query: what are the special names for positive and negative ions

pos: Ion Ion An ion () is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge. Since the charge of the electron (considered "negative" by convention) is equal and opposite to that of the proton (considered "positive" by convention), the net charge of an ion is non-zero due to its total number of electrons being unequal to its total number of protons. A cation is a positively charged ion, with fewer electrons than protons, while an anion is negatively charged, with more electrons than protons. Because of their opposite electric currents, cations and anions attract each other and readily form

pos: Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization be carried out in positive or negative ionization mode. In the positive mode, the relative proton affinities of the reactant ions and the gaseous analyte molecules allow either proton transfer or adduction of reactant gas ions to produce the ions [M+H] of the molecular species. In the negative mode, [M−H] ions are produced by either proton abstraction, or [M+X] ions are produced by anion attachment. Most work on the APCI-MS analysis has been in positive mode. In the positive mode, when the discharge current of corona discharge is 1-5 μA on the nebulized solvent, N gas molecules are excited and

pos: Ion chromatography which is an anion exchanger, and carboxymethyl (CM, -CH-COOH), which is a cation exchanger. These two types of exchangers can maintain the charge density of their columns over a pH range of 5–9. In ion chromatography, the interaction of the solute ions and the stationary phase based on their charges determines which ions will bind and to what degree. When the stationary phase features positive groups which attracts anions, it is called an anion exchanger; when there are negative groups on the stationary phase, cations are attracted and it is a cation exchanger. The attraction between ions and stationary phase

pos: Fehling's solution giving a positive result, but ketones do not react, unless they are alpha-hydroxy-ketones. The bistartratocuprate(II) complex oxidizes the aldehyde to a carboxylate anion, and in the process the copper(II) ions of the complex are reduced to copper(I) ions. Red copper(I) oxide then precipitates out of the reaction mixture, which indicates a positive result i.e. that redox has taken place (this is the same positive result as with Benedict's solution). A negative result is the absence of the red precipitate; it is important to note that Fehling's will not work with aromatic aldehydes; in this case Tollens' reagent should be used.

pos: Ate complex in 1958. The term is usually reserved for the complexes of metals in groups 2, 11 and 12. Ate complexes are the counterparts to onium compounds. Lewis acids form -ate ions when the central atom gains one more bond and becomes a negative anion. Lewis bases form onium ions when the central atom gains one more bond and becomes a positive cation. Ate complex An ate complex in chemistry is a salt formed by the reaction of a Lewis acid with a Lewis base whereby the central atom (from the Lewis acid) increases its valence and gains a negative formal

pos: Non-covalent interactions largely independent of the nature of the participating ions, except for transition metal ions etc. These interactions can also be seen in molecules with a localized charge on a particular atom. For example, the full negative charge associated with ethoxide, the conjugate base of ethanol, is most commonly accompanied by the positive charge of an alkali metal salt such as the sodium cation (Na). A hydrogen bond (H-bond), is a specific type of interaction that involves dipole-dipole attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative, partially negative oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or fluorine atom (not covalently bound to

pos: Aluminium-ion battery Aluminium-ion battery Aluminium-ion batteries are a class of rechargeable battery in which aluminium ions provide energy by flowing from the negative electrode of the battery, the cathode, to the positive electrode, the anode. When recharging, aluminium ions return to the anode, and it can exchange three redox electrons per cation. This means that insertion of one is equivalent to three ions in conventional intercalation cathodes. Thus, since the ionic radii of (0.54 A) and (0.76 A) are similar, significantly higher models of electrons and ions can be accepted by the cathodes without much pulverization . The trivalent charge carrier, is

pos: Boranylium ions Boranylium ions A boranylium ion is an inorganic cation with the chemical formula , where R represents a non-specific substituent. Being electron deficient, boranylium ions form adducts with Lewis bases. Boranylium ions have historical names that depend on the number of coordinated ligands: Borenium ions are of some interest to academic research. The first borenium ion was observed in 1970 by Ryschkewitsch & Wiggins. They found that aluminum chloride dissolved in methylene chloride in the presence of the adduct 4-picoline.BCl. A positive charge on boron was then inferred from proton NMR spectroscopy. Borinium ions have the formula [BX], where X

neg: Ion "up", is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged). A (+) (), from the Greek word κάτω ("káto"), meaning "down", is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, giving it a positive charge. There are additional names used for ions with multiple charges. For example, an ion with a −2 charge is known as a dianion and an ion with a +2 charge is known as a dication. A zwitterion is a neutral molecule with positive and negative charges at different locations within that

neg: Water purification Ca and Mg ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) Na or K ions. Ion exchange resins are also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others. Precipitative softening: Water rich in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with lime (calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilizing the common-ion effect. Electrodeionization: Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive

neg: Membrane potential ions. Likewise, there is a net negative charge in solution A from the greater concentration of negative chloride ions than positive sodium ions. Since opposite charges attract and like charges repel, the ions are now also influenced by electrical fields as well as forces of diffusion. Therefore, positive sodium ions will be less likely to travel to the now-more-positive B solution and remain in the now-more-negative A solution. The point at which the forces of the electric fields completely counteract the force due to diffusion is called the equilibrium potential. At this point, the net flow of the specific ion

neg: Ionocraft of motion. Thrust will be produced regardless of whether the ions are positive or negative. For positive corona polarity, nitrogen ions are the main charge carriers, whilst for negative polarity, oxygen ions will be the main carriers and ozone production will be higher. The slight difference in their ion mobility, results in slightly higher thrust for the positive corona polarity case. Use of conductive aquadag paint (eg carbon) has been explored but invariably it deteriorates in use unless supplemented by conductive foil underneath. The problem appears to be sputtering and further research is underway to determine if this can be

neg: Electric current example, the electric currents in electrolytes are flows of positively and negatively charged ions. In a common lead-acid electrochemical cell, electric currents are composed of positive hydrogen ions (protons) flowing in one direction, and negative sulfate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in sparks or plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions. In a metal, some of the outer electrons in each atom are not bound to the individual atom as they are in insulating materials, but are

