query: who created a law describing how the pressure and volume of a gas are related

pos: Boyle's law between pressure and volume was first noted by Richard Towneley and Henry Power in the seventeenth century. Robert Boyle confirmed their discovery through experiments and published the results. According to Robert Gunther and other authorities, it was Boyle's assistant, Robert Hooke, who built the experimental apparatus. Boyle's law is based on experiments with air, which he considered to be a fluid of particles at rest in between small invisible springs. At that time, air was still seen as one of the four elements, but Boyle disagreed. Boyle's interest was probably to understand air as an essential element of life; for

pos: Boyle's law of the gas, and "k" is a constant. The equation states that the product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of confined gas and this holds as long as the temperature is constant. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas decreases in proportion. Similarly, as volume decreases, the pressure of the gas increases. The law was named after chemist and physicist Robert Boyle, who published the original law in 1662. This relationship

pos: Gas contrast, a "smaller" length scale corresponds to a microscopic or particle point of view. Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For example, Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column

pos: Gas laws 1662 Robert Boyle studied the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas of fixed amount at constant temperature. He observed that volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at a constant temperature. Boyle's law, published in 1662, states that, at constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume of a given mass of an ideal gas in a closed system is always constant. It can be verified experimentally using a pressure gauge and a variable volume container. It can also be derived from the kinetic theory of gases: if a container,

neg: Boyle's law air moves from high to low pressure. Related phenomena: Other gas laws: Boyle's law Boyle's law, sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law (especially in France), is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system. Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as or

neg: Volume (thermodynamics) Volume (thermodynamics) In thermodynamics, the volume of a system is an important extensive parameter for describing its thermodynamic state. The specific volume, an intensive property, is the system's volume per unit of mass. Volume is a function of state and is interdependent with other thermodynamic properties such as pressure and temperature. For example, volume is related to the pressure and temperature of an ideal gas by the ideal gas law. The physical volume of a system may or may not coincide with a control volume used to analyze the system. The volume of a thermodynamic system typically refers to the

neg: Boyle's law be expressed in the form of an equation describing the dependence of two variable quantities. The law itself can be stated as follows: Or Boyle's law is a gas law, stating that the pressure and volume of a gas have an inverse relationship, when temperature is held constant. If volume increases, then pressure decreases and vice versa, when temperature is held constant. Therefore, when the volume is halved, the pressure is doubled; and if the volume is doubled, the pressure is halved. Boyle's law states that "at constant temperature" the volume of a given mass of a dry gas is

neg: Boyle's law proportionally. Conversely, reducing the volume of the gas increases the pressure. Boyle's law is used to predict the result of introducing a change, in volume and pressure only, to the initial state of a fixed quantity of gas. The initial and final volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the initial and final temperatures are the same (heating or cooling will be required to meet this condition), are related by the equation: Here "P" and "V" represent the original pressure and volume, respectively, and "P" and "V" represent the second pressure and volume. Boyle's law, Charles's law,

neg: Boyle's law Boyle's law Boyle's law, sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law (especially in France), is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system. Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as or where "P" is the pressure of the gas, "V" is the volume

neg: Avogadro's law Avogadro who, in 1811, hypothesized that two given samples of an ideal gas, of the same volume and at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen contain the same number of molecules when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe ideal gas behavior. In practice, real gases show small deviations from the ideal behavior and the law holds only approximately, but is still a useful approximation for scientists. The law can be written as: or where This law describes how, under the same

neg: Stirling engine makes the gas alternately expand and compress. The gas follows the behaviour described by the gas laws, which describe how a gas's pressure, temperature and volume are related. When the gas is heated the pressure rises (because it is in a sealed chamber) and this pressure then acts on the power piston to produce a power stroke. When the gas is cooled the pressure drops and this drop means that the piston needs to do less work to compress the gas on the return stroke. The difference in work between the strokes yields a net positive power output. The ideal

neg: Boyle's law and Gay-Lussac's law form the combined gas law. The three gas laws in combination with Avogadro's law can be generalized by the ideal gas law. Boyle's law is often used as part of an explanation on how the breathing system works in the human body. This commonly involves explaining how the lung volume may be increased or decreased and thereby cause a relatively lower or higher air pressure within them (in keeping with Boyle's law). This forms a pressure difference between the air inside the lungs and the environmental air pressure, which in turn precipitates either inhalation or exhalation as

neg: Volume form a positively oriented basis for the cotangent bundle of the manifold, and formula_25 is the determinant of the matrix representation of the metric tensor on the manifold in terms of the same basis. In thermodynamics, the volume of a system is an important extensive parameter for describing its thermodynamic state. The specific volume, an intensive property, is the system's volume per unit of mass. Volume is a function of state and is interdependent with other thermodynamic properties such as pressure and temperature. For example, volume is related to the pressure and temperature of an ideal gas by the ideal

neg: Charles's law Charles's law Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion. This directly proportional relationship can be written as: or where: This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions,

neg: Gas dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. He noted that, for an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its temperature: In 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar, though more extensive experiments. Gay-Lussac credited Charles' earlier work by naming the law in his honor. Gay-Lussac himself is credited with the law describing pressure, which he found in 1809. It states that the pressure exerted on a container's sides by an ideal gas is proportional to its temperature. In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure

neg: Gas laws pressure, volume, and temperature for a fixed mass (quantity) of gas: This can also be written as: With the addition of Avogadro's law, the combined gas law develops into the ideal gas law: These equations are exact only for an ideal gas, which neglects various intermolecular effects (see real gas). However, the ideal gas law is a good approximation for most gases under moderate pressure and temperature. This law has the following important consequences: or Gas laws The gas laws were developed at the end of the 18th century, when scientists began to realize that relationships between pressure, volume and

