query: who developed the method of volume by water displacement

pos: Displacement (fluid) the density of the fluid. If the weight of the object is less than this displaced quantity, the object floats; if more, it sinks. The amount of fluid displaced is directly related (via Archimedes' Principle) to its volume. In the case of an object that sinks (is totally submerged), the volume of the object is displaced. In the case of an object that floats, the amount of fluid displaced will be equal in weight to the displacing object. Archimedes' principle, a physical law of buoyancy, states that any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) at

pos: Passenger ship is thus more relevant to measuring cargo vessels than passenger ships. Historically, gross register tonnage (GRT) was a measure of the internal volume of certain enclosed areas of a ship divided into "tons" equivalent to 100 cubic feet of space (about 2.83 m). The displacement (or displacement tonnage) is a measure of both a ship's weight and the weight of water (measured by volume and converted into tons) it displaces, which are one and the same by Archimedes' principle. While seemingly straightforward, it has four variants in measure, Loaded displacement, Light displacement, Normal displacement, and Standard displacement. Of these, the

pos: Displacement (ship) conditions: Displacement (ship) The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is its weight based on the amount of water its hull displaces at varying loads. It is measured indirectly using Archimedes' principle by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship then converting that value into weight displaced. Traditionally, units used are tonnes although gigagrams and teragrams would be the metric equivalent. Ship displacement varies by a vessel's degree of load, from its empty weight as designed (known as "Lightweight tonnage") to its maximum load. Numerous specific terms are used to describe varying levels of load and

pos: Displacement (ship) Displacement (ship) The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is its weight based on the amount of water its hull displaces at varying loads. It is measured indirectly using Archimedes' principle by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship then converting that value into weight displaced. Traditionally, units used are tonnes although gigagrams and teragrams would be the metric equivalent. Ship displacement varies by a vessel's degree of load, from its empty weight as designed (known as "Lightweight tonnage") to its maximum load. Numerous specific terms are used to describe varying levels of load and trim,

pos: Integral the area or volume was known. This method was further developed and employed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to calculate areas for parabolas and an approximation to the area of a circle. A similar method was independently developed in China around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. This method was later used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu Geng to find the volume of a sphere (; ). The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to

pos: Displacement (fluid) Displacement (fluid) In fluid mechanics, displacement occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, pushing it out of the way and taking its place. The volume of the fluid displaced can then be measured, and from this, the volume of the immersed object can be deduced (the volume of the immersed object will be exactly equal to the volume of the displaced fluid). An object that sinks displaces an amount of fluid equal to the object's volume. Thus buoyancy is expressed through Archimedes' principle, which states that the weight of the object is reduced by its volume multiplied by

pos: Vitruvius crown, Archimedes realised that the crown's volume could be measured exactly by its displacement of water, and ran into the street with the cry of" Eureka!" He describes the construction of Archimedes' screw in Chapter X (without mentioning Archimedes by name). It was a device widely used for raising water to irrigate fields and drain mines. Other lifting machines he mentions include the endless chain of buckets and the reverse overshot water-wheel. Remains of the water wheels used for lifting water were discovered when old mines were re-opened at Rio Tinto in Spain, Rosia Montana in Romania and Dolaucothi in

pos: Eureka effect BC) by the local king to determine whether a crown was pure gold. During a subsequent trip to a public bath, Archimedes noted that water was displaced when his body sank into the bath, and particularly that the volume of water displaced equaled the volume of his body immersed in the water. Having discovered how to measure the volume of an irregular object, and conceiving of a method to solve the king's problem, Archimedes allegedly leaped out and ran home naked, shouting "eureka" (I have found it). This story is now thought to be fictional, because it was first mentioned

pos: Density could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass; but the king did not approve of this. Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water. Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" (Εύρηκα! Greek "I have found it"). As a result, the term "eureka" entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a

pos: Cavalieri's principle Europe. Cavalieri developed a complete theory of indivisibles, elaborated in his "Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam ratione promota" ("Geometry, advanced in a new way by the indivisibles of the continua", 1635) and his "Exercitationes geometricae sex" ("Six geometrical exercises", 1647). In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes, using a method resembling Cavalieri's principle, was able to find the volume of a sphere given the volumes of a cone and cylinder in his work "The Method of Mechanical Theorems". In the 5th century AD, Zu Chongzhi and his son Zu Gengzhi established a similar method to find a sphere's volume. The transition

neg: Body composition and research studies has been questioned by Wang et al. who stated that "the errors of the DXA [DEXA] method are still of concern if it were to be used as the criterion." Another technique for measuring body composition has been developed for measuring body volume using a different method than underwater weighing. The technique uses air as opposed to water and is known as air displacement plethysmography (ADP). Subjects enter a sealed chamber that measures their body volume through the displacement of air in the chamber. Body volume is combined with body weight (mass) in order to determine body

neg: Heavy oil production that the injected fluid contacts. Sweep efficiency is affected by multiple factors: mobility ratio, directional permeability, cumulative water injected, flood pattern, geological heterogeneity and distribution of pressure between injectors and producers. Displacement efficiency is the fraction of oil that is recovered from a zone that has been swept by a steam injection or any other displacement method. It is the percentage volume of oil that has been recovered through displacement by an injected fluid or displacing element injected into the reservoir. It is the difference between the volume of the reservoir before the displacement begins and the volume after the

neg: Air displacement pipette mass data output of the balance and provide an adjusted and more accurate measurement. The colormetric method uses precise concentrations of colored water to affect the measurement and determine the volume dispensed. A spectrophotometer is used to measure the color difference before and after aspiration of the sample, providing a very accurate reading. This method is more expensive than the more common gravimetric method, given the cost of the colored reagents, and is recommended when optimal accuracy is required. It is also recommended for extremely low-volume pipette calibration, in the 2 microliter range, because the inherent uncertainties of the gravimetic