neg: Ionic bonding −756 kJ/mol, which compares to −787 kJ/mol using the Born–Haber cycle. Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical; however, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans' rules. This polarization of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two nuclei, that is, to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually important only when positive ions with charges of 3+ (e.g., Al) are involved. However, 2+ ions (Be) or

neg: Air ioniser Air ioniser An air ioniser (or negative ion generator or Chizhevsky's chandelier) is a device that uses high voltage to ionise (electrically charge) air molecules. Negative ions, or anions, are particles with one or more extra electron, conferring a net negative charge to the particle. Cations are positive ions missing one or more electrons, resulting in a net positive charge. Some commercial air purifiers are designed to generate negative ions. Another type of air ioniser is the electrostatic discharge (ESD) ioniser (balanced ion generator) used to neutralise static charge. In 2002, in an obituary in "The Independent" newspaper, Cecil Alfred

neg: Cytosol cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions. This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside. Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential. To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions

neg: Anode ray massive as an electron. They were protons. The process by which anode rays are formed in a gas-discharge anode ray tube is as follows. When the high voltage is applied to the tube, its electric field accelerates the small number of ions (electrically charged atoms) always present in the gas, created by natural processes such as radioactivity. These collide with atoms of the gas, knocking electrons off of them and creating more positive ions. These ions and electrons in turn strike more atoms, creating more positive ions in a chain reaction. The positive ions are all attracted to the negative

neg: Lithium-ion battery 2006 for LiCoO cells, usually designated with a "LiR" prefix. The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the negative and positive electrodes and the electrolyte providing a conductive medium for lithium ions to move between the electrodes. Electrical energy flows out from or in to the battery when electrons flow through an external circuit during discharge or charge, respectively. Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with a process called "insertion" ("intercalation") or "extraction" ("deintercalation"), respectively. During discharge, the (positive) lithium ions move from the negative electrode (anode) (usually graphite

neg: Electrostatic precipitator so great that corona discharges begin to appear in the gas that is trapped within the dust layer. The dust layer breaks down electrically, producing small holes or craters from which back corona discharges occur. Positive gas ions are generated within the dust layer and are accelerated toward the "negatively charged" discharge electrode. The positive ions reduce some of the negative charges on the dust layer and neutralize some of the negative ions on the "charged particles" heading toward the collection electrode. Disruptions of the normal corona process greatly reduce the ESP's collection efficiency, which in severe cases, may fall

neg: Ionic atmosphere Ionic atmosphere Ionic Atmosphere is a concept employed in Debye-Hückel theory which explains the conductivity behaviour of solutions. It can be generally defined as the area at which a charged entity is capable of attracting an entity of the opposite charge. If an electrical potential is applied to an electrolytic solution, a positive ion will move towards the negative electrode and drag along an entourage of negative ions with it. The more concentrated the solution, the closer these negative ions are to the positive ion and thus the greater the resistance experienced by the positive ion. This influence on the

neg: Ionic atmosphere Ionic atmosphere Ionic Atmosphere is a concept employed in Debye-Hückel theory which explains the conductivity behaviour of solutions. It can be generally defined as the area at which a charged entity is capable of attracting an entity of the opposite charge. If an electrical potential is applied to an electrolytic solution, a positive ion will move towards the negative electrode and drag along an entourage of negative ions with it. The more concentrated the solution, the closer these negative ions are to the positive ion and thus the greater the resistance experienced by the positive ion. This influence on the

neg: Radiocarbon dating standard activity is measured, to provide a baseline for comparison. AMS counts the atoms of and in a given sample, determining the / ratio directly. The sample, often in the form of graphite, is made to emit C ions (carbon atoms with a single negative charge), which are injected into an accelerator. The ions are accelerated and passed through a stripper, which removes several electrons so that the ions emerge with a positive charge. The ions, which may have from 1 to 4 positive charges (C to C), depending on the accelerator design, are then passed through a magnet that

neg: Aerosol mass spectrometry of the ion extraction region. Once ionized, the positive ions are accelerated towards the positive ToF section and the negative ions are accelerated towards the negative ToF section where they are detected. Aerosol science and measurements field, especially aerosol mass spectrometry has grown a lot over the last couple decades. Its growth is partly due to the instruments versatility, it has the ability to analyze a particles size and chemical composition, and perform bulk and single-particle measurements. The versatility of aerosol mass spectrometers allow for them to be used for many different applications in both the lab and field. Over

neg: Supercapacitor separated by an ion-permeable membrane (separator), and an electrolyte ionically connecting both electrodes. When the electrodes are polarized by an applied voltage, ions in the electrolyte form electric double layers of opposite polarity to the electrode's polarity. For example, positively polarized electrodes will have a layer of negative ions at the electrode/electrolyte interface along with a charge-balancing layer of positive ions adsorbing onto the negative layer. The opposite is true for the negatively polarized electrode. Additionally, depending on electrode material and surface shape, some ions may permeate the double layer becoming specifically adsorbed ions and contribute with pseudocapacitance to the

neg: Alkalide theoretically able to break most covalent bonds including the C–O bonds in a typical cryptand. The introduction of a special cryptand ligand containing amines instead of ether linkages has allowed the isolation of kalides and natrides that are stable at room temperature. Several alkalides have been synthesized: Alkalide An alkalide is a chemical compound in which alkali metal atoms are anions (negative ions) with a charge or oxidation state of –1. Until the first discovery of alkalides in the 1970s, alkali metals were only known to appear in salts only as cations (positive ions) with a charge or oxidation state

neg: Electrolysis towards the electron-providing (negative) cathode. Negatively charged ions (anions) move towards the electron-extracting (positive) anode. In this process electrons are either absorbed or released. Neutral atoms gain or lose electrons and become charged ions that then pass into the electrolyte. The formation of uncharged atoms from ions is called discharging. When an ion gains or loses enough electrons to become uncharged (neutral) atoms, the newly formed atoms separate from the electrolyte. Positive metal ions like Cudeposit onto the cathode in a layer. The terms for this are electroplating, electrowinning, and electrorefining. When an ion gains or loses electrons without becoming

