query: when did panama canal go back to panama

pos: Panama Canal Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan. Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The US continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999, the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government. It is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to

pos: Panama Canal Authority Panama Canal Authority The Panama Canal Authority () is the agency of the government of Panama responsible for the operation and management of the Panama Canal. The ACP took over the administration of the canal from the Panama Canal Commission, the joint US–Panama agency that managed the canal, on December 31, 1999, when the canal was handed over from the United States to Panama as per the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. The Panama Canal Authority is established under Title XIV of the National Constitution, and has exclusive responsibility for the operation, administration, management, preservation, maintenance, and modernization of the canal. It is

pos: Panama Canal Authority Authority Board of Directors is made up of the following members: Panama Canal Authority The Panama Canal Authority () is the agency of the government of Panama responsible for the operation and management of the Panama Canal. The ACP took over the administration of the canal from the Panama Canal Commission, the joint US–Panama agency that managed the canal, on December 31, 1999, when the canal was handed over from the United States to Panama as per the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. The Panama Canal Authority is established under Title XIV of the National Constitution, and has exclusive responsibility for the operation,

pos: Balboa, Panama Liberty donated by the Boy Scouts of America. Until 1979, when the Canal Zone as a solely US territory was abolished under the terms of the Panama Canal Treaties, the town of Balboa was the administrative center of the Canal Zone, and remained so until midday on December 31, 1999, by which time, according to the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, the Panama Canal and all its assets and territories were fully returned to the Panamanian government. The Panama Canal Administration Building, the former seat of the Canal Zone Government and Panama Canal Company, is located in Balboa Heights and continues to perform

pos: Panama Canal Zone turned over to Panama in 1999. Proposals for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama date back to 1529, soon after the Spanish conquest. Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, a lieutenant of conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa, suggested four possible routes, one of which closely tracks the present-day canal. Saavedra believed that such a canal would make it easier for European vessels to reach Asia. Although King Charles I was enthusiastic and ordered preliminary works started, his officials in Panama soon realized that such an undertaking was beyond the capabilities of 16th-century technology. One official wrote to Charles, "I pledge to

pos: Panama–United States relations for U.S. operation and defense of the Canal under the Panama Canal Treaty are spelled out in separate implementing agreements. The Canal Zone and its government ceased to exist when the treaties entered into force and Panama assumed complete jurisdiction over Canal Zone territories and functions, a process which was finalized on December 31, 1999. On December 20, 1989, in order to arrest Manuel Noriega, the United States invaded Panama. The military intervention helped to swear into power the winners of the elections of May 1989, President Guillermo Endara. The History of the Relations between Panama and the USA are

pos: Panama Canal Torrijos–Carter Treaties. On September 7, 1977, the treaty was signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos, "de facto" leader of Panama. This mobilized the process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panama signed a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. The Panama Canal remains one of the chief revenue sources for Panama. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international

pos: Panama–United States relations de facto military rule of Manuel Noriega in Panama from 1982 to 1989. The 1977 Panama Canal Treaties entered into force on October 1, 1979. They replaced the 1903 Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty between the United States and Panama (modified in 1936 and 1955), and all other U.S.-Panama agreements concerning the Panama Canal, which were in force on that date. The treaties comprise a basic treaty governing the operation and defense of the Canal from October 1, 1979 to December 31, 1999 (Panama Canal Treaty) and a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the Canal (Neutrality Treaty). The details of the arrangements

pos: History of the Panama Canal United States. On September 7, 1977, US President Jimmy Carter signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaty setting in motion the process of transferring control of the canal to Panama. The treaty became effective on October 1, 1979, providing for a 20-year period in which Panama would have increasing responsibility for canal operations before complete US withdrawal on December 31, 1999. Since then, the canal has been administered by the Panama Canal Authority (Autoridad de Canal de Panama, or ACP). The treaty was controversial in the US, and its passage was difficult. The controversy was largely generated by contracts to manage two ports,

pos: Panama City 1999, the United States officially transferred control of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama, which remains in control today. The city of Panama is still a banking center, although with very visible controls in the flow of cash. Shipping is handled through port facilities in the area of Balboa operated by the Hutchison Whampoa Company of Hong Kong and through several ports on the Caribbean side of the isthmus. Balboa, which is located within the greater Panama metropolitan area, was formerly part of the Panama Canal Zone, and the administration of the former Panama Canal Zone was headquartered there. Panamá

pos: Omar Torrijos Panama Canal. The two treaties guaranteed that Panama would gain control of the Panama Canal after 1999, ending the control of the canal that the U.S. had exercised since 1903. On December 31, 1999, the final phase of the treaty, the US relinquished control of the Panama Canal and all areas in what had been the Panama Canal Zone. His son Martín Torrijos was elected president and served from 2004 to 2009. Torrijos was born in Santiago in the province of Veraguas, the sixth of eleven children. His father, José Maria Torrijos, was originally from Colombia, and was employed as

pos: History of the Panama Canal the Torrijos–Carter Treaties began the process of transferring territorial control of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama, a process completed on 31 December 1999. The Panama Canal continues to be a viable commercial venture and a vital link in world shipping, and continues to be periodically updated and maintained. The Panama Canal expansion project started construction in 2007 and began commercial operation on 26 June 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger Post-Panamax and New Panamax ships, which have a greater cargo capacity than the original locks could accommodate. The idea of a canal across Central America was revived

pos: United States territory States under a perpetual lease, much as the Panama Canal Zone used to be before the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties and only mutual agreement or U.S. abandonment of the area can terminate the lease. From July 8, 1947, until October 1, 1994, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, but the Trust ceased to exist when the last member state of Palau gained its independence to become the Republic of Palau. The Panama canal, and the Canal Zone surrounding it, was territory administered by the United States until 1999, when control was relinquished to Panama.

