query: when did the sea level start to rise

pos: Sea level rise sheets. Since the last glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago, the sea level has risen by more than , with rates varying from less than a mm/year to 40+ mm/year, as a result of melting ice sheets over Canada and Eurasia. Rapid disintegration of ice sheets led to so called 'meltwater pulses', periods during which sea level rose rapidly. The rate of rise started to slow down 8.2 thousand years before present; the sea level was almost constant in the last 2,500 years, before the recent rising trend starting approximately in 1850. To get precise measurements for sea level, researchers

pos: Sea level rise sheets. Since the last glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago, the sea level has risen by more than , with rates varying from less than a mm/year to 40+ mm/year, as a result of melting ice sheets over Canada and Eurasia. Rapid disintegration of ice sheets led to so called 'meltwater pulses', periods during which sea level rose rapidly. The rate of rise started to slow down 8.2 thousand years before present; the sea level was almost constant in the last 2,500 years, before the recent rising trend starting approximately in 1850. To get precise measurements for sea level, researchers

neg: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 previously it was thought that the polar ice caps were not contributing heavily to sea level rise (IPCC 2007), recent studies have confirmed that both Antarctica and Greenland are contributing a year each to global sea level rise. The fact that the IPCC estimates did not include rapid ice sheet decay into their sea level predictions makes it difficult to ascertain a plausible estimate for sea level rise but recent studies find that the minimum sea level rise will be around by 2100. Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water

neg: Cape Cod Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach. As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet

neg: Cape Gantheaume top is above sea level. When viewed from the south on a platform such as a ship, the cape is reported as being 'steep on its W(est) side and sloping on its E(ast) side.' Cape Gantheaume was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. The cliff line which includes Cape Gantheaume consists of a metamorphic rock belonging to the Kanmantoo group bedrock called Middleton Sandstone. The cliff at Cape Gantheaume is described as having 'spectacular re-entrants' due to the 'differential weathering of near vertical

neg: Point Labatt west coast of Eyre Peninsula, at a distance of about South by east of Streaky Bay and about west-northwest of Adelaide. When viewed from a platform such as a ship, Point Labatt appears as the start of a line of uninterrupted cliffs starting at a height of that runs in a south easterly direction and that rises to a height of at Cape Radstock, the north head of Anxious Bay. Point Labatt as a headland was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. Point

neg: Physical impacts of climate change causing a sea level lowering of between 4000 and 2500 years before present. From 3000 years ago to the start of the 19th century, sea level was almost constant, with only minor fluctuations. However, the [[Medieval Warm Period]] may have caused some sea level rise; evidence has been found in the Pacific Ocean for a rise to perhaps above present level in 700 BP. In a paper published in 2007, the climatologist [[James E. Hansen]] "et al." claimed that ice at the poles does not melt in a gradual and linear fashion, but that another according to the geological record,

neg: St. Patricks Channel essentially a fiordal system connected to the North Atlantic via two restricted channels at the Great Bras d'Or Channel north of Boularderie Island and the Little Bras d'Or Channel to south of Boularderie Island, the waters of St. Patricks Channel are brackish, partially fresh/ salt water. The Bras d'Or Lakes were occupied by glaciers during the last ice age. When the ice had gone they were freshwater lakes until ca. 6,350 calendar years ago, when rising sea level connected them with the ocean. The rate of sea-level rise at the start of inundation was 79 cm/century, and has declined throughout

neg: Sea level rise by 2100 and plan for a 2-4 m rise by 2200. About a quarter of the Netherlands lies beneath sea level, while more than 50% of the nation's area would be inundated by tidal floods if it did not have an extensive levee system. The New York City Panel on Climate Change (NPCC) is an effort to prepare the New York City area for climate change. Miami Beach is spending $500 million from 2015 to 2020 to address sea-level rise. Actions include a pump drainage system, and raising of roadways and sidewalks. U.S. coastal cities also conduct so called "beach

neg: Environmental health policy space. As sea levels start to rise, the shore line starts to expand. In serious situations, this causes people to become environmental refugees. As the sea level rises it starts to affect valuable land used for food and other harvesting. 200 million people is the amount of people that are at risk of flooding should the sea level rise 40 cm by the 2080s. The health risks that are a result of the environment are starting to affect people around the globe. It is estimated that the increasing temperatures over the past 30 years have resulted in the deaths of

neg: The Bruun Rule 50 times sea level rise, depending on the slope of the beach. The mathematical notation of the Bruun Rule is: formula_1 Where, In 1954, Per Moller Bruun published a paper describing beach profiles and cross shore equilibrium. Developing on these ideas, in 1962 he published his paper "Sea-Level Rise as a Cause of Shore Erosion","" which first gave a relationship between sea level rise and the shoreline recession of equilibrium beach profiles. His rule wasn't given a name until 1967, when Schwartz published "The Bruun Theory of Sea-Level Rise as a Cause of Shore Erosion" which detailed laboratory and field

neg: Climate change in New Zealand lake and by 2008 Tasman Lake was 7 km long, 2 km wide and 245m deep. An analysis of long term records from four New Zealand tide gauges indicates an average rate of increase in sea level of 1.6 mm a year for the 100 years to 2000, which is considered to be relatively consistent with other regional and global sea level rise calculations when corrected for glacial-isostatic effects. One global average rate of sea-level rise is 1.7 ± 0.3 mm per year for the 20th century (Church and White (2006). Another global average rate of sea-level rise is 1.8

neg: Sea level rise estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years. Warming beyond the 2 °C target would potentially lead to rates of sea-level rise dominated by ice loss from Antarctica. Continued carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel sources could cause additional tens of metres of sea level rise, over the next millennia, and ultimately melt the entire Antarctic ice sheet, causing about of sea level rise. After 500 years, sea level rise from thermal expansion alone may have reached only half of its eventual level, which models

neg: Kolossos Rodou B.C. team was not able to compete at a high level for many years, and was not funded properly. Kolossos was the first Greek basketball team located in the Aegean Sea region. In 2000, the fate of the team finally changed, when Kostas Kostaridis became the new team President, and took over the reins of the club. Kostaridis changed almost the entire club management, and stated that it was the immediate goal of the team to rise from the 3rd-tier level Greek B League, to the 2nd-tier level Greek A2 League, and subsequently, the team did begin to rise up through