neg: Corona discharge produce ozone are relatively low-energy. Therefore, the greater number of electrons of a negative corona leads to an increased production. Beyond the plasma, in the "unipolar region", the flow is of low-energy positive ions toward the flat electrode. As with a negative corona, a positive corona is initiated by an exogenous ionisation event in a region of high potential gradient. The electrons resulting from the ionisation are attracted "toward" the curved electrode, and the positive ions repelled from it. By undergoing inelastic collisions closer and closer to the curved electrode, further molecules are ionized in an electron avalanche. In a

neg: Hydraulic analogy the energy flows as fields in the space surrounding the wires, and does not flow inside the metal. Also, an accelerating electron will drag its neighbors along while attracting them, both because of magnetic forces. Charge: Unlike water, movable charge carriers can be positive or negative, and conductors can exhibit an overall positive or negative net charge. The mobile carriers in electric currents are usually electrons, but sometimes they are charged positively, such as the positive ions in an electrolyte, the H ions in proton conductors or holes in p-type semiconductors and some (very rare) conductors. Leaking pipes: The electric

neg: Ambient ionization of ionization besides proton transfer, leading to a broader range of suitable analytes. Nevertheless, these ionization mechanisms may also lead to the formation of adducts and oxidation of the original analyte compounds. Although most applications focus on the detection of positive ions, measurements in the negative mode are for most of the plasma-based ion sources also possible. In this case, reagent ions, such as O, can deprotonate the analyte molecules to give [M–H] quasimolecular ions, or form adducts with species such as NO, yielding [M+NO] ions. Measurements in the negative ion mode are especially favorable when the analyte molecules exhibit

neg: Solubility deposits and precious or semi-precious gems. In the same way, compounds with low solubility will dissolve over extended time (geological time), resulting in significant effects such as extensive cave systems or Karstic land surfaces. Some ionic compounds (salts) dissolve in water, which arises because of the attraction between positive and negative charges (see: solvation). For example, the salt's positive ions (e.g. Ag) attract the partially negative oxygens in HO. Likewise, the salt's negative ions (e.g. Cl) attract the partially positive hydrogens in HO. Note: oxygen is partially negative because it is more electronegative than hydrogen, and vice versa (see: chemical

neg: Crookes tube present in the gas, created by natural processes like photoionization and radioactivity. The electrons collide with other gas molecules, knocking electrons off them and creating more positive ions. The electrons go on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction called a Townsend discharge. All the positive ions are attracted to the cathode or negative electrode. When they strike it, they knock large numbers of electrons out of the surface of the metal, which in turn are repelled by the cathode and attracted to the anode or positive electrode. These are the cathode rays. Enough of the air

neg: Electron capture detector the anode and cathode. The answer is recombination of negative ions or electrons with the positive ions of the makeup gas before these charged entities can be collected at anode and cathode respectively. Negative and positive ions recombine much more rapidly than electrons and positive ions; it is this more rapid neutralization that is the origin of the observed decrease in current. Examination of the rate balance equation with all charge production and loss mechanisms considered reveals that the current collected when the electron capture detector is saturated with analyte is not zero: it is half the current collected when

neg: Reflectron at a positive potential with respect to two outer electrodes) causing the ion beam to diverge when entering the reflectron. A positive (decelerating) lens affects the ion flight times as well as the spread of ion flight times (on-axis "vs." off-axis ions) more strongly than a negative (accelerating) lens does under similar focusing conditions because in positive Einzel lens the ions are moving along the extended (i.e., more lengthy) off-axis trajectories at lower ion energies. To minimize the positive lens effect produced by the gridless reflectron, one must add a negative Einzel lens near the reflectron exit, which conducts the

neg: Plasma recombination Plasma recombination Plasma recombination is a process by which positive ions of a plasma capture a free (energetic) electron and combine with electrons or negative ions to form new neutral atoms (gas). Recombination is an exothermic reaction, meaning heat releasing. Recombination usually takes place in the whole volume of a plasma (volume recombination), although in some cases it is confined to some special region of it. Each kind of reaction is called a recombining mode and their individual rates are strongly affected by the properties of the plasma such as its energy (heat), density of each species, pressure and temperature

neg: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry as little as 1% of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma (i.e., response to magnetic fields and high electrical conductivity). The plasmas used in spectrochemical analysis are essentially electrically neutral, with each positive charge on an ion balanced by a free electron. In these plasmas the positive ions are almost all singly charged and there are few negative ions, so there are nearly equal amounts of ions and electrons in each unit volume of plasma. An inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for spectrometry is sustained in a torch that consists of three concentric tubes, usually made

neg: Plasma recombination present time, it is believed that the most likely plasma losses observed in the recombining region are due to two different modes: electron ion recombination (EIR) and molecular activated recombination (MAR). Plasma recombination Plasma recombination is a process by which positive ions of a plasma capture a free (energetic) electron and combine with electrons or negative ions to form new neutral atoms (gas). Recombination is an exothermic reaction, meaning heat releasing. Recombination usually takes place in the whole volume of a plasma (volume recombination), although in some cases it is confined to some special region of it. Each kind of

neg: Corona discharge often added to insulators of high voltage transmission lines. Coronas may be "positive" or "negative". This is determined by the polarity of the voltage on the highly curved electrode. If the curved electrode is positive with respect to the flat electrode, it has a "positive corona", if it is negative, it has a "negative corona". (See below for more details.) The physics of positive and negative coronas are strikingly different. This asymmetry is a result of the great difference in mass between electrons and positively charged ions, with only the electron having the ability to undergo a significant degree of

neg: Solution polar and sustains hydrogen bonds. Salts dissolve in polar solvents, forming positive and negative ions that are attracted to the negative and positive ends of the solvent molecule, respectively. If the solvent is water, hydration occurs when the charged solute ions become surrounded by water molecules. A standard example is aqueous saltwater. Such solutions are called electrolytes. Whenever salt dissolves in water ion association has to be taken into account. Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, forming polar bonds or hydrogen bonds. As an example, all alcoholic beverages are aqueous solutions of ethanol. On the other hand, non-polar solutes dissolve