neg: Flammability limit monitoring, as is done with gases and vapours, is of no value. The preferred method of managing combustible dust is by preventing accumulations of settled dust through process enclosure, ventilation, and surface cleaning. However, lower flammability limits may be relevant to plant design. Situations caused by evaporation of flammable liquids into the air-filled void volume of a container may be limited by flexible container volume or by using an immicsible fluid to fill the void volume. Hydraulic tankers use displacement of water when filling a tank with petroleum. The flammable/explosive limits of some gases and vapors are given below. Concentrations

neg: Body fat percentage a person in water and calculating the volume of the displaced water from the weight of the displaced water. A correction is made for the buoyancy of air in the lungs and other gases in the body spaces. If there were no errors whatsoever in measuring body density, the uncertainty in fat estimation would be about ± 3.8% of the body weight, primarily because of normal variability in body constituents. Whole-body air displacement plethysmography (ADP) is a recognised and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure human body fat percentage. ADP uses the same principles as the gold-standard method of underwater

neg: Paleoneurobiology example, Holloway and Post calculate EQ by the following equation: Brain volume is prominent in the scientific literature for discussing taxonomic identification, behavioral complexity, intelligence, and dissimilar rates of evolution. In modern humans, cranial capacity can vary by as much as 1000 cc, without any correlation to behavior. This degree of variation is almost equivalent to the total increase in volume from australopithecine fossils to modern humans, and brings into question the validity of relying on cranial capacity as a measurement of sophistication. Many paleoneurobiologists measure cranial capacity via the submersion method, in which displacement of water in a beaker

neg: Hydrogeology evaluated as fluxes at the surfaces of each finite volume. Because the flux entering a given volume is identical to that leaving the adjacent volume, these methods are conservative. Another advantage of the finite volume method is that it is easily formulated to allow for unstructured meshes. The method is used in many computational fluid dynamics packages. PORFLOW software package is a comprehensive mathematical model for simulation of Ground Water Flow and Nuclear Waste Management developed by Analytic & Computational Research, Inc., ACRi. The FEHM software package is available free from Los Alamos National Laboratory. This versatile porous flow simulator

neg: Displacement (fluid) object or substance in the receptacle, the difference in weight of the water level volumes will equal the weight of the object. Displacement (fluid) In fluid mechanics, displacement occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, pushing it out of the way and taking its place. The volume of the fluid displaced can then be measured, and from this, the volume of the immersed object can be deduced (the volume of the immersed object will be exactly equal to the volume of the displaced fluid). An object that sinks displaces an amount of fluid equal to the object's volume.

neg: Consolidation (soil) to the process by which soils change volume in response to a change in pressure, encompassing both compaction and swelling. Consolidation is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under long-term static loads. When stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the Classical Method, developed by Terzaghi, soils are tested with an oedometer test

neg: Ton a relatively low, consistent moisture level (dry weight). If the material is in its natural, wet state, it is called a wet ton or wet tonne. The displacement, essentially the weight, of a ship is traditionally expressed in long tons. To simplify measurement it is determined by measuring the volume, rather than weight, of water displaced, and calculating the weight from the volume and density. For practical purposes the displacement ton (DT) is a unit of volume, , the approximate volume occupied by one ton of seawater (the actual volume varies with salinity and temperature). It is slightly less than

neg: Frost heaving of water within the soil. Since the molar volume of water expands by about 9% as it changes phase from water to ice at its bulk freezing point, 9% would be the maximum expansion possible owing to molar volume expansion, and even then only if the ice were rigidly constrained laterally in the soil so that the entire volume expansion had to occur vertically. Ice is unusual among compounds because it increases in molar volume from its liquid state, water. Most compounds decrease in volume when changing phase from liquid to solid. Taber showed that the vertical displacement of soil

neg: Air displacement plethysmography Air displacement plethysmography Air displacement plethysmography or ADP (also known as whole-body air displacement plethysmography) is a recognized and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure human body composition. ADP is based on the same principles as the gold standard method of hydrostatic weighing, but through a densitometric technique that uses air displacement rather than water immersion. Air-displacement plethysmography offers several advantages over established reference methods, including a quick, comfortable, automated, noninvasive, and safe measurement process, and accommodates various subject types (e.g., children, obese, elderly, and disabled persons). The principles of plethysmography were first applied to the measurement of the body

neg: Air displacement plethysmography been validated against main body composition assessment techniques: Air displacement plethysmography Air displacement plethysmography or ADP (also known as whole-body air displacement plethysmography) is a recognized and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure human body composition. ADP is based on the same principles as the gold standard method of hydrostatic weighing, but through a densitometric technique that uses air displacement rather than water immersion. Air-displacement plethysmography offers several advantages over established reference methods, including a quick, comfortable, automated, noninvasive, and safe measurement process, and accommodates various subject types (e.g., children, obese, elderly, and disabled persons). The principles of plethysmography were

neg: Reservoir simulation calculated using numerous analytical techniques which include material balance equations (including Havlena-Odeh and Tarner method), fractional flow curve methods (such as the Buckley-Leverett one-dimensional displacement method, the Deitz method for inclined structures, or coning models), and sweep efficiency estimation techniques for water floods and decline curve analysis. These methods were developed and used prior to traditional or "conventional" simulations tools as computationally inexpensive models based on simple homogeneous reservoir description. Analytical methods generally cannot capture all the details of the given reservoir or process, but are typically numerically fast and at times, sufficiently reliable. In modern reservoir engineering, they are

neg: Snorkeling It may also increase fogging. The simplest type of snorkel is a plain tube that is allowed to flood when underwater. The snorkeler expels water from the snorkel either with a sharp exhalation on return to the surface ("blast clearing") or by tilting the head back shortly before reaching the surface and exhaling until reaching or breaking the surface ("displacement method") and facing forward or down again before inhaling the next breath. The displacement method expels water by filling the snorkel with air; it is a technique that takes practice but clears the snorkel with less effort, but only works

neg: Room-temperature densification method is removed by post-processing typically at 120 °C. The method is suitable also for LiMoO composite ceramics with up to 30 volume-% of filler material, enabling the optimization of the dielectric properties. Room-temperature densification method The room-temperature densification method was developed for LiMoO ceramics and is based on the water-solubility of LiMoO. It can be used for the fabrication of LiMoO ceramics instead of conventional thermal sintering. The method utilizes a small amount of aqueous phase formed by moistening the LiMoO powder. The densification occurs during sample pressing as the solution incorporates the pores between the powder particles and recrystallizes.