pos: Panama After Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada eventually became the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, allowing the construction of the Panama Canal to be completed by the US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. The 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties led to the transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama on December 31, 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panama's GDP, although commerce, banking, and tourism are major and growing sectors. In 2015 Panama ranked 60th in

pos: 630th Radar Squadron on counter drug operations. In 1994, it was renumbered to its parent wing's number. It was finally inactivated when the USAF shut down its operations in Panama in conjunction with the turnover of the former Canal Zone to Panama. Assignments Stations 630th Radar Squadron The 630th Radar Squadron is a previous designation of a provisional United States Air Force (USAF) unit. It is assigned to Air Combat Command to activate or inactivate as needed. It was last stationed at Howard AFB, Panama. It was last inactivated on 1 June 1999. The squadron was first activated in the Panama Canal Zone

neg: Panama Canal Railway about the same time the extensive mosquito abatement projects were undertaken to make it safer to work in Panama. When the mosquitoes were under control, much of the railroad was ready to go to work. The railway greatly assisted the building of the Panama Canal. Besides hauling millions of tons of men, equipment, and supplies, the railroad did much more. Essentially all of the hundreds of millions of cubic yards of material removed from the required canal cuts were broken up by explosives, loaded by steam shovels, mounted on one set of railroad tracks, loaded onto rail cars, and hauled

neg: Ancon Hill 1914, , took its name from the hill and surrounding township. When Panama regained control of the hill following the 1977 Panama Canal Treaty, one of the first things the country did was fly a large Panamanian flag atop the hill. Ancon Hill Ancon Hill is a 654-foot hill that overlooks Panama City, Panama, adjacent to the township of Ancón. Ancón Hill is an area in Panama that was used for administration of the Panama Canal. It was under U.S. jurisdiction as part of the Panama Canal Zone until being returned to Panama in 1977. Largely undeveloped, the area is

neg: History of the Panama Canal Former US Ambassador to Panama Linda Watt, who served from 2002 to 2005, said that the canal operation in Panamanian hands has been "outstanding". "The international shipping community is quite pleased", Watt added. History of the Panama Canal The idea of the Panama canal dates back to 1513, when Vasco Núñez de Balboa first crossed the isthmus. The narrow land bridge between North and South America houses the Panama Canal, a water passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The earliest European colonists recognized this potential, and several proposals for a canal were made. By the late nineteenth century, technological

neg: Philippe Bunau-Varilla in public works at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and traveled to Panama. He arrived at the isthmus in 1884, employed with Ferdinand de Lesseps's Panama Canal Company. He became general manager of the organization and food. After the Panama Canal Company went bankrupt in 1888 amidst charges of fraud, Bunau-Varilla was left stranded in Panama. He struggled to find a new way to construct the canal. When the New Panama Canal Company sprang up back in his native France, Bunau-Varilla sailed home, having purchased a large amount of stock. However, as de Lesseps' company had before, the

neg: History of the Panama Canal History of the Panama Canal The idea of the Panama canal dates back to 1513, when Vasco Núñez de Balboa first crossed the isthmus. The narrow land bridge between North and South America houses the Panama Canal, a water passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The earliest European colonists recognized this potential, and several proposals for a canal were made. By the late nineteenth century, technological advances and commercial pressure allowed construction to begin in earnest. Noted canal engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps led an initial attempt by France to build a sea-level canal. Beset by cost overruns due to

neg: USS Walworth County (LST-1164) underway on 23 September 1968 for a United States Southern Command deployment as a member of Landing Ship Tank Division 41. After a trip to the Panama Canal Zone, she got underway on 9 October 1968 for a visit to Jamaica. Upon reaching Montego Bay, "Walworth County" was called back to Panama when an uprising overthrew the Panamanian government. She arrived in the Panama Canal Zone on 14 October 1968 and, the next day, transited the canal to the Pacific Ocean. She remained at the Rodman Naval Station in Panama until 8 November 1968. Loaded with Operation Handclasp material, "Walworth

neg: India–Panama relations India–Panama relations India–Panama relations refer to the bilateral relations between India and Panama. Panama is the first country in Central America where India established a resident embassy in 1973. Panama has an embassy in New Delhi, and a consulate-general in Mumbai. The Indian-Panamanian connection is the oldest in the Central American region, dating back to the middle of the 19th century when groups of Indians, particularly Sikh immigrants, came to Panama to work on the construction of Panama railways and later the Panama Canal in the early 20th century. There are about 15,000 Indians, including those of Indian origin, in

neg: Panama scandals Panama scandals The Panama scandals (also known as the Panama Canal Scandal or Panama Affair) was a corruption affair that broke out in the French Third Republic in 1892, linked to the building of the Panama Canal. Close to half a billion francs were lost when the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century. On 4 February 1889, the "Tribunal Civil de la Seine" ordered the winding up of the Panama Canal Company in Paris. Work on the isthmus

neg: Panama Canal Zone credit separate from Panama. Panama Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone () was an unincorporated territory of the United States from 1903 to 1979, centered on the Panama Canal and surrounded by the Republic of Panama. The zone consisted of the canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline, excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of the Zone. Its border spanned three of Panama's provinces. When reservoirs were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within the Zone. In 1904,

neg: Panama Pacific Line Panama Pacific Line Panama Pacific Line was a subsidiary of International Mercantile Marine (IMM) established to carry passengers and freight between the US East and West Coasts via the Panama Canal. Although IMM had begun preparations for this intercoastal service as far back as 1911, service began in May 1915 with the former Red Star Line (another IMM subsidiary line) ships and . When landslides in September 1915 closed the canal for an extended time, "Kroonland" and "Finland" were reassigned to the IMM's American Line. The outbreak of World War I and its strain on international shipping caused the intercoastal

neg: Panama Canal Zone Panama Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone () was an unincorporated territory of the United States from 1903 to 1979, centered on the Panama Canal and surrounded by the Republic of Panama. The zone consisted of the canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline, excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of the Zone. Its border spanned three of Panama's provinces. When reservoirs were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within the Zone. In 1904, the Isthmian Canal Convention

neg: USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642) few weeks in Honolulu giving the people of Hawaii the opportunity to go aboard and see the submarine named in honor of the King of Hawaii. In early June 1970, with the Gold Crew operating the boat, "Kam" got underway for Charleston, South Carolina, via the Panama Canal, for duty with Submarine Squadron 18, based at Charleston. The submerged transit to the canal took about seven days, and upon arrival off the coast of Panama, "Kam" surfaced and was met by the Panama Canal pilot who would take her through. The passage through the Panama Canal was given priority by