neg: Avogadro's law Avogadro's law Avogadro's law (sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis or Avogadro's principle) is an experimental gas law relating the volume of a gas to the amount of substance of gas present. The law is a specific case of the ideal gas law. A modern statement is: Avogadro's law states that, "equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules." For a given mass of an ideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are directly proportional if the temperature and pressure are constant. The law is named after Amedeo

neg: Gay-Lussac's law Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to convince the First International Chemical Congress in 1860. This law is often referred to as Gay-Lussac's law of pressure–temperature, between 1800 and 1802, discovered the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a fixed mass of gas kept at a constant volume. Gay Lussac discovered this while building an "air thermometer". The pressure of a gas of fixed mass and fixed volume is directly proportional to the gas's absolute temperature. If a gas's temperature increases, then so does its pressure if the mass and volume of the gas are held constant. The law has a

neg: Air displacement plethysmography empty. The volume of air inside the chamber is calculated by slightly changing the size of the chamber (e.g. by moving a diaphragm in one of the walls) and applying relevant physical gas laws to determine the total volume from the changing air pressure within the chamber as its size is altered. Boyle's law states that at a constant temperature, volume (V) and pressure (P) are inversely related. Therefore, when a constant temperature is maintained (isothermal conditions), Boyle's law can be applied. Consequently, most early plethysmographs required temperature-controlled surroundings and isothermal conditions within the test chamber. Air displacement plethysmographs have

neg: Jacques Charles noticed that they all increased in volume by the same amount. This experiment was referenced by Gay-Lussac in 1802 when he published a paper on the precise relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas. Charles' law states that under constant pressure, an ideal gas' volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of a gas at constant pressure increases linearly with the absolute temperature of the gas. The formula he created was "V"/"T" = "V"/"T". Jacques Charles was elected to the Académie des Sciences, in 1795, and subsequently became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts

neg: Volume (thermodynamics) (or 100% relative humidity). To compare gas volume between two conditions of different temperature or pressure (1 and 2), assuming nR are the same, the following equation uses humidity exclusion in addition to the ideal gas law: formula_27 Where, in addition to terms used in the ideal gas law: For example, calculating how much 1 liter of air (a) at 0 °C, 100 kPa, "p" = 0 kPa (known as STPD, see below) would fill when breathed into the lungs where it is mixed with water vapor (l), where it quickly becomes 37 °C, 100 kPa, "p" = 6.2 kPa

neg: Combined gas law Combined gas law The combined gas law is a gas law that combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. There is no official founder for this law; it is merely an amalgamation of the three previously discovered laws. These laws each relate one thermodynamic variable to another mathematically while holding everything else constant. Charles's law states that volume and temperature are directly proportional to each other as long as pressure is held constant. Boyle's law asserts that pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other at fixed temperature. Finally, Gay-Lussac's law introduces a direct proportionality between temperature and

neg: Barotrauma metres (33 feet) in water increases the ambient pressure by an amount approximately equal to the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. So, a descent from the surface to 10 metres (33 feet) underwater results in a doubling of the pressure on the diver. This pressure change will reduce the volume of a gas filled space by half. Boyle's law describes the relationship between the volume of the gas space and the pressure in the gas. Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the

neg: Combined gas law pressure as long as it is at a constant volume. The inter-dependence of these variables is shown in the combined gas law, which clearly states that: This can be stated mathematically as: where: For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as: The addition of Avogadro's law to the combined gas law yields the ideal gas law. Boyle's Law states that the pressure-volume product is constant: Charles's Law shows that the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature: Gay-Lussac's Law says that the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature: The algebraic

neg: Volume (thermodynamics) to absolute temperature and decreases inversely proportionally to pressure, approximately according to the ideal gas law: formula_26 where: To simplify, a volume of gas may be expressed as the volume it would have in standard conditions for temperature and pressure, which are 0 °C and 100 kPa. In contrast to other gas components, water content in air, or humidity, to a higher degree depends on vaporization and condensation from or into water, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure to a gas saturated with water, all components will initially decrease in volume approximately according to

neg: Dobson unit when plugged into the real gas law, the number density of air is found by using pressure, temperature and the real gas constant. formula_3 The number density (molecules/volume) of air at standard temperature and pressure (T = 273K and P = 101325 Pa) is, by using this equation: formula_4 With some unit conversions of Joules to Pascals, the equation for molecules/volume is formula_5 A Dobson Unit is the total amount of a trace gas per unit area. In atmospheric sciences, this is referred to as a column density. How, though, do we go from units of molecules per cubic meter,

neg: Combined gas law manipulation cannot be done directly because Boyle did his experiments with constant temperature, Charles did them with constant pressure and Lussac did them with constant volume, therefore a more exact interpretation of the prior equations would be: with formula_7 not being constants, but appropriate functions, mimicking the respective dependencies. Keeping this in mind, to carry the derivation on correctly, one must imagine the gas being altered by one process at a time. Say, starting to change only pressure and volume, according to Boyle's law, then: Then changing volume and temperature, according to Charles' law: Finally, pressure and temperature are changed

neg: Gas the volume is doubled, the pressure is halved. Given the inverse relationship between pressure and volume, the product of pressure ("P") and volume ("V") is a constant ("k") for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. Stated as a formula, thus is: Because the before and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the before and after temperatures are the same both equal the constant "k", they can be related by the equation: formula_5 In 1787, the French physicist and balloon pioneer, Jacques Charles, found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon

neg: Carbon dioxide equivalent of carbon dioxide. Equivalent (e) is the concentration of that would cause the same level of radiative forcing as a given type and concentration of greenhouse gas. Examples of such greenhouse gases are methane, perfluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. e is expressed as parts per million by volume, ppmv. Carbon dioxide equivalent Carbon dioxide equivalent (CDE) and equivalent carbon dioxide (e and eq) are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause, using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide () as the reference. Carbon dioxide

neg: Aerosinusitis related to Boyle's law, which states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure on it, when temperature is constant (P1 × V1 = P2 × V2). Two types of acute barotrauma are observed: squeeze and reverse squeeze. On ascent, the air in the paranasal sinuses will expand according to Boyle's law, contracting during descent. Normally, the sinuses drain into the nasal cavity through small ostia, which permit mucociliary clearance and ventilation that equilibrates pressure. However, when the opening is obstructed due to inflammation, polyps, mucosal thickening, anatomical abnormalities, or other lesions, pressure equilibration is impossible.

neg: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure as important to indicate the applicable reference conditions of temperature and pressure when stating the molar volume of a gas as it is when expressing a gas volume or volumetric flow rate. Stating the molar volume of a gas without indicating the reference conditions of temperature and pressure has very little meaning and can cause confusion. The molar volume of gases around STP and at atmospheric pressure can be calculated with an accuracy that is usually sufficient by using the ideal gas law. The molar volume of any ideal gas may be calculated at various standard reference conditions as shown

neg: Gas laws of a given mass of a gas, at constant pressure (P), is directly proportional to its temperature (T). As a mathematical equation, Charles's law is written as either: where "V" is the volume of a gas, "T" is the absolute temperature and "k" is a proportionality constant (which is not the same as the proportionality constants in the other equations in this article). Gay-Lussac's law, Amontons' law or the pressure law was found by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1809. It states that, for a given mass and constant volume of an ideal gas, the pressure exerted on the sides of

neg: Hydrogen compressor in cryogenics Hydrogen compressor A hydrogen compressor is a device that increases the pressure of hydrogen by reducing its volume resulting in compressed hydrogen or liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen compressors are closely related to hydrogen pumps and gas compressors: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of hydrogen gas, whereas the main result of a pump raising the pressure of a liquid is to allow the liquid hydrogen to be transported elsewhere. A proven method to compress Hydrogen is to apply reciprocating

neg: Hydrogen compressor Hydrogen compressor A hydrogen compressor is a device that increases the pressure of hydrogen by reducing its volume resulting in compressed hydrogen or liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen compressors are closely related to hydrogen pumps and gas compressors: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of hydrogen gas, whereas the main result of a pump raising the pressure of a liquid is to allow the liquid hydrogen to be transported elsewhere. A proven method to compress Hydrogen is to apply reciprocating piston compressors.

neg: Gay-Lussac's law Gay-Lussac's law Gay-Lussac's law can refer to several discoveries made by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) and other scientists in the late 18th and early 19th centuries pertaining to thermal expansion of gases and the relationship between temperature, volume, and pressure. It states that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas, when the volume is kept constant. Mathematically, it can be written as: P/T=constant, Gay-Lussac is most often recognized for the Pressure Law which established that the pressure of an enclosed gas is directly proportional to its temperature and

neg: Scuba gas planning × T This is the free volume of the gas at atmospheric pressure. The pressure change (δP) in the cylinder used to store this gas depends on the internal volume of the cylinder (V), and is calculated using Boyle's law: δP = V × P/V (P - 1 bar) Breathing gas regulators will work efficiently down to a cylinder pressure slightly above the designed interstage pressure. This pressure may be called minimum functional cylinder pressure. It will vary with depth as the nominal interstage pressure is additional to the ambient pressure. This does not mean that all the remaining gas

neg: Base conditions and temperature in which all 'net' volumes will be expressed. The density of a gas at a specific pressure can be estimated by using the ideal gas law. Doubling absolute pressure doubles the density of a gas, and doubling absolute temperature halves the density. The number of molecules in a given gas volume depends on the pressure and temperature. This is why the pressure and temperature must be stated in order for a volume measurement to mean anything. Density correction is also performed on liquids under measurement. For instance, the sticker on gasoline pumps that states that the volume is

neg: Gas of mercury, thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas' volume decreased (this is known as an inverse relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the product was constant. This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field. There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, these tools become more

neg: Gas collecting tube Gas collecting tube The characterization gas collecting tube describes an oblong gas-tight container with one valve at either end. Usually such a container has a gauged volume, has a cylindrical shape and is made of glass. Gas collecting tubes are used for science-related purposes; for taking samples of gases. Versions "Capacity" of gas collecting tubes 150, 250, 350, 500 and 1.000 ml The mass density of a gas can be measured by using a gas collecting tube, an analytical balance and an aspirator. The mass and volume of a displaced amount of gas are determined: At atmospheric pressure formula_1, the

neg: Gas thermometer Gas thermometer A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. This thermometer functions by Charles's Law. Charles's Law states that when the temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume. Using Charles's Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the volume of gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below. Translating it to the correct levels of the device that is holding the gas. This works on the same principle as mercury thermometers. or T is the temperature. V is the volume. k is the constant for the

neg: Otto cycle the cylinder volume does not change, no shaft work is added to or removed from the system. Four different equations are used to describe those four processes. A simplification is made by assuming changes of the kinetic and potential energy that take place in the system (mass of gas) can be neglected and then applying the first law of thermodynamics (energy conservation) to the mass of gas as it changes state as characterized by the gas's temperature, pressure, and volume. During a complete cycle, the gas returns to its original state of temperature, pressure and volume, hence the net internal