neg: Volume and displacement indicators for an architectural structure 1m, H to H/L, E and σ to 1Pa, and F to 1N. This "reduced" structure has a volume of material W= σV/ FL (the volume indicator) and a maximum deformation Δ = Eδ / σL (the displacement indicator). Their main characteristic is that they are numbers without physical dimensions (dimensionless) and their value, for every morphology considered, depends only on the ratio L/H, i.e. the geometric slenderness ratio of the form. This method can easily be applied to three-dimensional structures as illustrated in the following examples. The theory related to the indicators has been taught since 2000, and among

neg: Pyle stop use in professional diving and recreational diving. It was developed to model laboratory observations of bubble formation and growth in both inanimate and in vivo systems exposed to pressure. The VPM presumes that microscopic bubble nuclei always exist in water and tissues that contain water. Any nuclei larger than a specific "critical" size, which is related to the maximum dive depth (exposure pressure), will grow during ascent. The VPM aims to keep an acceptably low risk of symptoms of decompression sickness developing by keeping the total volume of these growing bubbles below a critical volume. The method used is to

neg: Coffeemaker in the boiler is displaced out of the tank and into a tube leading to the spray head, where it drips into a brew basket containing the ground coffee. The pourover, water displacement method of coffeemaking tends to produce brewed coffee at a much faster rate than standard drip designs. Its primary disadvantage is increased electricity consumption in order to preheat the water in the boiler. Additionally, the water displacement method is most efficient when used to brew coffee at the machine's maximum or near-maximum capacity, as typically found in restaurant or office usage. In 1963, Bunn introduced the first

neg: Supercharger machining the compressor rotors. There are two main types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer: positive displacement and dynamic compressors. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds (RPM). Dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds; above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds (minus leakage, which is almost constant at all speeds for a given pressure, thus its importance decreases at higher speeds). Major types of positive-displacement pumps include:

neg: Ice tank handling such material conveniently. Use of a refrigerated basin containing mostly water allows freezing and melting to be a convenient method of model ice preparation and cleanup. Ship model basins often simulate full-scale processes in miniature. Ships and structures are reduced linearly in size, and cubic in mass, displacement, and volume. The challenge in ice modeling is correctly reducing the ice properties of interest to provide an accurate simulation. Many factors and properties are of interest when simulating ice. The actual environment that will be simulated is of prime concern. For example, ice pieces flowing then jamming a spring river

neg: Displacement (ship) draft. The ship's hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced. To calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater (1025 kg/m) is more dense than fresh water (1000 kg/m); so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water also varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations. It is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons. There are terms for the displacement of a vessel under specified

neg: Water metering of one meter, with the costs shared among the tenants based on some sort of key (size of flat, number of inhabitants or by separately tracking the water consumption of each unit in what is called submetering). This type of water meter is most often used in residential and small commercial applications and homes. Displacement meters are commonly referred to as Positive Displacement, or "PD" meters. Two common types are oscillating piston meters and nutating disk meters. Either method relies on the water to physically displace the moving measuring element in direct proportion to the amount of water that passes

neg: Air displacement plethysmography volume and composition of infants in the early 1900s, but it was not until the 1960s that relatively stable measurements were achieved. However, these systems required that ambient conditions be maintained constant. Applications in humans have been limited, in part by technical difficulties in adjusting for irregularities in temperature and humidity of the air next to the skin and the air. Because of inconveniences such as these and various technology difficulties, none of the early air-displacement plethysmographs were ever developed for common, everyday use. Later experimental air-displacement plethysmographs developed in the 1980s were more advanced technologically, but it was only

neg: Underwater videography This results in a larger volume which creates extra buoyancy requiring a corresponding use of heavy weight to keep the housing underwater (about 64 lbs. per cubic foot of displacement or 1.03 kilogram per litre in sea water or 63 lbs per cubic foot of displacement (1 kilogram per litre) in fresh water). Early video cameras also needed large batteries because of the high power consumption of the system. Current Lithium-ion batteries have long run times with relatively light weight and low volume. Another problem is the lower level of light underwater. Early cameras had problems with low light levels,

neg: In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy slice selection profile. Additionally, multiple 180° pulses means smaller bandwidth and thus larger chemical shift displacement. Specifically, the chemical shift displacement artifacts occur because signals with different chemical shifts experience different frequency-encoded slice selections and thus do not originate from same volume. Additionally, this effect becomes greater at higher magnetic field strengths. The PRESS sequence is the method of choice over STEAM for single-voxel spectroscopy (SVS) in H MRS. However, STEAM is the dominate sequence for experiments with short TE and exact volume selection. Besides STEAM and PRESS as the principal sequences used in "in vivo" magnetic resonance spectroscopy, there

neg: Victor Meyer apparatus Victor Meyer apparatus The Victor Meyer apparatus is the standard laboratory method for determining the molecular weight of a volatile liquid. It was developed by Viktor Meyer, who spelled his name "Victor" in publications at the time of its development. In this method, a known mass of a volatile solid or liquid under examination is converted into its vapour form by heating in a Victor Meyer's tube. The vapour displaces its own volume of air. The volume of air displaced at experimental temperature and pressure is calculated. Then volume of air displaced at Standard Temperature and Pressure is calculated. Using

neg: Partition coefficient Many other industries take into account distribution coefficients for example in the formulation of make-up, topical ointments, dyes, hair colors and many other consumer products. A number of methods of measuring distribution coefficients have been developed, including the shake-flask, reverse phase HPLC, and pH-metric techniques. The classical and most reliable method of log "P" determination is the "shake-flask method", which consists of dissolving some of the solute in question in a volume of octanol and water, then measuring the concentration of the solute in each solvent. The most common method of measuring the distribution of the solute is by UV/VIS

