query: when did the us involvement in vietnam end

pos: Vietnam War Vietnam War The Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and in Vietnam as the Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The North Vietnamese army was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist allies; the South Vietnamese army was supported by the United States, South Korea, the

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam Vietnam did not grow any further due to the French discouraging CIA activity (the French were still clinging to the idea that they could one day still dominate Vietnam and the US was against this course of action). CIA involvement in Vietnam was discouraged by the French because it was found that the CIA would often reach past them to open channels to Vietnamese nationalists. CIA activity expansion occurred when the Indochina region became three separate states, and grew exponentially during the French War in 1953 to 1954 when the France was essentially forced to accept American assistance with unconventional

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War organize or join a public demonstration about something?" Positive responses were quite low; not many people wanted to protest anything, and those who did want to show a public demonstration often wanted to demonstrate in support of the Vietnam War. However, when the American Public was asked in 1990, "Looking back, do you wish that you had made a stronger effort to protest or demonstrate against the Vietnam War, or not", 25 percent said they wished they had. A major factor in the American public's disapproval of the Vietnam War came from the casualties being inflicted on US forces. In

neg: John Wilton (general) be won unless the US was prepared to go all out and invade the North. Cautious about expanding Australia's involvement, he advocated deploying a Centurion tank squadron rather than a third infantry battalion when calls came to increase the strength of the task force in Vietnam, but in the end the Federal government announced both commitments in October 1967. Wilton also advised the government to reject any requests from the US command in Vietnam to rotate the Australian task force out of Phuoc Tuy and display its capabilities in a wider operational arena, reasoning that it was more important for

neg: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) had an independent rebellion. North Vietnam, however, clearly began to exploit that alienation. The US, however, did not recognize a significant threat, even with such information as intelligence on the formation of the logistics structure for infiltration. The presentation of hard evidence — communications intelligence about the organization building the Ho Chi Minh trail — Hanoi's involvement in the developing strife became evident. Not until 1960, however, did the US recognize both Diệm was in danger, that the Diệm structure was inadequate to deal with the problems, and present the first "Counterinsurgency Plan for Vietnam (CIP)" Quite separate from its

neg: Michael D. Healy goodbye to his wife and six sons and returned to Vietnam for his last combat tour of duty. He was the Commanding General, 2nd Regional Assistance Command, Military Region Two. He remained in command until all US combat forces were ordered out of Vietnam. In 1963, Healy had been one of the first Americans to enter Vietnam. Ten years later he was still there, commanding a major portion of the US fighting forces at the end of US involvement. After Vietnam, BG Healy took command of the John F. Kennedy Institute for Special Warfare, Fort Bragg, and was promoted to

neg: Movement for a New Society During the 1970s and early 1980s Philadelphia was the base for weekend, two-week and nine-month programs that trained US and international activists in direct action organizing, group process, consensus decision-making, liberation/oppression issues and more. Activist training also happened in other locations and through traveling trainers programs. MNS did not focus its energies exclusively on one issue or injustice. Its members were involved in working for social change on many fronts, most notably in the movement to end US involvement in the Vietnam war, and during the citizen-led opposition to the expansion of the US nuclear industry in the mid to

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War criticizing US foreign policy as the 1960s began. By the middle of the decade, open condemnation of the war became more common, with figures like Malcolm X and Robert Parris Moses speaking out. Champion boxer Muhammad Ali risked his career and a prison sentence to resist the draft in 1966. Soon Martin Luther King, Jr., Coretta Scott King and James Bevel of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) became prominent opponents of the Vietnam War, and the Black Panther Party vehemently opposed U.S. involvement in Vietnam. In the beginning of the war, some African Americans did not want to join

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War as they could see was not ending. In a poll from December 1967, 71% of the public believed the war would not be settled in 1968. A year later the same question was asked and 55% of people did not think the war would be settled in 1969. When the American public was asked about the Vietnam-era Anti-War movement in the 1990s, 39% of the public said the approved while 39% said they disapproved. The last 22% were unsure. Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War began with demonstrations

neg: Air Training Command for all student pilots. The first T-37/T-38 undergraduate pilot training course was held at Webb AFB, Texas, in February 1962. During the next few years, increasing numbers of US service members went to Southeast Asia as military advisers to the South Vietnamese armed forces, but the effect on ATC was negligible. When president Lyndon B. Johnson increased America's military involvement in South Vietnam in 1965, there was a resultant increase in Air Force military and technical training. However, unlike previous wars, the Vietnam War did not result in a drastic increase in the command's bases or personnel. This was because

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War involvement in the Vietnam War had many effects, which led to the eventual end of the involvement of the United States. This refusal letter soon led to an overflow of refusals ultimately leading to the event provided by Zinn stating, "In May 1969 the Oakland induction center, where draftees reported from all of Northern California, reported that of 4,400 men ordered to report for induction, 2,400 did not show up. In the first quarter of 1970 the Selective Service System, for the first time, could not meet its quota." The fewer numbers of soldiers as an effect of the opposition

neg: Plymouth CR-8 locomotives the period of US involvement in the Vietnam war, and operated as numbers 1988 to 1997 by the US Army. After the end of the Vietnam war in 1975 the class were renumbered as D10H numbers 31 to 40 by the Vietnam Railways. Several units were operated in the USA by industrial operators, as well as MBTA and BART. A higher weight class, the CR-8XT, was operated by companies including Bethlehem Steel and the Jones and Laughlin Steel Company. Plymouth CR-8 locomotives The Plymouth CR-8 was a class of 4-axle B'B' centre cab locomotive, built by Plymouth Locomotive Works, USA

neg: John F. Kennedy Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum – "Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)". "Operation Ranch Hand", a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam. Depending on which assessment Kennedy accepted (Department of Defense or State), there had been zero or modest progress in countering the increase in communist aggression in return for an expanded U.S. involvement. In April 1963, Kennedy assessed the situation in Vietnam, saying, "We don't have a prayer of staying in Vietnam. Those people hate us. They are going to throw our asses out of there at

neg: Jack Hunn forces. During 1964 Hunn was a strong opponent of New Zealand involvement in Vietnam. Initially, New Zealand Ambassador to Washington George Laking was a strong advocate for intervention, with internal opposition from Secretary of Foreign Affairs Alister McIntosh. Hunn was the clearest opponent: while Defence Chiefs were in favour of New Zealand involvement, Hunn argued that New Zealand's interests remained with supporting Malaysia, but that South Vietnam was not a sovereign state, and did not need military support. When New Zealand sent combat forces to Vietnam in 1965, Hunn retired early from Defence. Hunn served as Chairman of the Fire

