query: where does there tend to be greater species diversity

pos: Biodiversity Biodiversity Biodiversity generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics. These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of earth's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world's species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western

neg: Elevational diversity gradient evident on isolated mountain peaks. Another hypothesis that is cited to explain the upper limit of the elevational diversity gradient is the area hypothesis, which states that larger areas are able to support more species. As elevation increases, total area decreases; thus, there are more species present at middle elevations than high elevations. However, this hypothesis does not account for differences between lowland areas and middle elevations, as lowlands tend to have more area than middle elevations and thus would be expected by this hypothesis to have higher species diversity, an assertion that runs counter to the EDG. Additionally, the

neg: Body size and species richness 1992). Smaller species tend to specialize in a habitat that can provide them with a high quality diet. Habitat quality is highly variable and as a result smaller species tend to be present in less of their range. Instead, they are only found in patches of their range where there is good habitat. A correlate to this argument is that the opposite is true for larger species. Larger species have lower beta diversity and are replaced less frequently across landscapes and as a result tend to occupy more of their range (see Occupancy-abundance relationship relationships) (Brown and Maurer, 1989; Brown

neg: Symbiodinium detailed assessments of diversity at the species level are needed. While members of a given clade may be ubiquitous, the species diversity within each clade is potentially large, with each species often having different ecological and geographic distributions related to their dispersal ability, host biogeography, and external environmental conditions. A small number of species occur in temperate environments where few symbiotic animals occur. As a result, these high latitude associations tend to be highly species specific. The large diversity of "Symbiodinium" revealed by genetic analyses is distributed non-randomly and appears to comprise several guilds with distinct ecological habits. Of the

neg: Metabolic theory of ecology population growth and community diversity. Classically, species are thought of as being either "r" selected (where populations tend to grow exponentially, and are ultimately limited by extrinsic factors) or "K" selected (where population size is limited by density-dependence and carrying capacity). MTE explains this diversity of reproductive strategies as a consequence of the metabolic constraints of organisms. Small organisms and organisms that exist at high body temperatures tend to be "r" selected, which fits with the prediction that "r" selection is a consequence of metabolic rate. Conversely, larger and cooler bodied animals tend to be "K" selected. The relationship between

neg: Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture is possible because mitochondrial DNA sequences are transferred only through egg cells of the female. Some general conclusions from recent molecular studies show that individual breeds within species show variation at only about 1% of the genome, whereas the variation of genetic material between species is about 80%. Additionally, breeds with well-defined and appreciated traits tend to be inbred and have low genetic diversity, while non-descript local populations tend to have high molecular genetic diversity. There are many forms of livestock-keeping, that all have their own pros and cons in terms of maintaining genetic diversity. Systems range from completely human-controlled

neg: Fauna of Ghana of species in the Ghanaian savanna woodlands and gallery forests of the savannas show greater species richness than the dry savannas. Within Ghana, there are areas of high biological diversity, referred to as prime biological locations; such as the Ankasa and Nini-Suhien Conservation Area in the southwestern Ashanti-Kwahu erea terrestrial plain of Ghana, in where the climatic diversity is greater. There are also "Encephalartos barteri", and gymnosperm indigenous to Ghana; others growing in various Ghanaian ecological zones are introduced species for purposes including aesthetics and economic. The third taxonomic group; pteridophytes, is well represented in Ghana with 124 known species.

neg: Microbial biogeography For example, dispersal is an important biogeographical process for both microbes and larger organisms, but small microbes can disperse across much greater ranges and at much greater speeds by traveling through the atmosphere (for larger animals dispersal is much more constrained due to their size). As a result, many microbial species can be found in both northern and southern hemispheres, while larger animals are typically found only at one pole rather than both. Larger organisms tend to exhibit latitudinal gradients in species diversity, with larger biodiversity existing in the tropics and decreasing toward more temperate polar regions. In contrast, a

neg: Convention on Biological Diversity natural resources are not infinite and sets out a philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity. The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle which demands that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used

neg: Centres of Plant Diversity Centres of Plant Diversity Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD) was established in 1998 as a joint classification initiative between the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature intended to identify the areas in the world that are of the highest conservation value in terms of protecting the highest number of plant species. In 1998 there were 234 Centers of Plant Diversity registered across the globe, each bearing a rich diversity of endemic plant species that are of great value to humans and their native ecosystems that tend to be under unique edaphic conditions. Many

