query: where does the final stage of carbohydrate digestion occur

pos: Carbohydrate digestion diffusion of substances, but is active and requires energy use by the epithelial cells. During the phase of carbohydrate absorption, fructose is transported into the intestinal cell's cytosol, glucose and galactose competes with other sodium transporter required for operation. From the cytosol, monosaccharides pass into the capillaries by simple or facilitated diffusion. Carbohydrates not digested in the small intestine, including resistant starch foods such as potato, bean, oat, wheat flour, and several monosaccharide oligosaccharides and starch, are digested in a variable when they reach the large intestine. The bacterial flora metabolize these compounds anaerobically in the absence of oxygen. This

pos: Hindgut fermentation limits the amount of further digestion or absorption that can occur after the food is fermented. In smaller hindgut fermenters of the order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas), cecotropes formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Cecotropes are surrounded by a layer of mucus which protects them from stomach acid but which does not inhibit nutrient absorption in the small intestine. Coprophagy is also practiced by some rodents, such as the capybara, guinea pig and related species, and by the marsupial common ringtail possum. This process is

pos: Large intestine the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of

neg: Carbohydrate pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit. Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose. Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In "Escherichia coli", for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both

neg: Carbohydrate digestion Carbohydrate digestion All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is taken up much faster than fructose. Monosaccharide transport saturates with -glucose at 30 mM. Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to

neg: Isomaltulose instead or together. Isomaltulose is an available carbohydrate like sucrose and most others sugars or maltodextrins. Available or “nutritive” carbohydrates serve the body as a source of energy for its physiological functions. Whether a carbohydrate becomes available to the body largely depends on its digestion, absorption, and metabolism, When present in foods and beverages that are ingested by humans, isomaltulose is digested completely and absorbed. Its intestinal digestion involves the enzyme isomaltase, which is located at the surface of the brush border lining the inner wall of the small intestine. This enzyme is otherwise involved in the digestion of α-1,6

neg: Ileum is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as villi on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger numbers of microvilli. Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the adsorption (attachment) of enzyme molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion. The DNES (diffuse neuroendocrine system) cells of the ileum secrete various hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin) into the blood. Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the protease and carbohydrase enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate digestion

neg: Anaerobic digestion be configured with different levels of complexity. In a single-stage digestion system (one-stage), all of the biological reactions occur within a single, sealed reactor or holding tank. Using a single stage reduces construction costs, but results in less control of the reactions occurring within the system. Acidogenic bacteria, through the production of acids, reduce the pH of the tank. Methanogenic bacteria, as outlined earlier, operate in a strictly defined pH range. Therefore, the biological reactions of the different species in a single-stage reactor can be in direct competition with each other. Another one-stage reaction system is an anaerobic lagoon. These

neg: Carbohydrate digestion produces gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane) and short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate). The gases are absorbed and excreted by breathing or through the anus (flatulence). Fatty acids are rapidly metabolized. Butyrate is used mainly by cells in the colon and acetate is absorbed into the blood and taken up by the liver, muscle and other tissue. Propionate is an important precursor of glucose in some animals, but not humans. Carbohydrate digestion All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is

neg: Isomaltulose released on complete burning of isomaltulose in oxygen to carbon dioxide and water, and its categorization as availability of carbohydrate, the food energy value of isomaltulose is identical to that of sucrose. For both, it is 4 kcal/g (17 kJ/g), a value that is used in food labelling or dietary planning. Isomaltulose is slow to be digested, absorbed and so is released as glucose and fructose into the bloodstream gradually . After ingestion, the enzymatic digestion of sucrose and isomaltulose occur on the same sucrase-isomaltase enzyme complex, which is located in the small intestine. Several studies show that this complex

neg: Carbohydrate other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate. The USDA's "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010" call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from a balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from whole grain sources and the rest from enriched. The glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on blood glucose levels. Glycemic index is a

neg: Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants rare clinical significance of α-Gal. Yet other potentially immunogenic carbohydrates with widespread occurrence such as N-Glycolylneuraminic acid, which does not occur in humans, or plant O-glycans (arabinogalactans and arabinans) may be mentioned but have so far not qualified as either IgE or as cross-reactive determinants. Literature: Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCDs) play a role in the context of allergy diagnosis. The terms CCD or CCDs describe protein-linked carbohydrate structures responsible for the phenomenon of cross-reactivity of sera from allergic patients towards a wide range of allergens from plants and insects. In serum-based allergy diagnosis, antibodies of the IgE

neg: Carbohydrate digestion their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine. Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the epithelium covering the villi (small hair-like structure). It is not a simple

neg: Anaerobic digestion lagoons are pond-like, earthen basins used for the treatment and long-term storage of manures. Here the anaerobic reactions are contained within the natural anaerobic sludge contained in the pool. In a two-stage digestion system (multistage), different digestion vessels are optimised to bring maximum control over the bacterial communities living within the digesters. Acidogenic bacteria produce organic acids and more quickly grow and reproduce than methanogenic bacteria. Methanogenic bacteria require stable pH and temperature to optimise their performance. Under typical circumstances, hydrolysis, acetogenesis, and acidogenesis occur within the first reaction vessel. The organic material is then heated to the required operational

neg: Food energy values given on food labels are not determined in this way. The reason for this is that direct calorimetry also burns the dietary fiber, and so does not allow for fecal losses; thus direct calorimetry would give systematic overestimates of the amount of fuel that actually enters the blood through digestion. What are used instead are standardized chemical tests or an analysis of the recipe using reference tables for common ingredients to estimate the product's digestible constituents (protein, carbohydrate, fat, etc.). These results are then converted into an equivalent energy value based on the following standardized table of energy densities.