neg: Rail transport in Panama United States government handed over control of the Canal Zone and railway to the government of Panama. On 19 June 1998, the government of Panama turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company ("PCRC"). The Panama Railway was originally broad gauge broad gauge, but when it was rebuilt in 2000, the gauge was changed to standard gauge . The route is long across the Isthmus of Panama from Colón (Atlantic) to Balboa (Pacific, near Panama City). As of 2015, Panama Canal Railway Company runs both passenger and freight trains between Panama City and Colón. Passenger service consists of

neg: Panama Canal Zone Panama. Bunau-Varilla was initially the Panamanian representative in the United States, though he was about to be displaced by actual Panamanians, and hastily negotiated a treaty, giving the United States a zone wide and full authority to pass laws to govern that zone. The Panama Canal Zone (Canal Zone, or Zone) excluded Panama City and Colón, but included four offshore islands, and permitted the United States to add to the zone any additional lands needed to carry on canal operations. The Panamanians were minded to disavow the treaty, but Bunau-Varilla told the new government that if Panama did not agree,

neg: 2006 Panama Canal expansion referendum 2006 Panama Canal expansion referendum The Panama Canal expansion referendum was held on October 22, 2006, when the citizens of Panama approved the Panama Canal expansion project by a wide margin. According to article 325 of the Panamanian Constitution, any proposal for the construction of a third set of locks or a sea-level Canal on the existing route that the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) proposes has to be approved by the executive branch and submitted to the National Assembly for its approval or rejection. It also has to be submitted to a national referendum no earlier than three months after

neg: Panama Canal Zone 1951, under an act of Congress dated September 26, 1950 (64 Stat. 1038), governance of the Canal Zone was through the Canal Zone Government with the canal operated by the Panama Canal Company until 1979 when the Panama Canal Commission took over its governance. The entire structure was under the control of the United States government with the Secretary of the Army appointing the Panama Canal Company board of directors and the Canal Zone Government was entirely financed by the company. The office of Governor of the Panama Canal Zone was not usually a stepping stone to higher political office

neg: Panama Canal Zone assets, the Canal Zone was formally turned over by Panama on May 4, 1904, when American officials reopened the Panama City offices of the canal company and raised the American flag. This marked the beginning point for U.S. excavation and construction which concluded in August 1914 with the opening of the canal to commercial traffic. By order of President Theodore Roosevelt under the Panama Canal Acts of 1902 and 1904 the Secretary of War was made supervisor of canal construction and the second Isthmian Canal Commission made the governing body for the Canal Zone. Under the Panama Canal Act of

neg: Panama Canal Division active until 1927. Later, however, the commander of the Panama Canal Department, Major General Preston Brown, determined that the defense of Panama would be better served by command groups representing the Atlantic and the Pacific. In 1932, the Army inactivated the division, keeping its Tables of Organization on file should the need arise to reactivate it. It never has. Panama Canal Division The Panama Canal Division was a unit of the United States Army, established in order to ensure the United States could adequately defend the Canal Zone in Panama. When it was authorized in 1920, similar divisions were organized

neg: Ancón, Panama idea that was materialized with the construction of the Panama Canal. During the years when the Panama Canal was under the control of the United States, many administrative facilities, military bases, and communities were built in the adjacent areas, forming part of the former Panama Canal Zone. When these areas were reverted to Panama under the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, several alternatives were proposed to integrate the district to the city of Panama. The current district of Ancón was created when a new political-administrative division for the reverted areas was adopted, by Act No. 18 of August 29, 1979, and later amended

neg: United States involvement in regime change War. The Panama Canal was already under construction, and the Panama Canal Zone was carved out and placed under United States sovereignty. The US did not transfer the zone back to Panama until 2000. In what became known as the "Banana Wars," between the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 and the inception of the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934, the U.S. staged many military invasions and interventions in Central America and the Caribbean. The United States Marine Corps, which most often fought these wars, developed a manual called "The Strategy and Tactics of Small Wars" in 1921 based

neg: Panama scandals at the same time. Although off by two years the Panama Scandals were the only scandals involving France and South America at this time period. Panama scandals The Panama scandals (also known as the Panama Canal Scandal or Panama Affair) was a corruption affair that broke out in the French Third Republic in 1892, linked to the building of the Panama Canal. Close to half a billion francs were lost when the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century.

neg: William Merrill Whitman for the West Publishing Company in St. Paul, Minnesota. Whitman began his long relationship (ending in 1972) with the Panama Canal the following year when he was admitted to the Panama Canal Zone Bar and began undertaking legal work for the Panama Railway, the Panama Canal Company, and the government of the Panama Canal Zone. From 1940 to 1942, Whitman was an associate attorney for the Canal Zone's General Counsel. After his admission to the bar of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1943, he served as the assistant general counsel for the Canal Zone (beginning in 1943)

neg: Philippe Bunau-Varilla New Panama Canal Company soon abandoned efforts to build the canal. It sold the land in Panama to the United States, in hopes that the company would not fail entirely. U.S. President Grover Cleveland, an anti-imperialist, avoided the canal issue. When the more supportive Theodore Roosevelt became president (succeeding William McKinley), canal planning resumed in the United States. Bunau-Varilla vociferously promoted construction of the canal. With aid from the New Panama Canal Company's New York attorney, William Nelson Cromwell, he persuaded the government to select Panama as the canal site, as opposed to the popular alternative, Nicaragua. When opponents voiced

neg: 2006 Panama Canal expansion referendum the official count. Under this system, by 6 p.m. (2 hours after the voting ended) the results of approximately 25% of polling stations were available and the likely approval of the project was known. However, the official results are the responsibility of the National Scrutiny Junta, and that took some days (3) as official declarations came from all over the country to Panama City. 2006 Panama Canal expansion referendum The Panama Canal expansion referendum was held on October 22, 2006, when the citizens of Panama approved the Panama Canal expansion project by a wide margin. According to article 325 of