neg: Spruce-fir forests fire, there is a greater diversity of herbs than in a community where there was no fire. The shrubs took longer to regenerate but soon there was greater diversity in the shrub population as well. Spruce and fir forests have a greater biodiversity than most other forests because of their multiple layers of canopy and dense understories. This creates a heterogeneous, diverse stand structure which leads to an assortment of fire types which usually leave patches of unburned trees. Because the soil is oxidized by the fire, seed germination is encouraged. Also, many herb species were present in burned areas

neg: Neogoveidae as new species were found at virtually every place where samples were taken. Currently, the greatest amount of known Neogoveid diversity is known from Colombia, although it is unknown if this reflects greater ecosystem diversity or greater sampling efforts in that country. It is thought that Neogoveidae possesses a considerably large amount of undescribed diversity compared to most other Cyphophthalmi families. A recent phylogeographical study of "Metasiro" suggests that, as the genus exists at endpoints of large watersheds, mite harvestmen may be able to disperse by utilizing moving bodies of water. Molecular studies suggest that the South American species are

neg: Garden waste dumping young. Healthy ecosystems are necessary for the survival and health of all organisms, and there are a number of ways to reduce negative impact on the environment. Cultivation of native plant species may benefit not only native plant populations but also native animal populations. For example, Sears & Anderson suggest that native bird species diversity in Australia and North America tend to match the volume and diversity of native vegetation. Crisp also explains the percentage of native insect species in a fauna has been found to be consistent with the percentage of native plant species. Composting is a great way

neg: Colpoda Antarctic. "Colpoda" are also found in the arctic where warmer temperatures and longer summers lead to greater density and species diversity. Not only is the genus widespread, there are also several species that have nearly global distribution, and, indeed, it has been suggested this may be true of all species, a fact that could be borne out by better investigation. Though "Colpoda" are not normally found in the marine environment, there are many ways they can travel from one continent to another. For example, cysts can become lodged in the plumage of migratory birds, becoming dislodged hundreds or even thousands

neg: Natural environment diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem." A greater number or variety of species or biological diversity of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem, because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure is fundamentally changed to a different state. This is not universally the case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods

neg: Ecoagriculture where landscapes are often huge because there are vast stretches of apparently undifferentiated land, to western Europe where landscapes tend to be much smaller because of the wide diversity of topographies and land use activities occurring close to each other. Agriculture is the most dominant human influence on earth. Nearly one-third of the world’s land area is heavily influenced by cropland or planted pastures. An even greater area is being fallowed as part of an agricultural cycle or is in tree crops, livestock grazing systems, or production forestry. In addition, most of the world’s 100,000+ protected areas contain significant amounts

neg: Tinamou to Easter Island. The greatest concentration of species is in the tropics, and in particular the Amazon Basin. In the north, they tend to be forest or woodland birds, while in the south they prefer open habitats. Tinamous form the dominant group of terrestrial birds in South America, where they largely replace the Galliformes ecologically, with no other bird family there having comparable diversity, distribution, or suite of habitat adaptations. Rheas are only found in open country, curassows and guans are generally limited to forests, and the pheasant family is only represented by a few species in the north of

neg: African manatee tend to stay in freshwater, theory suggests that, through transoceanic currents, the species reached West Africa during the late Pliocene. The West African manatee's appearance is thought to be the result of these currents and species movement. The African manatee's ancestors passed down advantageous migration and food traits. The African manatee is not restricted to a certain area, and does not have to rely heavily on only one ecosystem for support. This evolution of the African manatee's diversity may be part of its key attribute to survival. They are more diverse than other manatees due to their ability to survive

neg: Ecosystem engineer plant diversity. Biodiversity may also be affected by ecosystem engineer's ability to increase the complexity of processes within an ecosystem, potentially allowing greater species richness and diversity in the local environments. As an example, beavers have the capacity to modify riparian forest and expand wetland habitats, which results in an increase of the diversity of the habitats by allowing a greater number of species to inhabit the landscape. Coral-reef habitats, created by the ecosystem engineer coral species, hold some of the highest abundances of aquatic species in the world. Species are able to be transported across all parts of the

