query: socially defined expectations of a person in a given social position are referred to as

pos: Social influence to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. For example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences—with latent social network structures and large-scale observational data—were applied to US presidential elections, stock markets, and civil unrest. Social influence Social influence occurs when a person's emotions, opinions or behaviors are affected by others intentionally or unintentionally. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence. Morton Deutsch

neg: Role theory Role theory Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher). Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviors that a person has to face and fulfill. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way, and that an individual’s behavior is context specific, based on social position and other factors. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory. Although the word role (or roll) has existed

neg: Communication accommodation theory chance of getting the job. The last assumption puts emphasis on social appropriateness and norms. Here, norms are defined as " expectations of behaviors that individuals feel should or should not occur in a conversation". Those expectations give guidance to people's behaviors, helping them to figure out the appropriate way to accommodate. Most of the time, the accommodation made according to those norms are perceived socially appropriate. For instance, when a young person talks to the seniors in the family, he should avoid using jargons among his generation to show respect and to communicate more smoothly. Convergence refers to the

neg: Social determinism Social determinism Social determinism is the theory that social interactions and constructs alone determine individual behavior (as opposed to biological or objective factors). Consider certain human behaviors, such as committing murder, or writing poetry. A social determinist would look only at social phenomena, such as customs and expectations, education, and interpersonal interactions, to decide whether or not a given person would exhibit any of these behaviors. They would discount biological and other non-social factors, such as genetic makeup, the physical environment, etc. Ideas about nature and biology would be considered to be socially constructed. The socially determined actions of an

neg: Social inequality the lives of women and girls are negatively impacted and this can have the effect of limiting social and economic development. Cultural ideals about women's work can also affect men whose outward gender expression is considered "feminine" within a given society. Transgender and gender-variant persons may express their gender through their appearance, the statements they make, or official documents they present. In this context, gender normativity, which is understood as the social expectations placed on us when we present particular bodies, produces widespread cultural/institutional devaluations of trans identities, homosexuality and femininity. Trans persons, in particular, have been defined as socially

neg: Social position they require an individual to wear a uniform or some other kind of identifying mark. Often individual clothes or other attributes will advertise what social position one has at the moment. Non-visible social positions are called "hidden". A position that is deemed the most important to a given individual is called "central", others are "peripheral". If a "sequence of positions" is required to obtain a given position, it can be defined as a career, and a change of position in this context is a promotion or demotion. Some social positions may make it easier for a given person to obtain

neg: Role theory perspective, which can be contrasted with the more micro level approach of the symbolic interactionist tradition. This type of role theory dictates how closely related individuals’ actions are to the society, as well as how empirically testable a particular role theory perspective may be. A key insight of this theory is that role conflict occurs when a person is expected to simultaneously act out multiple roles that carry contradictory expectations. Substantial debate exists in the field over the meaning of the "role" in role theory. A role can be defined as a social position, behavior associated with a social position,

neg: Achieved status Achieved status Achieved status is a concept developed by the anthropologist Ralph Linton denoting a social position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit; it is a position that is earned or chosen. It is the opposite of ascribed status. It reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Examples of achieved status are being an Olympic athlete, being a criminal, or being a college professor. Status is important sociologically because it comes with a set of rights, obligations, behaviors, and duties that people occupying a certain position are expected or encouraged to perform. These expectations are referred to

neg: Cynicism (contemporary) to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions. Modern cynicism is a distrust toward professed ethical and social values, especially when there are high expectations concerning society, institutions, and authorities that are unfulfilled. It can manifest itself as a result of frustration, disillusionment, and distrust perceived as owing to organizations, authorities, and other aspects of society. Modern cynicism has been defined as an attitude of distrust toward claimed ethical and social values and a rejection of the need to be socially involved. It is pessimistic in regards to the capacity of human

neg: Crowds (adolescence) Crowds (adolescence) Crowds are large groups of adolescents defined by their shared image and reputation. Crowd membership is externally imposed and not a direct consequence of interaction with other members of the crowd. For adolescent friendships and social interaction in small groups, see cliques. Crowds are large groups of adolescents socially connected by a shared image and reputation, especially within the setting of a single school. It is possible for a single person to belong to more than one crowd if their image matches the crowds’ criteria. Because membership in a crowd depends on peers’ perceptions, crowds in any given

neg: Personality Assessment System plays a variety of roles, being charming and moving easily in many different situations always making good first impressions. The role uniform person is able to handle only a few social roles at best and is often said to be socially inept. The behavior is most apparent in new social situations, since the role uniform may comfortable and accepted in a very familiar situation. The role adaptive can suffer from making good first impressions and then not understanding the unrealistic expectations others place upon him. Gittinger called this the social dimension. As the environment places demands upon a person to

neg: Role theory with the assessment of others concerning his or her performance in his or her role, or from accepting roles that are beyond an individual's capacity. Role making is defined by Graen as Leader-member exchange. At the same time, a person may have limited power to negotiate away from accepting roles that cause strain, because he or she is constrained by societal norms, or has limited social status from which to bargain. Role theory Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially defined categories (e.g.,

neg: Social organization in Cambodia stage in their lives, they enjoy a position of high status, they help care for grandchildren, and they devote more time in service to the wat (temple). Social organization in Cambodia Social organization in Cambodia is very hierarchical. The greater a person's age, the greater the level of respect that must be granted to them. Everyone in Khmer culture is given a hierarchical title before the name - in some cases names are shortened with the title added before the name is given - which varies in relation to the person. In some cases elders are referred to by a

neg: Relations of production Relations of production Relations of production (German: "Produktionsverhältnisse") is a concept frequently used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their theory of historical materialism and in "Das Kapital". It is first explicitly used in Marx's published book "The Poverty of Philosophy", although Marx and Engels had already defined the term in "The German Ideology". Some social relations are voluntary and freely chosen (a person chooses to associate with another person or a group). But other social relations are involuntary, i.e. people can be socially related, whether they like that or not, because they are part of a family, a