neg: Biodegradation of residue, and a new biomass). In addition, aerobic digestion typically occurs more rapidly than anaerobic digestion, while anaerobic digestion does a better job reducing the volume and mass of the material. Due to anaerobic digestion's ability to reduce the volume and mass of waste materials and produce a natural gas, anaerobic digestion technology is widely used for waste management systems and as a source of local, renewable energy. The resulting products from biofragmentation are then integrated into microbial cells, this is the assimilation stage. Some of the products from fragmentation are easily transported within the cell by membrane carriers.

neg: Insect morphology pharynx, esophagus, and Crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Here, digestion starts as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders. From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to

neg: Richard D. Feinman law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy) is a bookkeeping law, that it does not say how energy input is divided between weight gain, work done, heat generation or storage of energy in different biomolecules. The second law is a dissipation law. It says that all (real) processes are inefficient. Feinman explained how diets of different composition vary in efficiency, in particular, how carbohydrate-restricted diets can lead to reduced efficiency. Whereas the effect is not always seen, the argument is that there is no reason to doubt published reports where it does occur. He is a director of the Metabolism Society

neg: Glycemic index need for insulin treatment. A low GI diet can also provide greater benefits to overweight and obese women. Intervention at an early stage of pregnancy has shown a tendency to lower birth weight and birth centile in infants born to women with GDM. Depending on quantities, the number of grams of carbohydrate in a food can have a bigger impact on blood sugar levels than the glycemic index does. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate

neg: Anaerobic digestion is used as a soil-improving material. For these two reasons, a maturation or composting stage may be employed after digestion. Lignin and other materials are available for degradation by aerobic microorganisms, such as fungi, helping reduce the overall volume of the material for transport. During this maturation, the ammonia will be oxidized into nitrates, improving the fertility of the material and making it more suitable as a soil improver. Large composting stages are typically used by dry anaerobic digestion technologies. The final output from anaerobic digestion systems is water, which originates both from the moisture content of the original waste

neg: Staub-Traugott Phenomenon Staub-Traugott Phenomenon The Staub-Traugott Phenomenon (or Staub-Traugott Effect) is the premise that a normal subject fed glucose will rapidly return to normal levels of blood glucose after an initial spike, and will see improved reaction to subsequent glucose feedings. A. T. B. Jacobson determined in 1913 that carbohydrate ingestion results in blood glucose fluctuations. Hamman and Hirschman first reported improvement of carbohydrate tolerance following repeated glucose administration in 1919. H. Staub in 1921 and K. Traugott in 1922 subsequently confirmed the improved reaction in healthy subjects and the phenomenon was named for them. As this effect does not occur in

neg: Serine protease "trypsin" is essential, because it activates its own reaction, as well as the reaction of both "chymotrypsin" and "elastase". Therefore, it is essential that this activation does not occur prematurely. There are several protective measures taken by the organism to prevent self-digestion: There are certain inhibitors that resemble the tetrahedral intermediate, and thus fill up the active site, preventing the enzyme from working properly. Trypsin, a powerful digestive enzyme, is generated in the pancreas. Inhibitors prevent self-digestion of the pancreas itself. Serine proteases are paired with serine protease inhibitors, which turn off their activity when they are no longer needed.

neg: Calciseptine which usually have a bioavailability of nearly 100% after intramuscular injection. In general, toxic peptides of 10-40 amino acids have been found to have a relatively poor bioavailability due to their size and hydrophilicity. Thus, calciseptine, containing 60 amino acids, is expected to have a low bioavailability as well. Because calciseptine is a peptide, theoretically it can be broken down by proteases in the tissues where it is injected. It has been found that digestion of snake toxic peptides by proteases does occur in the prey tissues, but due to the relative stability of the toxins, the speed with which

neg: Orchid mycorrhiza digestion are a continuum and will cyclically occur throughout the entire life span of the cooperation. Rasmussen 2009 differentiates two types of plant host cells which are involved in nutrient transfer, so called 'digestion cells' and so called 'host cells', 'digestive cells' apparently engage in dense hyphal peloton formation followed by a rapid digestion and subsequent reinfection, where as 'host cells' contain live hyphae pelotons, which will not be digested, or at least not as readily. Rasmussen 2002 discusses an additional mode of nutrient transfer called pytophagy involving lysis of fungal cells but instead of lysing the entire fungal hyphae

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the electron transport chain. ATP production occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. There are two methods of producing ATP: aerobic and anaerobic. In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen plays a key role as it increases ATP production from 4 ATP

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions. Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism Carbohydrate metabolism Various biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from sunlight internally. When animals and fungi consume plants, they use cellular respiration to break down these stored carbohydrates to make energy available to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily store the released energy in the form of high energy molecules, such as ATP, for use in various cellular processes. Although humans consume a variety of carbohydrates, digestion

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol). In some animals (such as termites) and some microorganisms (such as protists and bacteria), cellulose can be disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose. Carbohydrate metabolism Various biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from

neg: Carbohydrate lactose and glucose are present the "lac" operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits. Based on the effects on

neg: Enterocyte Enterocyte Enterocytes, or intestinal absorptive cells, are simple columnar epithelial cells found in the small intestine. A glycocalyx surface coat contains digestive enzymes. Microvilli on the apical surface increase surface area for the digestion and transport of molecules from the intestinal lumen. The cells also have a secretory role. The major functions of enterocytes include: Dietary fructose intolerance occurs when there is a deficiency in the amount of fructose carrier. Lactose intolerance is the most common problem of carbohydrate digestion and occurs when the human body doesn't produce a sufficient amount of lactase (a disaccharidase) enzyme to break down the