neg: Janzen–Connell hypothesis diversity as tree species with greater establishment or competitive ability formed low-diversity seedling and sapling communities where dominance was concentrated in a few species. He formed his hypothesis through observations in Queensland, Australia. Along with Jack Greening Tracey and Larry Johnson Webb, he mapped trees in two rainforests and observed that smaller seedlings tended to occur in single-species clumps. Smaller seedlings also exhibited greater mortality, especially when their nearest neighbor was an individual of the same species. This pattern lessened with growth and age until seedlings exhibited similar pattern diversity to adults. To reinforce these observations, Connell ran an experiment

neg: Ecological effects of biodiversity as more stable than one that does not. The importance of stability in community ecology is clear. An unstable ecosystem will be more likely to lose species. Thus, if there is indeed a link between diversity and stability, it is likely that losses of diversity could feedback on themselves, causing even more losses of species. Productivity, on the other hand, has a less clear importance in community ecology. In managed areas like cropland, and in areas where animals are grown or caught, increasing productivity increases the economic success of the area and implies that the area has become more efficient,

neg: Elevational diversity gradient Elevational diversity gradient Elevational diversity gradient (EDG) is an ecological pattern where trends in biodiversity occur at different elevations. The EDG states that species richness tends to increase as elevation increases, up to a certain point, creating a "diversity bulge" at middle elevations. There have been multiple hypotheses proposed for explaining the EDG, none of which accurately describe the phenomenon in full. A similar pattern, known as the latitudinal diversity gradient, describes an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the equator. While the EDG generally follows the LDG (i.e., high elevations in tropical regions have greater biodiversity than high

neg: Bombus frigidus change, as these bees inhabit a specialized climate. As temperature rises, the bees may be driven either farther north or to extinction. With increasing temperatures, snow does not pack as tightly. This leads to earlier melting, and during the summer, water isn’t as readily available. This causes the habitat to dry out and fewer plants bloom, thus reducing nectar supply for the bees. High-elevation cold habitats also tend to have fewer species in them and thus contain less diversity and more straightforward food webs. This means that if "B. frigidus" feels the effects of climate change, then the other species

neg: Mate choice parasitic infection increases gene expression. MHC diversity in vertebrates may also be generated by the recombination of alleles on the MHC gene. In species where mating biases exist, females are typically the choosy sex because they provide a greater parental investment than males. However, there are some examples of sex role reversals where females must compete with each other for mating opportunities with males. Species that exhibit parental care after the birth of their offspring have the potential to overcome the sex differences in parental investment (the amount of energy that each parent contributes per offspring) and lead to a

neg: Stylidium of Flinders University. Douglas Darnowski added to the growing library of knowledge on "Stylidium" when he published his book "Triggerplants" in 2002, describing an overview of habitat, plant morphology, carnivory, and research done to date. Following its publication, he co-founded the International Triggerplant Society. As of 2002, only 221 "Stylidium" species were known. There are now over 300 species, many of which are awaiting formal description. Most "Stylidium" species tend to be hardy species and can be easily cultivated in greenhouses or gardens. They are drought resistant, hardy to cold weather, and the species diversity in this genus gives gardeners

neg: Hippocampus compared to 320 to 420 cm for the volume of the neocortex. There is also a general relationship between the size of the hippocampus and spatial memory. When comparisons are made between similar species, those that have a greater capacity for spatial memory tend to have larger hippocampal volumes. This relationship also extends to sex differences; in species where males and females show strong differences in spatial memory ability they also tend to show corresponding differences in hippocampal volume. Non-mammalian species do not have a brain structure that looks like the mammalian hippocampus, but they have one that is considered

neg: Chocó-Darién moist forests with thick moss and other types of non-vascular epiphytes on the tree trunks and branches, and with diverse species of woody hemiepiphyte lianas of the "Ericaceae", "Marcgraviaceae" and "Melastomataceae" families. There are many slender trees. In the north and south near the coast, where there is a dry season, there are greater numbers of deciduous plants. Above an elevation of common species include "Inga" species, cariseco ("Billia colombiana"), "Brosimum" species, "Sorocea" species, "Jacaranda hesperia", "Pourouma bicolor", "Guatteria ferruginea", "Cecropia" species, "Elaegia utilis" and "Brunellia" species. There is high diversity of fauna in the Chocó-Darién moist forests ecoregion, and many endemic