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War King stated, "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today: my own government. For the sake of those boys, for the sake of this government, for the sake of the hundreds of thousands trembling under our violence, I cannot be silent." King was not looking for racial equality through this speech, but tried to voice for an end to the war instead. The involvement of the clergy did not stop at King though. The analysis entitled "Social Movement Participation: Clergy and the Anti-Vietnam War Movement" expands upon the anti-war movement by taking King, a single religious figurehead, and explaining

neg: Vietnam War artillery, and airstrikes. The U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. Following the Tết Offensive, U.S. forces began withdrawal under the Vietnamization phase; the Army of the Republic of Vietnam unconventional and conventional capabilities increased following a period of neglect and became modeled on heavy fire-power focused doctrines like US forces. Operations crossed international borders: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were used by North Vietnam as supply routes and were heavily bombed by U.S. forces. Gradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces began as part of "Vietnamization", which aimed to end American involvement in the war while

neg: 1962 in the Vietnam War military involvement in South Vietnam, provided that the government did not include President Diệm. That same month, North Vietnamese official Lê Duẩn instructed the leadership of the Viet Cong to avoid escalating the war by attacking cities as that might cause the United States to intervene in the war. The National Liberation Front in South Vietnam proposed to end the war in South Vietnam with a ceasefire, the withdrawal of American soldiers, and the creation of a coalition government of all factions pending elections. South Vietnam would become a neutral country, as were Cambodia and Laos, guaranteed by international treaty.

neg: Special Relationship president. "I won't tell you how to run Malaysia and you don't tell us how to run Vietnam," Johnson snapped in 1965. However, relations were sustained by U.S. recognition that Wilson was being criticised at home by his neutralist Labour left for not condemning American involvement in the war. U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara asked Britain to send troops to Vietnam as 'the unwritten terms of the Special Relationship', Wilson agreed to help in many ways but refused to commit regular forces, only special forces instructors. Australia and New Zealand did commit regular forces to Vietnam. The Johnson administration's support

neg: VF-194 the F-8E from 1965 to 1968 and then the F-8J. After the end of the US involvement in Vietnam in 1973, VF-194 made another two cruises to the Western Pacific aboard "Oriskany". VF-194 and its sister squadron VF-191 were the last US Navy fighter squadrons equipped with the F-8 Crusader. When USS "Oriskany" was retired as the last active , VF-194 received the McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom in 1976. Together with VF-191 the squadron was reassigned to Carrier Air Wing Fifteen. However, after only one deployment aboard the squadron was disestablished on 1 March 1978. VF-194 Fighter Squadron 194 (VF-194)

neg: Thammasat University massacre with democracy. There were two reasons for this about-face. First, Thailand's neighbors either were facing communist insurgencies or had fallen to communist rule and become communist countries. The US was withdrawing its military presence from the region. The pivotal year in the trajectory of the king's involvement in politics was 1975. South Vietnam fell to the communists and the Communist Party of Vietnam was able to unify the country under its rule and drive out the US. In Cambodia, the communist Khmer Rouge took over the capital Phnom Penh and began a reign of terror that would only end in

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War This concept of intimate involvement reached new heights in May 1968 when the "Composers and Musicians for Peace" concert was staged in New York. As the war continued, and with the new media coverage, the movement snowballed and popular music reflected this. As early as the summer of 1965, music-based protest against the American involvement in Southeast Asia began with works like P. F. Sloan's folk rock song "Eve of Destruction", recorded by Barry McGuire as one of the earliest musical protests against the Vietnam War. A key figure on the rock end of the antiwar spectrum was Jimi Hendrix

neg: New Zealand–United States relations in North Korea for eighteen months and repatriated after the armistices. New Zealand's involvement in the Vietnam War was highly controversial, sparking widespread protest at home from anti-Vietnam War movements modelled on their American counterparts. This conflict was also the first in which New Zealand did not fight alongside the United Kingdom, instead following the loyalties of the ANZUS Pact. New Zealand's initial response was carefully considered and characterised by Prime Minister Keith Holyoake's cautiousness towards the entire Vietnam question. New Zealand non-military economic assistance would continue from 1966 onwards and averaged at US$347,500 annually. This funding went to several

neg: Nuremberg and Vietnam was published, those in favor and opposition to the United States involvement in Vietnam frequently cited the Nuremberg trials in support of their positions. Those in favor of United States involvement argued that North Vietnam attacked South Vietnam in violation of Article 2 of the United Nations Charter; South Vietnam was justified in using force to repel such an attack; and this in turn allowed the United States to join with South Vietnam as provided by Article 51. However some would claim that the US and South Vietnamese actions in the Vietnam War would constitute "aggressive warfare" by the standards

neg: Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam were arrested in Sydney. The Melbourne march was held on 18 September. The third moratorium in June 1971 closed the Centre. In Melbourne, on 30 June 1971, there was a march of nearly 100,000 people. By this time public opinion was beginning to turn decisively against conscription and Australian involvement in the war. Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam The Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam was a massive demonstration and teach-in across the United States against the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. It took place on October 15, 1969, followed a month later by a

neg: George Ball (diplomat) memorandum he passed to the President through his aide Bill Moyers, Ball provided an accurate analysis of the situation in South Vietnam, and of the US stake in it, as well as a startlingly prescient description of the disaster any escalation of American involvement would entail. Urging Johnson to re-examine all the assumptions inherent in the arguments for increasing US involvement, Ball stood alone among the upper echelons of Johnson's policymakers when he attacked the prevailing notion, virtually unquestioned at the time in Washington, that America's fundamental strategic interest in escalating the conflict was in protecting US international prestige and

neg: Charles de Gaulle 1965, de Gaulle returned as president for a second seven-year term. In the first round he did not win the expected majority, only receiving 45% of the vote. Both of his main rivals did better than expected; the leftist François Mitterrand received 32% and Jean Lecanuet, who advocated for what "Life" described as "Gaullism without de Gaulle", received 16%. He won a majority in the second round, with Mitterrand receiving 45%. In September 1966, in a famous speech in Phnom Penh in Cambodia, he expressed France's disapproval of the US involvement in the Vietnam War, calling for a US withdrawal