neg: Glycemic index indicate greater extraction from the liver and periphery of the products of carbohydrate digestion. A lower glycemic response usually equates to a lower insulin demand but not always, and can improve long-term blood glucose control and blood lipids. The insulin index is also useful for providing a direct measure of the insulin response to a food. The glycemic index of a food is defined as the incremental area under the two-hour blood glucose response curve (AUC) following a 12-hour fast and ingestion of a food with a certain quantity of available carbohydrate (usually 50 g). The AUC of the test

neg: Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates (MACs) are carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion by a host's metabolism, and are made available for gut microbes, as prebiotics, to ferment or metabolize into beneficial compounds, such as short chain fatty acids. The term, ‘‘microbiota-accessible carbohydrate’’ contributes to a conceptual framework for investigating and discussing the amount of metabolic activity that a specific food or carbohydrate can contribute to a host's microbiota. MACs may come from plants, fungi, animal tissues, or food-borne microbes, and must be metabolized by the microbiome. A significant quantity of the cellulose humans consume is not metabolized by gut microbes

neg: Carbohydrate whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides). In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) raise blood glucose slowly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), especially if processed, raise blood sugar rapidly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which

neg: Glycogen from all sources. Third, by consuming large quantities of carbohydrates after depleting glycogen stores as a result of exercise or diet, the body can increase storage capacity of intramuscular glycogen stores. This process is known as carbohydrate loading. In general, glycemic index of carbohydrate source does not matter since muscular insulin sensitivity is increased as a result of temporary glycogen depletion. When experiencing glycogen debt, athletes often experience extreme fatigue to the point that it is difficult to move. As a reference, the very best professional cyclists in the world will usually finish a 4- to 5-hr stage race right

neg: Extracellular digestion here the digestion is intracellular. Extracellular digestion Extracellular digestion is a process in which saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food. The enzymes catalyze the digestion of the food into molecules small enough to be taken up by passive diffusion, transport, or phagocytosis. Since digestion occurs outside the cell, it is said to be extracellular. It takes place either in the lumen of the digestive system, in a gastric cavity or other digestive organ, or completely outside the body. The prefix "extra" means "outside", and indicates that extracellular digestion must occur outside the cell. During

neg: Extracellular digestion Extracellular digestion Extracellular digestion is a process in which saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food. The enzymes catalyze the digestion of the food into molecules small enough to be taken up by passive diffusion, transport, or phagocytosis. Since digestion occurs outside the cell, it is said to be extracellular. It takes place either in the lumen of the digestive system, in a gastric cavity or other digestive organ, or completely outside the body. The prefix "extra" means "outside", and indicates that extracellular digestion must occur outside the cell. During extracellular digestion, food is broken

neg: Control of fire by early humans other primates. Due to the increased digestibility cooked foods conferred, less digestion was needed to procure the necessary nutrients. As a result, the gastrointestinal tract and organs in the digestive system decreased in size. This is in contrast to other primates, where a larger digestive tract is needed for fermentation of long carbohydrate chains. Thus, humans evolved from the large colons and tracts that are seen in other primates to smaller ones. According to Wrangham, control of fire allowed hominids to sleep on the ground and in caves instead of trees and led to more time being spent on the

neg: Podosphaera leucotricha reduced photosynthesis and transpiration, resulting suboptimal carbohydrate assimilation and reduced growth. "Podosphaera leucotricha" causes a range of symptoms. On stems, symptoms include wilting and discoloration. Wilting and leaf curling occur on leaves. Symptoms of the inflorescence include discoloration (non-graminous plants), dwarfing, stunting, and twisting. Depending on the stage in the disease cycle, symptoms vary. The primary blossom mildew emerges at pink bud stage. Flowers are deformed with pale green or yellow petal and are covered in white mycelium and spores. The secondary mildew may have lesions that appear as chlorotic spots on the upper leaf surface. Symptoms of the secondary

neg: Tomatine and cholesterol are not absorbed in the intestine, but are excreted. For the complexation with cholesterol to occur, the presence of a carbohydrate chain is essential. The aglycon tomatidine, which is tomatine without the sugars, does not form the complexes. The complexation probably occurs in the duodenum, because the acidic conditions in the stomach itself lead to protonation of the tomatine, and the protonated form of tomatine does not bind to cholesterol. Hydrolysis of tomatine likely takes place, but whether it is acid- or glycosidase-catalyzed is not known. "In vitro" exposure of tomatine to 1 M HCl for 3 hours

neg: Human digestive system Human digestive system The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The process of digestion has many stages. The first stage is the cephalic phase of digestion which begins with gastric secretions in response to the sight and smell of food. The next stage starts in the mouth. Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces

neg: Feline immunodeficiency virus the final stage (known as the feline acquired immune deficiency syndrome (FAIDS) stage), wherein the cat is extremely susceptible to secondary diseases that inevitably are the cause of death. Veterinarians will check a cat's history, look for clinical signs, and possibly administer a blood test for FIV antibodies. FIV affects 2-3% of cats in the US and testing is readily available. It should be noted that this testing identifies those cats that carry the FIV antibody but does not detect the actual virus. False positives occur when the cat carries the antibody (which is harmless) but does not carry the

neg: Food chemistry instances is reduce the amount of water or alter the water's characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing, and refrigeration This field encompasses the" "physiochemical principles of the reactions and conversions that occur during the manufacture, handling, and storage of foods"". Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CHO where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is

neg: Italian crested newt the creation of new cells and building of new tissue. In short, where the damage occurs is directly related to how much regeneration will occur. There are broad generalizations relating to amphibians that can be used to describe their digestive processes. One such generalization is that digestion raises metabolic rate in the organism in which it is occurring. This wide idea will apply to "T. carnifex". Digestion results in a hypertrophy (swelling) of the gastrointestinal regions. This is similar to the shunting of blood flow to the gastrointestinal compartments, as seen in muscular exercise. Both activities place a specific demand