neg: Diablo, Panama The 4-family units were all 3-story wooden construction built circa 1940. Of the remainder, the concrete homes were built in the 1950s when the layout of the neighborhood was changed. At that time, many multi-family dwellings (some 12-family) were removed. The remainder of the wooden construction are of the circa 1940 vintage. The experimental steel homes result from the sea-level canal project circa 1960. All residents rented their home from the Panama Canal Company; no one owned their home. If a person did not work for the Panama Canal Company, he could not rent a home in Diablo (with occasional

neg: Panama Canal 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes 11.38 hours to pass through the Panama Canal. The American Society of Civil Engineers has ranked the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama occurred in 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ordered a survey for a route through the Americas that would ease the voyage for ships traveling between Spain

neg: Nicaragua Canal Tehuantepec in Mexico. The history of attempts to build a Nicaragua canal connecting the Caribbean Sea and thus the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean goes back at least to 1825 when the Federal Republic of Central America hired surveyors to study a route via Lake Nicaragua, above sea level. Many other proposals have followed. Despite the operation of the Panama Canal, which opened in 1914, interest in a Nicaragua canal has continued. With emergence of globalization, an increase in commerce and the cost of fuel, and the limitations of the Panama Canal, the concept of a second canal across

neg: Panama Canal Zone but a position given to a US Army active duty general officers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The Governor was also President of the Panama Canal Company. The Canal Zone had its own police force (the Canal Zone Police), courts, and judges (the United States District Court for the Canal Zone). Despite being an unincorporated territory, the Canal Zone was never granted a congressional delegate. Everyone worked for the company or the government in one form or another. Residents did not own their homes; instead, they rented houses assigned primarily based on seniority in the zone. When

neg: Atlantic Bridge, Panama due to be completed during 2019. Atlantic Bridge, Panama The third bridge over the Panama Canal, known as the Atlantic Bridge, is a road bridge under construction in Colón, Panama, which will span the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. When completed it will be the third bridge over the Panama Canal after the Bridge of the Americas and the Centennial Bridge, both on the Pacific side of the canal. The bridge is proposed to be a double-pylon, double-plane, concrete girder, cable-stayed bridge with a main span of and two side spans of . The east and west approaches are to

neg: Atlantic Bridge, Panama Atlantic Bridge, Panama The third bridge over the Panama Canal, known as the Atlantic Bridge, is a road bridge under construction in Colón, Panama, which will span the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. When completed it will be the third bridge over the Panama Canal after the Bridge of the Americas and the Centennial Bridge, both on the Pacific side of the canal. The bridge is proposed to be a double-pylon, double-plane, concrete girder, cable-stayed bridge with a main span of and two side spans of . The east and west approaches are to be and long, respectively. The bridge

neg: Carroll Thayer Berry back to New England, where he worked as a mechanical draftsman for an engineering firm in Massachusetts. In 1910, Berry joined an architectural firm in Portland, Oregon, and was sent to Panama to participate in the construction of the Panama Canal. After a year, however, he contracted malaria and was sent back to the United States to recuperate. While in the U.S., he began to take art classes at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Subsequently, when Berry was sent back to Panama as an inspector of construction, government officials were so impressed by his artistic abilities that they commissioned

neg: Isthmian Canal Commission Bishop's appointment threatened appropriations for Panama Canal construction, Taft, surely with Roosevelt's quiet assent, ordered Bishop out of Washington to Panama, where the partisan political heat would be less intense. "I accept your decision without reluctance," Bishop informed Taft, "and shall go to the Isthmus, not sadly but cheerfully." It would not be his first trip to Panama. In the fall of the previous year, Bishop had gone ahead to advance Roosevelt's historic inspection tour, the first time a sitting president had journeyed outside the United States. In 1907, the Isthmian Canal Commission hired photographer Ernest "Red" Hallen to photograph

neg: Panama City, Florida the Panama City Public Library's "A History of Panama City", George Mortimer West hoped to spur real estate development in Bay County during a period of intense popular interest in the construction of the Panama Canal by changing the town's name from Harrison to Panama City, because a straight line between Chicago and the capital of the Central American country of Panama intersected the Florida town. Additionally, since required meanders around land formations in a seaborne route to the canal added distance when starting at other ports, Panama City was the closest developed port in the US mainland to the

neg: Panama Canal fence control of the canal, ports, water supply, etcetera, and to submit the Canal Zone to Panamanian governance. By 1963, President Eisenhower had compromised by giving land to Panama, raising the annual tolls paid to Panama up to more that 2 million dollars annually, and with a plan to allow the flag of Panama to be flown beside the Stars and Stripes outside public buildings. This measure had not been fully enacted, when President Kennedy was assassinated. In Panama, there were demonstrations by Panamanian, often involving the desecration of United States flags. On January 9, 1964, after a failed attempt to

neg: Panama Canal locks Panama Canal locks The Panama Canal locks () are a lock system that lifts a ship up to the main elevation of the Panama Canal and down again. The original canal had a total of six steps (three up, three down) for a ship's passage. The total length of the lock structures, including the approach walls, is over . The locks were one of the greatest engineering works ever to be undertaken when they opened in 1914. No other concrete construction of comparable size was undertaken until the Hoover Dam, in the 1930s. There are two independent transit lanes, since

neg: Marijuana Smoking in Panama Marijuana Smoking in Panama Marijuana Smoking in Panama is the title of a 1933 report created by United States Army Medical Corps Colonel Joseph Franklin Siler (J.F. Siler) for the Commanding General of the Army's Panama Canal Department concerning cannabis (marijuana) use by U.S. military members. Use at that time in the Panama Canal Zone, then a U.S. territory, was a concern for military discipline and health. The report has been called "one of the earliest semi-experimental studies" of cannabis. The report on Siler's research, going back to 1925, found that cannabis was "not habit forming in the same way

neg: Panama Canal Department Panama Canal Department The Panama Canal Department was a department (geographical command) of the United States Army, responsible for the defense of the Panama Canal Zone between 1917 and 1947. The Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Canal Guard of 1904–1914 both played a pivotal role in the construction and early defense of the Canal. With the active support and encouragement of the United States, Panama declared its independence from Colombia on 3 Nov. 1903 and that same month, the United States received the right to build and administer the Panama Canal. On 8 Mar. 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed

neg: Olga Sinclair of the Panama Canal. Olga Sinclair Olga Sinclair (born 1957 in Panama City) is an artist and figurative painter. She participated for the first time in a collective exhibition amongst professional painters at the age of just 14. She started painting studies with her father, the painter Alfredo Sinclair and went in 1976 to the Academy of Applied Arts in Madrid, Spain. There she also did three years classic art drawing lessons at the Arjona Studio. Back in Panama she obtained her BA-degree in Interior Design in 1984. At the same time she took engraving lessons in Giangranddi Studio. Then

neg: Trams in Panama started service just as the first major attempt to build a canal across the isthmus by the Ferdinand de Lesseps-led "Société internationale du Canal interocéanique" was winding down. By 1894, a second effort to build a canal under a newly formed "Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama" was started. The construction efforts helped boost ridership along the new tramway line. The second canal construction attempt did not succeed, and the economy of the isthmus slowed. Service along that first Panama City tramway line ended during the Thousand Days' War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902. On 3 November 1903 the

neg: Panama Canal Railway Known as the Panama Railroad Company when founded in the 19th century, today it is operated as Panama Canal Railway Company (reporting mark: PCRC). Since 1998 it has been jointly owned by Kansas City Southern and Mi-Jack Products and leased to the government of Panama. The Panama Canal Railway currently provides both freight and passenger service. The principal incentive for the United States to build the rail line was the vast increase in passenger and freight traffic to California following the 1849 California Gold Rush. The United States Congress had provided subsidies to companies to operate mail and passenger steamships

neg: Panama–United States relations a mandatory course in the curriculum of Public High School in Panama. The United States cooperates with the Panamanian government in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through U.S. and international agencies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong and many Panamanians go to the United States for higher education and advanced training. In 2007, the U.S. and Panama partnered to launch a regional health worker training center. The center provides training to community healthcare workers in Panama and throughout Central America. About 25,000 American citizens reside in Panama, many are retirees from the Panama Canal Commission and

neg: Panama Canal Department as well. It was co-located with the department headquarters at Quarry Heights, under the command of the department commander. During World War II, the department reached its peak strength in January 1943, when 68,000 men were under its control. On 1 November 1947 it was replaced by United States Army Caribbean, part of the joint Caribbean Command. The following officers are known to have commanded the department: Panama Canal Department The Panama Canal Department was a department (geographical command) of the United States Army, responsible for the defense of the Panama Canal Zone between 1917 and 1947. The Isthmian Canal

neg: Panama Canal Division Panama Canal Division The Panama Canal Division was a unit of the United States Army, established in order to ensure the United States could adequately defend the Canal Zone in Panama. When it was authorized in 1920, similar divisions were organized to defend Hawaii and the Philippines. The division was organized in 1921, and active until 1932. Its initial composition included the 19th Infantry Brigade commanding the (14th and 65th Infantry Regiments, of which the 65th was stationed in Puerto Rico) and the 20th Infantry Brigade commanding the (33rd and 42nd Infantry Regiments). The two brigades appear to have been

neg: Postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone exhaustedwhich prompted the next production of stamps, issued that year. Selected issues : Panama had ordered the new permanent coat of arms set both for use in Panama and for the Canal Zone. When stocks of the were nearly used up it became imperative to have a new supply of 1-cent stamps at once. The Canal Zone Postal Authority requisitioned 50,000 of the 1¢ stamp from Panama for overprinting at Mount Hope and Panama sent over the Vallarino 1¢ stamp. On January 28, 1924, these stamps were overprinted at Mount Hope. Panama was billed for the cost of this overprinting.

neg: Afro-Panamanian islands once the offshore project, after construction of the canal many Afro-Antillean stayed in Panama. Afro-West Indians who remained in Panama many got jobs in the Canal Zone and became the largest immigrant group in Panama. On the subject of Afro-Antillean Panama, Leslie B. Rout said that when the canal was opened in 1914, some 20,000 African-West Indians remained in Panama. Slaves used the isolating nature of transporting goods as an opportunity to escape. Many slaves escaped into the sparsely settled terrain and formed cimarroneras or marooned societies. These slaves were known as cimarrones. Cimarrones would mount attacks on transport

neg: Afro-Panamanian fact, according to Lobinot Marrero, many West Indians arrived in Panama during these years were from the French Antilles of Martinique and Guadeloupe, for example in the year 1906-1907 Panama reached more than 2,800 workers and about 2,000 of Martinique and Guadeloupe. In 1904 when the construction of the Panama Canal was taken over by the United States for the failure of the French company, will again resort to the West Indian worker. Although between 1904 and 1914 the vast majority of Afro-West Indians who arrived in Panama did a one-year contract with the idea of returning to their home

neg: SS Kronprinz Wilhelm On 20 December, Captain Yates Stirling, Jr. assumed command of the transport from Commander Moses and she returned to sea, bound for Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where she disembarked marines. On 27 December, she got underway for the Panama Canal Zone. The ship transited the canal on 29 December and entered the drydock at Balboa, Panama that afternoon. Over the next three weeks, she received repairs of the damage to her bow. On 20 January 1918, the ship floated out of the dock and then retransited the canal. After coaling at Colón, Panama, she departed the Canal Zone and headed back

neg: Panama Canal the former Italian governmental navigation company known as the "Italian Line". This service can be requested from the Panama canal authority at any time who will consider each request. Panama Canal The Panama Canal () is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit for maritime trade. Canal locks are at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 m (85 ft) above sea level,

neg: Panamanian reggaetón Panamanian reggaetón In Panama, reggaetón is a musical genre that is a combination of reggae, Jamaican dancehall, hip hop, soca, and various Caribbean music styles. Lyrics to reggaetón are typically sexually explicit and are generally rapped, but many reggaetón artists will also sing their lyrics. Reggaetón, which was formerly called Reggae en Español, originated on the isthmus of Panama. The roots of Panamanian reggaetón can be traced back to the creation of the Panama Canal in 1903. During the construction of the Canal, up to 150,000 black workers and their families were brought to Panama from the West Indies. With