neg: Electron avalanche electron will be accelerated in the opposite direction. Because of the huge mass difference, electrons are accelerated to a much higher velocity than ions. High-velocity electrons often collide with neutral atoms inelastically, sometimes ionizing them. In a chain-reaction — or an 'electron avalanche' — additional electrons recently separated from their positive ions by the strong potential gradient, cause a large cloud of electrons and positive ions to be momentarily generated by just a single initial electron. However, free electrons are easily "captured" by neutral oxygen or water vapor molecules (so-called electronegative gases), forming negative ions. In air at STP, free

neg: Action potential the muscle to contract. Muscle action potentials are provoked by the arrival of a pre-synaptic neuronal action potential at the neuromuscular junction, which is a common target for neurotoxins. Plant and fungal cells are also electrically excitable. The fundamental difference from animal action potentials is that the depolarization in plant cells is not accomplished by an uptake of positive sodium ions, but by release of negative "chloride" ions. Together with the following release of positive potassium ions, which is common to plant and animal action potentials, the action potential in plants infers, therefore, an osmotic loss of salt (KCl), whereas

neg: Negative base store the information normally contained by a negative sign often results in a negative-base number being one digit longer than its positive-base equivalent. The common names for negative-base positional numeral systems are formed by prefixing "nega-" to the name of the corresponding positive-base system; for example, negadecimal (base −10) corresponds to decimal (base 10), negabinary (base −2) to binary (base 2), and negaternary (base −3) to ternary (base 3). Consider what is meant by the representation in the negadecimal system, whose base is −10: Since 10,000 + (−2,000) + 200 + (−40) + 3 = , the representation in negadecimal

neg: Surface charge number of ions of given charge attached to its surface, and to an equal number of ions of opposite charge in the solution." A positive surface charge will form a double layer, since negative ions in solution tend to balance the positive surface charge. Counter ions are not rigidly held, but tend to diffuse into the liquid phase until the counter potential set up by their departure restricts this tendency. The kinetic energy of the counter ions will, in part, affect the thickness of the resulting diffuse double layer. The relation between C, the counter ion concentration at the surface,

neg: Corona discharge region, the new secondary electrons travelling inward, whereas in a negative corona they are generated by the curved electrode itself, the new secondary electrons travelling outward. A further feature of the structure of negative coronas is that as the electrons drift outwards, they encounter neutral molecules and, with electronegative molecules (such as oxygen and water vapor), combine to produce negative ions. These negative ions are then attracted to the positive uncurved electrode, completing the 'circuit'. Ionized gases produced in a corona discharge are accelerated by the electric field, producing a movement of gas or "electrical wind". The air movement associated

neg: Microplasma as an example, there are positive and negative cycles in each period. When the positive cycle occurs, electrons accumulate on the dielectric surface. On the other hand, the negative cycle would repel the accumulated electrons, causing collisions in the gas and creating plasma. During the switch from the negative to positive cycles, the above-mentioned frequency range of 1000 Hz-50,000 Hz is needed in order for a microplasma to be generated. Because of the small mass of the electrons, they are able to absorb the sudden switch in energy and become excited; the larger particles (atoms, molecules, and ions), however aren't

neg: Dielectric bend, and this distortion polarization disappears above the infrared. Ionic polarization is polarization caused by relative displacements between positive and negative ions in ionic crystals (for example, NaCl). If a crystal or molecule consists of atoms of more than one kind, the distribution of charges around an atom in the crystal or molecule leans to positive or negative. As a result, when lattice vibrations or molecular vibrations induce relative displacements of the atoms, the centers of positive and negative charges are also displaced. The locations of these centers are affected by the symmetry of the displacements. When the centers don't

neg: Anode a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. It also accelerates the flow of these electrons. In a semiconductor diode, the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies "holes" to the junction. In the junction region, the holes supplied by the anode combine with electrons supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies holes to the depleted region, negative dopant ions are left behind in the P-doped layer ('P' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base negative charge on the

neg: Coppy Laws is also the chairman of the Hygiene Council. The results were just as encouraging. However this time the scientists were using the Japanese manufacturer Sharp's Plasmacluster Ion Technology. . This technology incorporates ion generators which output both negative and positive ions. Coppy Laws' ideas about the therapeutic effects of negative ions seem to have been lost in these experiments especially as the new machines generate both negative and positive ions. Coppy Laws Cecil Alfred 'Coppy' Laws (also C A 'Coppy' Laws and C A Laws) (21 November 1916 – 28 May 2002) was a British electronic engineer and radar engineer

neg: Polywell branch of fusion research is known as inertial electrostatic confinement. The polywell was developed by physicist Robert Bussard, as an improvement over the fusor. His company, EMC2, Inc., developed prototypical devices for the U.S. Navy. A Farnsworth-Hirsch fusor consists of two wire cages, one inside the other, often referred to as grids, that are placed inside a vacuum chamber. The outer cage has a positive voltage versus the inner cage. Typically, deuterium gas is injected into this chamber. It is heated past its ionization temperature, making positive ions. The ions are positive and move towards the negative inner cage. Those

neg: Gridded ion thruster of the beam plasma outside the thruster from streaming back to the discharge plasma. This can fail due to insufficient negative potential in the grid, which is a common ending for ion thrusters' operational life. The expelled ions propel the spacecraft in the opposite direction, according to Newton's 3rd law. Lower-energy electrons are emitted from a separate cathode, called the neutralizer, into the ion beam to ensure that equal amounts of positive and negative charge are ejected. Neutralizing is needed to prevent the spacecraft from gaining a net negative charge, which would attract ions back toward the spacecraft and cancel

neg: Accelerator mass spectrometry charged ion is accelerated away from the highly positive centre of the electrostatic accelerator which previously attracted the negative ion. When the ions leave the accelerator they are positively charged and are moving at several percent of the speed of light. In a second stage of mass spectrometer, the fragments from the molecules are separated from the ions of interest. This spectrometer may consist of magnetic or electric sectors, and so-called velocity selectors, which utilizes both electric fields and magnetic fields. After this stage, no background is left, unless a stable (atomic) isobar forming negative ions exists (e.g. S if