neg: Physiology of underwater diving pressure by an amount approximately equal to the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. So, a descent from the surface to 10 metres (33 feet) underwater results in a doubling of the pressure on the diver. This pressure change will reduce the volume of a gas filled space by half. Boyle's law describes the relationship between the volume of the gas space and the pressure in the gas. Barotrauma is physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between a gas space inside, or in contact with the body, and the surrounding gas or fluid. It

neg: Pressure Surface pressure is denoted by π: and shares many similar properties with three-dimensional pressure. Properties of surface chemicals can be investigated by measuring pressure/area isotherms, as the two-dimensional analog of Boyle's law, , at constant temperature. Surface tension is another example of surface pressure, but with a reversed sign, because "tension" is the opposite to "pressure". In an ideal gas, molecules have no volume and do not interact. According to the ideal gas law, pressure varies linearly with temperature and quantity, and inversely with volume: where: Real gases exhibit a more complex dependence on the variables of state. Vapour pressure

neg: Equation of state Equation of state In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature (PVT), or internal energy. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of fluids, mixtures of fluids, solids, and the interior of stars. The most prominent use of an equation of state is to correlate densities of gases and liquids to temperatures and pressures. One of the simplest equations of state for this purpose is the ideal gas law, which is roughly accurate

neg: Flow measurement formula_1, and the mass flow rate, the symbol formula_2. For a fluid having density formula_3, mass and volumetric flow rates may be related by formula_4. Gases are compressible and change volume when placed under pressure, are heated or are cooled. A volume of gas under one set of pressure and temperature conditions is not equivalent to the same gas under different conditions. References will be made to "actual" flow rate through a meter and "standard" or "base" flow rate through a meter with units such as "acm/h" (actual cubic meters per hour), "sm/sec" (standard cubic meters per second), "kscm/h" (thousand

neg: Ideal gas law the number of moles of gas and "R" = "N""k" is the gas constant. Ideal gas law The ideal gas law, also called the general gas equation, is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of the empirical Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. The ideal gas law is often written as where formula_2, formula_3 and formula_4 are the pressure, volume and absolute temperature;

neg: Ideal gas law Ideal gas law The ideal gas law, also called the general gas equation, is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of the empirical Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. The ideal gas law is often written as where formula_2, formula_3 and formula_4 are the pressure, volume and absolute temperature; formula_5 is the number of moles of gas; and formula_6 is the ideal gas

neg: Ion source volume. The volume contains a low pressure gas. Ions can be created in an electric glow discharge. A glow discharge is a plasma formed by the passage of electric current through a low-pressure gas. It is created by applying a voltage between two metal electrodes in an evacuated chamber containing gas. When the voltage exceeds a certain value, called the striking voltage, the gas forms a plasma. A duoplasmatron is a type of glow discharge ion source that consists of a hot cathode or cold cathode that produces a plasma that is used to ionize a gas. Duoplasmatrons can produce

neg: Gas laws with a fixed number of molecules inside, is reduced in volume, more molecules will strike a given area of the sides of the container per unit time, causing a greater pressure. A statement of Boyle's law is as follows: The concept can be represented with these formulae: Charles's law, or the law of volumes, was found in 1787 by Jacques Charles. It states that, for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, assuming in a closed system. The statement of Charles's law is as follows: the volume (V)

neg: Gas thermometer absolute zero. Note that data could have been collected with three different amounts of the same gas, which would have rendered this experiment easy to do in the eighteenth century. Gas thermometer A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. This thermometer functions by Charles's Law. Charles's Law states that when the temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume. Using Charles's Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the volume of gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below. Translating it to the correct levels of the

neg: Internal ballistics effective there must be significant muzzle pressure. A firearm, in many ways, is like a piston engine on the power stroke. There is a certain amount of high-pressure gas available, and energy is extracted from it by making the gas move a piston — in this case, the projectile is the piston. The swept volume of the piston determines how much energy can be extracted from the given gas. The more volume that is swept by the piston, the lower is the exhaust pressure (in this case, the muzzle pressure). Any remaining pressure at the muzzle or at the end

neg: Standard cubic feet per minute temperature and pressure. If the system were moving a gas at exactly the "standard" condition, then ACFM would equal SCFM. Unfortunately, this usually is not the case as the most important change between these two definitions is the pressure. To move a gas, a positive pressure or a vacuum must be created. When positive pressure is applied to a standard cubic foot of gas, it is compressed. When a vacuum is applied to a standard cubic foot of gas, it expands. The volume of gas after it is pressurized or rarefied is referred to as its "actual" volume. SCF and

neg: Adiabatic invariant but now the gas occupies a bigger volume. If the container expands slowly, however, so that the ideal gas pressure law holds at any time, gas molecules lose energy at the rate that they do work on the expanding wall. The amount of work they do is the pressure times the area of the wall times the outward displacement, which is the pressure times the change in the volume of the gas: If no heat enters the gas, the energy in the gas molecules is decreasing by the same amount. By definition, a gas is ideal when its temperature is

neg: Volume (thermodynamics) (BTPS): formula_28 Some common expressions of gas volume with defined or variable temperature, pressure and humidity inclusion are: The following conversion factors can be used to convert between expressions for volume of a gas: The partial volume of a particular gas is the volume which the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume, with unchanged pressure and temperature, and is useful in gas mixtures, e.g. air, to focus on one particular gas component, e.g. oxygen. It can be approximated both from partial pressure and molar fraction: Volume (thermodynamics) In thermodynamics, the volume of a system is an important