neg: Gene expression profiling for mice fed a high carbohydrate diet and one for mice fed a low carbohydrate diet, one observes that all 40 diabetes genes are expressed at a higher level in the high carbohydrate group than the low carbohydrate group. Regardless of whether any of these genes would have made it to a list of significantly altered genes, observing all 40 up, and none down appears unlikely to be the result of pure chance: flipping 40 heads in a row is predicted to occur about one time in a trillion attempts using a fair coin. For a type of cell, the

neg: Internal circulation reactor Internal circulation reactor The internal circulation reactor (IC reactor) is a form of anaerobic digester. It is primarily designed to treat wastewater. The IC reactor is an evolution of the UASB and EGSB digestion systems. The digester typically produces biogas with a high concentration methane (c80%). In essence the IC to improve digestion rates and gas yields. The foot print for the IC reactor is therefore typically smaller. However, it is taller due to the increased complexity of the reactor. The IC reactor typically comes as part of a two-stage anaerobic digestion system where it is preceded by an acidification

neg: Healthy digestion Healthy digestion Healthy digestion, also called digestive health, results in the absorption of nutrients from food without distressing symptoms. Healthy digestion follows having a healthy diet, doing appropriate self-care including physical activity and exercise, minimizing activities like smoking or consuming alcoholic drinks which impair digestion, and managing any medical condition which disrupts digestion to the best of one's ability. A person with healthy digestion will have lower risk of experiencing diarrhea, constipation, heartburn, bloating, flatulence, and indigestion. Additionally, a person with healthy digestion will have less need of digestive medications than a person who does not have healthy digestion. Some

neg: Mechanical heat treatment Mechanical heat treatment Mechanical heat treatment (MHT) is an alternative waste treatment technology. This technology is also commonly termed autoclaving. MHT involves a mechanical sorting or pre-processing stage with technology often found in a material recovery facility. The mechanical sorting stage is followed by a form of thermal treatment. This might be in the form of a waste autoclave or processing stage to produce a refuse derived fuel pellet. MHT is sometimes grouped along with mechanical biological treatment. MHT does not however include a stage of biological degradation (anaerobic digestion or composting). Different MHT systems may be configured to meet

neg: Protein mass spectrometry (SDS-PAGE). This dimension separates the protein according to its molecular weight. Once this step is completed in-gel digestion occurs. In some situations, it may be necessary to combine both of these techniques. Gel spots identified on a 2D Gel are usually attributable to one protein. If the identity of the protein is desired, usually the method of in-gel digestion is applied, where the protein spot of interest is excised, and digested proteolytically. The peptide masses resulting from the digestion can be determined by mass spectrometry using peptide mass fingerprinting. If this information does not allow unequivocal identification of the protein,

neg: Pisaura mirabilis on fruit flies. This usually happens in the sixth or seventh nymphal stage. Cannibalism does not occur in the first few days, but occurs in later stages. The whole nymphal stage is divided into 12 stages at most. Male spiders become sexually mature in the 9th to 11th stages, females in the 10th to 12th stages. Temperature can influence the development and number of stages, with colder temperatures slowing down the process. Under good conditions, spiders can complete their nymphal development in fewer than 12 stages. The duration from prelarval stage to final moult (maturity) typically lasts 257 days for

neg: Anaerobic digestion time in a digester varies with the amount and type of feed material, and with the configuration of the digestion system. In a typical two-stage mesophilic digestion, residence time varies between 15 and 40 days, while for a single-stage thermophilic digestion, residence times is normally faster and takes around 14 days. The plug-flow nature of some of these systems will mean the full degradation of the material may not have been realised in this timescale. In this event, digestate exiting the system will be darker in colour and will typically have more odour. In the case of an upflow anaerobic

neg: Continuum model of impression formation where the individual decides (either consciously or unconsciously) to express their formed attitude toward the individual. This is where one often sees the expression of prejudice, stereotypes, or discrimination. Public expression may occur at any stage in model whether or not a final impression is present. Impression formation is a dynamic process. Even once perceivers have reached the final stage, they may loop back up to the attention allocation stage when new information causes them to rethink their current categorization. However, perceivers now try to assimilate the new information into their current category instead of the initial one. If they

neg: Lampung language as /x/ in 1976 and as /r/ in his 1975 word lists) occurs in all major environments and is sometimes voiced intervocalically. Walker (1976:3) noted that [r] (apical trill) ‘occurs in unassimilated loanwords’ and alternates with [x] in many cases. The nasals occur in word-initial, word-medial and word-final positions, with the exception of /ɲ/, which does not occur word-finally. /l/ occurs in word-initial, word-medial, and word-final position. /w/ and /j/ occur word-initially and word-medially and, depending on one's analysis, word-finally as part of diphthongs discussed below. Both phonemes occur word-medially in positions where they are not considered as transitions from

neg: Aerobic digestion used as food by saprotrophic bacteria. This stage of the process is known as "endogenous respiration" and it is process that reduces the solid concentration in the sludge. Aerobic digestion is typically used in an activated sludge treatment plant. Waste activated sludge and primary sludge are combined, where appropriate, and passed to a thickener where the solids content is increased. This substantially reduces the volume that is required to be treated in the digester.The process is usually run as a batch process with more than one digester tank in operation at any one time. Air is pumped through the tank

neg: Carbohydrate informal contexts, the term "carbohydrate" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams, and desserts). Often in lists of nutritional information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This includes chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes dietary fiber which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute much in

