumps of clear pigment granules. It is related to the following species: "Plasmodium asanum"
 "Plasmodium circumflexum"
 "Plasmodium fallax"
 "Plasmodium formosanum"
 "Plasmodium gabaldoni"
 "Plasmodium hegneri"
 "Plasmodium lophrae"
 "Plasmodium lophrae"
 "Plasmodium pediocetti"
 "Plasmodium pinotti"
 "Plasmodium polare"

neg: Thamnophis sauritus sauritus its prey, it will quickly slither to catch its prey and swallow it whole. Reproduction in eastern ribbon snakes takes place after they emerge from hibernation in the spring, in April or May. Mating occasionally takes place in the fall, but the female will delay fertilization and development until the next spring. The average gestation period is three months. The average number of young is around 12, but can range four to 27. Females give birth in late summer or the early fall. After birth, no parental care is involved; the young are left to fend for themselves. Most young

neg: Plasmodium inui Plasmodium inui Plasmodium inui is a species of parasite, one of the species of simian "Plasmodium" that cause malaria in Old World monkeys. This species was described in 1907 by Halberstaedter and von Prowazek. This species is found in China and also the Celebes, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. It is closely related to other 'quartan' "Plasmodium" species, including "Plasmodium coatneyi", "Plasmodium cynomolgi", "Plasmodium fragile", "Plasmodium fieldi", "Plasmodium hylobati", "Plasmodium simiovale" and "Plasmodium vivax" (which is a 'tertian' "Plasmodium" species). The life cycle is typical of a species of the "Plasmodium" genus. It has a 72-hour (or quartan) periodicity. Salivary

neg: Pillar coral fallen coral. Some specimens have been found where this has happened more than once, and the history of the colony can be deduced from its shape. If a pillar gets detached and becomes lodged in a suitable position, it can continue to live, sending up new pillars from the base and other parts of the column. Each pillar coral clonal colony is either male or female. Sexual reproduction takes place with gametes being released into the water column where fertilisation takes place. The larvae that hatch out of the eggs are planktonic and drift with the currents before settling on

neg:
Plasmodium pinotti Plasmodium pinotti Plasmodium pinotti is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Giovannolaia". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. pinotti" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Muniz and Soares in 1954. It was named after the Dr Mario Pinotti. It is related to the following species "Plasmodium asanum"
 "Plasmodium circumflexum"
 "Plasmodium durae"
 "Plasmodium fallax"
 "Plasmodium formosanum"
 "Plasmodium gabaldoni"
 "Plasmodium hegneri"
 "Plasmodium lophrae"
 "Plasmodium pediocetti"
 "Plasmodium polare" This species is found in Jamaica. Known hosts of this species include the bananaquit ("Coereba flaveola"), orangequit ("Euneornis campestris"), yellow-shouldered grassquit

neg:
Plasmodium pinotti ("Loxipasser anoxanthus"), the large toucan ("Ramphastos toco") and the black-faced grassquit ("Tiaris bicolor"). Plasmodium pinotti Plasmodium pinotti is a parasite of the genus "Plasmodium" subgenus "Giovannolaia". Like all "Plasmodium" species "P. pinotti" has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds. The parasite was first described by Muniz and Soares in 1954. It was named after the Dr Mario Pinotti. It is related to the following species "Plasmodium asanum"
 "Plasmodium circumflexum"
 "Plasmodium durae"
 "Plasmodium fallax"
 "Plasmodium formosanum"
 "Plasmodium gabaldoni"
 "Plasmodium hegneri"
 "Plasmodium lophrae"
 "Plasmodium pediocetti"
 "Plasmodium polare" This species is found in Jamaica. Known hosts

neg: Plasmodium coatneyi the protozoan was discovered in a crab-eating monkey found in the same area Selangor and again in a separate crab-eating monkey in the Philippines. The newly discovered species was then named in honor of Dr. G. Robert Coatney, an American malariologist. The life cycle of "P. coatneyi" takes the complex form representative of the "Plasmodium" genus. When a female "Anopheles" mosquito bites a human, a haploid form of the protozoan called a sporozoite is transferred from the salivary glands into the circulatory system of the human. These motile sporozoites are then taken by the circulatory system to the liver, where

neg: Plasmodium inui gland sporozoites appear in "Anopheles dirus" 13 days post feeding. The prepatent period in the vertebrate host is 8 days. Plasmodium inui Plasmodium inui is a species of parasite, one of the species of simian "Plasmodium" that cause malaria in Old World monkeys. This species was described in 1907 by Halberstaedter and von Prowazek. This species is found in China and also the Celebes, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. It is closely related to other 'quartan' "Plasmodium" species, including "Plasmodium coatneyi", "Plasmodium cynomolgi", "Plasmodium fragile", "Plasmodium fieldi", "Plasmodium hylobati", "Plasmodium simiovale" and "Plasmodium vivax" (which is a 'tertian' "Plasmodium" species).