neg: Gender has been assigned at birth. Factors other than learned behaviors play a role in the development of gender. The cultural traits typically coupled to a particular sex finalize the assignment of gender and the biological differences which play a role in classifying either sex as interchangeable with the definition of gender within the social context. In this context, the socially constructed rules are at a cross road with the assignment of a particular gender to a person. Gender ambiguity deals with having the freedom to choose, manipulate and create a personal niche within any defined socially constructed code of conduct

neg: Parvenu social pedigree. The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines a "parvenu" as: "A person from a humble background who has rapidly gained wealth or an influential social position; a nouveau riche; an upstart, a social climber. Also in extended use. Generally used with the implication that the person concerned is unsuited to the new social position, esp. through lacking the necessary manners or accomplishments." The term designates individuals not socially accepted by individuals already established in their new class. It expresses a form of classism. A social climber is someone who seeks social prominence, for example by obsequious behavior. The term is

neg: Interpersonal adaptation theory combination of biological needs (unconsciously presumed or performed) and socially learned behaviors. Expectations are typically based on previously experienced social interactions or social norms. Requirements, such as the need for safety, may be more prominently based on a biological need for survival. In the above example, according to IAT, if the husband responds in a manner which meets his wife's requirements and desires, she will reciprocate and posture to mirror his behavior in the interaction. The theory explains, the reason reciprocity occurs, is because a positive and stable interaction is most preferred. If in the given example, the husband meets

neg: Socially responsible business and their stakeholders. Maintenance starts after the socially responsible practice is adopted, and its purpose is to maintain the relationships and implement various methods to sustain a socially responsible practice in the organization. A socially responsible maintenance framework demonstrates three levels of environment: Institutional environment (societal level), Organizational identity (organizational level), and Champions’ tactics (individual level), analyzing factors such as the characteristics of the business, environments and social expectations. An institutional environment encompasses three types: weak, strong, and heterogeneous. These types explain a different societal level of expectations, concerning the conditions and characteristics a socially responsible business must conform to.

neg: Pet ownership among the homeless by Clinton Sanders, who notes that a close relationship with a companion animal shapes the construction of the owners’ identity, and forms the basis for interaction. The owner and the pet are united in a 'couple' relationship which is socially defined. He notes that people link the animal and the owner and have a set of expectations regarding how they will act. In public animals serve as social facilitators and encourage openness to the point where strangers feel welcome in approaching the human-pet couple. This relationship is supported by Irvine in her description of the "Pack of Two" designation of

neg: Social status Social status Social status is the relative respect, competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society. Some writers have also referred to a socially valued role or category a person occupies as a "status" (e.g., being a criminal or mentally ill). At its core, status is about who members of a society consider to hold more social value. These beliefs about who is more or less valued (e.g., honorable, respectable, smart) are broadly shared among members of a society. As such, people use status hierarchies to decide who gets to "call the shots," who is worthy,

neg: Social inequality are found when specific socially defined categories of people are compared. Among the most pervasive of these variables are sex/gender, race, and ethnicity. This is not to say, in societies wherein merit is considered to be the primary factor determining one's place or rank in the social order, that merit has no effect on variations in income or wealth. It is to say that these other socially defined characteristics can, and often do, intervene in the valuation of merit. Gender as a social inequality is whereby women and men are treated differently due to masculinity and femininity by dividing labor,

neg: Organized crime the counter-culture. This theory has tended to view violent or anti-social behavior by gangs as reflective of their social disorganization rather than as a product or tool of their organization. Sociologist Robert K. Merton believed deviance depended on society’s definition of success, and the desires of individuals to achieve success through socially defined avenues. Criminality becomes attractive when expectations of being able to fulfill goals (therefore achieving success) by legitimate means cannot be fulfilled. Criminal organizations capitalize on states of normlessness by imposing criminogenic needs and illicit avenues to achieve them. This has been used as the basis for numerous

neg: Michael Silverstein what we believe we can do with and in language, and by doing that we shape our language. Thus, language ideologies form the bridge between language patterns and social and cultural structure, as the socially grounded beliefs in what language is and does convert into particular patterns of use that are understandable, precisely because they fit these beliefs and the expectations they generate. The connections between usage and beliefs are empirically identifiable as 'metapragmatics' - the articulation of beliefs about language use in language use (as when we use polite formulae in addressing someone in a superior position). Silverstein's work

neg: Social stratification is socially defined on the basis of biologically determined characteristics that can be observed within a society while ethnicity is defined on the basis of culturally learned behavior. Ethnic identification can include shared cultural heritage such as language and dialect, symbolic systems, religion, mythology and cuisine. As with race, ethnic categories of persons may be socially defined as minority categories whose members are under-represented in positions of social power. As such, ethnic categories of persons can be subject to the same types of majority policies. Whether ethnicity feeds into a stratification system as a direct, causal factor or as an

neg: Fan (person) are frequently portrayed as "angry nerds", over-aggressive, derogatory, and protective of the object of their obsession, or as bespectacled, geekoid, obsessive male fans. The term nerd, defined as "[an] insignificant, foolish, or socially inept person; a person who is boringly conventional or studious; a person who pursues an unfashionable or highly technical interest with obsessive or exclusive dedication," as well as the term geek, defined as "[a] person […] who is regarded as foolish, offensive, worthless; an overly diligent, unsociable student; any unsociable person obsessively devoted to a particular pursuit," are often used to describe stereotypical fanboys. In regards to