neg: Sea level rise marshes. Mangroves and tidal marshes adjust to rising sea levels by building vertically using accumulated sediment and organic matter. If sea level rise is too rapid, they will not be able to keep up and will instead be submerged. As both ecosystems protect against storm surges, waves and tsunamis, losing them makes the effects of sea level rise worse. Human activities, such as dam building, may restrict sediment supplies to wetlands, and thereby prevent natural adaptation processes. The loss of some tidal marshes is unavoidable as a consequence. When seawater reaches inland, problems related to contaminated soils may occur. Also,

neg: Cape du Couedic Island coast. It is the termination for a pair of coastlines - the western coastline extending from Cape Borda in the north and the southern coastline extending from Cape Willoughby in the east. It is described as ‘a narrow promontory about 1 mile long' (i.e. ) and that ‘its SW face slopes to the sea whereas its N and S sides are steep.’ Cape du Couedic was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. The cliff line which includes Cape du Couedic consists of

neg: Climate change in Tuvalu lead to flooding of low-lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by La Niña effects or local storms and waves. In the future, sea level rise may threaten to submerge the nation entirely as it is estimated that a sea level rise of in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable. The atolls have shown resilience to gradual sea-level rise, with atolls and reef islands being able to grow under current climate conditions by generating sufficient sand and broken coral that accumulates and gets dumped on the islands during cyclones. There remains the risk that

neg: Geography of Tuvalu February 2006 and again on 19 February 2015. As a result of historical sea level rise, the king tide events lead to flooding of low-lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by La Niña effects or local storms and waves. In the future, sea level rise may threaten to submerge the nation entirely as it is estimated that a sea level rise of 20–40 centimetres (8–16 inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable. Tuvalu experiences westerly gales and heavy rain from October to March - the period that is known as "Tau-o-lalo"; with

neg: Little Bad Girl sun start to rise, he and many other guests run down to the beach and they all skid to a halt in front of the sea, causing the Earth to rotate backwards. The sun goes back down and this makes it dark again in other parts of the world when it had just been light. Ludacris can also be seen with a megaphone when rapping his verse. Towards the end of the video, the sun again starts to rise and Guetta runs off to repeat what he did before. Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song three out of

neg: Garden Island (South Australia) transmission line crosses the island in an east-west direction to a termination point at the Torrens Island Power Station. Garden Island is one of the geographical features in what is now the Adelaide metropolitan area that was formed as a consequence of sea level rise at the start of the Holocene. Sea level rise had three consequences. Firstly, watercourses existing at the time were forced to create new mouths in new coastline. Secondly, currents arising along the new coastline formed beaches, a coastal dune system and ultimately the spit known as the Lefevre Peninsula all by the process of longshore

neg: The Island of Ham of London is so close by, know their island as Ham. This abbreviation of modern-day place names is common throughout the book, with other cities such as Luton, Birmingham and Nottingham surviving into the future as 'Lut', 'Brum' and 'Nott'. The geography of the island, illustrated in a map at the start of the book, bears close resemblance to the modern areas of Hampstead which inspired it. Sea-level rise animations by Google Earth, show that if London was indeed submerged under a 100m sea level rise, the high hills of Hampstead would indeed create an island of the shape illustrated

neg: Sea level rise the analysis of current and future changes. In the recent geological past changes in land ice and thermal expansion from increased temperatures are the dominant reasons of sea level rise. The last time the Earth was 2 °C warmer than the pre-industrial temperatures, sea levels were at least higher than present. This was during the last interglacial, when the earth warming was caused by slow changes in the orbital forcing. The warming was sustained over a period of thousands of years and the magnitude of the rise in sea level implied a large contribution from the Antarctic and Greenland ice

neg: Sea level rise ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2–0.4 mm/yr, averaged over the 20th century. Over the 21st century, this is expected to rise, with glaciers contributing to global sea levels. Glaciers contributed around 40% to sea-level rise during the 20th century, with estimates for the 21st century of around 30%. Sea ice melt has a very small contribution to global sea level rise. According to Archimedes' principle, sea ice that melts does not take up more volume than it had in the form of sea ice or icebergs. However, this only holds true in the case that the

neg: Sea level rise of the climate system. Of course, when the ocean gains heat the water expands and this represents a component of global sea-level rise. The thermal expansion of water increases with temperature and pressure of the water. Hence, cold Arctic Ocean water will expand less for a given increase in temperature compared to warm tropical water. Because different climate models have slightly different patterns of ocean heating, they do not agree fully on the predictions for the contribution of ocean heating on sea level rise. The large volume of ice on the Antarctic continent stores around 70% of the world's fresh

neg: Veteran Isles 1996, access via boat was suggested as being “hazardous” due to the combination of a steep shoreline and sea conditions that need to be calm. The Veteran Isles were formed along with the rest of the Pearson Isles about 10,500 years ago following the rise of sea levels at the start of the Holocene. Geologically, the Veteran Isles and the other parts of the Pearson Isles are the summits of an inselberg partially concealed by sea level rise. The waters adjoining Veteran Isles are shown on Admiralty Charts as falling immediately to depths equal and greater than from the Isles'

neg: Early Holocene sea level rise Early Holocene sea level rise The early Holocene sea level rise (EHSLR) was a significant jump in sea level by about during the early Holocene, between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, spanning the Eurasian Mesolithic. The rapid rise in sea level and associated climate change, notably the 8.2 ka cooling event, and the loss of coastal land favoured by early farmers, may have contributed to the spread of the Neolithic to Europe. During deglaciation since the Last Glacial Maximum, between about 20,000 to 7,000 years ago (20–7 ka), sea level rose by a total of about 100 m, at

neg: Isostasy isostatic causes. The term "eustasy" or "eustatic" refers to changes in the volume of water in the oceans, usually due to global climate change. When Earth's climate cools, a greater proportion of water is stored on land masses in the form of glaciers, snow, etc. This results in falling global sea levels (relative to a stable land mass). The refilling of ocean basins by glacial meltwater at the end of ice ages is an example of eustatic sea level rise. A second significant cause of eustatic sea level rise is thermal expansion of sea water when Earth's mean temperature increases.