neg: Diablo, Panama Diablo, Panama Diablo was one of many residential townships in the Panama Canal Zone. It was established in 1905 by William Luke Jenkins. It was located directly across from the entrance to Albrook AFB, on a low hill overlooking the canal just past Balboa Harbor. Originally, Diablo Hill was much larger, but it was cut back to facilitate the relocation and rerouting of the Panama Railroad in the 1910s. It was reduced even further in the 1950s to accommodate new housing construction. In the late 1930s through early 1940s, Diablo was the headquarters for the 3rd locks project, it being

neg: Panama Canal expansion project world's container ship fleet would consist of vessels that did not fit through the current canal, and a great part of this fleet could be used on routes that compete with Panama. The proposal states that strengthening the canal's competitive position will allow it to accommodate demand and serve its customers. If the canal had the capacity to serve the growing demand, Panama could become the most important connectivity hub on the continent by joining together north–south continental routes and east–west transcontinental routes. Accordingly, the canal will continue to be viable and competitive in all of its routes and segments,

neg: USS Enoree (AO-69) date for Galveston, Texas, which she reached on 10 February 1952. Remaining there until 20 February 1952, "Enoree" then visited Freeport, Texas, at the mouth of the Brazos River, before she proceeded on to return to the Panama Canal Zone, bound for the United States West Coast. Transiting the Panama Canal on 26-27 February 1952, she reached El Segundo, California, on 8 March 1952. She operated in the El Segundo-Long Beach-San Diego area until 28 March 1952, when she took departure for the Panama Canal Zone, transiting the Panama Canal on 5 April 1952. After shuttling between Aruba and Guantanamo

neg: University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection The University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection includes materials from the University of Florida Libraries' Government Documents Department, the UF Libraries' Latin American Collection, the UF Libraries' Map & Imagery Library, and other shared collections including the "Panama and the Canal Digital Collection", which is in collaboration with the Panama Canal Museum. The UF Libraries' Government Documents Department is also the Center of Excellence for the US Panama Canal Commission (and its predecessor agencies). Ernest "Red" Hallen's photographs make up a large portion of the University of Florida Panama and

neg: Panama Canal Authority is made up as follows: The Directors shall serve in their posts for a term of 9 years, and may only be removed for the reasons set forth in Article 20 of the Panama Canal Authority Organic Law. The Panama Canal is defined by law to be an inalienable patrimony of the Republic of Panama. Therefore, it may not be sold, assigned, mortgaged, or otherwise encumbered or transferred. The Panama Canal Authority Board of Directors is responsible for establishing policies for the operation, improvement, and modernization of the Canal, as well as supervising its management. At present, the Panama Canal

neg: Postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone printings as needed, with each plate resulting in variations or errors in the overprinting. In December 1904 the Canal Zone postal authorities requested from Panama a supply of 8¢ stamps for to be employed as registration fee stamps. Panama at the time did not have an 8¢ denomination in its current series of postage, making it necessary to prepare an 8¢ surcharge stamp to existing stocks of postage stamps. To this end Panama used their regular 50¢ stamp from their current series of issues. The 8¢ surcharge was made in Panama on Colombian stamps already overprinted with a red colored

neg: Balboa, Panama its duties as the main administration building for the agency that runs the Panama Canal—previously the Panama Canal Commission, now the Panama Canal Authority. The building has large murals painted by William B. Van Ingen depicting the construction of the canal. There was a VLF-transmitting station of the US Navy near Balboa for transmitting orders to submarines, which began service around 1915. Balboa is the Pacific-side port of the Panama Canal. The port has a dry dock in Panamax size (even the gates have a construction similar to that of the locks of the Panama canal). In 2012, Balboa was

neg: French Third Republic left a decade earlier. The Panama scandals of 1892 involved the enormous cost of a failed attempt to build the Panama Canal. Due to disease, death, inefficiency, and widespread corruption, the Panama Canal Company handling the massive project went bankrupt, with millions in losses. It is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century. Close to a billion francs were lost when the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles. The state had a smaller role in France than in Germany before the First World War. French income levels were

neg: Panama Canal Railway Panama Canal Railway The Panama Canal Railway () is a railway line linking the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean in Central America. The route stretches across the Isthmus of Panama from Colón (Atlantic) to Balboa (Pacific, near Panama City). Because of the difficult physical conditions of the route and state of technology, the construction was renowned as an international engineering achievement, one that cost US$8 million and the lives of an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 workers. Opened in 1855, the railway preceded the Panama Canal by half a century; the ship canal was later constructed parallel to the railway.

neg: University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection the Canal Collection. University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection The University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection includes materials from the University of Florida Libraries' Government Documents Department, the UF Libraries' Latin American Collection, the UF Libraries' Map & Imagery Library, and other shared collections including the "Panama and the Canal Digital Collection", which is in collaboration with the Panama Canal Museum. The UF Libraries' Government Documents Department is also the Center of Excellence for the US Panama Canal Commission (and its predecessor agencies). Ernest "Red" Hallen's photographs make up a large portion of the University of

neg: Centennial Bridge, Panama Centennial Bridge, Panama Panama's Centennial Bridge () is a major bridge crossing the Panama Canal. It was built to supplement the overcrowded Bridge of the Americas and to replace it as the carrier of the Pan-American Highway. Upon its opening in 2004, it became the second permanent crossing of the canal. The Centennial Bridge is the second major road crossing of the Panama Canal, the first being the Bridge of the Americas. (Small service bridges are built in the lock structures at Miraflores and Gatún Locks, but these bridges are only usable when the lock gates are closed and have

neg: Hinduism in Panama Sathya Sai Baba Organization, and International Society of Transcendental Meditation are also present in Panama. Panama Hindu Temple is the only Hindu Temple in Panama, and stands on top of a hill in Tumba Muerto. Hinduism in Panama Hinduism in Panama is a minority religion. There are about 10,000-14,000 Hindus in Panama. The Hindus initially arrived by way of the British colonies of Guyana and Trinidad-Tobago, first came as canal workers between 1904 and 1913. Most of the Hindus trace their roots back to the states of Gujarat and Sindh, in India and Pakistan respectively. The main association of Hindus