neg: Stereotypes in consumer behaviour initial impression tends to be overlooked. Given the importance of creating a pleasant consumption experience in the early stages of a relationship, the products consumers choose for joint consumption are quite important and have the potential to make or break a budding relationship. When consumers are just beginning to get to know each other, they have very little information regarding their consumption partner’s preferences and expectations for the interaction. Consumers use stereotypes as a resource to help inform their choices because stereotypes are socially shared and provide information about social groups based on easily identified qualities (e.g., race, gender), they

neg: Social norm the essential elements of the social situation surrounding a norm is the repeated game of game theory. Rational choice, a branch of game theory, deals with the relations and actions socially committed among rational agents. A norm gives a person a rule of thumb for how they should behave. However, a rational person only acts according to the rule if it is optimal for them. The situation can be described as follows. A norm gives an expectation of how other people act in a given situation (macro). A person acts optimally given the expectation (micro). For a norm to be

neg: Sexual ethics to each other. Usually, both parties are unmarried. This might be objected to on religious or moral grounds, while individual views within a given society can vary greatly. In recent decades, premarital sex has increasingly become a socially and morally acceptable practice among Western cultures. Extramarital sex is sex occurring outside marriage, usually referring to when a married person engages in sexual activity with someone other than their marriage partner. Commonly there are moral as well as religious objections to sexual relationships by a married person outside the marriage, and such activity is often referred to in law or religion

neg: Job satisfaction theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who doesn’t value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the

neg: Self-disclosure as opposed to weaker relationships (i.e. "acquaintances"). Forming these relationships can also help a socially anxious person express their true-self and form their social identity. This identity often involves the groups a person is a part of because belonging to a group frequently becomes a part of one's self-concept. Someone with social anxiety would be denied this because of their fear of face-to-face interaction. Therefore, disclosing with others online gives a socially anxious person access to a wide variety of people with which they can form relationships and belong to a group. Socially anxious people are also shown to become

neg: Social transformation individual can alter the class culture to which they feel aligned. One socially transforms in three steps: by associational embracement, associational distancing, and the distinct presentation of self. Social transformation is considered an interpersonal negotiation because it requires that the individual have their social position be validated by others for transformation. It is a reciprocal relationship in which people have to be "embraced" and correctly identified with the cultural expectations of their particular class membership. This is the only way that persons can move from their own ascribed status to a new achieved status. The Social System Social transformation in

neg: Youth are regarded as children. The UN also states they are aware that several definitions exist for youth within UN entities such as Youth Habitat 15–32 and African Youth Charter 15–35. Although linked to biological processes of development and aging, "youth" is also defined as a social position that reflects the meanings different cultures and societies give to individuals between childhood and adulthood. The term in itself when referred to in a manner of social position, can be ambiguous when applied to someone of an older age with very low social position; potentially when still dependent on their guardians. Scholars argue

neg: Role theory or a typical behavior. Some theorists have put forward the idea that roles are essentially expectations about how an individual ought to behave in a given situation, while others consider it means how individuals actually behave in a given social position. Others have suggested that a role is a characteristic behavior or expected behavior, a part to be played, or a script for social conduct. In sociology there are different categories of social roles: In their life people have to face different social roles, sometimes they have to face different roles at the same time in different social situations. There

neg: Social practice (art) as the imagery of a given culture, or the relationship between appearance and market value. To escape these external influencers, aesthetics can also be defined in terms of “aesthesis,” an autonomous realm of experience and judgment that cannot be reduced to logic, reason or morality but is of great importance to humankind. Aesthetics have the capacity to critique our beliefs and values by restructuring our perception of the world. Their application can achieve one of the core aims of socially engaged art: the definition of a new social order characterized by engagement and participation. Methodology in socially engaged art refers

neg: Social inequality Social inequality Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. It is the differentiation preference of access of social goods in the society brought about by power, religion, kinship, prestige, race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class. The social rights include labor market, the source of income, health care, and freedom of speech, education, political representation, and participation. Social inequality linked to economic inequality, usually described on the basis of the unequal distribution of income or wealth, is

neg: Social inequality that wealth accumulation is high because growth is low. Social inequality Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. It is the differentiation preference of access of social goods in the society brought about by power, religion, kinship, prestige, race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class. The social rights include labor market, the source of income, health care, and freedom of speech, education, political representation, and participation. Social inequality linked to economic inequality, usually described on the basis

neg: Social network (sociolinguistics) that network, while a peripheral member of the network (one with a low closeness centrality score) does not face such pressure. Therefore, central members of a given network are typically not the first members to adopt a linguistic innovation because they are socially motivated to speak according to pre-existing norms within the network. Multiplexity is the number of separate social connections between any two actors. It has been defined as the "interaction of exchanges within and across relationships". A single tie between individuals, such as a shared workplace, is a uniplex relationship. A tie between individuals is multiplex" "when those

neg: Achieved status referred to as an Open System. A Closed System society would not allow Social mobility as easily as an Open System. Cultural capital is a concept, developed by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, that can refer to both achieved and ascribed characteristics. They are desirable qualities (either material or symbolic) that contribute to one's social status; any advantages a person has which give him/her a higher status in society. It may include high expectations, forms of knowledge, skill, and education, among other things. Parents provide children with cultural capital, the attitudes and knowledge that make the educational system a comfortable familiar place

neg: Life course approach and linked lives. As a concept, a life course is defined as "a sequence of socially defined events and roles that the individual enacts over time" (Giele and Elder 1998, p. 22). These events and roles do not necessarily proceed in a given sequence, but rather constitute the sum total of the person's actual experience. Thus the concept of life course implies age-differentiated social phenomena distinct from uniform life-cycle stages and the life span. Life span refers to duration of life and characteristics that are closely related to age but that vary little across time and place. In contrast, the