neg: Kangaroo Head Nepean Bay. It is described as ‘a bluff, rocky point marked by a conspicuous white cairn’ where the land behind ‘rises steeply to heights of to ’. Since 2002, it has been located within the gazetted locality of Kangaroo Head. Kangaroo Head was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. The cliff line which includes Kangaroo Head consists of a grey metasandstone belonging to the Kanmantoo group bedrock known as the Tananappa Formation. The water adjoining Kangaroo Head drops to a depth of at

neg: Point Marsden the south in Nepean Bay. It is described as being ‘a rocky headland of moderate height’ and that ‘High wooded land rises about W of it.’ It is the western extremity of the opening to Nepean Bay. Point Marsden was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. The cliff line which includes Point Marsden consists of a metamorphic rock belonging to the Kangaroo Island Group bedrock called Boxing Bay Formation. The water adjoining Point Marsden drops to a depth of at the outer edge

neg: Troubridge Point of the opening to Gulf St Vincent. As of 2014, the point was located within the locality of Honiton. Troubridge Point was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. The cliff line which includes Troubridge Point consists of a sedimentary rock called Port Willinga Formation. The water adjoining Troubridge Point drops to a depth of at the base of its cliff face. As of 2014, the land adjoining Troubridge Point is used for farming. Troubridge Point Troubridge Point is a headland in the Australian

neg: Rosetta Head a small cove called Petrel Cove. Rosetta Head as a headland was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. As a landform, it is a large domed inselberg which is considered to be "the most prominent feature along Encounter Bay coastline" and whose form is due to its origins via the geological processes of metamorphism and intrusion followed by two phases of erosion; firstly via the action of a northward-moving glacier during the Permian which created the distinctive dome shape and then by wave

neg: Sea level rise level rise from satellite altimetry have been estimated to be per year for the period 1993–2017. Earlier satellite measurements were previously at odds with tide gauge measurements. A small calibration error for the Topex/Poseidon satellite discovered in 2015 was identified as the cause of this mismatch. It had caused a slight overestimation of the 1992–2005 sea levels, which masked the ongoing sea level rise acceleration. With satellites it is possible to capture regional variations in sea level rise well. In the 1993–2012 period for instance, sea level rose substantially in the western tropical Pacific. The sharp rise in this area

neg: Meltwater pulse 1A on during the end of the last ice age. Several researchers have narrowed the period of the pulse to between 13,500 and 14,700 calendar years ago with its peak at about 13,800 calendar years ago. The start of this meltwater event coincides with or closely follows the abrupt onset of the Bølling-Allerød (B-A) interstadial and warming in the NorthGRIP ice core in Greenland at 14,600 calendar years ago. During meltwater pulse 1A, sea level is estimated to have risen at a rate of /yr. This rate of sea level rise was much larger than the rate of current sea level

neg: Early Holocene sea level rise Hemisphere source for the meltwater in the Laurentide ice sheet. Early Holocene sea level rise The early Holocene sea level rise (EHSLR) was a significant jump in sea level by about during the early Holocene, between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, spanning the Eurasian Mesolithic. The rapid rise in sea level and associated climate change, notably the 8.2 ka cooling event, and the loss of coastal land favoured by early farmers, may have contributed to the spread of the Neolithic to Europe. During deglaciation since the Last Glacial Maximum, between about 20,000 to 7,000 years ago (20–7 ka), sea

neg: Nils-Axel Mörner did not subscribe to Mörner's views on climate change. In 2000 he launched an international sea level research project in the Maldives which claims to demonstrate an absence of signs of any on-going sea level rise. Despite President Gayoom having spoken in the past about the impending dangers to his country, the Maldives, Mörner concluded that the people of the Maldives have in the past survived a higher sea level about , and there is evidence of a significant sea level fall in the last 30 years in that Indian Ocean area. However, these conclusions were disputed by due to

neg: Seawall normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope with (Allan "et al." 1999). The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when possible for other vertical land motions by the Global Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8 mm/yr over the twentieth century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1997) suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level

neg: Sea level rise Rignot projection. Other estimates suggest that for the same period, global mean sea level could rise by , relative to the mean sea level in 1992. The Third National Climate Assessment (NCA), released May 6, 2014, communicated a plausible sea level rise of by 2100, and suggested that decision makers who are particularly risk-averse may wish to use a wider range of . A 2016 study led by Jim Hansen concluded that based on past climate change data, sea level rise could accelerate exponentially in the coming decades, with a doubling time of 10, 20 or 40 years, respectively, raising

neg: Sea level rise also face issues such as subsidence. The Egyptian city Alexandria faces a similar situation, where hundreds of thousands people living in the low-lying areas may already have to be relocated in the coming decade. However, modest increases in sea level are likely to be offset when cities adapt by constructing sea walls or through relocating. Miami has been listed as "the number-one most vulnerable city worldwide" in terms of potential damage to property from storm-related flooding and sea-level rise. Rising seas has also been tied to an increased risk from tsunamis, potentially affecting coastal cities in the Pacific and Atlantic

neg: Effects of global warming is found in glaciers and ice sheets. Anthropogenic forces very likely (greater than 90% probability, based on expert judgement) contributed to sea level rise during the latter half of the 20th century. There is a widespread consensus that substantial long-term sea level rise will continue for centuries to come. In their Fourth Assessment Report, the IPCC projected sea level rise to the end of the 21st century using the SRES emissions scenarios. Across the six SRES marker scenarios, sea level was projected to rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.1 to 23.2 in), relative to sea level at the end

neg: Sea level rise fact that in the 2007 IPCC report, most physical models underestimated the amount of sea level rise compared to observations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has made predictions of sea level changes to the year 2100, using the available scientific literature. Their projections are based on the contributors to sea level rise, but do exclude some processes that are less understood. In the case of rapid cuts in emission (the so-called RCP2.6 scenario), the IPCC deem it likely that the sea level will rise by with a 67% confidence interval. The higher value should thus not be read