neg: George Laking based in Washington as Ambassador to the United States from 1961 to 1967. This was considered to be the most important of New Zealand's foreign postings, due to the prominence of the United States, and the shift of allegiance away from the United Kingdom towards the US. During this time, the key themes were the assassination of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy, and under President Lyndon B. Johnson, the tumultuous years of escalation of US involvement in Vietnam. Laking supported New Zealand involvement in Vietnam, and was under pressure from the US Government for New Zealand to send combat troops to

neg: David M. Shoup cautioned against further involvement in South Vietnam, which he toured in October 1962. He opposed the Strategic Hamlet program, as well as efforts to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. He opposed any plans for combat in Vietnam, and later said "every responsible military man to my knowledge" was against the war as well. Shoup's staunch opposition to involvement there had a great impact on Kennedy, who, before his assassination on 22 November 1963, indicated that he wanted to end U.S. involvement in South Vietnam, seeing it as an internal struggle. While Eisenhower appreciated Shoup's fiscal experience and

neg: Okinawa Prefecture forces ending Japan's involvement in Vietnam. In a speech delivered in 1967 Oda was critical of Prime Minister Sato’s unilateral support of America’s War in Vietnam claiming "Realistically we are all guilty of complicity in the Vietnam War". The Beheiren became a more visible anti-war movement on Okinawa as the American involvement in Vietnam intensified. The movement employed tactics ranging from demonstrations, to handing leaflets to soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines directly, warning of the implications for a third World War. The US military bases on Okinawa became a focal point for anti-Vietnam War sentiment. By 1969, over 50,000 American

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam an economic benefactor to the tribes, but under US pressure, the Laotian government made it illegal. These activities predate the war on drugs in the United States. In 1972, The US signed an agreement put forth by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (during Nixon's administration) that stated that the US must cease fire immediately throughout Vietnam and that there should be no more US military involvement in Vietnam. Also, there should also be a return of all captured personnels of the parties, and most importantly the US must agree on South Vietnam's right to self determine their own government. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/LOC-HAK-252-10-5-5.pdf

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War began with demonstrations in 1964 against the escalating role of the U.S. military in the Vietnam War and grew into a broad social movement over the ensuing several years. This movement informed and helped shape the vigorous and polarizing debate, primarily in the United States, during the second half of the 1960s and early 1970s on how to end the war. Many in the peace movement within the U.S. were students, mothers, or anti-establishment hippies. Opposition grew with participation by the African-American

neg: Clifton Pugh vision deficiency and it is probable that he did on biographical, gene pedigree inheritance and other grounds (such as failing the colour vision test when endeavouring to enlist in the Navy). Pugh married three times: to June Byford, Marlene Harvey and Judith Ley. Pugh had two sons with Marlene, Shane and Dailan. Pugh became a pacifist during World War II, while on active service, and retained this position during the Vietnam War. He joined the Labor Party to campaign for the end of Australia's involvement in that War. The marriage to Marlene ended in 1969, they divorced in 1971. In

neg: Pan Am Flight 841 Pan Am Flight 841 Pan Am Flight 841 was a commercial passenger flight of a Boeing 747 from San Francisco, California to Saigon, South Vietnam which was hijacked over the South China Sea on 2 July 1972, ostensibly as an act of protest concerning US involvement in the Vietnam War as well as the expulsion from the United States of the South Vietnamese hijacker, a recent graduate of a US university. The hijacking ended when the captain and passengers overcame and killed the lone hijacker after the plane landed in Saigon. PA841 was a scheduled Pan Am commercial passenger flight,

neg: Tariq Ali X expressed deep consternation about his own risk of assassination. His public profile began to grow during the Vietnam War, when he engaged in debates against the war with such figures as Henry Kissinger and Michael Stewart. He testified at the Russell Tribunal over US involvement in Vietnam. As time passed, Ali became increasingly critical of American and Israeli foreign policies. He was also a vigorous opponent of American relations with Pakistan that tended to back military dictatorships over democracy. He was one of the marchers on the American embassy in London in 1968 in a demonstration against the Vietnam

neg: University of Sussex Huntington from giving a speech on campus, due to his involvement in the Vietnam War. Similarly, when the spokesperson for the US embassy, Robert Beers, visited to give a talk to students entitled 'Vietnam in depth' three students were waiting outside Falmer House and threw a bucket of red paint over the diplomat as he was leaving. This came to be known as the Vietnam Bucket of Paint incident. In both 1967 and 1969, Sussex won the UK University Challenge. In 1980, Sussex edged out the University of Oxford to become the University with the highest income from research grants

neg: Special Air Service Regiment Australian soldier who went missing in action in 1969 after falling into the jungle during a suspended rope extraction were found in August 2008. Australian SASR personnel also worked with US Army Special Forces in Vietnam, and provided instructors to the MACV Recondo School, and then to the LRRP Training Wing at the AATTV-operated Van Kiep Training Centre from 1967. Some members of the regiment also served with MACV-SOG units, with soldiers often serving on exchange with American Special Forces. The Australian withdrawal from Vietnam brought to an end the doctrine of 'forward defence' through involvement in Southeast Asian wars.

neg: Khmer National Armed Forces in turn throughout 1971-72 ferocious counter-offensives on these areas – using heavy artillery, tanks, and SA-7 Grail surface-to-air missiles for the first time in Cambodia –, which dwarfed the Tet Offensive numerically. These massive-scale operations only served to exhaust both sides however, and led to the signing in January 1973 of the Paris Peace Accords which marked the official end of American direct involvement on combat operations in Vietnam. The Accords hit both the Khmer Republic and South Vietnam hard, as the military and financial aid that they received from the US was cut by over fifty percent (though American

neg: Executive Action (film) Ferguson's approval is crucial to the conspirators, although Farrington proceeds to organize two shooting teams in anticipation that Ferguson will change his mind. Ferguson, meanwhile, watches news reports and becomes highly concerned at Kennedy's increasingly "liberal" direction: action on civil rights, the adoption of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and nuclear disarmament. The decisive moment comes in an anti-Kennedy news report on the deteriorating situation in South Vietnam. It is followed by Kennedy's October 1963 decision (National Security Action Memorandum #263) to withdraw all US advisers from Vietnam by the end of 1965, effectively ending America's direct involvement in the