neg: Nunchi one's abundance or lack thereof, forms the basis of many common expressions and idioms. For example, a socially clumsy person can be described as "nunchi eoptta" (눈치 없다), meaning "absence of nunchi." 눈치 Nunchi is briefly defined as the high social sensitivity of Koreans which basically means they are able to ascertain others moods by being around them and talking to them. They are sensitive to what others say indirectly, because they want to maintain harmony. They do this by the use of the skill named "nunchi" which literally means eye measure in Korean, they sense someone’s "kibun", Kibun is

neg: Symbolic self-completion theory including anything ranging from utterances, behaviors, and socially recognized markers such as material possessions and social status. They are defined as "any facet of the person that has the potential to signal to others (who understand the symbol as related to the identity) that one possesses the identity in question." Because it is through these symbols that individuals build their self-definitions around and communicate them to society, symbols are “the building blocks of self-definition.” Thus, symbols are meaningful to individuals only insofar as they adequately represent individuals’ self-definitions, regarding the status of accomplishment in the areas individuals believe are important

neg: Social character most members of a society. Fromm describes this general core in the character as "social character". The figuration of the social character takes place in most societies at cost of the spontaneity and freedom of the individuals. Social character The social character is the central basic concept of the analytic social psychology of Erich Fromm. The concept describes the formation of the shared character structure of the people of a society or a social class according to their way of life and the socially typical expectations and functional requirements regarding socially adaptive behavior. Social character is essentially adaptive to the

neg: Social alienation to be the dominant values of society. Seeman (1959: 788) adds that this aspect can manifest in a particularly negative manner, "The anomic situation [...] may be defined as one in which there is a high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviours are required to achieve given goals". This negative manifestation is dealt with in detail by Catherine Ross and John Mirowski in a series of publications on mistrust, powerlessness, normlessness and crime. Neal & Collas (2000: 122) write, "Normlessness derives partly from conditions of complexity and conflict in which individuals become unclear about the composition and enforcement of social norms.

neg: Gender and emotional expression emotions, with the exception of anger or contempt (Wester, Pressly, & Heesacker, 2002). As an adaptive feature, regulation of expression of emotion involves the consideration the social demands of any given situation. Studies have shown that "fewer gender differences in emotion expression may be found when children are with someone they trust and know well than when children are with an unfamiliar person" (Chaplin & Aldao, 2012). Generally, people are trained to behave in a "socially acceptable" way around strangers or acquaintances, suggesting that the social context of an environment can shape the levels of emotion expression. Biological factors also

neg: Social competence a hierarchical framework. The top of the hierarchy includes the most advanced level, social adjustment. Social adjustment is defined as the extent to which an individual achieves society's developmentally appropriate goals. The goals are conceived of as different "statuses" to be achieved by members of a society (e.g., health, legal, academic or occupational, socioeconomic, social, emotional, familial, and relational statuses). The next level is social performance – or the degree to which an individual's responses to relevant social situations meet socially valid criteria. The lowest level of the hierarchy is social skills, which are defined as specific abilities (i.e. overt

neg: Dysphemism social harmony — especially if the speaker and listener are socially distant from one another. For this reason, terms of insult are socially taboo and dysphemistic. Breaking a social taboo can act as an emotional release, with the illocutionary act of expressing a feeling or attitude. Bad or taboo words for many things far outnumber the "good" words. Hugh Rawson notices in his book "Wicked Words" that when looking at Roget's International Thesaurus, there are "...89 synonyms for drunk, compared to 16 for sober, and 206 for bad person compared to 82 for good person. The synonyms for unchastity in

neg: Malay Singaporeans people of Singapore, and accordingly it shall be the responsibility of the Government to protect, safeguard, support, foster and promote their political, educational, religious, economic, social and cultural interests and the Malay language. For Malays in Singapore, the last name is patronymic, not a family name. The person should be referred to by his or her first or second name which is the given name. The Malay word bin (b.) or binte (bte.), if used, means "son of" or "daughter of" respectively. Malay Singaporeans Malay Singaporeans or Singaporean Malays (; Jawi: ), are defined by the Government of Singapore and

neg: Public social life although in a different manner in comparison to 18th century Public Sphere's Public. He means above all the social textures and configurations where successive layers of social experience are built up." The general public also sets social norms which causes people to express themselves in socially acceptable manners. Although this is present within every community, this is often especially applicable within the transgender community as they feel the need to "perform" to a certain set of expectations to be seen as their true gender. Social publics are groups of people united by common ideas, ideology, or hobbies. Networked

neg: Social status divisions of labor "economic constraints tend to relax without any fundamental change in the pattern of spending". This observation reinforces the idea that social origin, more than economic capital, produces aesthetic preferences because regardless of economic capability consumption patterns remain stable. Social status Social status is the relative respect, competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society. Some writers have also referred to a socially valued role or category a person occupies as a "status" (e.g., being a criminal or mentally ill). At its core, status is about who members of a society consider to hold

neg: Social penetration theory very personal ones may be discussed. In such situations, self-disclosure is spontaneous rather than strategic. This specific concept can be known as "verbal leakage", which is defined by Floyd as "unintentionally telling another person something about yourself". Social Penetration Theory operates under the impression that the self-disclosure given is not only truthful, meaning the speaker believes what is being said to be true, but intentional. Self-disclosure can be defined as "the voluntary sharing of personal history, preferences, attitudes, feelings, values, secrets, etc., with another person". The information given in any relationship, whether acquaintance or a well-established relationship, should be voluntarily

neg: Crowds (adolescence) the crowd, may account for the decline of crowd significance over time. Crowds (adolescence) Crowds are large groups of adolescents defined by their shared image and reputation. Crowd membership is externally imposed and not a direct consequence of interaction with other members of the crowd. For adolescent friendships and social interaction in small groups, see cliques. Crowds are large groups of adolescents socially connected by a shared image and reputation, especially within the setting of a single school. It is possible for a single person to belong to more than one crowd if their image matches the crowds’ criteria. Because