neg: Virial expansion Virial expansion The ideal gas law can be stated in terms of the compressibility factor Z: where "v" is molar volume. For real gases and fluids, "Z" deviates from 1, depending on temperature, pressure and molar volume. The deviation is best stated in a virial expansion of molar density, "ρ" = 1/"v": This is the virial equation of state, the most general function relating PρT properties of fluids, first proposed by Kamerlingh Onnes. The compressibility factor is a dimensionless quantity, indicating how much a real fluid deviates from an ideal gas. "A" is the first virial coefficient, which has a

neg: Dobson unit by volcanic eruptions. The Dobson unit is used to describe total column amounts of sulfur dioxide because it appeared in the early days of ozone remote sensing on ultraviolet satellite instruments (such as TOMS). The Dobson Unit arises from the ideal gas law. From the real gas law: formula_1 where P and V are pressure and volume, respectively, and n, R and T are the number of moles of gas, the gas constant (8.314 J/mol K), and T is temperature in Kelvin (K). The number density of air is the number of molecules or atoms per unit volume: formula_2 and

neg: Brownian motion relating the diffusion coefficient to measurable physical quantities. In this way Einstein was able to determine the size of atoms, and how many atoms there are in a mole, or the molecular weight in grams, of a gas. In accordance to Avogadro's law this volume is the same for all ideal gases, which is 22.414 liters at standard temperature and pressure. The number of atoms contained in this volume is referred to as Avogadro's constant, and the determination of this number is tantamount to the knowledge of the mass of an atom since the latter is obtained by dividing the

neg: Reduced properties formula_1 divided by its critical pressure formula_2: The reduced temperature of a fluid is its actual temperature, divided by its critical temperature: where the actual temperature and critical temperature are expressed in absolute temperature scales (either Kelvin or Rankine). Both the reduced temperature and the reduced pressure are often used in thermodynamical formulas like the Peng–Robinson equation of state. The reduced specific volume (or "pseudo-reduced specific volume") of a fluid is computed from the ideal gas law at the substance's critical pressure and temperature: This property is useful when the specific volume and either temperature or pressure are known, in

neg: Thermal expansion diffraction. For an ideal gas, the volumetric thermal expansion (i.e., relative change in volume due to temperature change) depends on the type of process in which temperature is changed. Two simple cases are constant pressure (an "isobaric process") and constant volume (an "isochoric process"). The derivative of the ideal gas law, formula_44, is where formula_46 is the pressure, formula_23 is the specific volume, and formula_48 is temperature measured in "energy units". By definition of an isobaric thermal expansion, we have formula_49, so that formula_50, and the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient is Similarly, if the volume is held constant, that is

neg: Gas equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system. Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies. The equation of state for an ideal or perfect gas is the ideal gas law and reads where "P" is the pressure, "V" is the volume, "n" is amount of gas (in mol units), "R" is the universal

neg: Combined gas law obeying Gay-Lussac's Law: Applying algebra yields: or in other words where k is a physical constant, and the dependencies formula_27 have vanished. The combined gas law can be used to explain the mechanics where pressure, temperature, and volume are affected. For example: air conditioners, refrigerators and the formation of clouds. Also used in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics. Combined gas law The combined gas law is a gas law that combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. There is no official founder for this law; it is merely an amalgamation of the three previously discovered laws. These laws each relate

neg: Scuba gas planning the pressure, and must be vented to maintain the correct volume in the loop. The mix must be chosen to provide a safe partial pressure of oxygen (PO) at the working depth. There are also decompression considerations: The amount of inert gas that will dissolve in the tissues depends on the partial pressure of the gas and the time at pressure. Henry's law states: On short duration dives the PO can be raised to 1.2 to 1.6 bar. This reduces the PN and/or PHe, and will shorten the required decompression for a given profile. Breathing air deeper than (pressure >

neg: Ideal gas law For example: Change only pressure and volume first: formula_29 (1´) then only volume and temperature: formula_56 (2´) then as we can choose any value for formula_57, if we set formula_58, Eq. (2´) becomes: formula_59(3´) combining equations (1´) and (3´) yields formula_35 , which is Eq. (4), of which we had no prior knowledge until this derivation. The ideal gas law can also be derived from first principles using the kinetic theory of gases, in which several simplifying assumptions are made, chief among which are that the molecules, or atoms, of the gas are point masses, possessing mass but no significant

neg: Standard cubic foot foot at a temperature of 21 °C (70 °F) and a pressure of 101.35 kilopascals [kPa] (14.696 psia)". Yet other definitions are in use for industrial gas, where, in the US, a standard cubic foot for industrial gas use is defined at and 14.696 psia (101.325 kPa), while in Canada, a standard cubic meter for industrial gas use is defined at and 101.325 kPa (14.696 psia). An actual volume can be converted to a standard volume using the following equation: Where, Example: How many standard cubic feet are in 1 cubic foot of gas at 80 °F and 50 psig?