neg: Raised shoreline various locations around the Puget Sound of Washington State. Raised shoreline A raised shoreline is an ancient shoreline exposed above current water level. These landforms are formed by a relative change in sea level due to global sea level rise, isostatic rebound, and/or tectonic uplift. These surfaces are usually exposed above modern sea level when a heavily glaciated area experiences a glacial retreat, causing water levels to rise. This area will then experience post-glacial rebound, effectively raising the shoreline surface. Examples of raised shorelines can be found along the coasts of formerly glaciated areas in Ireland and Scotland, as well

neg: Raised shoreline Raised shoreline A raised shoreline is an ancient shoreline exposed above current water level. These landforms are formed by a relative change in sea level due to global sea level rise, isostatic rebound, and/or tectonic uplift. These surfaces are usually exposed above modern sea level when a heavily glaciated area experiences a glacial retreat, causing water levels to rise. This area will then experience post-glacial rebound, effectively raising the shoreline surface. Examples of raised shorelines can be found along the coasts of formerly glaciated areas in Ireland and Scotland, as well as in North America. Raised shorelines are exposed at

neg: Cape Spencer (South Australia) islands are available and the presence of interpretative signage provides information about the locality’s maritime history. Cape Spencer was formed when the sea reached its present level 7,500 years ago after sea levels started to rise at the start of the Holocene. The cliff line which includes Cape Spencer consists of base strata of both Gleesons Landing Granite and Tourneforte Metadolerite with an overlay of a Bridgewater Formation calcarenite rock. The water adjoining the wave-cut platform at the base of Cape Spencer drops to a maximum depth of . Cape Spencer was named on 20 March 1802 by Matthew Flinders

neg: Limalok in which the seamount was submerged; the start of sedimentation has been dated to about 57.5 ± 2.5 million years ago. After a Paleocene phase with open sea or back-reef conditions, lagoonal environments developed on the seamount during the Eocene. It is possible that the platform periodically emerged above sea level, leading to its erosion. It is not clear if the platform took the form of an atoll, or of a shallow platform shielded on one side by islands or shoals, similar to the present-day Bahama Banks. Sea level rise at the Paleocene-Eocene transition may have triggered a transformation from

neg: Sea level rise as an upper limit, which can be substantially higher. For a scenario with very high emissions, the IPCC project the sea level to rise by . Compared to the previous IPCC estimate, more sea level rise is expected for similar scenarios. Projections assessed by the US National Research Council (2010) suggest possible sea level rise over the 21st century of . The NRC describes the IPCC projections as "conservative". In 2011, Rignot and others projected a rise of by 2050. Their projection included increased contributions from the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets. Use of two completely different approaches reinforced the

neg: 8.2 kiloyear event North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. The initial meltwater pulse caused between of sea-level rise. Based on estimates of lake volume and decaying ice cap size, values of circulate. Based on sea-level data from the Mississippi Delta, the end of the Lake Agassiz–Ojibway (LAO) drainage occurred at 8.31 to 8.18 ka and ranges from 0.8 to 2.2 m. The sea-level data from the Rhine–Meuse Delta indicate a of near-instantaneous rise at 8.54 to 8.2 ka, in addition to 'normal' post-glacial sea-level rise. Meltwater pulse sea-level rise was experienced fully at great distance from the release area. Gravity and rebound effects associated with

neg: Ice shelf level rise is estimated to be ~4 cm. Much more importantly, if and when these ice shelves melt sufficiently, and cease to grip on the small islands and another obstacle of the former grounding line, they will no longer impede glacier flow off the continent, so that glacier flow will accelerate. This new source of ice volume flows down from above sea level, displacing sea water and so contributing to sea level rise. Ice shelf An ice shelf is a thick suspended platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto

neg: Schmale Heide renewed mainland phase, the Ancylus transgression. Not until 8,000 years ago – after a general rise in worldwide sea levels – did the level of water in the Baltic Sea basin climb rapidly again, by around 15 metres, after the flooding of the land bridge between Denmark and Scandinavia to form the Litorina Sea, reaching almost its present level about 5,500 years ago. Since that time the sea level has varied by only around 1–2 metres and a process of coastal equalisation ("Küstenausgleichsprozess") began that continues to the present day. In particular, the coastal cliffs of Rügen have been eroded

neg: Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast which makes it even more difficult to predict how they will change with climate change. At the Baltic Sea, sea level is expected to rise in line with the expected global average rise in sea level. According to the Intergovernmental Penal on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report, global average sea level is predicted to rise 0.26-0.55 m in the period 2081-2100 in relation to 1986-2005 sea level. Studies show that at the German North Sea coast, sea level from 1843-2008 has risen between 1,6 and 1,8 mm per year. Higher values have been observed at the west coast of

neg: Sea level rise nourishment", also known as "beach replenishment", where new beach sand is trucked in and added. Options that have been proposed to assist island nations to adapt to rising sea level include abandoning islands, building dikes, and "building upwards." Sea level rise At least since 1880, the average global sea level has been rising. Historical measurements from tide gauges show a rise of about over a century from 1897 to 1997. More precise data gathered from satellite radar measurements reveals an accelerating rise of from 1993 to 2017, which is a trend of roughly per century. The acceleration is due mostly

neg: Sea level land relative to a fixed point in the earth, possibly due to thermal buoyancy or tectonic effects; it implies no change in the volume of water in the oceans. The melting of glaciers at the end of ice ages is one example of eustatic sea level rise. The subsidence of land due to the withdrawal of groundwater is an isostatic cause of relative sea level rise. Paleoclimatologists can track sea level by examining the rocks deposited along coasts that are very tectonically stable, like the east coast of North America. Areas like volcanic islands are experiencing relative sea level rise