neg: Strategic Air Command North Vietnam during the final period of US involvement in the Vietnam War. Linebacker II was conducted from 18 December to 29 December 1972, leading to several informal names such as "The December Raids" and "The Christmas Bombings." Unlike the previous Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Linebacker interdiction operations, Linebacker II, would be a "maximum effort" bombing campaign to destroy major target complexes in the Hanoi and Haiphong areas which could only be accomplished by SAC B-52D/Gs. It saw the largest heavy bomber strikes launched by the U.S. Air Force since the end of World War II. Linebacker II was

neg: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) Lack of US satisfaction with indigenous efforts led to "Americanization" of the war. War in Vietnam (1959–1963) The 1959 to 1963 phase of the Vietnam War started after the North Vietnamese had made a firm decision to commit to a military intervention in the guerrilla war in the South Vietnam, a buildup phase began, between the 1959 North Vietnamese decision and the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, which led to a major US escalation of its involvement. Vietnamese communists saw this as a second phase of their revolution, the US now substituting for the French. Between the Geneva accords in 1954

neg: Thailand in the Vietnam War Thailand in the Vietnam War The Kingdom of Thailand, under the administration of military dictator Field Marshall Thanom Kittikachorn, took an active role in the Vietnam War. Thailand was the third-largest provider of ground forces to South Vietnam, following the Americans and South Koreans. Due to its proximity to Thailand, Vietnam's conflicts were closely monitored by Bangkok. Thai involvement did not become official until the total involvement of the United States in support of South Vietnam in 1963. The Thai government then allowed the United States Air Force in Thailand to use its air and naval bases. At the height

neg: Vietnam! Vietnam! went through numerous cuts and script alterations over a three-year period and, when finally released, managed to offend almost everyone. Critical reviews were unfavorable. USIA Director Frank Shakespeare left the decision on whether to order a copy of the film up to individual US Embassies abroad, and only a few did. Vietnam! Vietnam! Vietnam, Vietnam was a United States Information Agency (USIA) film about the Vietnam War. The film, narrated by Charlton Heston, was shot on location in Vietnam in October–December 1968 but not released until 1971. Though John Ford, the executive producer, went to Vietnam, he did not participate

neg: Terrorism in Australia US Consulate in Melbourne was also regarded to be an isolated incident protesting the US involvement in Vietnam. The two exceptions to this state of affairs would be the assassination attempt on the Duke of Edinburgh in 1868 by an Irish Nationalist named O'Farrell, who was later executed for his crime, and an attack in Broken Hill in 1915 by Afghan supporters of the Sultan of Turkey. Although it had known sporadic acts through its history, and examples of modern terrorism for almost a decade, Australia did not introduce terrorism specific laws into Parliament until the late 1970s. In 1977,

neg: Vietnamization Vietnamization Vietnamization was a policy of the Richard Nixon administration to end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War through a program to "expand, equip, and train South Vietnamese forces and assign to them an ever-increasing combat role, at the same time steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops." Brought on by the Viet Cong's Tet Offensive, the policy referred to U.S. combat troops specifically in the ground combat role, but did not reject combat by the U.S. Air Force, as well as the support to South Vietnam, consistent with the policies of U.S. foreign military assistance organizations. U.S. citizens'

neg: LTV A-7 Corsair II and VA-147 deployed aboard . The A-7E participated in numerous close-air support missions over both North and South Vietnam, the A-7E's state-of-the-art bombing and navigation system being particularly reliable and accurate. Most air wings operating Douglas A-4 Skyhawks and early A-7s were re-equipped with A-7Es. The A-7E participated in the mining of Haiphong harbor in 1972, and played a vital role in Operations Linebacker I and Linebacker II that led up to the formal end of US involvement in the Vietnam War on 24 January 1973. On 15 May 1975, A-7E aircraft operating from , in conjunction with A-7D aircraft

neg: Foreign interventions by the United States forums." From 1965 to 1973, US troops fought at the request of the governments of South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia during the Vietnam War against the military of North Vietnam and against Viet Cong, Pathet Lao, and Khmer Rouge insurgents. President Lyndon Johnson escalated US involvement following the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. North Vietnam invaded Laos in 1959, and used 30,000 men to build invasion routes through Laos and Cambodia. North Vietnam sent 10,000 troops to attack the south in 1964, and this figure increased to 100,000 in 1965. By early 1965, 7,559 South Vietnamese hamlets had been destroyed by

neg: Howard Zinn US Constitution did grant immunity to Gravel for his reading the papers in his subcommittee, and did grant some immunity to Gravel's congressional aide, but granted no immunity to Beacon Press in relation to its publishing the same papers. Zinn testified as an expert witness at Ellsberg's criminal trial for theft, conspiracy, and espionage in connection with the publication of the "Pentagon Papers" by "The New York Times". Defense attorneys asked Zinn to explain to the jury the history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam from World War II through 1963. Zinn discussed that history for several hours, and later reflected

neg: Guy X Guy X Guy X is a 2005 black comedy war film directed by Saul Metzstein, based on the novel "No One Thinks Of Greenland" by John Griesemer. The movie stars Jason Biggs, Natascha McElhone, Jeremy Northam, and Michael Ironside. It is 1979, four years after the end of US involvement in the Vietnam War. US Army Corporal Rudy Spruance is mistakenly sent to Qangattarsa, a remote base in Greenland still attributed to the United States Army Air Forces (despite that service being converted to the United States Air Force in 1947), instead of his official posting in Hawaii. He soon

neg: Guy X "General" Lavone asks the small group which base, in which (warm) country, they wish to have designated in their "new" orders. The film has received a rating of 36% on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on eleven reviews. Guy X Guy X is a 2005 black comedy war film directed by Saul Metzstein, based on the novel "No One Thinks Of Greenland" by John Griesemer. The movie stars Jason Biggs, Natascha McElhone, Jeremy Northam, and Michael Ironside. It is 1979, four years after the end of US involvement in the Vietnam War. US Army Corporal Rudy Spruance is mistakenly

neg: Operation Linebacker II Operation Linebacker II Operation "Linebacker II" was a US Seventh Air Force and US Navy Task Force 77 aerial bombing campaign, conducted against targets in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the final period of US involvement in the Vietnam War. The operation was conducted from 18 to 29 December 1972, leading to several informal names such as "The December Raids" and "The Christmas Bombings". Unlike the Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Linebacker interdiction operations, "Linebacker II" was to be a "maximum effort" bombing campaign to "destroy major target complexes in the Hanoi and Haiphong areas, which could

neg: South Vietnam already-perilous military situation and undercut the confidence of the ARVN soldiers in their leadership. The retreat became a rout. The cities of Huế, Da Nang and Da Lat in central Vietnam quickly fell, and the North Vietnamese advanced southwards. As the military situation deteriorated, ARVN troops started deserting. Thiệu requested aid from US President Gerald Ford, but the US Senate would not release extra money to provide aid to South Vietnam, and had already passed laws to prevent further involvement in Vietnam. In desperation, Thiệu recalled Nguyễn Cao Kỳ from retirement as a military commander, but resisted calls to name

neg: 3rd Brigade (Australia) Field Regiment and the 3rd Field Engineer Regiment. Although the task force did not deploy to Vietnam as a formed unit, most its component units were sent. In 1973, following the end of Australia's involvement in Vietnam, the 3rd Task Force was re-allocated to the 1st Division and later, in 1981, readopted the designation of the 3rd Brigade. During the 1980s the brigade served primarily as the Operational Deployment Force, which was tasked with providing a robust warfighting capability to the government available for rapid deployment anywhere in the world. In this capacity elements from the brigade took part in