neg: Gas volume corrector Gas volume corrector Gas volume corrector - device for calculating, summing and determining increments of gas volume, measured by gas meter if it were operating base conditions. For this purpose, uses as input the gas volume, measured by the gas meter and other parameters such as: gas pressure and temperature. It is used for the settlement of trade wholesale gas. There are two types of gas volume correctors: Type 1- gas volume corrector with specific types of transducers for pressure and temperature or temperature only. This type of gas volume corrector is powered by battery. Type 2 - a device

neg: Van der Waals equation be found at Maxwell construction The equation is also usable as a PVT equation for compressible fluids (e.g. polymers). In this case specific volume changes are small and it can be written in a simplified form: where "p" is the pressure, "V" is specific volume, "T" is the temperature and "A, B, C" are parameters. Van der Waals equation The van der Waals equation (or van der Waals equation of state; named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals) is based on plausible reasons that real gases do not follow the ideal gas law. The ideal gas law treats gas molecules

neg: Gay-Lussac's law hence, the law became known as Charles's law or the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac. Gay-Lussac's (Amontons') law, Charles's law, and Boyle's law form the combined gas law. These three gas laws in combination with Avogadro's law can be generalized by the ideal gas law. Gay-Lussac's law Gay-Lussac's law can refer to several discoveries made by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) and other scientists in the late 18th and early 19th centuries pertaining to thermal expansion of gases and the relationship between temperature, volume, and pressure. It states that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly

neg: Gas syringe it is important to keep the syringe free from liquids. As gases can dissolve in liquids, especially under any resulting pressure, this may result in inaccurate measurements (Henry's law). The amount of gas in moles formed in a reaction can be measured by measuring the volume of gas evolved at standard (or known) pressure conditions (gas law, PV=nRT). Accordingly, it is important that the syringe barrel should move freely within the syringe chamber, if one assumes that the measured gas is at standard temperature and pressure. Any friction would result in a pressure build-up in the syringe and would lead

neg: Fugacity pressure is not too high. Fugacity is closely related to the chemical potential . In a pure substance, is equal to the Gibbs energy for a mole of the substance, and where and are the temperature and pressure, is the volume per mole and is the entropy per mole. An ideal gas has the equation of state where is the ideal gas constant. At constant temperature (), This equation is very useful but is only accurate when gas molecules are small compared to the distances between them and rebound elastically off each other. Gases behave most like ideal gases at

neg: Molecular diffusion the rates of diffusion of two ideal gases (of similar molar volume) A and B must be equal and opposite, that is formula_2. The partial pressure of A changes by dP over the distance dx. Similarly, the partial pressure of B changes dP. As there is no difference in total pressure across the element (no bulk flow), we have For an ideal gas the partial pressure is related to the molar concentration by the relation where n is the number of moles of gas "A" in a volume "V". As the molar concentration "C" is equal to "n/ V" therefore

neg: Isobaric process this means that Applying the ideal gas law, this becomes assuming that the quantity of gas stays constant, e.g., there is no phase transition during a chemical reaction. According to the equipartition theorem, the change in internal energy is related to the temperature of the system by where "c" is specific heat at a constant volume. Substituting the last two equations into the first equation produces: where "c" is specific heat at a constant pressure, and the "c+R" was brought to "c" by Mayer's relation. To find the molar specific heat capacity of the gas involved, the following equations apply

neg: Measurement microphone calibration physical dimensions of the device and the adiabatic gas law, which requires that "PVγ" is a constant, where "P" is the pressure in the chamber, "V" is the volume of the chamber, and "γ" is the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure to its specific heat at constant volume. Pistonphones are highly dependent on ambient pressure (always requiring a correction to ambient pressure conditions) and are generally only made to reproduce low frequencies (for practical reasons), typically 250 Hz. However, pistonphones can be very precise, with good stability over time. However, commercially available pistonphones are not

neg: Adiabatic flame temperature Adiabatic flame temperature In the study of combustion, there are two types of adiabatic flame temperature depending on how the process is completed, constant volume and constant pressure, describing the temperature that the combustion products theoretically reach if no energy is lost to the outside environment. The constant volume adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any work, heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy. Its temperature is higher than the constant pressure process because none of the energy is utilized to change the volume of the system (i.e.,

neg: Henry's law component in large excess, such as the solvent for a dilute solution, is proportional to its mole fraction, and the constant of proportionality is the vapor pressure of the pure substance (Raoult's law). The vapor pressure of the solute is also proportional to the solute's mole fraction, but the constant of proportionality is different and must be determined experimentally (Henry's law). In mathematical terms: Raoult's law can also be related to non-gas solutes. Henry's law In chemistry, Henry's law is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas

neg: Amagat's law B, of the mixture is given by: and When the volumes of each component gas (same temperature and pressure) are very similar, then Amagat's law becomes mathematically equivalent to Vegard's law for solid mixtures. When Amagat's law is valid and the gas mixture is made of ideal gases (Ideal gas law): where: It follows that the mole fraction and volume fraction are the same. This is true also for other equation of state. Amagat's law Amagat's law or the Law of Partial Volumes describes the behaviour and properties of mixtures of ideal (as well as some cases of non-ideal) gases.

neg: Gay-Lussac's law which he was the first to formulate (c. 1808). He is also sometimes credited, rightfully according to many modern scholars, with being the first to publish convincing evidence that shows the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a fixed mass of gas kept at a constant volume."" These laws are also known variously as the Pressure Law or Amontons's law and Dalton's law respectively. The law of combining volumes states that, when gases react together to form other gases, and when all volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure The ratio between the volumes of the reactant

neg: Avogadro's law condition of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as follows: The equation shows that, as the number of moles of gas increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. Similarly, if the number of moles of gas is decreased, then the volume also decreases. Thus, the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of ideal gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas. The derivation of

neg: Van der Waals equation of any gas has a pressure (P) at temperature (T) in Kelvin. The relationship for these variables, P V = n R T, where R is known as the gas constant, is called the ideal gas law or equation of state. To account for the volume that a real gas molecule takes up, the van der Waals equation replaces "V" in the ideal gas law with "(V-b)", where "b" is the volume per mole that is occupied by the molecules. This leads to: The second modification made to the ideal gas law accounts for the fact that gas molecules do