neg: Gene flow cryptic species is a species that humans cannot tell is different without the use of genetics. Moreover, gene flow between hybrid and wild populations can result in loss of genetic diversity via genetic pollution, assortative mating and outbreeding. In human populations, genetic differentiation can also result from endogamy, due to differences in caste, ethnicity, customs and religion. Gene flow can also be used to assist species which are threatened with extinction. When a species exist in small populations there is an increased risk of inbreeding and greater susceptibility to loss of diversity due to drift. These populations can benefit greatly

neg: Diversity index different types the dataset of interest contains. For example, species richness (usually noted ) of a dataset is the number of different species in the corresponding species list. Richness is a simple measure, so it has been a popular diversity index in ecology, where abundance data are often not available for the datasets of interest. Because richness does not take the abundances of the types into account, it is not the same thing as diversity, which does take abundances into account. However, if true diversity is calculated with , the effective number of types () equals the actual number of

neg: Gene flow Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population sizes. Mobility plays an important role in the migration rate, as highly mobile individuals tend to have greater migratory prospects. Although animals are thought to be more mobile than plants, pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals or wind. When gene flow is impeded, there can be an increase in inbreeding, measured by the inbreeding coefficient (F) within a population. For example, many island

neg: Alpha diversity what they assume species diversity to be. Often researchers use the values given by one or more diversity indices, such as species richness (richness is how many species and does not take into account the rarity of individuals, whereas biodiversity can), the Shannon index or the Simpson index. However, it has been argued that it would be better to use the effective number of species as the universal measure of species diversity. This measure allows weighting rare and abundant species in different ways, just as the diversity indices collectively do, but its meaning is intuitively easier to understand. The effective

neg: Small population size genetic diversity, which will be discussed in the next section as a harmful factor in small populations. Conservationists are often worried about a loss of genetic variation in small populations. There are two types of genetic variation that are important when dealing with small populations: Genetic drift and the likelihood of inbreeding tend to have greater impacts on small populations, which can lead to speciation. Both drift and inbreeding cause a reduction in genetic diversity, which is associated with a reduced population growth rate, reduced adaptive potential to environmental changes, and increased risk of extinction. The effective population size (Ne),

neg: Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture animal genetic resources. In 2009, six years after the completion of the human genome project, cattle became one of the first livestock species to have a fully mapped genome. Some general conclusions from recent molecular studies show that individual breeds only differ by typically 40% in total genetic molecular composition; species differ by about 80% of their genetic material. Additionally, breeds with well-defined and appreciated traits tend to be inbred and have low genetic diversity, while non-descript local populations tend to have high molecular genetic diversity. Characterization of animal genetic resources is a prerequisite for its management. Advances in molecular

neg: Biodiversity Ecuador, have particularly high biodiversity. Terrestrial biodiversity is thought to be up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity. A new method used in 2011, put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million, of which 2.1 million were estimated to live in the ocean. However, this estimate seems to under-represent the diversity of microorganisms. Generally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the tropics. Thus localities at lower latitudes have more species than localities at higher latitudes. This is often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Several ecological mechanisms may contribute

neg: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity they cannot be the proximate cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient as they fail to explain why species interactions might be stronger in the tropics. An example of one such hypothesis is the greater intensity of predation and more specialized predators in the tropics has contributed to the increase of diversity in the tropics (Pianka 1966). This intense predation could reduce the importance of competition (see competitive exclusion) and permit greater niche overlap and promote higher richness of prey. However, as discussed above, even if predation is more intense in the tropics (which is not certain), as it cannot be

neg: Parthenogenesis a Hungarian aquarium had another case of parthenogenesis after its lone female shark produced a pup without ever having come into contact with a male shark. The repercussions of parthenogenesis in sharks, which fails to increase the genetic diversity of the offspring, is a matter of concern for shark experts, taking into consideration conservation management strategies for this species, particularly in areas where there may be a shortage of males due to fishing or environmental pressures. Although parthenogenesis may help females who cannot find mates, it does reduce genetic diversity. In 2011, recurring shark parthenogenesis over several years was demonstrated