neg: Beaker culture prove the sedentary character of the Bell Beaker people, and the durability of their settlements. Some especially well-equipped child-burials seem to indicate sense of predestined social position, indicating a socially complex society. However, analysis of grave furnishing, size and deepness of grave pits, position within the cemetery, did not lead to any strong conclusions on the social divisions. The Late Copper Age is regarded as a continuous culture system connecting the Upper Rhine valley to the western edge of the Carpathian Basin. Late Copper Age 1 was defined in southern Germany by the connection of the late Cham Culture, Globular

neg: Somalis it should be interpreted. It is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. Given the dearth of loan words from foreign languages within the xeer's nomenclature, the customary law appears to have evolved in situ. Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of "jus cogens" in international law: payment of blood money (locally referred to as "diya" or "mag"), assuring good inter-clan relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups

neg: Social intelligence and have the skills to begin their quest. The issue here is psychology versus social intelligence—as a separate and distinct perspective, seldom articulated. An appropriate introduction contains certain hypothetical assumptions about social structure and function, as it relates to intelligence defined and expressed by groups, constrained by cultural expectations that assert potential realities, but make no claims that there is an "exterior" social truth to be defined. This perspective pursues the view that social structures can be defined with the warning that what is mapped into the structure and how that information is stored, retrieved, and decided upon are variable,

neg: Adaptive behavior reflects an individual’s social and practical competence to meet the demands of everyday living. Behavior patterns change throughout a person's development, across life settings and social constructs, changes in personal values, and the expectations of others. It is important to assess adaptive behavior in order to determine how well an individual functions in daily life: vocationally, socially and educationally. Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene.

neg: Family in advertising Social persuasion appeals to one’s role in a group and corresponding expectations; it appeals to reference groups, social class, culture, and subculture. The family symbol is socially persuasive in that it appeals to one’s role within the family and their corresponding expectations. One does not only feel a social or external pressure to fulfill roles and expectations of being a good parent, sibling, or child, however. There is a distinctly emotional and internal pressure to be ‘good’ due to psychological attachments in spousal, sibling and/or parent-children relationships. Psychological persuasion in advertisements appeals to one's motives, attitudes and personalities. The family

neg: Social network (sociolinguistics) with whom the anchor is directly linked. These people are represented by "points". Participants in a network, regardless of their position, can also be referred to as "actors "or "members". There are multiple ways to describe the structure of a social network. Among them are "density, member closeness centrality, multiplexity, "and" orders". These metrics measure the different ways of connecting within of a network, and when used together they provide a complete picture of the structure of a particular network. A social network is defined as either "loose" or "tight" depending on how connected its members are with each other,

neg: Social role valorization attempting to create or support socially valued roles for people in their society, because if a person holds valued social roles, a person is highly likely to receive from society those good things in life that are available or at least the opportunities for obtaining them. In other words, all sorts of good things that other people are able to convey are almost automatically apt to be accorded to a person who holds societally valued roles, at least within the resources and norms of his/her society. Social role valorization identifies social devaluation as a critical human experience that has long-term

neg: Social character Social character The social character is the central basic concept of the analytic social psychology of Erich Fromm. The concept describes the formation of the shared character structure of the people of a society or a social class according to their way of life and the socially typical expectations and functional requirements regarding socially adaptive behavior. Social character is essentially adaptive to the dominant mode of production in a society. According to Fromm, the concept integrates Marx's theory concerning how the mode of production determines ideology with Freud's concept of character. While individual character describes the richness of the character

neg: Social anxiety to draw conclusions about how they are coming across. Individuals with social anxiety might also refrain from making eye contact, or constantly fiddling with things during conversations or public speaking. Individuals who tend to experience more social anxiety turn their attention away from threatening social information and toward themselves, prohibiting them from challenging negative expectations about others and maintaining high levels of social anxiety. A socially anxious individual perceives rejection from a conversational partner, turns his or her attention away, and never learns that the individual is actually welcoming. Individuals who are high in social anxiety tend to show increased

neg: Gender bender – Is represented by, among others, three men in WAC uniforms and big moustaches". To "fuck with" gender, one must have an expectation to be able to rebel against. These expectations are socially constructed and can vary widely between cultures. The gender binary is the idea that only two genders exist: men and women. In many cultures it is only acceptable for an individual to embody one of two polar gender roles. Gender roles often mimic the social expectations of the sexual categories of "male" and "female". Within this cultural expectation, people designated as male are expected to be masculine,

neg: Sociology of punishment classes. But as has been shown, the same is not true of the distribution of punishment, which falls, overwhelmingly and systematically, on the poor and the disadvantaged. Discriminatory decision-making throughout the whole criminal justice system ensures that the socially advantaged are routinely filtered out: they are given the benefit of the doubt, or are defined as good risks, or simply have access to the best legal advice. Serious, deep-end punishments such as imprisonment are predominantly reserved for the unemployed, the poor, the homeless, the mentally ill, the addicted, and those who lack social support and personal assets. Increasingly, this class

neg: Social interaction and first-person shooters socially defined gender, is one lens in which researchers observe interactions online between players. In online gaming, the majority of the gaming population is male. In fact, 40 percent of gamers online are female and the number of females gamers over the age of eighteen compose a greater part of the gamer population than males under the age of seventeen. According to the gender role theory and the observations in Dmitri Williams' article on gender roles in video games, since males by nature exhibit traits of competitiveness, aggression, and being ambitious, men are more likely to find interest in video