neg: Guinotia dentata is habitat destruction, and a protected area has been established on Dominica to conserve them. Reproduction takes place entirely in fresh water, and breeding takes place all year round; there does not seem to be a breeding season. The young undergo direct development, hatching as juveniles, without passing through any larval stages. The females carry the eggs and protect the young who stay with their mother for a period after hatching. "Guinotia dentata" is a mainly carnivorous (though partially herbivorous) animal which sometimes also acts as a scavenger or detritivore. It has been observed to eat minnows, prawns, and aquatic

neg: Schistocephalus solidus (e.g. "Macrocyclops albidus"). The second larval stage then subsequently develops in the tissue of this host. Within one to two weeks, the infected copepod is ingested by the second intermediate host, the three-spined stickleback, "Gasterosteus aculeatus". The third larval stage, the plerocercoid, grows in the abdomen of the fish. When the fish is eaten by a bird, the larvae mature and adults start to produce eggs within two days. Reproduction takes place within one to two weeks, after which the parasite dies. Reproduction for this parasite is unique because of the hermaphroditic nature of this cestode. When it comes to

neg: Clematis socialis species revealed a moderate level of genetic diversity, a level higher than would be expected for a rare narrow endemic plant that favors vegetative reproduction as much as this one. The natural habitat is probably a mix of prairie and swampy forest ecosystems, but what types are uncertain because the plant is only known from human-altered habitat today. Its ability to exist amid such disturbance suggests it may be adapted to a naturally disturbed type of habitat, such as one that burns often. The plant is more abundant and undergoes sexual reproduction more often in open areas where it receives

neg: Spirogyra enough sunlight and warmth they produce large amounts of oxygen, adhering as bubbles between the tangled filaments. The filamentous masses come to the surface and become visible as slimy green mats. Spirogyra has a cell wall, nucleus, pyrenoid and spiral chloroplasts. It is very rare among the plant-like protists. "Spirogyra" can reproduce both sexually and asexually. In vegetative reproduction, fragmentation takes place, and "Spirogyra" simply undergoes intercalary cell division to extend the length of the new filaments. Sexual reproduction is of two types: The essential difference is that scalariform conjugation occurs between two filaments and lateral conjugation occurs between two

neg: Southern hairy-nosed wombat early morning, when the surface temperature is lower, they retire. The breeding of the southern hairy-nosed wombat occurs when their favoured food is at its peak growth rates. Their reproduction relies on the winter rainfall, which germinates the grasses. Between August and October, when rainfall is sufficient, females enter ovulation and the males' testosterone levels and prostate gland sizes increase. In years of low rainfall, neither occurs. When breeding, dominance hierarchies among males are established through aggression. Copulation takes place in the warren, with males remaining in one burrow and females moving among them. Mating takes place underground and involves

neg: Vinckeia is a list of species in subgenus "Vinckeia" and their hosts. "Plasmodium achromaticum" — the bat ("Achromaticatus vesperuginis") "Plasmodium aegyptensis" — Egyptian grass rat ("Arvicanthis niloticus") "Plasmodium anomaluri" — African flying squirrel ("Anomalurus" species) "Plasmodium atheruri" — African porcupine ("Atherurus africanus"), large vesper mouse ("Calomys callosus") and "Meriones unguiculatus", "Anopheles stephensi" "Plasmodium berghei" — the thicket rat ("Grammomys surdaster"), "Anopheles stephensi" "Plasmodium booliati" — Malayan giant flying squirrel "Plasmodium bouillize" "Plasmodium brodeni" — elephant shrews ("Petrodomus teradactylus") "Plasmodium bubalis" — water buffaloes ("Bubalus bubalis") "Plasmodium bucki" "Plasmodium caprae" — domestic goat ("Capra hircus") "Plasmodium cephalophi" — the antelope ("Cephalophus grimmi")

neg: Mustelidae are active year-round. With the exception of the sea otter, they have anal scent glands that produce a strong-smelling secretion the animals use for sexual signaling and for marking territory. Most mustelid reproduction involves embryonic diapause. The embryo does not immediately implant in the uterus, but remains dormant for some time. No development takes place as long as the embryo remains unattached to the uterine lining. As a result, the normal gestation period is extended, sometimes up to a year. This allows the young to be born under more favorable environmental conditions. Reproduction has a large energy cost and it