neg: Aquilinae closely related. The peak diversity for Aquilinae are in Africa, where nearly half of extant species are known to dwell at least seasonally, exploiting a diversity of different hunting styles, habitats, nesting habits and general body forms. Most booted eagle species are opportunistic predators which prey mostly on small vertebrates, often subsisting on a wide range of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians as they become locally available or abundant (carrion is also rarely ignored). Species favoring more open habitats tend to hunt most often on the wing, using distance or hugging contours of the ground to surprise prey. Forest dwelling

neg: Macroecology the trees. Macroecology examines how global development in climate change affect wildlife populations. Classic ecological questions amenable to study through the techniques of macroecology include questions of species richness, latitudinal gradients in species diversity, the species-area curve, range size, body size, and species abundance. For example, the relationship between abundance and range size (why species that maintain large local population sizes tend to be widely distributed, while species that are less abundant tend to have restricted ranges) has received much attention. Scientific journals covering macroecology: Macroecology Macroecology is the subfield of ecology that deals with the study of relationships between

neg: Blowout (geomorphology) however, some vegetation, such as pioneer species, can settle in an opening and prevent any further expansion and deflation. Even though a few plants species can be classed as a colonizer, these plants tend to withstand high rates of sediment deposition and poor nutrient conditions in the blowout. Moreover, if a blowout does form, the deposited material that travels out of the depression can either continue to become deposited at a greater rate than pioneer vegetation can grow or become stabilized again. Mostly due to changes in the climate, colonizer species heavily rely on conditions of the environment, which can

neg: Siberian chipmunk and fungal spores, which help forests grow and regenerate. They also aid species diversity by helping control pests in its environment. In addition to the beneficial aspects for the environment, some humans keep Siberian chipmunks as pets or sell them for their fur or other body parts. The increasing rate of urbanization provides humans with greater mobility, and this advancement provides easier opportunities for humans to introduce non-native species, many of which cause health or economic issues. For instance, Siberian chipmunks tend to eat crops and damage urban gardens. In Russia, they eat approximately 50 percent of the forest nuts,

neg: Networked feminism "Girl Drive: Criss-crossing America, Redefining Feminism". Arnowitz states that there is incredible diversity among women and men about what exactly feminism means, making it harder to classify what does and does not constitute new networked feminism. Networked feminism's impact is somewhat limited because not everyone has access to the internet. According to Samhita Mukhopadhyay, the executive editor of Feministing, a popular feminist blog, "we tend to forget the women who aren't online – there is a digital divide – and I think that part of the feminist movement should be focused on reaching out to people face-to-face doing community work,

neg: Salamander sewage. However, the axolotl has the benefit of being raised in farms for the purpose of research facilities. So there is still a chance that they may be able to return to their natural habitat. The recent decline in population has substantially impacted genetic diversity among populations of axolotl, making it difficult to further progress scientifically. It is important to note that although there is a level of limited genetic diversity due to "Ambystoma" populations, such as the axolotl, being paedeomorphic species, it does not account for the overall lack of diversity. There is evidence that points towards a historical

neg: Coral bleaching short-term disturbances. In contrast, fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially damaging changes. One study by Bellwood "et al". notes that while species richness, diversity, and abundance did not change, fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species. Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species, based on what resources are affected. Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality, but there are many indirect consequences of both. Coral-associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss; however, some herbivorous fish populations have seen a

neg: Coral reef fish regions, the richest by far in terms of reef fish diversity is the Indo-Pacific where there are an estimated 4,000–5,000 species of fishes associated with coral reef habitats. Another 500–700 species can be found in the greater Caribbean region. Most reef fishes have body shapes that are different from open water fishes. Open water fish are usually built for speed in the open sea, streamlined like torpedoes to minimise friction as they move through the water. Reef fish are operating in the relatively confined spaces and complex underwater landscapes of coral reefs. For this manoeuvrability is more important than straight

neg: Durance factor in the biodiversity of the river. The dams in the valley have reduced the incidence of floods and so have allowed the colonisation of alluvial space by alder and poplar in riparian forests. The banks, although less wet, still accommodate 110 species of birds during the year, plus 82 species of migratory birds, which rest, feed and sometime reproduce. One-hundred-ten species of animal hibernate there. Avian diversity increased after the dams were built, but there was probably once a greater diversity. For some families of birds the number of individuals also increased. There are approximately 75 species of mammals