neg: Extracellular digestion the digestive tract or subjected to physical fragmentation. This fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth (in the mouth of many vertebrates) or the grinding action of pebbles (in the gizzard of earthworms and birds). Chemical digestion then occurs, breaking down the larger food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharides, fats, and proteins into their smallest sub-units. Chemical digestion involves hydrolysis reactions that liberate the sub unit molecules—primarily monosaccharides, amino acids and fatty acids—from the food. These products of chemical digestion pass through the epithelial lining of the gut into the blood, in a process known as absorption. Any

neg: Anaerobic digestion this route of treatment is less likely, as energy is required in this processing stage and reduces the overall levels available to sell. Digestate is the solid remnants of the original input material to the digesters that the microbes cannot use. It also consists of the mineralised remains of the dead bacteria from within the digesters. Digestate can come in three forms: fibrous, liquor, or a sludge-based combination of the two fractions. In two-stage systems, different forms of digestate come from different digestion tanks. In single-stage digestion systems, the two fractions will be combined and, if desired, separated by further

neg: Nuclease occur every 256 base pairs on average (where 4^4=256), but any given six-base sequence would be expected to occur once every 4,096 base pairs on average (4^6=4096). One unique family of nucleases is the meganucleases, which are characterized by having larger, and therefore less common, recognition sequences consisting of 12 to 40 base pairs. These nucleases are particularly useful for genetic engineering and Genome engineering applications in complex organisms such as plants and mammals, where typically larger genomes (numbering in the billions of base pairs) would result in frequent and deleterious site-specific digestion using traditional nucleases. Nuclease A nuclease (also

neg: Carbohydrate-binding module found in fungal chitinases, binds chitin. Carbohydrate-binding module family 20 (CBM20) binds to starch. Carbohydrate-binding module family 21 (CBM21), found in many eukaryotic proteins involved in glycogen metabolism, binds to glycogen. Carbohydrate-binding module family 25 (CBM25) binds alpha-glucooligosaccharides, particularly those containing alpha-1,6 linkages, and granular starch. Carbohydrate-binding module family 27 (CBM27) binds to beta-1,4-mannooligosaccharides, carob galactomannan, and konjac glucomannan, but not to cellulose (insoluble and soluble) or soluble birchwood xylan. CBM27 adopts a beta sandwich structure comprising 13 beta strands with a single, small alpha-helix and a single metal atom. Carbohydrate-binding module family 28 (CBM28) does not compete with CBM17

neg: Meat ant temperatures and alter their thermal biology for low temperatures. They will also deliberately expose themselves closely to their thermal maxima. The success of meat ants depends on what resource they are dealing with. In one study, the removal of meat ants allowed the successful foraging of "Iridomyrmex" ants at carbohydrate sources, but not for protein baits. The success of the ants also did not increase with mealworm baits, suggesting that competition does not always occur between meat ants and other species, and factors, such as food preference, may be involved. In contrast with camponotines and some myrmicines, both of their

neg: Glycemic load estimates the impact of carbohydrate consumption using the glycemic index while taking into account the amount of carbohydrate that is consumed. GL is a GI-weighted measure of carbohydrate content. For instance, watermelon has a high GI, but a typical serving of watermelon does not contain much carbohydrate, so the glycemic load of eating it is low. Whereas glycemic index is defined for each type of food, glycemic load can be calculated for any size serving of a food, an entire meal, or an entire day's meals. Glycemic load of a serving of food can be calculated as its carbohydrate content

neg: Ditylenchus destructor stage the sexual structures begin to develop and become visible. This development of additional structures causes large amounts of growth and elongation is seen in the nematode (especially in females who have more development occur). It is in the fourth stage where the sexual structures fully develop: vaginal development in females and testes development in males. At this point the nematodes undergo their final molting and enter the final, adult stage in their life cycle. After feeding on a host for some time, the females lay eggs inside the tuber, the eggs are fertilized by a male, and the cycle

neg: Vital heat several physical parts of the body different from the parts that participate in nutrition. Aristotle believed that blood was created through the process of digestion via vital heat and then pushed to the extremities of the body. However, blood is not in its final form but is transformed to a final substance to be used for the nourishment of the body. "Aristotle holds that semen is nutriment in its final stage of concoction before it becomes part of the body. Hence, blood, before it turns into flesh, bones, etc., first turns into semen." Although blood is not in its final

neg: Barium perchlorate yields the monohydrate. The anhydrous form is obtained by heating to 140 °C in vacuum. Dehydration of barium perchlorate that does not occur in vacuum will also result in hydrolysis of the perchlorate. Other reactions that produce barium perchlorate are as follows: perchloric acid and barium hydroxide or carbonate; potassium perchlorate and hydrofluosilicic acid followed with barium carbonate; boiling solution of potassium chlorate and zinc fluosilicate. For large-scale manufacturing purposes, barium perchlorate is synthesized by evaporating a solution of sodium perchlorate and barium chloride. Another method of preparation involves the digestion of a saturated solution of ammonium perchlorate with hydrated

neg: Mechanical biological treatment and has a lower impact than either MBT processes producing RDF for incineration or incineration of waste without MBT. Friends of the Earth does not support MBT plants that produce refuse derived fuel (RDF), and believes MBT processes should occur in small, localised treatment plants. Mechanical biological treatment A mechanical biological treatment system is a type of waste processing facility that combines a sorting facility with a form of biological treatment such as composting or anaerobic digestion. MBT plants are designed to process mixed household waste as well as commercial and industrial wastes. The terms "mechanical biological treatment" or "mechanical