neg: Water metering US gallons on a mechanical or electronic register. Some electronic meter registers can display rate-of-flow in addition to total usage. There are several types of water meters in common use. The choice depends on the flow measurement method, the type of end user, the required flow rates, and accuracy requirements. In North America, standards for manufacturing water meters are set by the American Water Works Association. Outside of North America, most countries use ISO standards There are two common approaches to flow measurement, displacement and velocity, each making use of a variety of technologies. Common displacement designs include oscillating piston

neg: Density total volume. The mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Similarly, hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object. If the body is not homogeneous, then its density varies between different regions of the object. In that case the density around any given location is

neg: Frost heaving in frost heaving can be significantly greater than that due to molar volume expansion. Taber demonstrated that liquid water migrates towards the freeze line within soil. He showed that other liquids, such as benzene, which contracts when it freezes, also produce frost heave. This excluded molar volume changes as the dominant mechanism for vertical displacement of freezing soil. His experiments further demonstrated the development of ice lenses inside columns of soil that were frozen by cooling the upper surface only, thereby establishing a temperature gradient. The dominant cause of soil displacement in frost heaving is the development of ice lenses.

neg: Wankel engine intake cycles. The engine has a 50% longer stroke duration than a reciprocating piston engine. The four Otto cycles last 1080° for a Wankel engine (three revolutions of the output shaft) versus 720° for a four-stroke reciprocating engine, but the four strokes are still the same proportion of the total. There are various methods of calculating the engine displacement of a Wankel. The Japanese regulations for calculating displacements for engine ratings use the volume displacement of one rotor face only, and the auto industry commonly accepts this method as the standard for calculating the displacement of a rotary. When compared

neg: Tonnage cargo space. As commercial cargo sailing ships are now largely extinct, gross tonnage is becoming the universal method of calculating ships' dues, and is also a more straightforward and transparent method of assessment. Tonnage Tonnage is a measure of the cargo-carrying capacity of a ship. The term derives from the taxation paid on "tuns" or casks of wine. In modern maritime usage, "tonnage" specifically refers to a calculation of the volume or cargo volume of a ship. Tonnage should not be confused with displacement, which refers to the actual weight of the vessel. Tonnage is commonly used to assess fees

neg: Canopy interception Shuttleworth et al. [1984], Calder et al. [1986], and Calder [1990]. They covered the forest floor with plastic sheets and collected the throughfall. The disadvantage of this method is that it is not suitable for long periods, because in the end the trees will dry due to water shortage, and the method is also not applicable for snow events. The method by Hancock and Crowther [1979] avoided these problems by making use of the cantilever effect of branches. If leaves on a branch hold water, it becomes more heavy and will bend. By measuring the displacement, it is possible to

neg: Body fat percentage weighing, but representing a densitometric method that is based on air displacement rather than on water immersion. Air-displacement plethysmography offers several advantages over established reference methods, including a quick, comfortable, automated, noninvasive, and safe measurement process, and accommodation of various subject types (e.g., children, obese, elderly, and disabled persons). However, its accuracy declines at the extremes of body fat percentages, tending to slightly understate the percent body fat in overweight and obese persons (by 1.68–2.94% depending on the method of calculation), and to overstate to a much larger degree the percent body fat in very lean subjects (by an average

neg: Air displacement pipette method, performed with standard laboratory balances, becomes excessive. Properly calibrated microbalances, capable of reading in the range of micrograms (10 g) can also be used effectively for gravimetric analysis of low-volume micropipettes, but only if environmental conditions are under strict control. Six-place balances and environmental controls dramatically increase the cost of such calibrations. Air displacement pipette Piston-driven air displacement pipettes are a type of micropipette, which are tools to handle volumes of liquid in the microliter scale. They are more commonly used in biology and biochemistry, and less commonly in chemistry; the equipment is susceptible to damage from many organic

neg: Alexander Borodin Pisa, working on halocarbons. One experiment published in 1862 described the first nucleophilic displacement of chlorine by fluorine in benzoyl chloride. The radical halodecarboxylation of aliphatic carboxylic acids was first demonstrated by Borodin in 1861 in his synthesis of methyl bromide from silver acetate. It was Cläre Hunsdiecker and her husband Heinz, however, who developed Borodin's work into a general method, for which they were granted a US patent in 1939, and which they published in "Chemische Berichte" in 1942. The method is generally known as either the Hunsdiecker reaction or the Hunsdiecker–Borodin reaction. In 1862, Borodin returned to the

neg: Discontinuous deformation analysis the displacement inside the block is high and cannot be ignored, the blocks can be divided by mesh. An example of this approach is the research by Chang et al. and Jing who resolved this problem by adding finite element meshes in the two-dimensional domain of the blocks so that stress variations within the blocks can be allowed. Higher order DDA method for two-dimensional problems has been developed in both theory and computer codes by researchers like Koo and Chern, Ma et al. and Hsiung. Additionally, The DDA contact model which was originally based on penalty method was improved by

neg: High-speed craft Maritime Organization (IMO). In accordance with SOLAS Chapter 10 Reg. 1.3, high-speed crafts are crafts capable of a maximum speed, in metres per second (m/s), equal to or exceeding: where formula_2 = volume of displacement in cubic metres corresponding to the design waterline, excluding craft of which the hull is supported clear above the water surface in non-displacement mode by aerodynamic forces generated by ground effect. High-speed craft A high-speed craft (HSC) is a high-speed water vessel for civilian use, also called a fastcraft or fast ferry. The first high-speed craft were often hydrofoils or hovercraft, but in the 1990s

neg: Out of autoclave composite manufacturing temperature. One method of injecting epoxy for RTM fabrication is a positive displacement injection system. In the positive displacement injection system, resin is placed into a special cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder is a movable piston. A degassing process can be conducted after loading the resin into the cylinder by sealing the cylinder and applying a vacuum. The piston can move up the cylinder to decrease cylinder volume and force resin out a tube and into the mold. The piston is connected to an actuator. The actuator pushes the piston up the cylinder forcing the resin out at high