neg: Ideal gas law laws that led to the derivation of the ideal gas law were discovered with experiments that changed only 2 state variables of the gas and kept every other one constant. All the possible gas laws that could have been discovered with this kind of setup are: formula_28 or formula_29 (1) known as Boyle´s law formula_30 or formula_31 (2) known as Charles´s law formula_32 or formula_33 (3) known as Avogadro´s law formula_34or formula_35 (4) known as Gay-Lussac´s law formula_36or formula_37 (5) formula_38 or formula_39 (6) Where "P" stands for pressure, "V" for volume, "N" for number of particles in the gas

neg: Humidity nitrogen (M ≈ 28) or a molecule of oxygen (M ≈ 32). About 78% of the molecules in dry air are nitrogen (N). Another 21% of the molecules in dry air are oxygen (O). The final 1% of dry air is a mixture of other gases. For any gas, at a given temperature and pressure, the number of molecules present in a particular volume is constant – see ideal gas law. So when water molecules (vapor) are introduced into that volume of dry air, the number of air molecules in the volume must decrease by the same number, if the

neg: Thermodynamics parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law "pV=nRT", the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a

neg: Control variable by the experimenter– to the DV –that element affected by the manipulation of the IV. Any additional independent variable can be a control variable. Take, for example, the combined gas law, which is stated mathematically as: where: In an experimental verification of one part of the combined gas law, Boyle's law, ( * = ), where Pressure, Temperature, and Volume are all variables, to test the resultant changes to any of these variables requires at least one to be kept constant. This is in order to see "comparable experimental results" in the remaining variables. If Volume is made the control

neg: Pulmonary surfactant are wet and surround a central air space. The surface tension acts at the air-water interface and tends to make the bubble smaller (by decreasing the surface area of the interface). The gas pressure ("P") needed to keep equilibrium between the collapsing force of surface tension ("γ") and the expanding force of gas in an alveolus of radius "r" is expressed by the law of Laplace: Compliance is the ability of lungs and thorax to expand. Lung compliance is defined as the volume change per unit of pressure change across the lung. Measurements of lung volume obtained during the controlled

neg: Solubility is the partial molar volume of the i component in the solution, V is the partial molar volume of the i component in the dissolving solid, and R is the universal gas constant. The pressure dependence of solubility does occasionally have practical significance. For example, precipitation fouling of oil fields and wells by calcium sulfate (which decreases its solubility with decreasing pressure) can result in decreased productivity with time. Henry's law is used to quantify the solubility of gases in solvents. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above

neg: Diving cylinder and a requirement on all filling facilities. There are two widespread standards for pressure measurement of diving gas. In the USA and perhaps a few other places the pressure is measured in pounds per square inch (psi), and the rest of the world uses bar. Sometimes gauges may be calibrated in other metric units, such as kilopascal (kPa) or megapascal (MPa), or in atmospheres (atm, or ATA), particularly gauges not actually used underwater. There are two commonly used conventions for describing the capacity of a diving cylinder. One is based on the internal volume of the cylinder. The other is

neg: Gas volume corrector that converts separate transmitters with external temperature and pressure, or temperature only and for separate calculator, which may be approved separately. This type of gas volume corrector is powered by mains. European Standard EN 12405-1:2005+A2 Gas volume corrector Gas volume corrector - device for calculating, summing and determining increments of gas volume, measured by gas meter if it were operating base conditions. For this purpose, uses as input the gas volume, measured by the gas meter and other parameters such as: gas pressure and temperature. It is used for the settlement of trade wholesale gas. There are two types of

neg: Firm service electrical transmission capacity. Firm service for natural gas pipelines and electrical transmission lines often include two charges. The first is a reservation charge related to how much capacity the customer reserves. This charge is paid regardless of how much capacity is actually used. The second charge is based on how much capacity is used. Interruptible rates are volumetric, being based only on the volume of gas or electricity delivered. Firm service Firm services, also called uninterruptible services, are services, such as electricity and natural gas supplies, that are intended to be available at all times during a period covered by

neg: Stoichiometry of the gases are all known. The ideal gas law is used for these calculations. Often, but not always, the standard temperature and pressure (STP) are taken as 0 °C and 1 bar and used as the conditions for gas stoichiometric calculations. Gas stoichiometry calculations solve for the unknown volume or mass of a gaseous product or reactant. For example, if we wanted to calculate the volume of gaseous NO produced from the combustion of 100 g of NH, by the reaction: we would carry out the following calculations: There is a 1:1 molar ratio of NH to NO in

neg: Standard cubic foot of the label "standard", there is a variety of definitions, mainly depending on the type of gas. Since, for a given volume, the quantity is proportional to the pressure and (absolute) temperature, each definition fixes base values for pressure and temperature. The ideal gas law allows then to compute the quantity per unit of volume for actual pressures and temperatures. Since natural gas is an imprecise mix of various molecular species, chiefly methane but with varying proportions of other gases, a standard cubic foot of natural gas does not represent a precise unit of mass, but only a molecular quantity,

neg: Wesley C. Salmon the phenomenon's counterfactual derivability from initial conditions plus natural laws (Hempel's covering law model). Yet Salmon found causality ubiquitous in scientific explanation, which identifies not only natural laws (empirical regularities), but accounts for them via nature's structure and thereby involves the ontic (concerning reality), how the phenomenon "fits into the causal nexus" of the world (Salmon's causal/mechanical explanation). For instance, Boyle's law relates temperature, pressure, and volume of an ideal gas (epistemic), but this was later reduced to laws of statistical mechanics via average kinetic energy of colliding molecules composing the gas (ontic). Thus, Salmon finds scientific explanation to be