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam planning an immediate takeover, but are concentrating on psychological operations to increase unrest in the south and among American forces. Special National Intelligence Estimate 10-9-65, was done to assess the reactions, in various parts of the world, to an escalation of US attacks on North Vietnam. This estimate is especially significant in the conflict between the White House and the military & intelligence community. By summer of 1965 there were more than 125000 US ground troops in Vietnam and there did not seem to be an end in sight for their continuous arrival. In August 1965, after Prime Minister Quat

neg: Vietnam War casualties in the military. The number of US military personnel in Vietnam jumped from 23,300 in 1965 to 465,600 by the end of 1967. Between October 1966 and June 1969, 246,000 soldiers were recruited through Project 100,000, of whom 41% were black, while blacks only made up about 11% of the population of the US. Of the 27 million draft-age men between 1964 and 1973, 40% were drafted into military service, and only 10% were actually sent to Vietnam. This group was made up almost entirely of either work-class or rural youth. College students who did not avoid the draft were

neg: Jungle warfare their involvement in the Vietnam War, where the battlegrounds were, again, the jungle. Much of British strategic thinking on counter-insurgency tactics in a jungle environment was passed on through BRIAM (British Advisory Mission) to South Vietnam headed by Sir Robert Thompson, a former Chindit and the Permanent Secretary of Defense for Malaya during the Emergency). The Americans further refined jungle warfare by the creation of such dedicated counter-insurgency special operations troops as the Special Forces (Green Berets), Rangers, Long Range Reconnaissance Patrols (LRRP) and Combat Tracker Teams (CTT). During the decade of active US combat involvement in the Vietnam War

neg: William Trueheart in the Vietnam War, with most infractions and incidents highlighted in national news. Polarisation between Diem and the Buddhists grew worse on June 11, 1963, when Thích Quảng Đức set himself alight in the process of self-immolation. Trueheart's position as the deputy chief of mission for the United States led to his involvement in the political turmoil which South Vietnam had had to embrace after the forced coup d'état of Emperor Bảo Đại in 1955. He did not assume responsibility for the embassy until May 1963, when Nolting was on a resting period from the position. Diem's assassination later in

neg: Operation Linebacker II for 196 B-52s) Published government documents Secondary sources Operation Linebacker II Operation "Linebacker II" was a US Seventh Air Force and US Navy Task Force 77 aerial bombing campaign, conducted against targets in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the final period of US involvement in the Vietnam War. The operation was conducted from 18 to 29 December 1972, leading to several informal names such as "The December Raids" and "The Christmas Bombings". Unlike the Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Linebacker interdiction operations, "Linebacker II" was to be a "maximum effort" bombing campaign to "destroy major target complexes

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam to reconsider his view. The main report gives the level of US involvement, showing the Phoenix personnel were primarily South Vietnamese. The Provincial Reconnaissance Unit (PRU) Program in South Vietnam forms an investigative and paramilitary attack upon the covert communist apparatus in South Vietnam. PRU teams, currently totalling approximately 4,200 men, operate in 44 provinces of South Vietnam. PRU are based in their home areas and operate in teams of 15–20 men. They are presently advised and supported by 101 US military advisors and seven CIA personnel. CIA funds the PRU and retains overall administrative control of the project for

neg: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) War in Vietnam (1959–1963) The 1959 to 1963 phase of the Vietnam War started after the North Vietnamese had made a firm decision to commit to a military intervention in the guerrilla war in the South Vietnam, a buildup phase began, between the 1959 North Vietnamese decision and the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, which led to a major US escalation of its involvement. Vietnamese communists saw this as a second phase of their revolution, the US now substituting for the French. Between the Geneva accords in 1954 and 1956, the two states created by the talks were still forming; the

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam the US Government. Reasons against continued CIA involvement included a concern, much like that raised during the Korean War, about diverting CIA from its national-level to a tactical role: Vietnam 1969-1972 CIA's pacification programs in Vietnam deteriorated because the Vietnamese chose to not invest in them. Although this is contradicted in the CIA's history books which state that The National Liberation Front was beaten by the pacification programs From a psychological operations perspective, The Vietnam War Phoenix Program is controversial to this day. Supporters say that it was a legal and closely controlled US-Vietnamese intelligence program aimed at destroying the

neg: Vietnam and the International Monetary Fund the first to express a desire to resume financial aid relations with Vietnam. Japan and France endeavored to reestablish Vietnam's involvement in the IMF but were met with resistance from the United States who were seeking to use the restrictions to the pressure the nation to cooperate in establishing the whereabouts of missing US military service members. Informal contact between the IMF and Vietnam was reestablished in the later part of the 1980s. The US voted down most efforts to establish continued relations and financial assistance from the IMF to Vietnam until the early 1990s. A preliminary formal agreement for

neg: Project Dye Marker Project Dye Marker Project Dye Marker was a cover name for a strong point/obstacle component of the electronic anti-infiltration barrier system in South Vietnam known as "McNamara Line" during the Vietnam War, which aimed to create an alternative to the US bombing of North Vietnam. The fortifications were partially constructed by the American forces in 1967-1968 along the eastern portion of the demilitarized zone. An effective anti-infiltration barrier, running across South Vietnam deep into Laos, was a grand vision of the US Secretary of Defence Robert McNamara, who feared that escalation of bombing can bring greater Chinese involvement, and a