neg: Running after stretching to absorb ground contact forces. Thus a mid/forefoot strike may aid in propulsion. However, even among elite athletes there are variations in self selected footstrike types. This is especially true in longer distance events, where there is a prevalence of heel strikers. There does tend however to be a greater percentage of mid/forefoot striking runners in the elite fields, particularly in the faster racers and the winning individuals or groups. While one could attribute the faster speeds of elite runners compared to recreational runners with similar footstrikes to physiological differences, the hip and joints have been left out

neg: Northern greater galago over males. Males tend to follow females around and females show more aggression to transient individuals passing through their home territory than do males. These species are less social compared to "Otolemur crassicaudatus" likely due to the fact they are frugivorous. It is more profitable to exclude non related individuals from areas where fruit is available. They still exhibit some social play. Social grooming is not present instead reciprocal licking performs function of grooming while minimizing social interaction. Male galago species possess very distinctive penile morphology that can be used to classify species. The northern greater galago penis is on

neg: Gamma diversity in different situations, and no consensus has been reached on what spatial scales are appropriate to quantify gamma diversity. It has therefore been proposed that the definition of gamma diversity does not need to be tied to a specific spatial scale, but gamma diversity can be measured for an existing dataset at any scale of interest. If results are extrapolated beyond the actual observations, it needs to be taken into account that the species diversity in the dataset generally gives an underestimation of the species diversity in a larger area. The smaller the available sample in relation to the area

neg: Burford v. Sun Oil Co. federal court sitting in diversity jurisdiction may abstain from hearing the case where the state courts likely have greater expertise in a particularly complex and a unique area of state law which is of special significance to the state, where there is comprehensive state administrative/regulatory procedure, and where the federal issues cannot be decided without delving into state law. Justice Douglas, concurring, implied that the Court’s ruling did not go far enough. He noted that the opinion of the Court as I read it does not hold or even fairly imply that 'the enforcement of state rights created by state

neg: Beta diversity beta diversity is β = γ/α Here gamma diversity is the total species diversity of a landscape and alpha diversity is the mean species diversity per habitat. Because the limits among habitats and landscapes are diffuse and to some degree subjective, it has been proposed that gamma diversity can be quantified for any inventory dataset and that alpha and beta diversity can be quantified whenever the dataset is divided into subunits. Then gamma diversity is the total species diversity in the dataset and alpha diversity the mean species diversity per subunit. Beta diversity quantifies how many subunits there would be

neg: Crotalus catalinensis diet like most rattlesnakes. Further inquiry into the arboreal behavior of this island species has shown individuals actually spend the majority of their time on the ground. Individuals were most likely to be found in low branches of bushes during July, the hottest month on the island. "C. catalinensis" is thought to climb off of the hot ground and into bushes to thermoregulate. Unlike most species of rattlesnakes, "C. catalinensis" is often observed exposed; it does not tend to hide. Currently, the greater evidence supports the theory that the Catalina rattleless rattlesnake has evolved away from having a rattle because

neg: Invasibility native C3 plant during a drought. There are variety of biotic factors that influence invasibility such as, competition, diversity, predation and disease. One of the main biotic factors that impact invasibility interspecific competition. Since an invader will require certain limiting resources it will be more likely to be successful in habitat where competition for these resources is low. If the invader has optimum performance at a resource level that only slightly overlaps with a native species than it will have a greater chance invasion. For example, another reason the Asian shore crap ("Hemigrapsus sanguineus)" is so such a successful invader

neg: Historical race concepts there is the greatest possible diversity amongst capable judges whether he should be classed as a single species or race, or as two (Virey), as three (Jacquinot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach), six (Buffon), seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven (Pickering), fifteen (Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins), twenty-two (Morton), sixty (Crawfurd), or as sixty-three, according to Burke. This diversity of judgment does not prove that the races ought not to be ranked as species, but it shews that they graduate into each other, and that it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters between them. Several social and political developments

neg: Dark diversity and its existence and properties can be estimated when proper data is available. With dark matter we can better understand distribution and dynamics of galaxies, with dark diversity we can understand composition and dynamics of ecological communities. Dark diversity is the counterpart of observed diversity (alpha diversity) present in a sample. Dark diversity is habitat-specific in respect that the study site must contain favorable ecological conditions for species belonging to dark diversity. The habitat concept can be narrower (e.g. microhabitat in an old-growth forest) or broader (e.g. terrestrial habitat). Thus, habitat specificity does not mean that all species in dark