neg: Social breakdown thesis far-right parties given the different voting profiles of European far-right parties. Social breakdown thesis Social breakdown thesis also known as the anomie–social breakdown thesis is a theory that posits that individuals that are socially isolated living in atomized socially disintegrated societies are particularly likely to support right-wing populist parties. According to social breakdown theory the fact that traditional social structures based on class and religion are breaking down individuals lack a sense of belonging and are attracted to ethnic nationalist parties because according to psychological research it leads to an increased sense of self-esteem and efficacy. Some studies have shown

neg: Shyness hand, may incorporate many of these symptoms, but at a lower intensity, infrequently, and does not interfere tremendously with normal living. Those considered shy are also said to be "socially inhibited". Social inhibition is the conscious or unconscious constraint by a person of behavior of a social nature. In other words, social inhibition is holding back for social reasons. There are different levels of social inhibition, from mild to severe. Being socially inhibited is good when preventing one from harming another and bad when causing one to refrain from participating in class discussions. "Behavioral inhibition" is a temperament or personality

neg: Social stress or schizoaffective disorder show greater psychotic symptoms if the most influential person in their life is critical and are more likely to relapse if their familial relationships are marked by tension. In regard to substance abuse, cocaine-dependent individuals report greater cravings for cocaine following exposure to a social stressor. Traumatic life events and social stressors can also trigger the exacerbation of the symptoms of mental health disorders. Socially phobic children who experience a stressful event can become even more avoidant and socially inactive. Research has also found a robust relationship between various social stressors and aspects of physical health. Social

neg: Judith Lorber that sex, sexuality, and gender are all socially constructed but that gender is the overarching category—a major social status that organizes almost all areas of social life. Therefore, bodies and sexuality are gendered—biology, physiology, and sexuality do not add up to gender, which is a social institution that establishes patterns of expectations for individuals, orders the social processes of everyday life, is built into the major social organizations of society, and is also an entity in and of itself. Lorber's theoretical approach to gender is masterful and unusual by mainstream empirical social science standards. "Paradoxes" has been translated into Italian

neg: Time discipline argues that time discipline is not "externally imposed" on people, but "a standard that is determined by people with specialized knowledge and skills". Prior to the rise of mechanical timekeeping, clocks were based on the easily accessed sun, and after 1800 precise timekeeping again returned to the Earth's position in relationship to the stars, as measured by scientists using specialized instruments. Time discipline In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning

neg: Harold E. Jones Child Study Center two-level indoor playhouse, several sand-and-water stations outside, spacious and varied large motor opportunities, as well as activities in aesthetics, mathematics, science, literacy and language-all accessible both indoors and out. Due to its architectural design, the Jones Child Study Center establishes a social ecology for learning where children, alone and in small groups, use defined indoor and outdoor areas. Each area, or ecology, is not only a particular place in the classroom or play yard, it also conveys a set of "social expectations" for the kind of things children will "do" at the site. That is why it is sometimes referred

neg: Social interaction and first-person shooters the other players, the relationships between them, and their impact on out-of-game community and relationships. Differences in gender among players is a very common topic of discussion between players, in analyses in published written works, in internet forums, game critics, and game designers/makers. Games are made with expectations pre-incorporated into the designing process, gender is employed as a basic social demographic control, rather than as a dynamic element that shapes how players approach games, interact within them, and negotiate expectations. The subject of gender role theory, or shared cultural expectations that are placed on individuals on the basis of their

neg: Split (gymnastics) Split (gymnastics) A split (commonly referred to as splits or the splits) is a physical position in which the legs are in line with each other and extended in opposite directions. Splits are commonly performed in various athletic activities, including dance, figure skating, gymnastics, contortionism, synchronized swimming, cheerleading and hatha yoga, where a front split is named Hanumanasana and a side split is named Samakonasana. A person who has assumed a split position is said to be "in a split" or "doing the splits". When executing a split, the lines defined by the inner thighs of the legs form an

neg: Program evaluation success or failure. However, there are many hurdles and challenges which evaluators face when attempting to implement an evaluation program which attempts to make use of techniques and systems which are not developed within the context to which they are applied. Some of the issues include differences in culture, attitudes, language and political process. Culture is defined by Ebbutt (1998, p. 416) as a "constellation of both written and unwritten expectations, values, norms, rules, laws, artifacts, rituals and behaviors that permeate a society and influence how people behave socially". Culture can influence many facets of the evaluation process, including data

neg: Reciprocity (social psychology) against a person, it is expected that person would return with a similar act of violence. If, however, the reaction to the initial negative action is not approximately equal in negative value, this violates the norm of reciprocity and what is prescribed as allowable. Retaliatory aspects i.e. the aspects of trying to get back and cause harm, are known as negative reciprocity. This definition of negative reciprocity is distinct from the way negative reciprocity is defined in other domains. In cultural anthropology, negative reciprocity refers to an attempt to get something for nothing. It is often referred to as "bartering"

neg: Child discipline Child discipline Child discipline is the methods used to prevent future behavioral problems in children. The word discipline is defined as imparting knowledge and skill, in other words, to teach. In its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. "To discipline" means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct. Discipline is used by parents to teach their children about expectations, guidelines and principles. Children need to be given regular discipline to be taught right from wrong and to be maintained safe. Child discipline can involve rewards and punishments to teach self-control,

neg: Memory and social interactions also be subject to this improved memory if there is reason to doubt the behaviour. If a critical assessment of an individual's actions results in a contrast to their positive image, the amount of interaction with that person will decrease. From a psychological standpoint, friends and foes have been defined in a number of ways, but do not have a consistent operational definition. One definition of friends and foes is as cheaters and non-cheaters, with non-cheaters also referred to as cooperators. Cheaters are defined as those who benefit from cooperation, but endure no costs, thereby discouraging cooperators. Cheaters benefit from