neg: Bell UH-1N Twin Huey powerplant, the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T was produced in Canada. The Liberal Canadian government of the time had not supported US involvement in Vietnam and had opposed US policies in southeast Asia, as well as accepting US draft dodgers. Rivers was also concerned that procurement of the engines would result in a trade deficit situation with Canada. Congress only approved the purchase when it was assured that a US source would be found for the PT6T/T400 engines. As a result, the United States military services ordered 294 Bell 212s under the designation UH-1N, with deliveries commencing in 1970. Unlike

neg: 34th Training Wing England, from April 1944 until the end of the war, converting form the Consolidated B-24 Liberator to the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress in the middle of combat operations. It returned to the United States after VE Day and was inactivated in August 1945. The 34th Tactical Group was activated in the early days of American participation in the Vietnam War. It trained Republic of Vietnam Air Force airmen and engaged in combat operations and the operational testing of weapons and munitions until 1965, when the increasing American involvement in Vietnam caused it to be replaced by the larger 6251st Tactical

neg: Australia Party assisted in the funding by Ken Thomas of TNT Transport and with the party organisation and branch establishment by Nick Gorshenin, Sydney shark meshing contractor and North Sydney council alderman. Gordon Barton and Ken Thomas sponsored a full page advertisement in the "Sydney Morning Herald" on 22 October 1966 when US President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Sydney lamenting the involvement of Australian troops in the Vietnam War. At this time no political party was opposed to Australian involvement in the war. Nick Gorshenin rang Gordon Barton that evening and they decided to form the Liberal Reform Group. They used their

neg: Hispanics in the United States Air Force takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. Military advisors arrived beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s and combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Involvement peaked in 1968 at the time of the Tet Offensive. The U.S. government did not begin keeping separate statistics on Hispanics until 1979. Therefore, the exact number of Hispanics who served in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era is unknown. The statistics that were kept by the Department of Defense, in accordance to the Vietnam War Statistics, included Hispanics among Caucasians. Then Colonel Cardenas

neg: Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam The Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam was a massive demonstration and teach-in across the United States against the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. It took place on October 15, 1969, followed a month later by a large Moratorium March on Washington. The Moratorium developed from Jerome Grossman's April 20, 1969, call for a general strike if the war had not concluded by October. David Hawk and Sam Brown, who had previously worked on the unsuccessful 1968 presidential campaign of Eugene McCarthy, changed the concept to a less radical moratorium

neg: Mike Mansfield setting an example of humility and accommodation." An early supporter of Ngo Dinh Diem, Mansfield had a change of heart on the Vietnam War after a visit to Vietnam in 1962. He reported to John F. Kennedy on December 2, 1962, that US money given to Diem's government was being squandered and that the US should avoid further involvement in Vietnam. He was thus the first American official to comment adversely on the war's progress. On September 25, 1963, Mansfield introduced Kennedy during a joint appearance with him at the Yellowstone County Fairgrounds, Kennedy expressing his appreciation afterward and adding,

neg: Winter Soldier Investigation reprisal. At a press conference when Smith was released after two years as a POW, he made statements in support of the NLF and against US involvement in Vietnam, and immediately faced court-martial charges for violation of Article 104 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (aiding the enemy). The charges were dropped due to insufficient evidence, and five years later at the WSI, Smith said that he stood by his statements. In addition to the testimony panels, the veterans also held open discussions on related subjects such as "What We Are Doing to Vietnam", "What We Are Doing to

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War of discussions with committee members, Kerry related in some detail the findings of the Winter Soldier Investigation, in which veterans had described personally committing or witnessing atrocities and war crimes. The opposition to the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War had many effects, which arguably led to the eventual end of the involvement of the United States. Howard Zinn, a controversial historian, states in his book "A People's History of the United States" that, "in the course of the war, there developed in the United States the greatest antiwar movement the nation had ever experienced, a movement that played

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam arming the Vietnamese. During 1953-1954, the involvement of the CIA had increased when the French finally accepted US assistance with the unconventional (guerrilla) warfare tactics they faced, as the French were facing large and costly losses at the hands of what would become the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese resistance forces. The primary aid initially offered by the US was military aid; the scope of US aid to the French was then greatly expanded following the Eisenhower administration. There was a reestablishment of a covert action section in Saigon Station. there was also a unilateral covert action which was suspended

neg: Vietnam War 1974 (not inflation-adjusted), ten times the amount of support for all education spending in the US and 50 times more than housing and community development spending within that time period. General record-keeping was reported to have been sloppy for government spending during the war. It was stated that war-spending could have paid off every mortgage in the US at that time, with money leftover. More than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam. James E. Westheider wrote that "At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there

neg: History of Vietnam since 1945 have enough to eat. Hence the saying that waging war is easy, but running a country is hard." Compounding all this was the complete failure of the Five-Year Plan adopted in 1976, as Vietnam remained one of the world's poorest countries with a per-capita GDP of less than US$300 and almost totally dependent on Soviet aid, which reached as much as US$3 billion a year by 1982. Moscow faced mounting pressure from its Warsaw Pact allies to reduce outlays to Vietnam. Soviet-Vietnamese relations were also harmed by the former's wishes to have greater involvement in Vietnam's economic development and increased

neg: Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 The Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 (Public law 93-559) , was an act of the 93rd United States Congress that added several amendments to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. Perhaps most famously, the act introduced an amendment that effectively eliminated aid and military funding for South Vietnam. Direct US involvement in Vietnam was already prohibited under the Case–Church Amendment, and the termination of US funding and indirect support for South Vietnam was a significant factor leading up to the Fall of Saigon. The act also included the Hughes–Ryan Amendment, which required the President to