neg: Displacement chromatography a plot of absorbance or refractive index "vs" elution volume, can be difficult to interpret for contiguous zones, especially if the displacement train is not fully developed. Documentation and troubleshooting may require additional chemical analysis to establish the distribution of a given component. Another disadvantage is that the time required for regeneration limits throughput. According to John C. Ford's article in the "Encyclopedia of Chromatography", theoretical studies indicate that at least for some systems, optimized overloaded elution chromatography offers higher throughput than displacement chromatography, though limited experimental tests suggest that displacement chromatography is superior (at least before consideration of regeneration

neg: Rice is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice. Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may be cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume of rice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking

neg: Conjugate beam method a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the conjugate-beam method. Conjugate beam method Conjugate beam is defined as the imaginary beam with the same dimensions (length) as that of the original beam but load at any point on the conjugate beam is equal to the bending moment at that point divided by EI. The conjugate-beam method is an engineering method to derive the slope and displacement of a beam. The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. Müller-Breslau in 1865. Essentially, it requires the same amount of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine a beam's slope or

neg: Conjugate beam method Conjugate beam method Conjugate beam is defined as the imaginary beam with the same dimensions (length) as that of the original beam but load at any point on the conjugate beam is equal to the bending moment at that point divided by EI. The conjugate-beam method is an engineering method to derive the slope and displacement of a beam. The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. Müller-Breslau in 1865. Essentially, it requires the same amount of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine a beam's slope or deflection; however, this method relies only on the principles of statics, so its

neg: Air displacement plethysmography in the mid-1990s, that the first commercially available air-displacement plethysmograph was introduced for adults and early 2000 for infants With air-displacement plethysmography, the volume of an object is measured indirectly by determining the volume of air it displaces inside an enclosed chamber (plethysmograph). Thus, human body volume is measured when a subject sits inside the chamber and displaces a volume of air equal to his or her body volume. Body volume is calculated indirectly by subtracting the volume of air remaining inside the chamber when the subject is inside from the volume of air in the chamber when it is

neg: The Korsunsky Work-of-Indentation Approach The Korsunsky Work-of-Indentation Approach The Korsunsky work-of-indentation approach is a method of extracting a value of hardness for a small volume of material from indentation test data. Instead of relying on measurements or assumptions pertaining to the area of contact between indenter and sample, the method uses the load-displacement data registered in the continuously recorded indentation testing (CRIT) that is particularly widely applied in nanoindentation experiments. In particular, the method re-defines hardness and expresses it in terms of the energy (work) associated with indenting the surface of a material by the probe. The work-of-indentation used in the analysis may refer

neg: Micromechanics imposes traction and displacement continuity. It was developed into the High-Fidelity GMC (HFGMC), which uses quadratic approximation for the displacement fields in the subcells. A further group of periodic homogenization models make use of Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT), e.g., for solving an equivalent to the Lippmann–Schwinger equation. FFT-based methods at present appear to provide the numerically most efficient approach to periodic homogenization of elastic materials. Ideally, the volume elements used in numerical approaches to continuum micromechanics should be sufficiently big to fully describe the statistics of the phase arrangement of the material considered, i.e., they should be Representative Volume Elements

neg: Random field processes by the Monte Carlo method, in which the random fields correspond to naturally spatially varying properties, such as soil permeability over the scale of meters, concrete strength over the scale of centimeters or graphite stiffness over the scale of millimeters. This leads to tensor-valued random fields in which the key role is played here a Statistical Volume Element (SVE); when the SVE becomes sufficiently large, its properties become deterministic and one recovers the Representative volume element (RVE) of deterministic continuum physics. The second type of random fields that appear in continuum theories are those of dependent quantities (temperature, displacement,

neg: Antoine Lavoisier that Lavoisier continued to draw the incorrect conclusions, and that his experiment demonstrated the displacement of phlogiston from iron by the combination of water with the metal. Lavoisier developed a new apparatus which utilized a pneumatic trough, a set of balances, a thermometer, and a barometer, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition and synthesis of water using this apparatus, convincing many who attended of the correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This demonstration established water as a compound of oxygen and hydrogen with great certainty for those who viewed it. The dissemination of the experiment, however, proved

neg: Finite element method in structural mechanics Finite element method in structural mechanics The finite element method (FEM) is a powerful technique originally developed for numerical solution of complex problems in structural mechanics, and it remains the method of choice for complex systems. In the FEM, the structural system is modeled by a set of appropriate finite elements interconnected at discrete points called nodes. Elements may have physical properties such as thickness, coefficient of thermal expansion, density, Young's modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio. The origin of finite method can be traced to the matrix analysis of structures where the concept of a displacement or stiffness matrix

neg: Tree measurement segment calculated individually. For example, the crown could be subdivided into a series of disk-like slices by elevation, the volume of each disk calculated, and the total of all the disks are added together to determine crown volume. Frank developed a simpler method that requires measuring average crown spread, height of the crown from base to top, and matching the crown profile to best fit of a family of crown profile shapes. The method calculates the volume enclosed by rotating the selected profile around the axis of the tree given the measured crown length and average crown spread. Tree volume

neg: Otolithic membrane techniques is referred to as a finite element method which divides the membrane into triangles and a computer is used to determine the linear combination of the functions that represent the displacement which solves a complex system of equations. The finite element method was initially developed for use in fields such as mechanical engineering and civil engineering to solve elliptic partial differential equations (PDEs) and has had enormous success. The finite element method opposes another technique for solving PDEs, the finite difference method and has been shown to be more effective in modeling the otolithic membrane by several studies, but

neg: Consolidation (soil) method with formula_7 or the root method with formula_8 t time to 50% deformation (consolidation) and t is 95% Where T=1.129 T=0.197 Consolidation (soil) In soil mechanics, consolidation refers to the process by which soil changes volume gradually in response to a change in pressure. This happens because soil is a two-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually groundwater. When soil saturated with water is subject to an increase in pressure, the high volumetric stiffness of water compared to the soil matrix means that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing volume, creating excess

neg: Tsunami back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus ("Res Gestae" 26.10.15–19) described the typical sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave, after the 365 AD tsunami devastated Alexandria. The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more