neg: Basigin 1, 3, and 4 are essential nutrients for the developing RPE), resulting in loss of sight in the null animal. Basigin interacts with the fourth C-type lectin domain in the receptor Endo180 to form a molecular epithelial-mesenchymal transition suppressor complex that if disrupted results in the induction of invasive prostate epithelial cell behavior associated with poor prostate cancer survival. It has recently (November 2011) been found that basigin is a receptor that is essential to erythrocyte invasion by most strains of "Plasmodium falciparum", the most virulent species of the plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. It is hoped that by

neg: Novyella Novyella Novyella is a subgenus of the genus "Plasmodium" - all of which are parasites. The subgenus was created in 1963 by Corradetti "et al.". Species in this subgenus infect birds. It unites the avian malaria parasites with small erythrocytic meronts and elongated gametocytes. The type species is "Plasmodium vaughani". This subgenus was created on the basis of morphology. Subsequent DNA studies showed it to be polyphetic. It has been revised by Landau "et al" and currently contains only those species with a white/blue globule in the cytoplasm. Several of the species that were included in this subgenus have now

neg: Katharina tunicata will first disperse their sperm into the tides which will then induce nearby females to launch their eggs forth to be fertilized. Settlement of the organism is influenced by the presence of coralline algae. Gametogenesis takes place for 5 months of the year, and most of these chitons will live through the reproduction cycle about 3 times. Chitons undergo biochemical changes through the processes of sexual maturity and reproduction. Studies have been conducted, using "K. tunicata", pertaining to the ratio of neutral and polar lipids found within the organism at different stages of its life. Its distribution ranges from Kamchatka,

neg: Novyella been moved to a new subgenus "Papernaia". Species in the subgenus "Novyella" have the following characteristics: Novyella Novyella is a subgenus of the genus "Plasmodium" - all of which are parasites. The subgenus was created in 1963 by Corradetti "et al.". Species in this subgenus infect birds. It unites the avian malaria parasites with small erythrocytic meronts and elongated gametocytes. The type species is "Plasmodium vaughani". This subgenus was created on the basis of morphology. Subsequent DNA studies showed it to be polyphetic. It has been revised by Landau "et al" and currently contains only those species with a white/blue

neg: Chara (alga) hydrogen sulfide. The plant body is a gametophyte. It consists of a main axis (differentiated into nodes and internodes), dimorphic branches (long branch of unlimited growth and short branches of limited growth), rhizoids (multicellular with oblique septa) and stipulodes (needle shaped structures at the base of secondary laterals). "Chara" reproduces vegetatively and sexually. Vegetative reproduction takes place by tubers, amylum stars and secondary protonema. The fructifications for sexual reproduction are globule or antheridium (male) and nucule or archegonium (female). The sex organs are multicellular and jacketed. The antheridia and archegonia may occur on separate plants (dioecy), together on the same

neg: Haemoproteus "Haemoproteus columbae" in the blood of the pigeon "Columba livia". McCallum in 1897 showed that the process of exflagellation was part of sexual reproduction in these parasites and thought it probable that the same process occurred in "Plasmodium". The first record of a haemoproteid parasite in a reptile was by Simond in 1901 who gave it the name "Haemamoeba metchnikovi". The Sergent brothers in 1906 showed that the ectoparasitic fly "Pseudolynchia canariensis" was the vector of "Haemoproteus columbae". Aragao in 1908 demonstrated the schizogonic stages of "Haemoproteus columbae" in the endothelial cells of the lungs of nestling pigeons infected by

neg: Plasmodium falciparum trophozoites, schizonts and gametocytes, during which the symptoms of malaria are produced. In the mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction to a zygote, which turns into ookinete. Ookinete forms oocyts from which sporozoites are formed. As of the latest "World Malaria Report" of the World Health Organization, there were 219 million cases of malaria worldwide in 2017, up from 216 million cases in 2016. This resulted in an estimated 435,000 deaths. Almost every malarial death is caused by "P. falciparum", and 93% of death occurs in Africa. Children under five years of age are most affected, accounting for 61% of

neg: Sclerotium life cycle and reproduction of fungi, as a food source, as medicine (for example, ergotamine), and in agricultural blight management. Examples of fungi that form sclerotia are ergot ("Claviceps purpurea"), "Polyporus tuberaster", "Psilocybe mexicana", "Sclerotium delphinii" and many species in Sclerotiniaceae. The plasmodium of slime molds can form sclerotia in adverse environmental conditions. Sclerotia are often composed of a thick, dense shell with thick and dark cells and a core of thin colorless cells. Sclerotia are rich in hyphae emergency supplies, especially oil. They contain a very small amount of water (5-10%) and can survive in a dry environment for