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War universities in America had more students than ever before, and these institutions often tried to restrict student behavior to maintain order on the campuses. To combat this, many college students became active in causes that promoted free speech, student input in the curriculum, and an end to archaic social restrictions. Students joined the antiwar movement because they did not want to fight in a foreign civil war that they believed did not concern them or because they were morally opposed to all war. Others disliked the war because it diverted funds and attention away from problems in the U.S. Intellectual

neg: Vietnam War ended direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, created a ceasefire between North Vietnam/PRG and South Vietnam, guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam under the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for elections or a political settlement between the PRG and South Vietnam, allowed 200,000 communist troops to remain in the south, and agreed to a POW exchange. There was a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. "This article", noted Peter Church, "proved… to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out." All US forces personnel were completely withdrawn by March 1973. In

neg: 1973 in the Vietnam War Nixon promised continued economic aid to South Vietnam, dependent upon U.S. congressional approval, and Thieu pledged to never ask the United States to reintroduce American troops into South Vietnam. The US and North Vietnam issued a joint communique calling on all parties to observe the 28 January ceasefire agreement with effect from 15 June. The Case–Church Amendment approved by the U.S. Congress and signed into law prohibited further U.S. military activity in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia after 15 August 1973. This ended direct U.S. military involvement in the Vietnam War, although the U.S. continued to provide military equipment and economic

neg: Frances FitzGerald (journalist) book, "" (1972), was met with great acclaim when it was published, and is still considered one of the most notable books about the Vietnam War. For "Fire in the Lake," she won the 1973 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction, the Bancroft Prize for history, and the U.S. National Book Award in Contemporary Affairs. The book cautioned that the United States did not understand the history and culture of Vietnam and it warned about American involvement there. FitzGerald has continued to write about history and culture: her published books include "America Revised" (1979), a highly critical review of history textbooks

neg: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War the Vietnam War was partly attributed to greater access to uncensored information through extensive television coverage on the ground in Vietnam. Beyond opposition to the draft, anti-war protesters also made moral arguments against U.S. involvement in Vietnam. That moral imperative argument against the war was especially popular among American college students, who were more likely than the general public to accuse the United States of having imperialistic goals in Vietnam and to criticize the war as "immoral." Civilian deaths, which were downplayed or omitted entirely by the Western media, became a subject of protest when photographic evidence of casualties emerged.

neg: USS Wichita (AOR-1) in Long Beach on 16 March 1973. The end of that deployment coincided with the end to American involvement in the Vietnam war. While that stopped "Wichita"s support of combat operations, it did not interrupt her pattern of deployments to the western Pacific. She settled into a more normal routine alternating peacetime operations with the 7th Fleet with routine duties along the west coast of the United States. After six months on the west coast of the United States, the ship embarked upon her fourth tour of duty with the 7th Fleet, her first under peacetime conditions. She provided routine

neg: 1973 in the Vietnam War War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam,", intended to halt the fighting between North and South Vietnam and end U.S. military involvement in the war were signed in Paris. The governments of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), and the United States, as well as the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) that represented indigenous South Vietnamese revolutionaries (the Viet Cong) signed the agreement. The U.S. agreed to withdraw its remaining military personnel from South Vietnam within 60 days. North Vietnam agreed to a cease fire and to return all American prisoners of war. North Vietnam

neg: Harold Wilson membership, by a substantial majority. American military involvement in Vietnam escalated continuously from 1964 to 1968 and President Lyndon Johnson brought pressure to bear for at least a token involvement of British military units. Wilson consistently avoided any commitment of British forces, giving as reasons British military commitments to the Malayan Emergency and British co-chairmanship of the 1954 Geneva Conference. His government offered some rhetorical support for the US position (most prominently in the defence offered by the Foreign Secretary Michael Stewart in a much-publicised "teach-in" or debate on Vietnam). On at least one occasion the British government made an

neg: Zhou Enlai "US side" reaffirmed the American position that America's involvement in the ongoing Vietnam War did not constitute "outside intervention" in Vietnam's affairs, and restated its commitment to "individual freedom", and pledged continued support for South Korea. The "Chinese Side" stated that "wherever there is oppression, there is resistance", that "all foreign troops should be withdrawn to their own countries", and that Korea should be unified according to the demands of North Korea. Both sides agreed to disagree on the status of Taiwan. The closing sections of the Shanghai Communique encouraged further diplomatic, cultural, economic, journalistic, and scientific exchanges, and endorsed

neg: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) directed to take over action until 1957 or later. Before that, they were unquestionably recruiting and preparing. While the visible guerilla incidents increased gradually, the key policy decisions by the North were made in 1959. Early in this period, there was a greater degree of conflict in Laos than in South Vietnam. US combat involvement was, at first, greater in Laos, but the activity of advisors, and increasingly US direct support to South Vietnamese soldiers, increased, under US military authority, in late 1959 and early 1960. Communications intercepts in 1959, for example, confirmed the start of the Ho Chi Minh

neg: History of the United States Merchant Marine Cambodia near that country's shared border with Vietnam. Tragically, the ship's crew whose seizure had prompted the US attack had been released in good health, unknown to the US Marines or the US command of the operation, before the Marines attacked. The incident marked the last official battle of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1970, the Merchant Marine Act authorized a subsidized shipbuilding program. On March 5, 1973 Joseph Curran resigned as the president of NMU, he was succeeded by Shannon J. Wall. In 1976, the first woman was admitted to the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy.

neg: Maritime history of the United States (1900–99) country's shared border with Vietnam. Tragically, the ship's crew, whose seizure had prompted the US attack, had been released in good health, unknown to the US Marines or the US command of the operation, before the Marines attacked. The incident marked the last official battle of United States involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1970, the Merchant Marine Act authorized a subsidized shipbuilding program. On March 5, 1973, Joseph Curran resigned as the president of NMU, he was succeeded by Shannon J. Wall. In 1976, the first woman was admitted to the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy. Since 1977, the Ready

neg: Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War structure in the 1980s and 1990s. The experience in Vietnam also caused an intolerance for casualties which resulted in successive Australian governments becoming more cautious towards the deployment of military forces overseas. Regardless, the "imperative to deploy forces overseas" remained a feature of Australian strategic behavior in the post-Vietnam era, while the US alliance has continued to be a fundamental aspect of its foreign policy into the early 21st century. Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War began with a small commitment of 30 military advisors in 1962, and increased over the following

neg: Australia–United States relations Minister for Defence, US Secretary of Defense and US Secretary of State. The first Australian visit by a serving United States President was that of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966 to seek support for Australia's ongoing involvement in the Vietnam War. Australia had previously sent advisers and combat troops to Vietnam. In 1992, George H. W. Bush was the first of four US presidents to address a joint meeting of the Australian Parliament. Australia's Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd, ratified the Kyoto Protocol on 3 December 2007, leaving the United States and Canada as the last major industrial nations not to

neg: Iron Triangle (Vietnam) Iron Triangle (Vietnam) The Iron Triangle (Vietnamese:"Tam Giác Sắt") was a area in the Bình Dương Province of Vietnam, so named due to it being a stronghold of Viet Minh activity during the war. The region was under control of the Viet Minh throughout the French war in Vietnam and continued to be so throughout the phase of American involvement in the Vietnam War, despite concerted efforts on the part of US and South Vietnamese forces to destabilize the region as a power base for their enemy, the communist North Vietnamese–sponsored and–directed South Vietnamese insurgent movement, the National Liberation Front