neg: Bombus pensylvanicus within the state. Lozier and Cameron evaluated genetic structure using microsatellite markers in Illinois to compare genetic variation of historical versus contemporary collections within "B. pensylvanicus". It was found that "B. pensylvanicus" had greater population structure, indicating reduced gene flow and dispersal among populations. It was found that genetic diversity has overall not been significantly altered over time, but there were some reductions in "B. pensylvanicus". Slight losses of genetic diversity in "B. pensylvanicus" may be an indication of the species’ decline. These results were expected because of the recent decrease in population, which would cause declines in genetic diversity

neg: Mineralogy predicts that thousands more mineral species may await discovery or have formed and then been lost to erosion, burial or other processes. This implies a role of chance in the formation of rare minerals occur. In another use of big data sets, network theory was applied to a dataset of carbon minerals, revealing new patterns in their diversity and distribution. The analysis can show which minerals tend to coexist and what conditions (geological, physical, chemical and biological) are associated with them. This information can be used to predict where to look for new deposits and even new mineral species. Minerals

neg: Olson's Extinction rose, and so there does not appear to have been any substantial decrease in species richness Using data on chondrichthyan diversity, Koot showed that there was little substantial decline in diversity until the Middle of the Guadalupian. Fauna did not recover fully from Olson's Extinction before the impact of the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Estimates of recovery time vary, where some authors indicated recovery was prolonged, lasting 30 million years into the Triassic. Several important events took place during Olson's Extinction, most notably the origin of therapsids, a group that includes the evolutionary ancestors of mammals. Further research on the recently

neg: Tree measurement extensive sites benefit from a greater variety of habitat and more individual trees, some exceptional sites are quite small. The Rucker Height Index is essentially a foreshortened version of a complete profile of all the species found on a particular site. Variations of the Rucker Index can also be calculated. If the site has a high diversity of species a RI20 can be calculated using twenty species. For sites with limited data or low species diversity, a RI5 with only five species can be calculated. A Rucker Girth Index or RGI10 can also be calculated using the girth of the

neg: Species evenness Species evenness Species evenness refers to how close in numbers each species in an environment is. Mathematically it is defined as a diversity index, a measure of biodiversity which quantifies how equal the community is numerically. So if there are 40 foxes and 1000 dogs, the community is not very even. But if there are 40 foxes and 42 dogs, the community is quite even. The evenness of a community can be represented by Pielou's evenness index: Where formula_2 is the number derived from the Shannon diversity index and formula_3 is the maximum possible value of formula_2 (if every species

neg: Penguin as the Galápagos Islands, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic Humboldt Current that flows around these islands. Several authors have suggested that penguins are a good example of Bergmann's Rule where larger bodied populations live at higher latitudes than smaller bodied populations. There is some disagreement about this, and several other authors have noted that there are fossil penguin species that contradict this hypothesis and that ocean currents and upwellings are likely to have had a greater effect on species diversity than latitude alone. Major populations of penguins are found in Angola,

neg: Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project The debate determined that the species richness and the rate of growth increase as the area of a reserve increases. It also determined that the shape of a reserve is very important to the species diversity. Reserves with a large surface area to volume ratio tend to be affected more by edge effects than reserves with a small surface area to volume ratio. The distance between reserves and the habitat surrounding the reserves (the matrix) can affect species richness and diversity as well. Despite the seeming logic of these ideas, ecologists questioned the results of the SLOSS debate due to

neg: Species diversity Species diversity Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community (a dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Species diversity consists of three components: species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity and species evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity is the genetic relationship between different groups of species,whereas species evenness quantifies how equal the abundances

neg: Species diversity large areas are environmentally more heterogeneous than small areas. Species diversity Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community (a dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Species diversity consists of three components: species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity and species evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity is the genetic relationship between different groups

neg: Bowerchalke Downs areas there are also colonies of meadow saxifrage "Saxifraga granulata" and small populations of both greater butterfly orchid "Platanthera chlorantha" and adder's-tongue "Ophioglossum vulgatum"." "Scrub is scattered on some of the slopes becoming dense in one or two places. There is a diversity of shrub and tree species; hawthorn, blackthorn, wayfaring tree, gorse, whitebeam, hazel and ash." "Anthills produced by the yellow meadow ant "Lasius flavus" are a feature of several slopes. The grassland supports a variety of butterfly species including dingy skipper, dark green fritillary and common blue. The adonis blue is also found where its larval food plant,