neg: Human reproduction achieved through artificial insemination. Many years of parental care are required before a human child becomes independent, typically between twelve and eighteen or more. Pregnancy can be avoided with the use of contraceptives such as condoms and Intrauterine devices. Human reproduction naturally takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his penis, which needs to be erect, into the female's vagina, and then either partner initiates rhythmic pelvic thrusts until the male ejaculates semen, which contains sperm, into the vaginal canal. This process is also known as "coitus", "mating", "having sex", or, euphemistically, "making

neg: PfSPZ Vaccine When PfSPZ Vaccine was injected intravenously (IV) to nonhuman primates or mice it finally triggers CD8+ T-cells producing IFNγ. These T cells are believed to be the main immunologic mechanism to fight malaria in liver. The PfSPZ Vaccine candidate has granted fast track designation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in September 2016. CD8+ T cells play a key role in killing "Plasmodium" developing in liver. Mice or monkeys which received monoclonal antibody to the CD8 lost protection by this type of vaccine. Once the antibody application was stopped, the protection was returned. "Plasmodium" is injected by infected mosquito

neg: Coenocyte which can be many meters across (e.g. "Caulerpa"). However, in some cases, crosswalls may occur during reproduction. The green algal order Cladophorales is characterized by siphonocladous organization, i.e., the thalli are composed of many coenocytic cells. In contrast to the Cladophorales where nuclei are organized in regularly spaced cytoplasmic domains, the cytoplasm of Bryopsidales exhibits streaming, enabling transportation of organelles, transcripts and nutrients across the plant. Diplomonads, like "Giardia", have two nuclei. Ciliates have cells that contain two nuclei: a macronucleus and a micronucleus. The schizont of apicomplexan parasites is a form of a coenocyte (i.e. a plasmodium in the

neg: Protozoa other techniques, evidence has been found for some form of meiotic sex in an increasing number of protozoans of ancient lineage that diverged early in eukaryotic evolution. (See eukaryote reproduction.) Thus, such findings suggest that meiotic sex arose early in eukaryotic evolution. Examples of protozoan meiotic sexuality are described in the articles "Amoebozoa", "Giardia lamblia", "Leishmania", "Plasmodium falciparum biology", "Paramecium", "Toxoplasma gondii", "Trichomonas vaginalis" and "Trypanosoma brucei". Historically, the Protozoa were classified as "unicellular animals", as distinct from the Protophyta, single-celled photosynthetic organisms (algae) which were considered primitive plants. Both groups were commonly given the rank of phylum, under the

neg: Diagnosis of malaria can range from about 0.002% to 0.1% parasitemia) compared to 5 by thick film microscopy. One disadvantage is that dipstick tests are qualitative but not quantitative – they can determine if parasites are present in the blood, but not how many. The first rapid diagnostic tests were using "Plasmodium" glutamate dehydrogenase as antigen. PGluDH was soon replaced by "Plasmodium" lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH). Depending on which monoclonal antibodies are used, this type of assay can distinguish between different species of human malaria parasites, because of antigenic differences between their pLDH isoenzymes. Antibody tests can also be directed against other malarial antigens

neg: Hemozoin reproduction cycle "Plasmodium falciparum" consumes up to 80% of the host cell hemoglobin. The digestion of hemoglobin releases monomeric α-hematin (ferriprotoporphyrin IX). This compound is toxic, since it is a pro-oxidant and catalyzes the production of reactive oxygen species. Oxidative stress is believed to be generated during the conversion of heme (ferroprotoporphyrin) to hematin (ferriprotoporphyrin). Free hematin can also bind to and disrupt cell membranes, damaging cell structures and causing the lysis of the host erythrocyte. The unique reactivity of this molecule has been demonstrated in several "in vitro" and "in vivo" experimental conditions. The malaria parasite, therefore, detoxifies the

neg: Globalization and disease type of leprosy. In 1991 the World Health Assembly began an attempt to eliminate leprosy. By 2005 116 of 122 countries were reported to be free of leprosy. On Nov. 6, 1880 Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria (then called "Marsh Fever") was a protozoan parasite, and that mosquitoes carry and transmit malaria. Malaria is a protozoan infectious disease that is generally transmitted to humans by mosquitoes between dusk and dawn. The European variety, known as "vivax" after the "Plasmodium vivax" parasite, causes a relatively mild, yet chronically aggravating disease. The west African variety is caused by the sporozoan parasite, "Plasmodium