neg: Amino acid of net negative and net positive ions. At the exact midpoint between the two pKa values, the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions exactly balance, so that average net charge of all forms present is zero. This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI, so pI = ½(pKa + pKa). The individual amino acids all have slightly different pKa values, so have different isoelectric points. For amino acids with charged side chains, the pKa of the side chain is involved. Thus for Asp, Glu with negative side chains, pI = ½(pKa + pKa), where

neg: Electric charge been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge. During formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions usually combine to form structures composed of neutral "ionic compounds" electrically bound to neutral atoms. Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral. Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements, can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give

neg: Radical ion Radical ion A radical ion is a free radical species that carries a charge. Radical ions are encountered in organic chemistry as reactive intermediates and in mass spectrometry as gas phase ions. Positive radical ions are called radical cations whereas negative radical ions are called radical anions. In organic chemistry, a radical ion is typically indicated by a superscript dot followed by the sign of the charge: formula_1 and formula_2. In mass spectrometry, the sign is written first, followed by the superscripted dot: formula_3 and formula_4. Many aromatic compounds can undergo one-electron reduction by alkali metals. For example, the reaction

neg: Chemical bond other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The "bond" then results from electrostatic attraction between atoms and the atoms become positive or negatively charged ions. Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range and

neg: Hauyne 3+. If all the cations (positive ions) are Si then the positive charges on the Si's exactly balance the negative charges on the O's. When Al replaces Si there is a deficiency of positive charge, and this is made up by extra positively charged ions (cations) entering the structure, somewhere in between the tetrahedra. In haüyne these extra cations are sodium Na and calcium Ca, and in addition the negatively charged sulfate group (SO) is also present. In the haüyne structure the tetrahedra are linked to form six-membered rings which are stacked up in an ..ABCABC.. sequence along one direction,

neg: Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance produce electrodes in the shape of a ring. The central ring electrode is commonly used for applying radial excitation electric field and detection. DC electric voltage is applied on the terminal ring electrodes to trap ions along the magnetic field lines. Open cylindrical cells with ring electrodes of different diameters have also been designed. They proved not only capable in trapping and detecting both ion polarities simultaneously, but also they succeeded to separate positive from negative ions radially. This presented a large discrimination in kinetic ion acceleration between positive and negative ions trapped simultaneously inside the new cell. Several ion

neg: Electrodeionization to in abbreviated jargon as lytes. Water is passed between an anode (positive electrode) and a cathode (negative electrode). Ion-selective membranes allow the positive ions to separate from the water toward the negative electrode and the negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized water results. RW-EDI is a process that targets the desalination of impaired water or water with salt levels of 1,000 - 10,000 ppm. RW-EDI process uses a porous ion exchange resin wafer with 195 cm2 cross-section surface area. Water is fed through the wafer, while an electric current is applied to setup. In between resin

neg: Lithium-ion battery During discharge, lithium ions () carry the current within the battery from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm. During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-voltage (a higher voltage than the battery produces, of the same polarity), forcing a charging current to flow within the battery from the positive to the negative electrode, i.e. in the reverse direction of a discharge current under normal conditions. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a

neg: Excitatory postsynaptic potential Excitatory postsynaptic potential In neuroscience, an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a postsynaptic potential that makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire an action potential. This temporary depolarization of postsynaptic membrane potential, caused by the flow of positively charged ions into the postsynaptic cell, is a result of opening ligand-gated ion channels. These are the opposite of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), which usually result from the flow of "negative" ions into the cell or positive ions "out" of the cell. EPSPs can also result from a decrease in outgoing positive charges, while IPSPs are sometimes caused by an increase

neg: Ionic compound surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases. There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to

neg: Negative sign (astrology) groups based upon one's exact time and place of birth. The negative and positive signs alternate, starting with Aries as positive and Taurus as negative and continuing this pattern through the list of zodiac signs. The signs negative and positive are referred to as a negative-sunsign or a positive-sunsign. There are many terms used in astrology to differentiate the two groups. In Chinese astrology, the two groups are categorized as yin and yang, corresponding respectively to negative and positive. Standen explains that different astrologers may refer to signs by different names. For example, an astrologer may refer to positive signs

neg: Mineral absorption Plants absorb minerals in ionic form: nitrate (NO), phosphate (HPO) and potassium ions (K); all have difficulty crossing a charged plasma membrane. It has long been known plants expend energy to actively take up and concentrate mineral ions. Proton pump hydrolyzes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to transport H ions out of cell; this sets up an electrochemical gradient that causes positive ions to flow into cells. Negative ions are carried across the plasma membrane in conjunction with H ions as H ions diffuse down their concentration gradient. Mineral absorption In plants and animals, mineral absorption, also called mineral uptake is the

neg: Radical ion polypyrrole is prepared by oxidation of pyrrole using ferric chloride in methanol: Once formed, these polymers become conductive upon oxidation. Polarons and bipolarons are radical cations encountered in doped conducting polymers. Radical ion A radical ion is a free radical species that carries a charge. Radical ions are encountered in organic chemistry as reactive intermediates and in mass spectrometry as gas phase ions. Positive radical ions are called radical cations whereas negative radical ions are called radical anions. In organic chemistry, a radical ion is typically indicated by a superscript dot followed by the sign of the charge: formula_1 and

neg: Electron capture ionization will extend the lifetime of the metastable ions (10 seconds). The methane will cool the electrons during the collisions. The addition of methane will enhance the ability to form negative ions under high pressure because it will adjust the thermal energy to be similar to the energy distribution of the ions. Methane is the most common gas used because it can produce many positive ions when it collides with electrons. These positive ions will then form low energy electrons used for ionization: An ECD is used in some gas chromatography systems. EC-MS (Electron-capture mass spectrometry) has been used for identifying