neg: Perineuronal net connections. The classic model of the critical period has been the visual system. Normally, the primary visual cortex contains neurons organized in ocular dominance columns, with groups of neurons responding preferentially to one eye or the other. If an animal's dominant eye is sutured early in life and kept sutured through the visual critical period (monocular deprivation), the cortex permanently responds preferentially to the eye that was kept open, resulting in ocular dominance shift. However, if the eye is sutured after the critical period, the shift does not occur. In rats, digestion of PNNs using the bacterial enzyme chondroitinase ABC

neg: Fetal pig pass directly from the right to left atrium. There is also the ductus arterius which allows blood from the right atrium to be diverted to the aortic arch. Both of these shunts close a few minutes after birth. The monogastric digestive system of the fetal pig harbors many similarities with many other mammals. The fetal pig's digestive organs are well developed before birth, although it does not ingest food. These organs include the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. Mesenteries serve to connect the organs of the fetal pig together. In order for digestion to occur, the fetal pig would

neg: Blinking and happens without conscious effort, like breathing and digestion. A reflex blink occurs in response to an external stimulus, such as contact with the cornea or objects that appear rapidly in front of the eye. A reflex blink is not necessarily a conscious blink either; however it does happen faster than a spontaneous blink. Reflex blink may occur in response to tactile stimuli (e.g. corneal, eyelash, skin of eyelid, contact with eyebrow), optical stimuli (e.g. dazzle reflex, or menace reflex) or auditory stimuli (e.g., menace reflex) Voluntary blink is larger amplitude than Reflex blink, with the use of all 3

neg: OVGP1 OVGP1 Oviduct-specific glycoprotein also known as oviductal glycoprotein (OGP) or estrogen-dependent oviduct protein (EGP) or mucin-9 (MUC9) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "OVGP1" gene. Oviduct-specific glycoprotein is a large, carbohydrate-rich, epithelial glycoprotein with numerous O-glycosylation sites located within threonine, serine, and proline-rich tandem repeats. The gene is similar to members of the mucin and the glycosyl hydrolase 18 gene families. Regulation of expression may be estrogen-dependent. Gene expression and protein secretion occur during late follicular development through early cleavage-stage embryonic development. The protein is secreted from non-ciliated oviductal epithelial cells and associates with ovulated oocytes,

neg: Anaerobic digestion into compounds that can be directly used by methanogens. The biological process of acidogenesis results in further breakdown of the remaining components by acidogenic (fermentative) bacteria. Here, VFAs are created, along with ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, as well as other byproducts. The process of acidogenesis is similar to the way milk sours. The third stage of anaerobic digestion is acetogenesis. Here, simple molecules created through the acidogenesis phase are further digested by acetogens to produce largely acetic acid, as well as carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The terminal stage of anaerobic digestion is the biological process of methanogenesis. Here,

neg: Foodomics range of analytical techniques are used to obtain the data, including foodomics protocol and an in vitro static simulation of digestion. The procedure is divided into 3 stages as the samples are collected from oral, gastric and duodenal digestion in order to study protein digestibility closely and thoroughly. A meat based food, Bresaola, is evaluated because beef muscles are still intact, which can be used to indicate nutritional value. The consequences of oral step can be observed at the beginning of the gastric digestion, the first stage. As there is no enzymatic proteolytic activity at this stage, the level of

neg: Anaerobic digestion and single stage vs. multistage processes. More initial build money and a larger volume of the batch digester is needed to handle the same amount of waste as a continuous process digester. Higher heat energy is demanded in a thermophilic system compared to a mesophilic system and has a larger gas output capacity and higher methane gas content. For solids content, low will handle up to 15% solid content. Above this level is considered high solids content and can also be known as dry digestion. In a single stage process, one reactor houses the four anaerobic digestion steps. A multistage

neg: Biotinylation the target protein. Biotinylation at carboxyl groups occur at pH 4.5–5.5. To prevent crossreactivity of the crosslinker with buffer constituents, buffers should not contain primary amines (e.g., Tris, glycine) or carboxyls (e.g., acetate, citrate); MES buffer is an ideal choice. Glycoproteins can be biotinylated by modifying the carbohydrate residues to aldehydes, which then react with hydrazine- or alkoxyamine-based biotinylation reagents. Sodium periodate oxidizes the sialic acids on glycoproteins to aldehydes to form these stable linkages at pH 4–6. Polyclonal antibodies are heavily glycosylated, and because glycosylation does not interfere with the antibody activity, biotinylating the glycosyl groups is an ideal

neg: Italian crested newt will undergo a much more precise thermoregulation process than those in the intermediate stage. Since "T. carnifex" are amphibians, they must undergo changes in morphology that allow movement from the aquatic phase to the terrestrial phase. These changes are associated with alterations in the thermal environment. The thermal environment of the terrestrial phase does produce many more daily fluctuations of temperature change than does the aquatic phase. "T. carnifex" females will undergo reproductive processes. Many processes, such as digestion and locomotor activity, will result in a change in thermoregulation, specifically higher preferred body temperatures. Reproduction is one of these thermogulation-changing

neg: Jejunoileal bypass less weight loss initially and greater subsequent weight regain. Bile is secreted by the liver, enters the upper small intestine by way of the bile duct, and is absorbed in the small intestine. Bile has an important role in fat digestion, emulsifying fat as the first stage in its digestion. Bypassing the major site of bile acid reabsorption in the small intestine therefore further reduces fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. As a result, huge amounts of fatty acids, which are normally absorbed in the small intestine, enter the colon, where they cause irritation of the colon wall and the secretion

neg: Income inequality metrics redistributed in order to reach maximum entropy. Not to exceed that minimum size would require a perfectly planned redistribution. Therefore, the Hoover index is the "non-stochastic" counterpart to the "stochastic" Theil index. Applying the Theil index to allocation processes in the real world does "not" imply that these processes are stochastic: the Theil yields the "distance" between an ordered resource distribution in an observed system to the final stage of stochastic resource distribution in a closed system. Similarly, applying the Hoover index does "not" imply that allocation processes occur in a perfectly planned economy: the Hoover index yields the "distance"