neg: Straight ally for using LGBTQ advocacy as a means to gain popularity and status. Straight ally A straight ally or heterosexual ally is a heterosexual person who supports equal civil rights, gender equality, LGBT social movements, and challenges homophobia, biphobia and transphobia. Despite this, some people who meet this definition do not identify themselves as straight allies. A straight ally believes that LGBT people face discrimination and thus are socially and economically disadvantaged. They aim to use their position as heterosexual or cisgender individuals in a society focused on heteronormativity to fight homophobia, biphobia and transphobia. Most LGBT organizations have straight members

neg: Belgian nationality law calling it so. Unlike naturalisation (a privilege), declaration of Belgian citizenship is a right of those legal aliens who respond to certain criteria defined in Nationality Code of Belgium. From the age of 18 a person can obtain Belgian nationality by signing a nationality declaration if that person meets one of the following criteria: The integration requirement applies to all the previous criteria except those who were born in Belgium and those who are handicapped, invalid, or retired. Being integrated is defined as knowing one of the three national languages and being duly 'socially integrated' and 'economically active'. The nationality

neg: Idiosyncrasy credit Idiosyncrasy credit Idiosyncrasy credit is a concept in social psychology that describes an individual's capacity to acceptably deviate from group expectations. Idiosyncrasy credits are increased (earned) each time an individual conforms to a group's expectations, and decreased (spent) each time an individual deviates from a group's expectations. Edwin Hollander originally defined idiosyncrasy credit as "an accumulation of positively disposed impressions residing in the perceptions of relevant others; it is… the degree to which an individual may deviate from the common expectancies of the group". Idiosyncrasy credits are but one of a number of concepts that attempt to explain how some

neg: Expectancy violations theory between themselves and their conversational partner, and then make a decision whether or not to violate the expectations of the other person. The theory holds that this decision depends on what outcome they would like to achieve. This assumption is based on the "interaction position". The interaction position is based on a person's initial stance toward an interaction as determined by a blend of personal Requirements, Expectations, and Desires (RED). These "RED" factors meld into our interaction position of what's needed, anticipated, and preferred. EVT assumes that there are norms for all communication activities and if these norms are violated,

neg: Social organization in Cambodia Social organization in Cambodia Social organization in Cambodia is very hierarchical. The greater a person's age, the greater the level of respect that must be granted to them. Everyone in Khmer culture is given a hierarchical title before the name - in some cases names are shortened with the title added before the name is given - which varies in relation to the person. In some cases elders are referred to by a family title even though there is no relation, out of respect to their seniority in life. Referring to someone by the improper title is a sign of

neg: Idiosyncrasy credit the leader is in the best interest of the group. Idiosyncrasy credit Idiosyncrasy credit is a concept in social psychology that describes an individual's capacity to acceptably deviate from group expectations. Idiosyncrasy credits are increased (earned) each time an individual conforms to a group's expectations, and decreased (spent) each time an individual deviates from a group's expectations. Edwin Hollander originally defined idiosyncrasy credit as "an accumulation of positively disposed impressions residing in the perceptions of relevant others; it is… the degree to which an individual may deviate from the common expectancies of the group". Idiosyncrasy credits are but one of

neg: Girl is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors. This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary depending on location and context, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors. Gender neutrality describes the idea that policies, language, and other social institutions should avoid distinguishing roles according to people's sex

neg: Social inhibition the other person did not speak to or even look at the participant. This suggests that just the mere presence of another person in a social situation can inhibit an individual. However, although the individual in charge of completing the experimental task was socially inhibited by the presence of another person in the laboratory, there were no significant links between their social inhibition when completing the task and improved performance on said task. These findings suggest that an individual may socially inhibit themselves in the work place if another person is also in the room, however, such inhibition does not

neg: Emotion and her anger is somehow invalid), while the expression of sadness or fear is discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women (attitudes implicit in phrases like "man up" or "don't be a sissy"). Expectations attached to social roles, such as "acting as man" and not as a woman, and the accompanying "feeling rules" contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion,

neg: Patari of a number of tribal grouping in south-east Uttar Pradesh such as the Majhwar, Chero and Bhuiyar. Their community deities include Buradeo, and they incorporate a number of folk beliefs. The Patari have a traditional caste councol, referred to as the biradari panchayat, to which are inter-community disputes are referred too. This is headed by a Chaudhary, a position which hereditary. Most Chaudhary families are perceived as natural leaders of the community. The panchayat has the power to excommunicate a person, but more often fines are given. A large number of issues such as elopement or adultery are dealt with

neg: Social order The case most often is that people associate social honor with the place a person occupies with material systems of wealth and power. Since most of the society finds wealth and power desirable, they respect or envy people that have more than they do. When social honor is referred to as social status, it deals with the rank of a person within the stratification system. Status can be achieved, which is when a person position is gained on the basis of merit or in other words by achievement and hard work or it can be ascribed, which is when a

neg: Marxist criminology are stratified economically and politically" (Chambliss, 1971, p3). It is concerned with the causal relationships between society and crime, i.e. to establish a critical understanding of how the immediate and structural social environment gives rise to crime and criminogenic conditions. Karl Marx argued that the law is the mechanism by which one social class, usually referred to as the "ruling class", keeps all the other classes in a disadvantaged position. Thus, this school uses a Marxist lens through which, "inter alia" (among other things), to consider the criminalization process, and by which explain why some acts are defined as deviant

neg: Spiral of silence and McQuire observe that nonverbal social context cues convey formality and status inequality in face-to-face communication. When these cues are removed, the importance of social status as a source of influence recedes. Group hierarchies that develop in face-to-face interaction emerge less clearly in a mediated environment. The form and consequences of conformity influence should undergo significant changes given the interposition of a medium that reduces the social presence of participants. Social presence is defined as the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction or the degree to which the medium conveys some of the person's presence. An