neg: Ion source positive or negative ions. Duoplasmatrons are used for secondary ion mass spectrometry., ion beam etching, and high-energy physics. In a flowing afterglow, ions are formed in a flow of inert gas, typically helium or argon. Reagents are added downstream to create ion products and study reaction rates. Flowing-afterglow mass spectrometry is used for trace gas analysis for organic compounds. Electric spark ionization is used to produce gas phase ions from a solid sample. When incorporated with a mass spectrometer the complete instrument is referred to as a spark ionization mass spectrometer or as a spark source mass spectrometer (SSMS). A

neg: Electric current over a time "t". If "Q" and "t" are measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, "I" is in amperes. More generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flows through a given surface as: Electric currents in electrolytes are flows of electrically charged particles (ions). For example, if an electric field is placed across a solution of Na and Cl (and conditions are right) the sodium ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode), while the chloride ions move towards the positive electrode (anode). Reactions take place at both electrode surfaces, neutralizing each ion. Water-ice and certain

neg: Hydrogen ion cluster with only 2% concentration of ions. However they could not contain the H in a stable way, but determined that other negative ions would do as well. This theoretical impulse exceeds that of solid and liquid fuel rockets. SRI developed a cluster ion gun that could make positive and negative ion clusters at a current of 500 pA. Nuclear fusion using ion clusters can impact far more atoms than single ions in one hit. This concept is called cluster ion fusion (CIF). Lithium deuteride (LiD) is a potential starter material for generating the ions. Hydrogen ion cluster A hydrogen molecular

neg: Cardiac action potential rapidly travel across the membrane. Ion channels can be selective for specific ions, so there are Na, K, Ca, and Cl specific channels. They can also be specific for a certain charge of ions (i.e. positive or negative). Each channel is coded by a set of DNA instructions that tell the cell how to make it. These instructions are known as a gene. Figure 3 shows the important ion channels involved in the cardiac action potential, the current (ions) that flows through the channels, their main protein subunits (building blocks of the channel), some of their controlling genes that code

neg: Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry pumped through a capillary and there is also nebulization at the tip, where a corona discharge takes place. First, the ionizing gas surrounding the interface and the mobile phase solvent are subject to chemical ionization at the ion source. Later, these ions react with the analyte and transfer their charge. The sample ions then pass through small orifice skimmers by means of or ion-focusing lenses. Once inside the high vacuum region, the ions are subject to mass analysis. This interface can be operated in positive and negative charge modes and singly-charged ions are mainly produced. APCI ion source can also

neg: Ionospheric dynamo region electric currents are generated by the varying magnetospheric electric convection field. These are the DP1-currents (the auroral electrojets) and the polar DP2-currents. Radioactive material from the ground and galactic cosmic rays ionize a small fraction of the atmospheric gas within the lower and middle atmosphere and make the gas electrically conducting. Electrons quickly attach to neutral particles forming negative ions. The positive ions are mostly singly charged. The electric conductivity depends on the mobility of the ions . That mobility is proportional to the reciprocal air density. Thus, the electric conductivity increases almost exponentially with altitude. The ions move with

neg: Solubility pump (HCO) and carbonate (CO), and they interact with water as follows : The balance of these carbonate species (which ultimately affects the solubility of carbon dioxide), is dependent on factors such as pH, as shown in a Bjerrum plot. In seawater this is regulated by the charge balance of a number of positive (e.g. Na, K, Mg, Ca) and negative (e.g. CO itself, Cl, SO, Br) ions. Normally, the balance of these species leaves a net positive charge. With respect to the carbonate system, this excess positive charge shifts the balance of carbonate species towards negative ions to compensate. The

neg: Rigid-band model will now have a valence of 1.1. Most lattice sites however are still occupied by silver atoms and consequently the changes in electronic structure are minimal. In a pure metal of valence Z, all atoms become positive ions with the valence +Z by releasing the outermost Z electrons per atom to form the valence band. As a result, conduction electrons carrying negative charges are uniformly distributed over any atomic site with equal probability densities and maintain charge neutrality with the array of ions with positive charges. When an impurity atom of valence Z is introduced, the periodic potential is disturbed,

neg: Inertial electrostatic confinement being the most common). The voltage between the grids causes the fuel to ionize. The positive ions fall down the voltage drop towards the negative inner cage. As they accelerate, the electric field does work on the ions, heating them to fusion conditions. If these ions collide, they can fuse. Fusors can also use ion guns rather than electric grids. Fusors are popular with amateurs, because they can be easy to construct, can regularly produce fusion and are a practical way to study nuclear physics. Fusors have also been used as a commercial neutron generator for industrial applications. No fusor

neg: Polywell Polywell The polywell is a type of nuclear fusion reactor that uses an electric field to heat ions to fusion conditions. It is closely related to the fusor, the high beta fusion reactor, the magnetic mirror, and the biconic cusp. A set of electromagnets generates a magnetic field that traps electrons. This creates a negative voltage, which attracts positive ions. As the ions accelerate towards the negative center, their kinetic energy rises. Ions that collide at high enough energies can fuse. The polywell is one of many devices that use an electric field to heat ions to fusion conditions. This

neg: Neutral beam injection passes through the plasma, the atoms are ionized. This happens because the beam bounces off ions already in the plasma . At present, all main fusion experiments use NBIs. Traditional positive ion based injectors (P-NBI) are installed for instance in JET and in ASDEX-U. To allow power deposition in the center of the burning plasma in larger devices, a higher neutral beam energy is required. High energy (>100keV) systems require the use of negative ion technology (N-NBI). Because the magnetic field inside the torus is circular, these fast ions are confined to the background plasma. The confined fast ions mentioned

neg: Science of Logic that it excludes; it is "based" on this exclusion and thus contains what it excludes it within itself. Ditto the Negative. This inclusion of what is excluded is what constitutes the Positive and the Negative as what they are. This is "Contradiction". (In the Negative, this self- contradiction is explicit, but it is no less the nature of the Positive.) So, similar to Becoming above, the Positive and the Negative immediately transition the one into the other: the Positive "includes" the Negative which immediately "excludes" the Positive; the resulting Negative however also "includes" the Positive which in turn "excludes" the