neg: Starved Rock Lock and Dam Legislation which codified the construction of the Waterway only stipulated the general design and location of the locks and dams along the Illinois River; the details were left to Barnes, Smith and other engineers. Barnes had 20 years' experience as a civil engineer and had worked as an assistant to the engineer in charge of the construction of the Panama Canal locks when Lowden tapped him to head the project. Smith worked with Barnes on the Panama Canal project; they had both resigned in 1907 to go to work for the New York Board of Water Supply. Together the two

neg: Pan-American Highway Panama, it crosses the Panama Canal via the Centennial Bridge, and ends at Yaviza, at the edge of the Darién Gap. The road had formerly ended at Cañita, Panama, north of its current end. United States government funding was particularly significant to complete the high-level Bridge of the Americas over the Panama Canal, during the years when the canal was administered by the United States. Belize was supposedly included in the route at one time, after it switched to driving on the right. Prior to independence, as British Honduras, it was the only Central American country to drive on the

neg: Panama Canal expansion project for large ships to pass one another. Although the canal was nearing its maximum capacity, it did not mean that ships were unable to transit it. Rather, the canal's growth capacity stagnated and that it could not capture additional cargo volumes. The former head of the Panama Canal's dredging division, Thomas Drohan, a critic of the expansion plan, discounted allegations that this is a problem in the short term. He argued that if the supply of any good or service becomes short, businesses can raise their prices; this would apply to Panama Canal tolls as much as it does to

neg: William Howard Taft he was likely to appoint Taft if the opportunity came to fill the court's center seat, but some considered Attorney General Philander Knox a better candidate. In any event, Fuller remained chief justice throughout Roosevelt's presidency. Through the 1903 separation of Panama from Colombia and the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, the United States had secured rights to build a canal in the Isthmus of Panama. Legislation authorizing construction did not specify which government department would be responsible, and Roosevelt designated the Department of War. Taft journeyed to Panama in 1904, viewing the canal site and meeting with Panamanian officials. The Isthmian Canal

neg: History of Panama (1964–77) but became deadlocked on four central issues: the duration of the treaty; the amount of canal revenues to go to Panama; the amount of territory United States military bases would occupy during the life of the treaty; and the United States demand for a renewable forty- or fifty-year lease of bases to defend the canal. Panama was particularly concerned with the open-ended presence of United States military bases and held that the emerging United States position retained the bitterly opposed "perpetuity" provision of the 1903 treaty and thus violated the spirit of the 1974 Kissinger-Tack principles. The sensitivity of the

neg: Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty () was a treaty signed on November 18, 1903, by the United States and Panama, which established the Panama Canal Zone and the subsequent construction of the Panama Canal. It was named after its two primary negotiators, Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, the French diplomatic representative of Panama, and United States Secretary of State John Hay. Bunau-Varilla was originally involved in the building of the Panama Canal under Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had built the Suez Canal. After the collapse of the de Lesseps efforts to build the Panama Canal, Bunau-Varilla became an important shareholder of the "Compagnie

neg: Ajax (crane barge) rescue. The next lift the cable broke again. Near midnight on the 29th Ajax did its third lift, this lift worked as the divers has pumped air into the sub's flooded Engine Room. The bow of the O-5 broke the surface. The salvage team opened the torpedo room hatch, and two trapped sailors, Henry Breault and Lawrence T. Brown emerged. On June 27, 1955, with the completion of the Panama Canal the "Ajax" was put up for sale by the Panama Canal Company. The "Hercules" was kept to do maintenance work on the Panama Canal. "Ajax" was sold to a

neg: History of the Nicaragua Canal considering the Spooner Act to authorize the Panama Canal. In addition to the promise of earlier completion of the Panama Canal, opponents of the Nicaraguan canal cited the risk of volcanic activity at the Momotombo volcano. They favored construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama. In 1898, the chief of the French Canal Syndicate (a group that owned large swathes of land across Panama), Philippe Bunau Varilla, hired William Nelson Cromwell to lobby the United States Congress for the Panama Canal. In 1902, taking advantage of a year with increased volcanic activity in the Caribbean Sea, Cromwell planted

neg: History of the Panama Canal canal was proven during World War II, when the canal helped restore the devastated United States Pacific Fleet. Some of the largest ships the United States had to send through the canal were aircraft carriers, particularly "Essex" class; they were so large that although the locks could accommodate them, the lampposts along the canal had to be removed. The Panama Canal cost the United States about $375 million, including $10 million paid to Panama and $40 million paid to the French company. Although it was the most expensive construction project in US history to that time, it cost about $23

neg: History of Panama (1977–present) assume complete legal jurisdiction over the former Canal Zone immediately, although the United States would retain jurisdiction over its citizens during a thirty-month transition period. Panama would grant the United States rights to operate, maintain, and manage the canal through a new United States government agency, the Panama Canal Commission. The commission would be supervised by a board of five members from the United States and four from Panama; the ratio was fixed for the duration of the treaty. The commission would have a United States administrator and Panamanian deputy administrator until January 1, 1990, when the nationalities of these

neg: Italians in Panama Italians in Panama The Italians in Panama are Italians resident (3,688 in 2011) in Panama and Panamanian citizens who are mainly descendant of Italians attracted by the construction of the Panama Canal, between the 19th and twentieth century. The history of Italian immigrants in Panama begins from 1510, when several Italian citizens decided to emigrate to Panama City founded by Pedrarias Davila. From 1520 some Genovese merchants ruled the commerce of Old Panama (Panamá Viejo) on the Pacific Ocean for a century. Between 1596 and 1597 already there were 11 Italians in Panama, for naturalization and the right to stay

neg: Panama Canal Panama Canal The Panama Canal () is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit for maritime trade. Canal locks are at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 m (85 ft) above sea level, and then lower the ships at the other end. The original locks are 34 m (110 ft) wide. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007