neg: Dorothee Island of . The top of both peaks each “retains some pockets of soil, predominantly coarse and granitic but with small patches of calcareous sandy loam”. The island’s east coast is reported in 1996 as providing “enough shelter to allow a cautious landing in all but severe swells”. Dorothee Island was formed along with the rest of the Pearson Isles about 10,500 years ago following the rise of sea levels at the start of the Holocene. Geologically, Dorothee Island and the other parts of the Pearson Isles are the summits of an inselberg partially concealed by sea level rise. Dorothee Island’s

neg: Pearson Island the island that connects “North Hill” and “Hill 781” and by a ridge line that connects “Hill 781” to “East Hill”. Each valley has a drainage system which drains into a creek which are respectively known as “North Creek” and “Main Creek”. Pearson Island was formed along with the rest of the Pearson Isles about 10,500 years ago following the rise of sea levels at the start of the Holocene. Geologically, Pearson Island and the other members of the Pearson Isles are the summits of an inselberg partially concealed by sea level rise. Pearson Island exhibits landforms caused firstly by

neg: Sea level rise the ocean by several meters in 50, 100 or 200 years. However, Greg Holland from the National Center for Atmospheric Research, who reviewed the study, noted: “There is no doubt that the sea level rise, within the IPCC, is a very conservative number, so the truth lies somewhere between IPCC and Jim"."” One 2017 study's scenario, assuming high fossil fuel use for combustion and strong economic growth during this century, projects sea level rise of up to on average — and an extreme scenario with as much as , by 2100. This could mean rapid sea level rise of up

neg: Sea level rise (8%). The sea level will not rise uniformly everywhere on Earth, and it will even drop in some locations. Local factors include tectonic effects and subsidence of the land, tides, currents and storms. The rising trend is expected to continue for centuries. Because of long response times of the climate system, it has been estimated that each Celsius degree of temperature rise would trigger a sea level rise of approximately over the next 2,000 years. Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems. Widespread coastal flooding would be expected

neg: Sea level rise literature found estimates for the Greenland ice sheet and its glaciers and ice caps, they were the largest contributor to the observed sea level rise from "land ice" sources (excluding thermal expansion), combined accounting for 71 percent, or 1.32 mm per year during the 2012–2016 period. Mountain glaciers include only a minor fraction of all water bound up in glaciers ice (<1%), compared to a bigger portion in Greenland and Antarctica (99%). Still, mountain glaciers have contributed appreciably to historical sea level rise and are set to contribute a smaller, but still significant fraction of sea level rise in the

neg: Sea level rise Sea level rise At least since 1880, the average global sea level has been rising. Historical measurements from tide gauges show a rise of about over a century from 1897 to 1997. More precise data gathered from satellite radar measurements reveals an accelerating rise of from 1993 to 2017, which is a trend of roughly per century. The acceleration is due mostly to anthropogenic global warming that is driving the thermal expansion of seawater while melting land-based ice sheets and glaciers. The current trend is expected to further accelerate during the 21st century. Projecting future sea level has always been

neg: Ingression coast Ingression coast An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level. Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral (tidal) processes, because the sea level, which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period, did not reach its current level until about 6,000 years ago. Depending on the geomorphological shaping of the flooded landform – e. g. glacially or fluvially formed relief –

neg: Ingression coast various types of ingression coast emerge, such as rias, skerry and fjard coasts as well as förde and bodden coasts. Ingression coast An ingression coast or depressed coast is a generally level coastline that is shaped by the penetration of the sea as a result of crustal movements or a rise in the sea level. Such coasts are characterised by a subaerially formed relief that has previously experienced little deformation by littoral (tidal) processes, because the sea level, which had fallen by more than 100 metres during the last glacial period, did not reach its current level until about 6,000

neg: Meltwater pulse 1A Meltwater pulse 1A Meltwater pulse 1A (MWP1a) is the name used by Quaternary geologists, paleoclimatologists, and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise, between 13,500 and 14,700 years ago, during which global sea level rose between and in about 400–500 years, giving mean rates of roughly /yr. Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 (CRE1) in the Caribbean Sea. The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial, eustatic sea level rise. Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed

neg: Sea level rise if several degrees of warming are sustained for millennia. For example, sustained global warming of more than 2 C° relative to pre-industrial levels could lead to an eventual sea level rise of . Societies can respond to sea level rise in three different ways: retreat, accommodate and protect. Sometimes these adaptation strategies go hand in hand, but at other times choices have to be made between different strategies. Ecosystems that adapt to rising sea levels by moving inland might not always be able to do so, due to natural or man made barriers. Understanding past sea level is important for

neg: Physical impacts of climate change in sea level over the time period, or whether it reflected an increase in the underlying long-term trend. IPCC (2007a:13, 14) projected sea level rise to the end of the 21st century using the [[Special Report on Emissions Scenarios|SRES]] emission [[economics of global warming#Scenarios|scenarios]]. Across the six SRES marker scenarios, sea level was projected to rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.1 to 23.2 inches). This projection was for the time period 2090–2099, with the increase in level relative to average sea levels over the 1980–1999 period. Due to a lack of scientific understanding, this sea level rise estimate does

neg: Cryosphere (Paterson 1993; Alley 1997) have suggested that the difference between the observed rate of sea-level rise (roughly 2 mm/y) and the explained rate of sea-level rise from melting of mountain glaciers, thermal expansion of the ocean, etc. (roughly 1 mm/y or less) is similar to the modeled imbalance in the Antarctic (roughly 1 mm/y of sea-level rise; Huybrechts 1990), suggesting a contribution of sea-level rise from the Antarctic. Relationships between global climate and changes in ice extent are complex. The mass balance of land-based glaciers and ice sheets is determined by the accumulation of snow, mostly in winter, and warm-season

neg: Florida mangroves rise scenarios by the year 2100. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report which was finalized in 2014 is now predicting 52–98 cm sea level rise by 2100. In addition, this report has often been criticized as underestimating the severity of climate change making it even more likely for the moderate(45 cm) or severe(95 cm) sea rise scenarios to occur. Despite the fact mangroves are currently keeping pace with sea level rise, at rates greater than 2.3mm/yr there is potential for mangrove ecosystem failure. A failure that is perhaps inevitable for mangroves inhabiting low-lying islands that will be inundated. Sea level rise