neg: Clinker (boat building) for given hull strength, the clinker boat is lighter because it does not rely upon the compressive forces of the caulking and the resulting friction to bind the skin together. It therefore displaces less water so it has less to push aside while moving. The reduced displacement could be used to make the lines finer so as to make the passage through the water easier still. Of course, displacement was increased as cargo was loaded but still, the clinker vessel had the advantage in efficiency as the structure can be less bulky. Therefore, for a given internal volume, there was

neg: Volume of fluid method Thus, in order to attain accurate results, local grid refinements have to be done. The refinement criterion is simple, cells with formula_8 have to be refined. A method for this, known as the marker and micro-cell method, has been developed by Raad and his colleagues in 1997. The evolution of the formula_9-th fluid in a system on formula_10 fluids is governed by the transport equation (actually the same equation that has to be fulfilled by the level-set method distance function formula_11): with the following constraint i.e., the volume of the fluids is constant. For each cell, properties such as density

neg: Beardmore Cyclone Beardmore Cyclone The Beardmore Cyclone was an aero engine produced by William Beardmore & Co with the aim of producing an engine generating a high power output at low revolutions by designing an engine of large displacement. The design did not enter volume production. The Cyclone was an upright inline six-cylinder water-cooled engine with a bore of and stroke of stroke, giving a displacement of . It had a combined crankcase and cylinder block made of aluminium with steel cylinder liners and aluminium pistons. Each cylinder had its own detachable head, with two spark plugs and four valves operated by

neg: QuickLOAD no official dimensions nor other performance related specifications. Besides the standard entered information the actual internal volume or cartridge case capacity of the used cases is an important parameter for QuickLOAD to obtain usable predictions. The internal case volume has to be established by weighing empty once fired cartridge cases from a production lot and filling the cases with fresh or distilled water (HO) up to the point of overflowing and weighing the water filled cases. The added weight of the water is then used to establish the liquid volume and hence the case capacity. This liquid volume measurement method

neg: Natural disaster water to escape its usual boundaries. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless the water covers land used by man, like a village, city or other inhabited area, roads, expanses of farmland, etc. A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: 津波, lit. "harbour wave"; English pronunciation: /tsuːˈnɑːmi/), also known as a seismic sea wave or as a tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water,

neg: Engineering design process through [[solid modeling]], [[drawings]] as well as [[specification]]s. [[Design for manufacturability]] (DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. [[Computer-aided design]] (CAD) programs have made detailed design phase more efficient. For example, a CAD program can provide [[optimization]] to reduce volume without hindering a part's quality. It can also calculate [[Stress (mechanics)|stress]] and [[Displacement (vector)|displacement]] using the [[finite element method]] to determine stresses throughout the part. The [[production planning]] and tool design consists of planning how to [[mass-produce]] the product and which tools should be used in the [[manufacturing]]

neg: White matter dissection by Joseph Klingler who developed a new method for specimens preparation and dissection. This technique became more feasible and widely used due to an increased quality of dissection and surprising quality of anatomical details. Klingler developed a new method of brain fixation, by freezing already formalin-fixed brains before dissection. First, the water crystallization induced by freezing disrupts the structure of the grey matter (which has a high water content). This process made possible to peel off the cortex from the brain surface without damaging the subcortical white matter organization underneath. Second, the freezing process along the WM fibers, induced a

neg: Beardmore Cyclone of power-plant for the R101 airship, but this version proved impractical. Beardmore Cyclone The Beardmore Cyclone was an aero engine produced by William Beardmore & Co with the aim of producing an engine generating a high power output at low revolutions by designing an engine of large displacement. The design did not enter volume production. The Cyclone was an upright inline six-cylinder water-cooled engine with a bore of and stroke of stroke, giving a displacement of . It had a combined crankcase and cylinder block made of aluminium with steel cylinder liners and aluminium pistons. Each cylinder had its own

neg: Blender (software) straight through to the other side of the mesh. If one is defined, a volume shader describes the light interaction as it passes through the volume of the mesh. Light may be scattered, absorbed, or emitted at any point in the volume. The shape of the surface may be altered by displacement shaders. This way, textures can be used to make the mesh surface more detailed. Depending on the settings, the displacement may be virtual, only modifying the surface normals to give the impression of displacement (also known as bump mapping) or a combination of real and virtual displacement. The

neg: Hardy Cross could be solved to be very close to the actual solution. The Hardy Cross method is essentially the Jacobi iterative scheme applied to the displacement formulation of structural analysis. Today the "moment distribution" method is no longer commonly used because computers have changed the way engineers evaluate structures, and moment distribution programs are seldom created nowadays. Today's structural analysis software is based on the flexibility method, direct stiffness method or finite element methods (FEM). Another Hardy Cross method is also famous for modeling flows in complex water supply networks. Until recent decades, it was the most common method for solving

neg: Hydroxyl tagging velocimetry laser and the camera shot an image of the grid that has now displaced downstream can be captured. Computer programs are then used to compare the two images and determine the displacement of the grid. By dividing the displacement by the known time delay the two dimensional velocity field (in the plane of the grid) can be determined. Other Molecular tagging velocimetry (MTV) methods have used ozone (O3), excited oxygen and nitric oxide as the tag instead of hydroxyl. In the case of ozone the method is known as Ozone tagging velocimetry or OTV. OTV has been developed and tested

neg: Development-induced displacement and difficult to control. One example of secondary displacement is if a community is forced to move because of pollution of their water supply by a mining project. Some examples of development-induced displacement are: It has been estimated that fifteen million people each year are forced to leave their homes as a result of public and private development projects and that number continues to increase as countries move from developing to developed nations. Compensation and rehabilitation policies designed to mitigate effects of displacement are often unsuccessful. This is largely due to corruption of street level bureaucrats, underestimation of the value

neg: Homebrewing a bag (BIAB) is a simplified all grain technique developed in Australia. The main pioneer and continuing authority on this method is Patrick Hollingdale. The hallmarks of BIAB are a single brewing vessel, a fine mesh bag to hold the grist (crushed malt/grain) and a single heat source. The bag, usually made of nylon or fashioned out of a voile material lines the brewing pot which contains the total volume of water needed for the entire brewing process. The water is then heated to strike temperature and then the grist is added. The traditional brewing technique of sparging (rinsing the