neg: Pakenham Secondary College an excursion, and they are taken back in time to early Irish times, where the druids reign and the town is ruled by them. Each year they celebrate life by having a sacrifice, so it was a stage-by-stage process. The final 20 are represented in the colour red and fire was used as a metaphor as it represented all the sex that would occur during the process. The next scene was a blue scene, which represented the vulnerability of the final 12 chosen, and then they choose the final girl and the rest of the village celebrates. In the heats,

neg: Cystic fibrosis pancreatitis can occur in a subset of pancreas-sufficient individuals with CF, and is associated with recurrent abdominal pain and life-threatening complications. Thickened secretions also may cause liver problems in patients with CF. Bile secreted by the liver to aid in digestion may block the bile ducts, leading to liver damage. Over time, this can lead to scarring and nodularity (cirrhosis). The liver fails to rid the blood of toxins and does not make important proteins, such as those responsible for blood clotting. Liver disease is the third-most common cause of death associated with CF. The pancreas contains the islets of

neg: Light-independent reactions texts list a product of photosynthesis as , this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are: The next stage in the Calvin cycle is

neg: Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway and does not spread systemically. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway provides a braking effect on the innate immune response which protects the body against the damage that can occur if a localized inflammatory response spreads beyond the local tissues, which results in toxicity or damage to the kidney, liver, lungs, and other organs. The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve. It regulates heart rate, bronchoconstriction, digestion, and the innate immune response. The vagus nerve innervates the celiac ganglion, the site of origin of the splenic nerve. Stimulation of the efferent vagus nerve slows heart rate, induces gastric motility, and inhibits

neg: Lancetfish deep-sea fishes were first described from specimens found in the stomachs of lancefish. This may be partially due to the unusually slow rate of digestion apparent in lancetfish, where actual digestion seemingly does not begin in earnest until the beginning of the small intestines. In addition to a high degree of cannibalism and consumption of gelatinous foods, lancetfishes have also been documented with plastic refuse in their stomachs in the tropical north Pacific. While the exact pathway of this ingestion is not yet clear, lancetfish likely have some affinity with the epipelagic, but this could be by way of direct

neg: Glycoinformatics Glycoinformatics Glycoinformatics is a field of bioinformatics that pertains to the study of carbohydrates involved in protein post-translational modification. It broadly includes (but is not restricted to) database, software, and algorithm development for the study of carbohydrate structures, glycoconjugates, enzymatic carbohydrate synthesis and degradation, as well as carbohydrate interactions. Conventional usage of the term does not currently include the treatment of carbohydrates from the more well-known nutritive aspect. Even though glycosylation is the most common form of protein modification, with highly complex carbohydrate structures, the bioinformatics on glycome is still very poor. Unlike proteins and nucleic acids which are linear,

neg: Anaerobic digestion affect them by causing eutrophication. As such, further treatment of the wastewater is often required. This treatment will typically be an oxidation stage wherein air is passed through the water in a sequencing batch reactors or reverse osmosis unit. The history of anaerobic digestion is a long one, beginning as early as tenth century BCE in Assyria where biogas was used to heat bath water. Reported scientific interest in the manufacturing of gas produced by the natural decomposition of organic matter dates from the 17th century, when Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and Stephen Hales (1677-1761) noted that disturbing the sediment of

neg: Fish physiology food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it

neg: Protein (nutrient) and possibly on the muscle's exercise performance. The different physical and/or chemical properties within the various types of protein may affect the rate of protein digestion. As a result, the amino acid availability and the accumulation of tissue protein is altered because of the various protein metabolic responses. The classic assays for protein concentration in food are the Kjeldahl method and the Dumas method. These tests determine the total nitrogen in a sample. The only major component of most food which contains nitrogen is protein (fat, carbohydrate and dietary fiber do not contain nitrogen). If the amount of nitrogen is

neg: Extracellular digestion amino acids are removed first from a leaf released from a tree. Starch is then broken down and absorbed. Subsequently, pectin and cellulose are digested. Finally, waxes are degraded and lignin oxidized. The staggering of energy acquisition results in the efficient utilization of available energy. The regulation of nutrient acquisition appears to be controlled by general phenomena. Only a small group of enzymes, mostly hydrolases, can be detected in the culture filtrate of well-fed fungi. This suggests that specific inducers control the manufacture and release of enzymes for degradation. The most common complex carbohydrate available in the environment is cellulose.

neg: Extracellular digestion vertebrates. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. Heterotrophic nutrition means that fungi utilize extracellular sources of organic energy, organic material or organic matter, for their maintenance, growth and reproduction. Energy is derived from the breakdown of the chemical bond between carbon and either carbon or other components of compounds such as a phosphate ion. The extracellular sources of energy may be simple sugars, polypeptides or more complex carbohydrate. Fungi can only absorb small molecules through their walls. For fungi to gain their energy needs, they find and absorb organic molecules appropriate to their needs, either immediately or following some form of enzyme

neg: Postprandial somnolence high sympathetic tone. The larger the meal, the greater the shift in autonomic tone towards the parasympathetic system, regardless of the composition of the meal. When foods with a high glycemic index are consumed, the carbohydrates in the food are more easily digested than low glycemic index foods. Hence, more glucose is available for absorption. It should not be misunderstood that glucose is absorbed more rapidly because, once formed, glucose is absorbed at the same rate. It is only available in higher amounts due to the ease of digestion of high glycemic index foods. In individuals with normal carbohydrate metabolism,