neg: Diving horse of the Atlantic Ocean. However, changes in sea level at the pier turned out to have been caused by the weight of the crowds gathered to watch the diving horses. Measurements from 1929 to 1978 indicated sea level rise – when the crowds were regular and caused the pier to settle slightly in the soft, sandy bottom – except during the horse-jumping hiatus from 1945 to 1953 when the lack of regular crowds allowed the pier to rise slightly. in Lake George, New York, the Magic Forest theme park hosts only remaining diving horse feature in New York state. It

neg: Bermuda This Bermuda Pedestal sits atop the Bermuda Rise, a mid-basin swell surrounded by abyssal plains. Initial uplift of this rise occurred in the Middle to Late Eocene and concluded by the Late Oligocene, when it subsided below sea level. The volcanic rocks associated with this rise are tholeiitic lavas and intrusive lamprophyre sheets, which form a volcanic basement, on average, 50 m below the island carbonate surface. The limestones of Bermuda consist of biocalcarenites with minor conglomerates. The portion of Bermuda above sea level consists of rocks deposited by Aeolian processes. These eolianites are actually the type locality, and formed

neg: Effects of global warming on oceans sea levels present a pressing problem not only to coastal communities but to the whole global population as well, much scientific research has been performed to analyze the causes and consequences of a rise in sea level. The U.S. Geological Survey has conducted such research, addressing coastal vulnerability to sea level rise and incorporating six physical variables to analyze the changes in sea level: geomorphology; coastal slope (percent); rate of relative sea level rise (mm/yr); shoreline erosion and acceleration rates (m/yr); mean tidal range (m); and mean wave height (m). The research was conducted on the various coasts of the

neg: Climate change in Argentina and loss of land associated with sea level rise since much of the coastal regions are high cliffs. Nonetheless, potential agricultural land could be lost if sea levels rise by . Sea level rise will impact the country through an increase in the frequency of storm surges in coastal areas, including Buenos Aires and a study has suggested that Buenos Aires could be impacted significantly by sea level rise. Climate change in Argentina According to scientists, global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina. Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global

neg: Effects of global warming on oceans eastern seaboard), or to rise faster than the global average. Regions that have shown a rapid rise in sea level during the past two decades include the western tropical Pacific and the United States northeastern seaboard. These regional variations in sea level are the result of many factors, such as local sedimentation rates, geomorphology, post-glacial rebound, and coastal erosion. Large storm events, such as Hurricane Sandy in the eastern Atlantic, can dramatically alter coastlines and affect sea level rise as well. Coastal regions would be most affected by rising sea levels. The increase in sea level along the coasts of

neg: Mississippi River Delta following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, approximately 200 square miles of wetlands became open water, demonstrating permanent wetland loss. Sea level rise: It is a combination of subsidence, hurricanes and storms and sea level rise that leads to increases in marsh and wetlands loss. Climate change also has effects on the strength of the coastline. As global sea levels rise, the areas within the Mississippi River Delta that experience subsidence may permanently flood and become open water. Additionally, the lack of sediment into these flooded areas also exacerbates the rate at which sea level rise affects the region. The

neg: Effects of global warming on Australia of sea-level rise. Deterioration or breakdown of these ice sheets would lead to irreversible sea-level rise and coastal inundation across the globe. The CSIRO predicts that additional singularities caused by a temperature rise of between 2 and 3 degrees Celsius will be: New projections for Australia's changing climate include: Australia has some of the world's most diverse ecosystems and natural habitats, and it may be this variety that makes them the Earth's most fragile and at-risk when exposed to climate change. The Great Barrier Reef is a prime example. Over the past 20 years it has experienced unparalleled rates of

neg: The Bruun Rule The Bruun Rule The Bruun Rule is a formula for estimating the magnitude of the retreat of the shoreline of a sandy shore in response to changes in sea level. Originally published in 1962 by Per Bruun,"" the Bruun Rule was the first to give a relationship between sea level rise and shoreline recession. The rule is a simple, two dimensional mass conversion, and remains in common use to estimate shoreline recession in response to sea level rise, despite criticism and modification, and the availability more complex alternate models. The Bruun Rule gives a linear relationship between sea level rise

neg: Early Holocene sea level rise times at extremely high rates, due to the rapid melting of the British-Irish Sea, Fennoscandian, Laurentide, Barents-Kara, Patagonian, Innuitian and parts of the Antarctic ice sheets. At the onset of deglaciation about 19 ka, a brief, at most 500-year long, glacio-eustatic event may have contributed as much as 10 m to sea level with an average rate of about 20 mm/yr. During the rest of the early Holocene, the rate of sea level rise varied from a low of about 6.0–9.9 mm/yr to as high as 30–60 mm/yr during brief periods of accelerated sea level rise. Solid geological evidence, based

neg: Greenhouse gas footprint will reduce resulting in sea level rise not being uniform across regions. There will be a rise in about 95% of ocean area. The sea level rise depends on the pathway of CO emissions not only the cumulative total. In some regions, the future sea level will be at an extreme by 2100. 70 percent of coastlines are projected to have sea level change within more or less than 20 percent of global mean. In order to decrease CO emissions, the reliance of fossil fuels must be lowered. These fuels are producing lots of CO across all forms of their

neg: Coastal flood 2100 to be between nine and eighty eight centimetres. It is also predicted that with climate change there will be an increase in the intensity and frequency of storm events such as hurricanes. This suggests that coastal flooding from storm surges will become more frequent with sea level rise. A rise in sea level alone threatens increased levels of flooding and permanent inundation of low-lying land as sea level simply may exceed the land elevation. This therefore indicates that coastal flooding associated with sea level rise will become a significant issue into the next 100 years especially as human populations

neg: Meltwater pulse 1B and others published detailed analysis of data from cores from coral reefs surrounding Tahiti. They concluded that meltwater pulse 1B was, at best, just an acceleration of sea level rise at about 11,300 calendar years ago and it was, at worst, not statistically different from a constant rate sea level rise between 11,500 and 10,200 calendar years ago. They argued that meltwater pulse 1B was certainly not an abrupt jump in sea level, which they would consider to be a "meltwater pulse". They argue that the rise in sea level estimated by Fairbanks from cores is an artifact created by