neg: Castigliano's method Castigliano's method Castigliano's method, named for Carlo Alberto Castigliano, is a method for determining the displacements of a linear-elastic system based on the partial derivatives of the energy. He is known for his two theorems. The basic concept may be easy to understand by recalling that a change in energy is equal to the causing force times the resulting displacement. Therefore, the causing force is equal to the change in energy divided by the resulting displacement. Alternatively, the resulting displacement is equal to the change in energy divided by the causing force. Partial derivatives are needed to relate causing forces

neg: Eötvös rule point: The molar volume "V" is given by the molar mass "M" and the density ρ The term formula_4 is also referred to as the "molar surface tension" γ : A useful representation that prevents the use of the unit mol is given by the Avogadro constant N : As John Lennard-Jones and Corner showed in 1940 by means of the statistical mechanics the constant "k"′ is nearly equal to the Boltzmann constant. For water, the following equation is valid between 0 and 100 °C. As a student, Eötvös started to research surface tension and developed a new method for

neg: Paleoneurobiology is taken as the volume of the endocast. Scientists who believe that this method is not accurate enough will use a similar procedure in which a beaker with a spout is filled until it is full. The water displaced by the endocast is then weighed to determine the endocast volume. Although both of these techniques are significantly more precise than previous methods, scientists are optimistic that more advanced techniques such as computed tomography will provide greater accuracy of volume measurements. Morphometric analysis relies on chord and arc measurements of the endocast surface. Length, width, bregma-basion, and height measurements of an

neg: Marrow adipose tissue volumetric method to identify, quantify, and localize MAT in rodent bone has been recently developed, requiring osmium staining of bones and μCT imaging, followed by advanced image analysis of osmium-bound lipid volume (in mm) relative to bone volume. This technique provides reproducible quantification and visualization of MAT, enabling the ability to consistently quantify changes in MAT with diet, exercise, and agents that constrain precursor lineage allocation. Although the osmium method is quantitatively precise, osmium is toxic and cannot be compared across batched experiments. Recently, researchers developed and validated a 9.4T MRI scanner technique that allows localization and volumetric (3D) quantification

neg: Hydraulic conductivity that may be run to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil: constant-head method and falling-head method. The constant-head method is typically used on granular soil. This procedure allows water to move through the soil under a steady state head condition while the quantity (volume) of water flowing through the soil specimen is measured over a period of time. By knowing the quantity formula_5 of water measured, length formula_6 of specimen, cross-sectional area formula_7 of the specimen, time formula_8 required for the quantity of water formula_5 to be discharged, and head formula_10, the hydraulic conductivity can be calculated: where formula_12

neg: Bresle method is applied to the surface to be tested, and a specified volume of deionized water is injected under the patch. Any soluble salts present on the surface will dissolve in the water. The fluid is extracted and its conductivity measured. The conductivity of the collected salt solution depends on the volume of water used and its initial conductivity, and the amount of salt in solution depends on the area of the patch. The calculation of the salt per area is based on increased conductivity but in the IMO PSPC method the salt is calculated as sodium chloride, in the ISO

neg: Conjugate beam method beam. When drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the shear and moment developed at the supports of the conjugate beam account for the corresponding slope and displacement of the real beam at its supports, a consequence of Theorems 1 and 2. For example, as shown below, a pin or roller support at the end of the real beam provides zero displacement, but a non zero slope. Consequently, from Theorems 1 and 2, the conjugate beam must be supported by a pin or a roller, since this support has zero moment but has a shear or end reaction. When

neg: Buckling load is often approximated using energy conservation and referred to as an energy method in structural analysis. The first step in this method is to assume a displacement mode and a function that represents that displacement. This function must satisfy the most important boundary conditions, such as displacement and rotation. The more accurate the displacement function, the more accurate the result. The method assumes that the system (the column) is a conservative system in which energy is not dissipated as heat, hence the energy added to the column by the applied external forces is stored in the column in the

neg: Air displacement pipette conditions under which the pipette is used, and the operators who use it. Calibration is generally accomplished through means of gravimetric analysis. This entails dispensing samples of distilled water into a receiving vessel perched atop a precision analytical balance. The density of water is a well-known constant, and thus the mass of the dispensed sample provides an accurate indication of the volume dispensed. Relative humidity, ambient temperature, and barometric pressure are factors in the accuracy of the measurement, and are usually combined in a complex formula and computed as the Z-factor. This Z-factor is then used to modify the raw

neg: Air compressor reached, a port or valve opens and air is discharged into the outlet system from the compression chamber. Common types of positive displacement compressors are Dynamic displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors and axial compressors. In these types, a rotating component imparts its kinetic energy to the air which is eventually converted into pressure energy. These use centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to accelerate and then decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it. Due to adiabatic heating, air compressors require some method of disposing of waste heat. Generally this is some form of air- or water-cooling, although some (particularly

neg: Thermal boundary layer thickness and shape fixed formula_19-position. The thermal displacement thickness can then be estimated by numerically integrating the scaled temperature profile. A relatively new method for describing the thickness and shape of the thermal boundary layer utilizes the moment method commonly used to describe a random variable's probability distribution. The moment method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the thermal profile for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve. It is straightforward to cast the properly scaled thermal profile into a suitable integral kernel. The thermal profile central moments are defined

neg: Continuous noninvasive arterial pressure to the cuff pressure. This pressure can easily be measured with a manometer. As the volume of the finger artery is clamped on a constant diameter, the method is also known as “Volume Clamped Method”. The Czech physiologist Jan Peňáz introduced this type of measurement of continuous noninvasive arterial blood pressure in 1973 by means of an electro-pneumatic control loop. Two research groups have improved this method: The non-linear effect of the vascular wall decreases in bigger arteries. It is well known that good access to a “big” artery is at the wrist by palpating. Different mechanisms have been developed