neg: NSC Working Group on South Vietnam to some extent a substitute for strengthening the government of South Vietnam." The group came up with three basic options for the future of American involvement in Vietnam. McNaughton voted for option 3 because, in his words: If Option C is tried and fails, [it] would still leave behind a better odor than Option A: It would demonstrate that [the] US was a 'good doctor' willing to keep promises, be tough, take risks, get bloodied, and hurt the enemy badly." NSC Working Group on South Vietnam The National Security Council Working Group on South Vietnam/Southeast Asia was founded in the

neg: Nixon Doctrine nuclear umbrella when requested. The Doctrine argued for the pursuit of peace through a partnership with American allies. The Nixon Doctrine implied the intentions of Nixon shifting the direction on international policies in Asia, especially aiming for "Vietnamization of the Vietnam War." During President Nixon's first inauguration in January 1969, the US was engaged in combat in Vietnam for almost four years. It had so far killed over 30,000 Americans and several Vietnamese citizens. By 1969, the US public opinion had moved decisively favoring to end the Vietnam War; a Gallup poll in May showed 56% of the public believed

neg: Peace Tower (art) life on the line defending a work of art of mine, I'm going to send a thousand bucks too." In the end, no painting was damaged. Peace Tower (art) The Peace Tower, (also known as "The Artists' Tower of Protest") was a collaborative artwork spearheaded by the artists Irving Petlin and Mark di Suvero. The Peace Tower was created in the winter of 1966 in the West Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles to protest US involvement in the Vietnam War. Forty years later, Mark di Suvero, Irving Petlin, and Rirkrit Tiravanija collaborated in revisiting the project through a new installation

neg: Mark Rudd with SDS, the Columbia University riots, and his time as a fugitive. Rudd was interviewed for the 2002 documentary, "The Weather Underground", in which he stated that although the group's motivations, to end the Vietnam War and to oppose US imperialism, were justified, the violent actions performed in pursuit of those beliefs were questionable. He was the only former Weather member featured in the film that regretted his involvement in the group. Today Rudd lives in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with his wife, Marla (Painter). Rudd maintains a website called MarkRudd.com where he frequently posts essays and other writings, including his

neg: Vietnam and the World Bank (IEG)’s assessment has been relatively high with most project ratings being moderately satisfactory or better. But due to more complicated project designs, deficient performance evaluation and postponement of remedy measures, a declining tendency for outcome ratings was seen in more recent years. Not until 2009, when Vietnam was recognized as a middle-income country, did the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) approved the first loan of US$500 million to the country. As of October 31, 2018, the total lending portfolio of IBRD to Vietnam has reached about US$3.5 billion and 20 projects were financed by IBRD. To help the

neg: Hai Yang Shi You 981 standoff Islands have been a subject of territorial dispute between China, Taiwan and Vietnam in the 20 century. In 1974, China and the US-backed South Vietnam fought the Battle of the Paracel Islands in which China took over the entire archipelago. South Vietnam never relinquished its claims, while Chinese and Soviet-backed North Vietnam (which did not administer the islands) supported the 1958 Declaration by China claiming all of the Paracel Islands, Spratly Islands, Macclesfield Bank and Pratas Islands. However, when North Vietnam reunited the country following the Vietnam War it repeated the former South Vietnamese claims. China claims the sea and

neg: David Dellinger Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee, he worked with many different antiwar organizations and helped bring King and Bevel into leadership positions in the 1960s antiwar movement. In 1966 Dellinger travelled to both North and South Vietnam to learn first-hand the impact of American bombing. He later recalled that critics ignored his trip to Saigon and focused solely on his visit to Hanoi. In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments to protest the Vietnam War. As US involvement in Vietnam grew, Dellinger applied Mahatma Gandhi's principles of nonviolence to his activism

neg: India–Vietnam relations between the two countries, especially defence ties, benefited extensively from India's Look East policy. Bilateral military cooperation includes sale of military equipment, sharing of intelligence, joint naval exercises and training in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare. India also regularly deploys its warships for goodwill visits to Vietnamese seas. India supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed American involvement in the Vietnam War, and supported unification of Vietnam. During the Vietnam War, India supported the North, albeit not by conducting military hostilities against the South. This can be contrasted with the policies of the US, who strongly supported the South and engaged in

neg: 75th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron end of United States involvement in Vietnam in 1973. After Vietnam, the squadron returned to normal peacetime operations throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, supporting United States initiatives throughout the world by airlifting passengers, equipment and materiel wherever needed. The squadron briefly returned to combat duty in October 1983, when it supported combat operations in Grenada as part of Operation Urgent Fury and airlifted combat personnel to the island and assisted in the evacuation of American civilian medical students back to the United States. In December 1989, the squadron participated in Operation Just Cause, which ended the dictatorship of Panama's

neg: New Zealand in the Vietnam War New Zealand in the Vietnam War New Zealand's involvement in the Vietnam War was highly controversial, sparking widespread protest at home from anti-Vietnam War movements modelled on their American counterparts. This conflict was also the first in which New Zealand did not fight alongside the United Kingdom, instead following the loyalties of the ANZUS Pact. New Zealand decided to send troops to Vietnam in 1964 because of Cold War concerns and alliance considerations. The potential adverse effect on the ANZUS alliance of not supporting the United States (and Australia) in Vietnam was key. It also upheld New Zealand's national interests

neg: Draft-card burning to appear when called. The draft card was not an essential part of the government's ability to draft men into the military. Thus draft-card burning was an act of war resistance more than it was draft resistance. The image of draft card burning was a powerful one, influential in American politics and culture. It appeared in magazines, newspapers and on television, signaling a political divide between those who backed the US government and its military goals and those who were against any US involvement in Vietnam. Richard Nixon ran for president in 1968 on a platform based partly on putting

neg: No. 35 Squadron RAAF required to use when supporting isolated garrisons. Another aircraft was destroyed from Viet Cong mortar fire, struck while conducting a resupply mission at Thất Sơn in 1970. Although its work was not glamorous, the squadron developed a good reputation among the US air commanders as an efficient and effective unit, achieving a record that prompted US commanders to send personnel to the squadron to study their techniques. For their involvement in operations in Vietnam, members of the squadron received several honours and decorations including two appointments to the Member of the Order of British Empire, eight Distinguished Flying Crosses, one