neg: Alexander Chizhevsky and studied at the Medical Department of Moscow University while working at the Lazarev Biophysical Research Institute. Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Svante Arrhenius invited Chizhevsky to work for him. At a home laboratory Chizhevsky performed research on the influence of ionized air on animals, establishing the physiological action of negative and positive ions in the air on living organisms. (Negative ions making them more excitable and positive making them more lethargic.) He went on to work in the Duorv Zoo-Psychology Laboratory as a senior scientist and professor. During this time he compiled statistics on biospheric processes and their connection

neg: Static secondary-ion mass spectrometry of the solid by a series of binary collisions. This results in ejection (sputtering) of so-called ‘secondary’ particles such as electrons; neutral species, atoms, and molecules; atomic and cluster ions from the surface. In SIMS it is these secondary ions which are detected and analyzed by a mass spectrometer to produce a mass spectrum of a surface for a detailed chemical analysis of the surface or the solid. Secondary ion current: I = Ifi CSη (± refers to a positive or negative particle) I= Incident ion current (ions/s); f= Fraction of particles sputtered as ions S= Sputtering yield of both

neg: Plasma-activated bonding electrode within the positive half wave of applied voltage, so the negative electrode is charged up to 1000 V (bias voltage). The gap between the electrode and the chuck is filled with plasma gas. The moving electrons of the atmosphere are banging into the plasma gas atoms and hit out electrons. Due to its positive orientation the massive ions, that are not able to follow the HF field, move to the negatively charged electrode, where the wafer is placed. Within those environment the surface activation is based on the striking ions and radicals interacting with the surface of the wafer

neg: Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry electric potential is used to rapidly evaporate the droplets in an atmosphere of dry nitrogen. Later, the ionized analytes are transferred into the high vacuum chamber of the MS as the charged ions flow through a series of small apertures with the aid of focusing voltages. Positively and negatively charged ions can be detected and it is possible to switch between the negative and positive modes of operation. Most ions produced in the ESI interface are multiply charged. The use of 1–3 mm ID microbore columns is recommended for LC-MS systems using electrospray ionization (ESI) interfaces because optimal operation is

neg: Plasma medicine Plasma medicine Plasma medicine is an emerging field that combines plasma physics, life sciences and clinical medicine. It is being studied in disinfection, healing, and cancer. Most of the research is in vitro and in animal models. It uses ionized gas (physical plasma) for medical uses or dental applications . Plasma, often called the fourth state of matter, is an ionized gas containing positive ions and negative ions or electrons, but is approximately charge neutral on the whole. The plasma sources used for plasma medicine are generally low temperature plasmas, and they generate ions, chemically reactive atoms and molecules, and

neg: Gas-phase ion chemistry of charge-transfer reactions (also known as charge-permutation reactions): partial-charge transfer charge-stripping reaction and charge-inversion reaction positive to negative and negative to positive Pairwise interactions between alkali metal ions and amino acids, small peptides and nucleobases have been studied theoretically in some detail. Gas-phase ion chemistry Gas phase ion chemistry is a field of science encompassed within both chemistry and physics. It is the science that studies ions and molecules in the gas phase, most often enabled by some form of mass spectrometry. By far the most important applications for this science is in studying the thermodynamics and kinetics of reactions.

neg: Hair cell a special manner. The perilymph in the scala tympani has a very low concentration of positive ions. The electrochemical gradient makes the positive ions flow through channels to the perilymph. Hair cells chronically leak Ca. This leakage causes a tonic release of neurotransmitter to the synapses. It is thought that this tonic release is what allows the hair cells to respond so quickly in response to mechanical stimuli. The quickness of the hair cell response may also be due to the fact that it can increase the amount of neurotransmitter release in response to a change as little as 100

neg: Thermonuclear fusion a plane diaphragm was driven by the implosion wave into a secondary small spherical cavity that contained pure deuterium gas at one atmosphere. There are also electrostatic confinement fusion devices. These devices confine ions using electrostatic fields. The best known is the Fusor. This device has a cathode inside an anode wire cage. Positive ions fly towards the negative inner cage, and are heated by the electric field in the process. If they miss the inner cage they can collide and fuse. Ions typically hit the cathode, however, creating prohibitory high conduction losses. Also, fusion rates in fusors are very

neg: Glow discharge be more monochromatic. Electrons near the cathode are less energetic than the rest of the tube. Surrounding the cathode is a negative field, which slows electrons as they are ejected from the surface. Only those electrons with the highest velocity are able to escape this field, and those without enough kinetic energy are pulled back into the cathode. Once outside the negative field, the attraction from the positive field begins to accelerate these electrons toward the anode. During this acceleration electrons are deflected and slowed down by positive ions speeding toward the cathode, which, in turn, produces bright blue-white bremsstrahlung

neg: Polywell longer feasible. The polywell was referenced in two novels: "A Green Sun" by Charles Gray and a "To Fly From Folly" by William Flint. Polywell The polywell is a type of nuclear fusion reactor that uses an electric field to heat ions to fusion conditions. It is closely related to the fusor, the high beta fusion reactor, the magnetic mirror, and the biconic cusp. A set of electromagnets generates a magnetic field that traps electrons. This creates a negative voltage, which attracts positive ions. As the ions accelerate towards the negative center, their kinetic energy rises. Ions that collide at

neg: Corona discharge the electron-liberation is a high-energy photon from an atom within the plasma body relaxing after excitation from an earlier collision. The use of ionized neutral gas as a source of ionization is further diminished in a negative corona by the high-concentration of positive ions clustering around the curved electrode. Under other conditions, the collision of the positive species with the curved electrode can also cause electron liberation. The difference, then, between positive and negative coronas, in the matter of the generation of secondary electron avalanches, is that in a positive corona they are generated by the gas surrounding the plasma

neg: Chemical bond Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between −3e to +3e. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). A typical feature of ionic bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other ion, in a specific directional bond. Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it, is the same for all surrounding atoms of the same type. It

neg: Charge carrier Charge carrier In physics, a charge carrier is a particle or quasiparticle that is free to move, carrying an electric charge, especially the particles that carry electric charges in electrical conductors. Examples are electrons, ions and holes. In a conducting medium, an electric field can exert force on these free particles, causing a net motion of the particles through the medium; this is what constitutes an electric current. In different conducting media, different particles serve to carry charge: It can be seen that in some conductors, such as ionic solutions and plasmas, there are both positive and negative charge carriers,