neg: Kitten be produced in sufficient amounts by the cat. As it is an indispensable amino acid, it must be provided exogenously through the diet at 10 mg/kg bodyweight/day. Kittens deprived of taurine can experience poor growth and can result in retinal degeneration in cats. Felines are natural carnivores and do not intentionally consume large quantities of carbohydrates. The domestic cat's liver has adapted to the lack of carbohydrates in the diet by using amino acids to produce glucose to fuel the brain and other tissues. Studies have shown that carbohydrate digestion in young kittens is much less effective than that of

neg: Macrotyloma uniflorum and their sprouts and found that the seeds have greater beneficial effects on the health of hyperglycemic individuals. The majority of antioxidant properties are confined to the seed coat and its removal would not do any good. Raw horse gram seed is rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, and proteins, major antioxidants present in fruits and other food materials. The seed has the ability to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia by slowing down carbohydrate digestion and reducing insulin resistance by inhibiting protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1 beta enzyme. Macrotyloma uniflorum Macrotyloma uniflorum (horse gram, kulthi bean, hurali, Madras gram) is one of the lesser known beans.

neg: Carbohydrate certain proteins. Fructose, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and in humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion, and found in semen. Trehalose, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight. Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide

neg: Malabsorption and impotence. Edema and even ascites may reflect hypoproteinemia associated with protein losing enteropathy caused by lymphatic obstruction or extensive mucosal inflammation. Dermatitis and peripheral neuropathy may be caused by malabsorption of specific vitamins or micronutrients and essential fatty acids. Symptoms can manifest in a variety of ways and features might give a clue to the underlying condition. Symptoms can be intestinal or extra-intestinal - the former predominates in severe malabsorption. The main purpose of the gastrointestinal tract is to digest and absorb nutrients (fat, carbohydrate, protein, micronutrients (vitamins and trace minerals), water, and electrolytes. Digestion involves both mechanical and

neg: Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCDs) play a role in the context of allergy diagnosis. The terms CCD or CCDs describe protein-linked carbohydrate structures responsible for the phenomenon of cross-reactivity of sera from allergic patients towards a wide range of allergens from plants and insects. In serum-based allergy diagnosis, antibodies of the IgE class directed against CCDs therefore give the impression of polysensitization. Anti-CCD IgE, however, does not seem to elicit clinical symptoms. Diagnostic results caused by CCDs are therefore regarded as false positives. When in 1981 Rob Aalberse from the University of Amsterdam noticed the enormous cross-reactivity of

neg: Human nutrition to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear. Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch, and starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the available energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and anecdotally in humans. Additionally,

neg: Rumen microbial growth is in excess, protein and its derivatives can also be fermented to produce energy, yielding ammonia. Lipids, lignin, minerals, and vitamins play a less prominent role in digestion than carbohydrates and protein, but they are still critical in many ways. Lipids are partly hydrolysed and hydrogenated, and glycerol, if present in the lipid, is fermented. Lipids are otherwise inert in the rumen. Some carbon from carbohydrate or protein may be used for de novo synthesis of microbial lipid. High levels of lipid, particularly unsaturated lipid, in the rumen are thought to poison microbes and suppress fermentation activity. Lignin,

neg: Polysaccharide multiple uses, including surgical threads. Polysaccharides also include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, fucoidan and galactomannan. Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex polysaccharides are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called dietary fiber, these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits. The main action of dietary fiber

neg: Fiber volume ratio matrix (resin system), fibers, and voids. formula_1 where: and This procedure involves the digestion of the polymer matrix using an acid which does not attack the fibers. Following digestion, the remaining fibers are washed, dried, and weighed. Knowing the initial weight of the composite specimen as well as the densities of the fiber and resin, the volume fraction of both the fiber and matrix in the original laminate may be determined. This method is generally used for composites composed of carbon fiber reinforcement. Optical microscopy-based techniques involve potting sectioned samples of the laminate, polished using standard metallographic techniques, and obtaining

neg: Low-carbohydrate diet found that reducing dietary fat intake had no effect on coronary heart disease and had no effect on overall mortality. The authors of this meta-analysis conclude that the available evidence from randomized controlled trials does not support the recommendation of the 2015 - 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans that people reduce their fat intake. As with other diet plans, people who restrict calories with a low-carbohydrate diet might lose weight. In the case of low-carbohydrate diets, weight loss is helped by the increased feeling of fullness. A very low-carbohydrate diet performs slightly better than a low-fat diet for long-term weight

neg: Protein–carbohydrate interaction CRD. Two types mannose-6-phosphate can recognize phosphorylated saccharide. One is cation-dependent and the other does not require cation to activate. I-type lectin named from the immunoglobulin-like domain. Sialoadhesin is one of the I-type lectin, which binds specifically to sialic acid. Most antibodies have the similar structure except the hypervariable region which is called the antigen binding site. This region is constituted by the combination of various amino acids. When the antigen is a kind of carbohydrate (Polysaccharide), the binding could be regarded as a protein-carbohydrate interaction. Protein–carbohydrate interactions play an important role in biological function. Just like other organic molecule

neg: Insect canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus and crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Digestion starts in buccal cavity (mouth) as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into

neg: Feed manufacturing Dairy cattle need more energy in their feed than other type of cattle. Studies have shown that energy supplied by feed is provided by various carbohydrate sources include non-fiber carbohydrates (NFC) such as fermentable feeds or neutral detergent fiber (NDF) such as forage. Feeds with high NDF is good for rumen health, however provides less energy and vice versa. Fats are added in the livestock feed to increase energy concentration, especially when the NFC content is already too high since excessive NFC lessens the NDF fraction, affecting the rumen digestion. In ruminants, most proteins consumed are breakdown by microorganisms and