neg: Philip Levine (politician) investing in cutting-edge pumps and physically raising roads. In 2016, he appeared in Leonardo DiCaprio's documentary Before the Flood and in an episode of the National Geographic Channel series Years of Living Dangerously, hosted by Jack Black, to discuss the reality and impact of sea-level rise in Miami Beach and across Florida. Before Levine took over as mayor, Miami Beach had a begun a 20-year, $200 million program to combat sea-level rise with new pumps, drain pipes and sea walls. When Levine took office, his first move to mitigate flooding was a $11 million contract for three storm pumps along

neg: Sea level rise Red River Delta and the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Bangladesh and China are affected in a similar way, particularly their rice production. Atolls and low-lying coastal areas on islands are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise. Possible impacts include coastal erosion, floodings and salt intrusion into soils and freshwater. It is difficult to assess how much of past erosion and floods have been caused by sea level change, compared to other environmental events such as hurricanes. Adaptation to sea level rise is costly for small island nation as a large portion of their population lives in areas that are at

neg: Sea level rise may become more significant in determining island shape and size than sea level rise. Five of the Solomon Islands have disappeared due to the combined effects of sea level rise and stronger trade winds that were pushing water into the Western Pacific. In the case all islands of an island nation become uninhabitable or completely submerged by the sea, the states themselves would also become dissolved. Once this happens, all rights on the surrounding area (sea) are removed. This area can be huge as rights extend to a radius of around the entire island state. Any resources, such as fossil

neg: Climate Change Science Program 2009. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency released "Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region" (SAP 4.1) on January 16, 2009. According to the report's abstract, rising sea level can inundate low areas and increase flooding, coastal erosion, wetland loss, and saltwater intrusion into estuaries and freshwater aquifers. Much of the United States consists of coastal environments and landforms such as barrier islands and wetlands that will respond to sea-level rise by changing shape, size, or position. The combined effects of sea-level rise and other climate change factors such as storms may cause rapid and irreversible coastal

neg: Climate change in Washington of 1.65 million visits per year. Annual revenue from Washington's ski areas ranges from $50–$150 million for ski passes, tickets, and rentals. This does not include secondary revenues from skiers' food, retail sales, etc. The winter recreational season is shortening considerably due to less snow fall. At Seattle, Washington, sea level is already rising by increments of per century, and it is likely to rise another by 2100. The four main factors that contribute to sea level rise (SLR) are: The report on Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Waters of Washington State summarized the possible sea level change for

neg: Climate Change Science Program change. Coastal communities and property owners have responded to coastal hazards by erecting shore protection structures, elevating land and buildings, or relocating inland. Accelerated sea-level rise would increase the costs and environmental impacts of these responses. Preparing for sea-level rise can be justified in many cases, because the cost of preparing now is small compared to the cost of reacting later. Examples include wetland protection, flood insurance, long-lived infrastructure, and coastal land-use planning. Nevertheless, preparing for sea-level rise has been the exception rather than the rule. Most coastal institutions were based on the implicit assumption that sea level and shorelines

neg: Climate change in Texas as nursery grounds for young shrimp, crab, and fish. These marshes protect the shorelines from erosion and also act as a purification system by filtering out many pollutants added to the waters by human activities. At Galveston, sea level is already rising by per century, and it is likely to rise another by 2100. Brown shrimp catch in the U.S. Gulf Coast could fall 25% with only a rise in sea level. Possible responses to sea level rise include building walls to hold back the sea, allowing the sea to advance and adapting to it, and raising the land. Each

neg: Environmental health policy required to sustain them. Air pollution comes in two forms; emission and transmission. These pollutants come from various sources, such as modes of transportation, the burning of fossil fuels, or naturally from the ground. Rising sea levels is another environmental factor that affects the health of individuals in a given region. One of the reasons why sea levels begin to rise is due to the melting of large glacier ice. If the glacier icecaps start melting faster, sea levels will be affected. Another way that the sea levels rise is when temperatures increase, the water molecules expands and require more

neg: Baltic Ice Lake close to sea level, fresh water will accumulate and a lake forms. Fresh water will accumulate to levels substantially higher than sea level when the sills are substantially above sea level. The release of fresh water from the glaciers depends on climate; the presence or absence of entrances to the ocean depends on land rise and oceanic water level; the latter of course is also affected by the amount of ice held in glaciers worldwide. Several methods are used to determine the quality (temperature, salinity, solids content) of ancient sea water. The main one is the type of diatoms found

neg: Sea level rise sea level rise. Oceans expand if they are warming, glaciers at high altitudes melt and the total mass of ice sheets decreases. Sea level rise in the last 150 years was dominated by retreat of glaciers and expansion of the ocean, but the contributions of the two large ice sheets (Greenland and Antarctica) is expected to increase in the 21st century. The ice sheets store most of the land ice (∼99.5%), with a sea-level equivalent (SLE) of for Greenland and for Antarctica. Each year about of precipitation (liquid equivalent) falls on the ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland, mostly as

neg: Sea level rise to 19 millimeters per year by the end of the century. The study also concluded that the Paris climate agreement emissions scenario, if met, would result in a median of sea level rise by 2100. Estimates of future sea level were also produced in the 20th century. For instance, Hansen et al. published in 1981 the study "Climate impact of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide", predicting that anthropogenic carbon dioxide warming and its potential effects on climate in the 21st century could cause a sea level rise of from melting of the West Antarctic ice-sheet alone. There is a widespread consensus

neg: Sea level rise challenging, due to our imperfect understanding of many aspects of the climate system. As climate research leads to improved computer models, projections have consistently increased. For example, in 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projected a maximal rise of through 2099, but their 2014 report raised the high-end estimate to about . A number of later studies have concluded that a global sea level rise of this century is "physically plausible". The contributing factors to sea level rise between 1993 and 2018 are thermal expansion of the oceans (42%), melting of temperate glaciers (21%), Greenland (15%) and Antarctica