neg: Ionic compound ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged Coulomb attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations. There is also a small additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions. When a pair of ions comes close enough for their outer electron shells (most simple ions have closed shells) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs, due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with a minimum energy when the nuclei are separated

neg: Reactive-ion etching platter cause the platter to build up charge due to its DC isolation. This charge build up develops a large negative voltage on the platter, typically around a few hundred volts. The plasma itself develops a slightly positive charge due to the higher concentration of positive ions compared to free electrons. Because of the large voltage difference, the positive ions tend to drift toward the wafer platter, where they collide with the samples to be etched. The ions react chemically with the materials on the surface of the samples, but can also knock off (sputter) some material by transferring some

neg: FLiNaK FLiNak melts, all three components are alkali fluorides and therefore disassociate into positive and negative ions. The concentration of molten fluorine ions are able to corrode any metallic structures if it is energetically favorable. This is in contrast to FLiBe, which in a 66-34 mol% mixture will be a chemically neutral mix, as fluorine ions from LiF are donated to BeF to create the tetrafluoroberyllate ion BeF. FLiNaK FLiNaK is the name of the ternary eutectic alkaline metal fluoride salt mixture LiF-NaF-KF (46.5-11.5-42 mol %). It has a melting point of 454 °C and a boiling point of 1570 °C.

neg: Threshold potential and outside the cell (low). The loss of positive(+) charges of the potassium(K+) ions from the inside of the cell results in a negative potential there compared to the extracellular surface of the membrane. A much smaller "leak" of sodium(Na+) into the cell results in the actual resting potential, about –70 mV, being less negative than the calculated potential for K+ alone, the equilibrium potential, about –90 mV. The sodium-potassium ATPase is an active transporter within the membrane that pumps potassium (2 ions) back into the cell and sodium (3 ions) out of the cell, maintaining the concentrations of both

neg: Kristian Birkeland charged particles in an electric field: "From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, but of both kinds". In other words, the Solar Wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. The first complete map of the statistical location of Birkeland currents in the Earth's polar region was developed in 1974 by A.J. Zmuda and J.C. Armstrong and refined in 1976 by T. Iijima and T.A. Potemra As a scholar with wide interests, Birkeland joined the control commission of NSFPS (= Norwegian Society For Psychic Research). The

neg: Debye sheath Debye sheath The Debye sheath (also electrostatic sheath) is a layer in a plasma which has a greater density of positive ions, and hence an overall excess positive charge, that balances an opposite negative charge on the surface of a material with which it is in contact. The thickness of such a layer is several Debye lengths thick, a value whose size depends on various characteristics of plasma (e.g. temperature, density, etc.). A Debye sheath arises in a plasma because the electrons usually have a temperature on the order of magnitude or greater than that of the ions and are

neg: Depolarization cell has the capacity to undergo depolarization. During depolarization, the membrane potential rapidly shifts from negative to positive. For this rapid change to take place within the interior of the cell, several events must occur along the plasma membrane of the cell. While the sodium–potassium pump continues to work, the voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels that had been closed while the cell was at resting potential are opened in response to an initial change in voltage. As the sodium ions rush back into the cell, they add positive charge to the cell interior, and change the membrane potential from negative

neg: Madelung constant a crystal structure as ions occupy different lattice sites. For example, for the ionic crystal NaCl, there arise two Madelung constants – one for Na and another for Cl. Since both ions, however, occupy lattice sites of the same symmetry they both are of the same magnitude and differ only by sign. The electrical charge of the Na and Cl ion are assumed to be onefold positive and negative, respectively, formula_8 and formula_9. The nearest neighbour distance amounts to half the lattice parameter of the cubic unit cell formula_10 and the Madelung constants become The prime indicates that the term

neg: Image intensifier suffered greatly from fragility during testing and, by 2002, the NVESD revoked the fourth generation designation for filmless tubes, at which time they simply became known as Gen III Filmless. These tubes are still produced for specialist uses, such as aviation and special operations; however, they are not used for weapon-mounted purposes. To overcome the ion-poisoning problems, they improved scrubbing techniques during manufacture of the MCP ( the primary source of positive ions in a wafer tube ) and implemented autogating, discovering that a sufficient period of autogating would cause positive ions to be ejected from the photocathode before they

neg: Nickel–metal hydride battery is converted to heat. This process allows NiMH cells to remain sealed in normal operation and to be maintenance-free. NiMH cells have an alkaline electrolyte, usually potassium hydroxide. The positive electrode is nickel hydroxide, and the negative electrode is hydrogen ions, or protons. The hydrogen ions are stored in a metal-hydride structure that is the electrode. Hydrophilic polyolefin nonwovens are used for separation. Ni/MH batteries of bipolar design (bipolar batteries) are being developed because they offer some advantages for applications as storage systems for electric vehicles. The solid polymer membrane gel separator could be useful for such applications in bipolar

neg: Electrolysis of water positive hydronium ions (HO) to form water. The positive hydronium ions that approach the cathode mostly combine with negative hydroxide ions to form water. Relatively few hydronium/hydroxide ions reach the cathode/anode. This can cause a concentration overpotential at both electrodes. Pure water is a fairly good insulator since it has a low autoionization, K = 1.0×10 at room temperature and thus pure water conducts current poorly, 0.055 µS·cm. Unless a very large potential is applied to cause an increase in the autoionization of water the electrolysis of pure water proceeds very slowly limited by the overall conductivity. If a water-soluble

neg: Half-reaction is the sum of both half-reactions: When chemical reaction, especially, redox reaction takes place, we do not see the electrons as they appear and disappear during the course of the reaction. What we see is the reactants (starting material) and end products. Due to this, electrons appearing on both sides of the equation are canceled. After canceling, the equation is re-written as Two ions, positive (Mg) and negative (O) exist on product side and they combine immediately to form a compound magnesium oxide (MgO) due to their opposite charges (electrostatic attraction). In any given oxidation-reduction reaction, there are two half-reactions