neg: Body fat percentage is absorbed more strongly by fat than the other. A computer can subtract one image from the other, and the difference indicates the amount of fat relative to other tissues at each point. A sum over the entire image enables calculation of the overall body composition. There are several more complicated procedures that more accurately determine body fat percentage. Some, referred to as multicompartment models, can include DXA measurement of bone, plus independent measures of body water (using the dilution principle with isotopically labeled water) and body volume (either by water displacement or air plethysmography). Various other components may be

neg: Tsunami Tsunami A tsunami (from , "harbour wave"; English pronunciation: or ) sometimes incorrectly referred to as a ""tidal wave"", also known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are generated

neg: Gas pycnometer Gas pycnometer A gas pycnometer is a laboratory device used for measuring the density—or, more accurately, the volume—of solids, be they regularly shaped, porous or non-porous, monolithic, powdered, granular or in some way comminuted, employing some method of gas displacement and the volume:pressure relationship known as Boyle's Law. A gas pycnometer is also sometimes referred to as a helium pycnometer. Gas expansion pycnometer is also known as constant volume gas pycnometer. The simplest type of gas pycnometer (due to its relative lack of moving parts) consists of two chambers, one (with a removable gas-tight lid) to hold the sample and

neg: Gas pycnometer cement and other construction materials, cenospheres/glass microballoons and solid foams. Gas pycnometer A gas pycnometer is a laboratory device used for measuring the density—or, more accurately, the volume—of solids, be they regularly shaped, porous or non-porous, monolithic, powdered, granular or in some way comminuted, employing some method of gas displacement and the volume:pressure relationship known as Boyle's Law. A gas pycnometer is also sometimes referred to as a helium pycnometer. Gas expansion pycnometer is also known as constant volume gas pycnometer. The simplest type of gas pycnometer (due to its relative lack of moving parts) consists of two chambers, one

neg: Compost heater A part of this water enters the top of the silo for better distribution in the processing volume. If pumped periodically or continuously to the top to rinse through the silo, the whole system becomes a "wet composting" system. Compost heater A compost heater (or Biomeiler) is a structure for the energetic use of biomass for the heating of buildings. The method was developed by Jean Pain in the 1970s. Compost heaters are used primarily for demonstration purposes as small systems for heating a house. Local waste can be converted to energy. The traditional compost heater exploits the heat of

neg: Finite water-content vadose zone flow method equation solution. First, as an ordinary differential equation it is explicit, guaranteed to converge and computationally inexpensive to solve. Second, using a finite volume solution methodology it is guaranteed to conserve mass. The finite water content method readily simulates sharp wetting fronts, something that the Richards solution struggles with. The main limiting assumption required to use the finite water-content method is that the soil be homogeneous in layers. The finite water-content vadose zone flux method is derived from the same starting point as the derivation of Richards' equation. However, the derivation employs a hodograph transformation to produce an advection solution

neg: Volume and displacement indicators for an architectural structure Volume and displacement indicators for an architectural structure The volume (W) and displacement (Δ) indicators have been discovered by Philippe Samyn in 1997 to help the search for the optimal geometry of architectural structures. A resistant structure is anything amorphous or living, which supports the forces to which it is normally subjected without breaking. Characterised by its shape and its constituent materials, and three-dimensional by nature, the amorphous structure usually has a two-dimensional geometry, which is given a thickness, or a three-dimensional geometry (the three-dimensional structure). The latter is formed of a pair of two-dimensional structures on non-parallel planes or

neg: Riyaz Kharrat Dispersion of Solvent in Crude Oil-Saturated Porous Media, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol 29, Issue : 6, (2011) 649 – 663. 74. Yadali Jamaloei B., Kharrat R., Asghari K., Torabi F., The influence of pore wettability on the microstructure of residual oil in surfactant-enhanced water flooding in heavy oil reservoirs: Implications for pore-scale flow characterization, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, February, Volume 77, Issue 1, April 2011, Pages 121-134. 75. Emami H., Kharrat R., Wang X., Study of Microscopic and Macroscopic Displacement Behaviors of Polymer Solution in Water-Wet and Oil-Wet Media, jounal of Transp Porous Med, Volume

neg: Decaffeination the process more "natural" and a true water-based process by finding ways to process the caffeine out of the water in ways that circumvents the use of organic solvents. Another process, known as the Swiss Water Method, uses solely water and osmosis to decaffeinate beans. The use of water as the solvent to decaffeinate coffee was originally pioneered in Switzerland in 1933 and developed as a commercially viable method of decaffeination by Coffex S.A. in 1980. In 1988, the Swiss Water Method was introduced by The Swiss Water Decaffeinated Coffee Company of Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. Noted food engineer Torunn

neg: Tsunamis in lakes Tsunamis in lakes A tsunami is defined as a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water; in the case of this article the body of water being investigated will be a lake rather than an ocean. Tsunamis in lakes are becoming increasingly important to investigate as a hazard, due to the increasing popularity for recreational uses, and increasing populations that inhabit the shores of lakes. Tsunamis generated in lakes and reservoirs are of high concern because it is associated with a near field source region which means a decrease in

neg: Oil reserves deposits. The method is most useful early in the life of the reservoir, before significant production has occurred. The "materials balance method" for an oil field uses an equation that relates the volume of oil, water and gas that has been produced from a reservoir and the change in reservoir pressure to calculate the remaining oil. It assumes that, as fluids from the reservoir are produced, there will be a change in the reservoir pressure that depends on the remaining volume of oil and gas. The method requires extensive pressure-volume-temperature analysis and an accurate pressure history of the field. It

neg: Espresso machine water line supply, common in commercial installations, or from a separate tank that must be filled with water by hand. The latter is more common with lower-volume commercial installations and domestic espresso machines. Due to the required high pumping pressure and precision flow control needed, the particular type of electric pumps typically used are known as "solenoid-piston" pumps. These pumps are classified as a positive displacement type (general category) of pump. Four variants exist in home machines, depending on how brew water and steam are boiled; in discussion these are generally known by acronyms. In recent years air-pump-driven espresso machines