neg: Tide gauge 2010. At some places records cover centuries, for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available. When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture, new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data. Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis. The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level. Using this method, sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected. A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise, although warnings from seismic activity can

neg: Peat swamp forest the Last Glacial Maximum, this coastline moved inland as the ice sheet melted, and finally reached the level of modern coastline around 8.5 ka BP. Thus, the oldest age of coastal peat in this region is less than 8500 years Inland peat formation is highly affected by climate with little or no effect of sea level rise because it located around 15–20 m above sea level, where the most recent record of higher sea level was during ca 125 ka BP when sea level was 6 m above the modern level. Peat cores from Sebangau, South Kalimantan show slows growth

neg: Netherlands in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the sea side, but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another program is already being executed. The Room for the River

neg: Acadia National Park a low but steady rate, with magnitudes usually less than 4.8 on the Richter scale. The Presumpscot Formation has yielded a diverse collection of mostly marine fossils. The formation is composed of silt and clay deposited between 15–11,000 years ago when isostatic loading raised sea level as land was submerged to about above the current level. Post-glacial rebound lowered sea level, exposing the seabed to a depth of about below the current level. A global rise in sea-level flooded the shelf to the current level. Plant fossils include pollen, spores, logs, and other plant macrofossils. Invertebrate fossils include foraminifera (protists

neg: Younger Dryas of the approach," it was concluded that a relatively smooth sea-level rise, with no significant accelerations, occurred then. Finally, research by Lohe and others in western Norway has reported a sea-level low-stand at 13,640 calendar years ago and a subsequent Younger Dryas transgression starting at 13,080 calendar years ago. They concluded that the timing of the Allerød low-stand and the subsequent transgression were the result of increased regional loading of the crust, and geoid changes were caused by an expanding ice sheet, which started growing and advancing in the early Allerød about 13,600 calendar years ago, well before the start

neg: Marine Isotope Stage 5 Based on the data obtained from stable oxygen isotopes of planktonic foraminifera and age constraints from corals, estimates suggest average rates of sea-level rise of 1.6 m per century. The findings are important to understand current climate change, because global mean temperatures during MIS-5e were similar to the projected climate change today. A 2015 study by sea level rise experts concluded that based on MIS 5e data, sea level rise could rise faster in the coming decades, with a doubling time of 10, 20 or 40 years. The study abstract explains: "We argue that ice sheets in contact with the

neg: Past sea level small, with an average rate of only 0.0–0.2 mm per year. This compares to an average rate of 1.7 ± 0.5 mm per year for the 20th century. Baart et al. (2012) show that it is important to account for the effect of the 18.6-year lunar nodal cycle before acceleration in sea level rise should be concluded. Based on tide gauge data, the rate of global average sea level rise during the 20th century lies in the range 0.8 to 3.3 mm/yr, with an average rate of 1.8 mm/yr. Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly

neg: Past sea level rise varied from a low of about 6.0–9.9 mm/yr to as high as 30–60 mm/yr during brief periods of accelerated sea level rise. Solid geological evidence, based largely upon analysis of deep cores of coral reefs, exists only for 3 major periods of accelerated sea level rise, called "meltwater pulses", during the last deglaciation. They are Meltwater pulse 1A between circa 14,600 and 14,300 calendar years ago; Meltwater pulse 1B between circa 11,400 and 11,100 calendar years ago; and Meltwater pulse 1C between 8,200 and 7,600 calendar years ago. Meltwater pulse 1A was a 13.5 m rise over about 290

neg: Climate change in the United States pipit could be expected as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. In cooperation with the Wyoming Business Council, the Converse Area New Development Organization drafted an initiative to advance geothermal energy development in Wyoming. The Wyoming Business Council offers grants for homeowners who want to install photovoltaic (PV) systems. Sea level rise affects multiple states. States have undertaken a variety of initiatives to plan for the effects of sea level rise. Because the effects of sea level rise vary significantly from region to region, many planning initiatives take place at the local level. Climate change contributes to wildfires. Climate

neg: Sea level rise risk. Maldives, Tuvalu, and other low-lying countries are among the areas that are at the highest level of risk. At current rates, sea level would be high enough to make the Maldives uninhabitable by 2100. Geomorphological events such as storms tend to have larger impacts on reef island than sea level rise, for instance at one of the Marshall Islands. These effects include the immediate erosion and subsequent regrowth process that may vary in length from decades to centuries, even resulting in land areas larger than pre-storm values. With an expected rise in the frequency and intensity of storms, they

neg: Climate change in Australia The Australian Government released a report on the impacts of climate change on coastal areas of Australia, finding that up to 247,600 houses are at risk from flooding from a sea-level rise of 1.1 metres. There were 39,000 buildings located within 110 metres of 'soft' erodible shorelines, at risk from accelerated erosion due to sea -level rise. Adaptive responses to this specific climate change threat are often incorporated in the coastal planning policies and recommendations at the state level. For instance, the Western Australia State Coastal Planning Policy established a sea-level rise benchmark for initiatives that address the problem over

neg: Lens (hydrology) to a non-linear relationship between island width and thickness of the freshwater lens. A 40 cm rise in sea level can have a drastic effect on the shape and thickness of the freshwater lens, reducing its size by up to 50% and encouraging the formation of brackish zones. Saline plumes can form at the bottom of the freshwater aquifer when the lens thickness is compromised by drought and saltwater intrusion. Even after a full year of groundwater recharge, the saline plume may not completely dissipate. Sea level rise will likely lead to sustained and possibly irreparable damage to freshwater lenses

neg: Sea level rise oil, minerals and metals, within this area can be freely dug up by anyone and sold without needing to pay any commission to the (now dissolved) island state. Coastal ecosystems are facing drastic changes as a consequence of rising sea levels. Many systems might ultimately be lost when sea levels rise too much or too fast. Some ecosystems can move land inward with the high-water mark, but many are prevented from migrating due to natural or man-made barriers. This coastal narrowing, sometimes called 'coastal squeeze' when considering man-made barriers, could result in the loss of habitats such as mudflats and