neg: Straight ally Straight ally A straight ally or heterosexual ally is a heterosexual person who supports equal civil rights, gender equality, LGBT social movements, and challenges homophobia, biphobia and transphobia. Despite this, some people who meet this definition do not identify themselves as straight allies. A straight ally believes that LGBT people face discrimination and thus are socially and economically disadvantaged. They aim to use their position as heterosexual or cisgender individuals in a society focused on heteronormativity to fight homophobia, biphobia and transphobia. Most LGBT organizations have straight members involved; others actively encourage straight participation. A gay–straight alliance is a student-run

neg: Social stigma as a thing in itself." In Goffman's theory of social stigma, a stigma is an attribute, behavior, or reputation which is socially discrediting in a particular way: it causes an individual to be mentally classified by others in an undesirable, rejected stereotype rather than in an accepted, normal one. Goffman, a noted sociologist, defined stigma as a special kind of gap between "virtual social identity" and "actual social identity": Goffman divides the individual's relation to a stigma into three categories: The wise normals are not merely those who are in some sense accepting of the stigma; they are, rather, "those

neg: Other sex as "queer", are used as slurs and may be offensive to some, while others may not mind it gender bender. Gender norms are the socially acceptable ways of acting out gender, and are learned from birth. People learn what is expected of their gender from what their parents teach them, as well as what they pick up at school, through religious or cultural teachings, in the media, and various other social institutions. Many aspects of gender are socially constructed, particularly with regard to gender expression, which is closely monitored and reinforced by society. Many things in society are defined by

neg: Sex and gender distinction working definition in use by the World Health Organization for its work is that "'[g]ender' refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women" and that "'masculine' and 'feminine' are gender categories." The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used to use "gender" instead of "sex" when referring to physiological differences between male and female organisms. In 2011, they reversed their position on this and began using "sex "as the biological classification and "gender" as "a person's self representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to

neg: Institution informally encouraged to prop up an inefficient formal state police institution. An informal institution tends to have socially shared rules, which are unwritten and yet are often known by all inhabitants of a certain country, as such they are often referred to as being an inherent part of the culture of a given country. Informal practices are often referred to as "cultural", for example clientelism or corruption is sometimes stated as a part of the political culture in a certain place, but an informal institution itself is not cultural, it may be shaped by culture or behaviour of a given

neg: Intellectual opinions, and options of action (social, political, ideological), and by affinity with the given thinker; therefore: Analogously, the application and the conceptual value of the terms "Intellectual" and "the Intellectuals" are socially negative when the practice of intellectuality is exclusively in service to The Establishment who wield power in a society, as such: Noam Chomsky's negative view of the Establishment Intellectual suggests the existence of another kind of intellectual one might call "the public intellectual," which is: The intellectual is a type of intelligent person, who is associated with reason and critical thinking. Many everyday roles require the application of

neg: Social inhibition one being that they are more likely to approach, rather than avoid, another person. Also, with the reduced inhibition associated with high power individuals, they are more likely to initiate physical contact with another person, enter into their personal space, and they are more likely to indicate interest in intimacy. High power people tend to be socially disinhibited when it comes to sexual behavior and sexual concepts. Consistent with this expectation, a study working with male and female participants found that when the male and female felt equally powerful they tended to interact socially with one another in a disinhibited

neg: Virtual community critical to well-functioning human beings as a matter of psychological need' and that people with 'social capital' are better off than those who lack it and it leads to better results in terms of political participation. However, Benkler argues that unless Internet connections actually displace direct, unmediated, human contact, there is no basis to think that using the Internet will lead to a decline in those nourishing connections we need psychologically, or in the useful connections we make socially. Benkler continues to suggest that the nature of an individual changes over time, based on social practices and expectations. There is

neg: Correspondent inference theory intentions and dispositions. Suppose a person asked a friend for a loan of £1 and it was given (a socially desirable action) – the perceiver couldn't say a great deal about their friend's kindness or helpfulness because most people would have done the same thing. If, on the other hand, the friend refused to lend them the money (a socially undesirable action), the perceiver might well feel that their friend is rather stingy, or even miserly. In fact, social desirability – although an important influence on behaviour – is really only a special case of the more general principle that

neg: Class stratification enjoy. The aim of the schema is to group occupational title/employment relations, and the employment relationships joined by given combinations may differ cross-nationally. As the theories relate to class stratification the common characteristic shared by the actors involve the position they occupy in relations defined by labor markets and productive processes. Class has often been defined as the significant determinant of life chances. The deliberate acts of individual actors are undertaken from a position of social power which is determined by class membership. The resources an individual possesses and the constraints they face and the course of action they take

neg: Transmigrant ethnic, and national borders. Transmigrants living within a transnational social field are affected by "a set of social expectations, cultural values, and patterns of human interaction shaped by more than one social, economic, and political system." Essential to the concept of transmigrant is the multiplicity of engagements that the mobile subject sustains in the home and host societies simultaneously. While a transmigrant may use the term "home" to refer to their country of origin, they also create a home (both physically and socially) in the host society. However, it is important to note that the word "host" often carries the

neg: Linguistic discrimination use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another person's wealth, education, social status, character or other traits. These perceived judgments may then lead to the unjustifiable treatment of the individual. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the "ideologies and structures which are used to legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language". Although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they

neg: Environmental sociology Environmental sociology Environmental sociology is the study of interactions between societies and their natural environments. The field emphasizes the social factors that influence environmental resource management and cause environmental issues, the processes by which these environmental problems are socially constructed and defined as social issues, and societal responses to these problems. Environmental sociology emerged as a subfield of sociology in the late 1970s in response to the emergence of the environmental movement in the 1960s. Environmental sociology is typically defined as the sociological study of societal-environmental interactions, although this definition immediately presents the problem of integrating human cultures with the