neg: Dalton's law the total mixture of "n" components. The relationship below provides a way to determine the volume-based concentration of any individual gaseous component where "c" is the concentration of the "i"th component. Dalton's law is not strictly followed by real gases, with the deviation increasing with pressure. Under such conditions the volume occupied by the molecules becomes significant compared to the free space between them. In particular, the short average distances between molecules increases intermolecular forces between gas molecules enough to substantially change the pressure exerted by them, an effect not included in the ideal gas model. Dalton's law In chemistry

neg: Gas meter Gas meter A gas meter is a specialized flow meter, used to measure the volume of fuel gases such as natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas. Gas meters are used at residential, commercial, and industrial buildings that consume fuel gas supplied by a gas utility. Gases are more difficult to measure than liquids, because measured volumes are highly affected by temperature and pressure. Gas meters measure a defined volume, regardless of the pressurized quantity or quality of the gas flowing through the meter. Temperature, pressure, and heating value compensation must be made to measure actual amount and value of gas

neg: Diving cylinder effectively identical at one decimal place accuracy. These are representative examples, for a larger range, the on-line catalogues of the manufacturers such as Faber, Pressed Steel, Luxfer, and Catalina may be consulted. The applications are typical, but not exclusive. The nominal volume of gas stored is commonly quoted as the cylinder capacity in the USA. It is a measure of the volume of gas that can be released from the full cylinder at atmospheric pressure. Terms used for the capacity include 'free gas volume' or 'free gas equivalent'. It depends on the internal volume and the working pressure of a

neg: Stoichiometry for example, the stoichiometries in the second reaction simplify when included in the matrix. This means that it is not always possible to recover the original reaction scheme from a stoichiometry matrix. Often the stoichiometry matrix is combined with the rate vector, v, and the species vector, S to form a compact equation describing the rates of change of the molecular species: "Gas stoichiometry" is the quantitative relationship (ratio) between reactants and products in a chemical reaction with reactions that produce gases. Gas stoichiometry applies when the gases produced are assumed to be ideal, and the temperature, pressure, and volume

neg: Ideal gas law law and the ideal gas assumption, the net force of the system is the force applied by the walls of the container, and this force is given by the pressure "P" of the gas. Hence where dS is the infinitesimal area element along the walls of the container. Since the divergence of the position vector q is the divergence theorem implies that where "dV" is an infinitesimal volume within the container and "V" is the total volume of the container. Putting these equalities together yields which immediately implies the ideal gas law for "N" particles: where "n" = "N"/"N" is

neg: Acoustic wave wave becomes a travelling wave moving rightwards, for formula_14 the wave becomes a travelling wave moving leftwards. A standing wave can be obtained by formula_15. In a travelling wave pressure and particle velocity are in phase, which means the phase angle between the two quantities is zero. This can be easily proven using the ideal gas law where Consider a volume formula_18. As an acoustic wave propagates through the volume, adiabatic compression and decompression occurs. For adiabatic change the following relation between volume formula_18 of a parcel of fluid and pressure formula_2 holds where As a sound wave propagates through

neg: Gas thermometer system. k is not a fixed constant across all systems and therefore needs to be found experimentally for a given system through testing with known temperature values. The constant volume gas thermometer plays a crucial role in understanding how absolute zero could be discovered long before the advent of cryogenics. Consider a graph of pressure versus temperature made not far from standard conditions (well above absolute zero) for three different samples of any ideal gas "(a, b, c)". To the extent that the gas is ideal, the pressure depends linearly on temperature, and the extrapolation to zero pressure occurs at

neg: Flow measurement standard cubic meters per hour), "LFM" (linear feet per minute), or "MMSCFD" (million standard cubic feet per day). Gas "mass" flow rate can be directly measured, independent of pressure and temperature effects, with thermal mass flow meters, Coriolis mass flow meters, or mass flow controllers. For liquids, various units are used depending upon the application and industry, but might include gallons (U.S. or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute or, when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic meters per second) or acre-feet per day. In oceanography a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of water transported by

neg: Saturation vapor density low temperatures (below approximately 400 K), SVD can be approximated from the SVP by the ideal gas law: where is the SVP, is the volume, is the number of moles, is the gas constant and is the temperature in kelvins. The number of moles is related to density by , where is the mass of water present and is the molar mass of water (18.01528 grams/mole). Thus, setting to 1 cubic meter, we get = = density. The values shown at hyperphysics-sources indicate that the saturated vapor density is 4.85 g/m at 273 K, at which the saturated vapor pressure

neg: Cascade filling system which the storage cylinders can be recharged. When gas contained in a cylinder at high pressure is allowed to flow to another cylinder containing gas at a lower pressure, the pressures will equalise to a value somewhere between the two initial pressures. The equilibrium pressure is affected by transfer rate as it will be influenced by temperature, but at constant temperature the equilibrium pressure is described by Dalton's law of partial pressures and Boyle's law for ideal gases. The formula for the equilibrium pressure is: An example could be a 100-litre (internal volume) cylinder (V) pressurised to 200 bar (P)

neg: Booster pump and only after it has dropped below the supply gas pressure, more supply gas will flow into the cylinder. The ratio of the volume of the cylinder space with the piston fully withdrawn, to the dead space, is the "compression ratio" of the booster, also termed "boost ratio" in this context. Efficiency of the booster is related to the compression ratio, and gas will only be transferred while the pressure ratio between supply and discharge gas is less than the boost ratio, and delivery rate will drop as the inlet to delivery pressure ratio increases. Delivery rate starts at very