neg: USS S-20 (SS-125) many U.S. submarines through World War II, starting with the 1932 "Porpoise" class; other navies did not follow suit until after the war. In addition to duty in northeastern points out of New London, Connecticut from 1922–1929, the new submarine visited Coco Solo in the Panama Canal Zone in March 1923; served at Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands in February 1924; and operated in the Panama Canal area from January through April 1926. "S-20" visited Kingston, Jamaica from 20–28 March 1927, and served again in the Panama Canal area from 17 April 1929-November 1930. Departing Coco Solo on 7

neg: Hay–Pauncefote Treaty 16 December. In its final form, the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty abrogated the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, did not forbid the United States from constructing fortifications, and did not require that the canal be kept open in time of war. The Treaty ceded to the United States the right to build and manage a canal, provided that all nations would be allowed access, and that the canal should never be taken by force. Prior to the opening of the Panama Canal to traffic on 15 August 1914, a controversy with Great Britain respecting the interpretation of the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty arose. Under the Panama Canal

neg: Balboa, Panama Balboa, Panama Balboa is a district of Panama City, located at the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal. The town of Balboa, founded by the United States during the construction of the Panama Canal, was named after Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the Spanish conquistador credited with discovering the Pacific Ocean. The name was suggested to the Canal Zone authorities by the Peruvian ambassador to Panama. Prior to being drained, filled and leveled by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the hilly area north of Panama City was home to a few subsistence ranches and unused marshlands. The town of Balboa,

neg: Panama Canal Zone May 24, 1912 President Woodrow Wilson issued Executive Order 1885, January 27, 1914, effective April 1, 1914 abolishing the previous governance placing it under the direction of the Secretary of War with the entity designated as The Panama Canal. The Governor of the Panama Canal was charged with "completion, maintenance, operation, government and sanitation of the Panama Canal and its adjuncts and the government of the Canal Zone" in the Executive Order. A number of departments were specified in the order with others to be established as needed by the Governor of the Panama Canal with approval of the President

neg: Odas Moon As part of his duties, Moon ferried a Mexican colonel back to Puerto Palomas, Chihuahua, Mexico. In January 1924, Moon was flying a delivery of mail to an American Army base in the Panama Canal Zone when he discovered an American invasion fleet lying in wait away from Panama. The fleet was made up of four battleships, a carrier and attendant vessels. Their plan was to surprise and "defeat" the defenders of Panama as part of annual winter maneuvers. Moon was carrying a case of ripe tomatoes to give to his wife, and he proceeded to carry out a series

neg: Hinduism in Panama Hinduism in Panama Hinduism in Panama is a minority religion. There are about 10,000-14,000 Hindus in Panama. The Hindus initially arrived by way of the British colonies of Guyana and Trinidad-Tobago, first came as canal workers between 1904 and 1913. Most of the Hindus trace their roots back to the states of Gujarat and Sindh, in India and Pakistan respectively. The main association of Hindus in Panama are the Panamanian Hindu Civic Association, the Krishna Radha Temple Society, the Hindustani Society of Panama (Templo Hindu de Tumba Muerto), the Hindustani Society of Colón.The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, International Sri

neg: Italians in Panama In other words: of the total population of Panama that was of about 4 millions in that year, approximately 400,000 are white and the descendants of Italians are nearly 100,000. Italians in Panama The Italians in Panama are Italians resident (3,688 in 2011) in Panama and Panamanian citizens who are mainly descendant of Italians attracted by the construction of the Panama Canal, between the 19th and twentieth century. The history of Italian immigrants in Panama begins from 1510, when several Italian citizens decided to emigrate to Panama City founded by Pedrarias Davila. From 1520 some Genovese merchants ruled the commerce

neg: Panama Canal Railway maintain the company hospital. The Panama Railway also operated a significant shipping line, connecting its service with New York and San Francisco. It ran a Central American line of steamships linking Nicaragua, Costa Rica, San Salvador, and Guatemala to Panama City. The shipping service was greatly expanded when canal construction began. Ships included the SS "Salvador", SS "Guatemala", SS "Cristobel", and , which became the first of the ships to cross the completed canal in 1914. In 1904 the United States took over the license to build and operate the canal. The choice to use locks and an artificial lake

neg: History of Panama (1904–64) press. Despite Panama's large maritime fleet (the sixth greatest in the world), Britain and the United States did not invite Panama to a special conference of the major world maritime powers in London to discuss Suez. Expressing resentment, Panama joined the communist and neutral nations in a rival Suez proposal. United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles's unqualified statement on the Suez issue on September 28, 1956—that the United States did not fear similar nationalization of the Panama Canal because the United States possessed "rights of sovereignty" there—worsened matters. Panamanian public opinion was further inflamed by a United States

neg: USS Aucilla (AO-56) oil at Baytown before returning to sea. The ship arrived at Bermuda on 3 September and unloaded her cargo. She then headed back to Hampton Roads, Virginia, where she dropped anchor on 8 September. Operations in Chesapeake Bay followed. On 4 October, "Aucilla" put to sea bound for the Caribbean. She arrived at Aruba on 9 October and loaded fuel oil until 11 October when she set sail for Panama. The oiler transited the Panama Canal on 13 October and, the following day, departed Balboa, Panama, for the Hawaiian Islands. She stopped over at Pearl Harbor from 26 to 29

neg: Panama Canal Railway the Caribbean islands, and also included some African slaves. Many of these workers had come to Panama to seek their fortune and had arrived with little or no identification. Many died with no known next of kin, nor permanent address, nor even a known surname. Disease and exhaustion took a heavy toll on workers. The medical community did not learn about the connection between mosquitoes and malaria for another 40 years, and had no effective ways to prevent transmission of the disease. The Panama Canal Railroad Company sold the corpses of workers to medical schools abroad, using the income to

neg: History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean an ordained rabbi or synagogue. For nearly five hundred years Panama has been a transit station. Long before the construction of the Panama Canal in the early twentieth century, merchants and missionaries, adventurers and bandits crossed the swamps of Panama ports and to go from the Atlantic to Pacific or vice versa. Although descendants of the "anusim" or crypto from the Iberian Peninsula, have lived in Panama since the early sixteenth century, there was there a Jewish community that has openly practiced their religion until it took centuries. Jews, both Sephardic (mostly Spanish and Portuguese Jews from nearby islands such