neg: Greater rhea of about . The species is believed to be declining due to increased hunting and the conversion of central South American grasslands to farmland and ranchland. The populations of Argentina and Uruguay are most seriously affected by the decline. Farmers sometimes consider the greater rhea pests, because they will eat broad-leaved crop plants, such as cabbage, chard and bok choy. Where they occur as pests, farmers tend to hunt and kill greater rheas. The burning of crops in South America has also contributed to their decline. International trade in wild-caught greater rheas is restricted as per CITES Appendix II. The

neg: Species diversity quantifies the probability that the two randomly taken individuals represent different species. Depending on the purposes of quantifying species diversity, the dataset used for the calculations can be obtained in different ways. Although species diversity can be calculated for any dataset where individuals have been identified to species, meaningful ecological interpretations require that the dataset is appropriate for the questions at hand. In practice, the interest is usually in the species diversity of areas so large that not all individuals in them can be observed and identified to species, but a sample of the relevant individuals has to be obtained.

neg: Elevational diversity gradient area hypothesis does not take climatic conditions or resource availability into account. This hypothesis states that diversity increases with increasing rainfall, however the correlation between rainfall and plant diversity varies from region to region. The consistency of rainfall seems to correlate more with species richness than total annual rainfall. Species diversity appears to level off when annual rainfall reaches about 4,000mm, however this could be due to sampling limitations. Rainfall and soil richness affect productivity trends which are also believed to affect diversity. A mid elevation peak is usually seen in mean annual rainfall. The resource diversity hypothesis states an

neg: Alpha diversity number of species is the number of equally-abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Suppose species diversity is equated with the effective number of species, and alpha diversity with the mean species diversity per subunit. Then alpha diversity can be calculated in two different ways that give the same result. The first approach is to calculate a weighted generalized mean of the within-subunit species proportional abundances, and then take the inverse of this mean. The second approach is to calculate

neg: Biogeography-based optimization a lot of room for additional species. Whether or not the immigrating species can survive in its new home, and for how long, is another question. However, species diversity is correlated with HSI, so when more species arrive at a low HSI island, the island's HSI will tend to increase. The figure on the right illustrates an island migration model. The immigration rate formula_1 and the emigration rate formula_2 are functions of the number of species on the island. The maximum possible immigration rate formula_3 occurs when there are zero species on the island. As the number of species increases,

neg: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity by various abiotic and biotic factors, i.e., it is a nonequilibrium hypothesis assuming a largely non-saturated niche space. It does accept that many other factors may play a role in causing latitudinal gradients in species richness as well. The hypothesis is supported by much recent evidence, in particular the studies of Allen et al. (2006) and Wright et al. (2006). Biotic hypotheses claim ecological species interactions such as competition, predation, mutualism, and parasitism are stronger in the tropics and these interactions promote species coexistence and specialization of species, leading to greater speciation in the tropics. These hypotheses are problematic because

neg: Defense in insects insects employ. Insects with chemical weaponry usually make their presence known through aposematism. Aposematism is utilized by non-palatable species as a warning to predators that they represent a toxic danger. Additionally, these insects tend to be relatively large, long-lived, active, and frequently aggregate. Indeed, longer-lived insects are more likely to be chemically defended than short lived ones, as longevity increases apparency. Throughout the arthropod, and insect, realm, however, chemical defenses are quite unevenly distributed. There is great variation in the presence and absence of chemical arms among orders and families to even within families. Moreover, there is diversity among insects

neg: Hylaeus (bee) than constructing or excavating their own nests as in many other bees. A significant diversity of "Hylaeus" is found in Hawai'i — approximately sixty species are recorded as living there. "Hylaeus" are the only bees considered native to the islands and most of those are unique to the island chain; the diversity of this genus is far greater in Hawai'i than in all of mainland North America. Many of them are species of concern, and some recorded there are possibly extinct. For example, "H. finitimus" was last collected 100 years ago, and only ever seen on the island of Kauai.

neg: Ecological succession these factors contribute to predictability of succession dynamics; others add more probabilistic elements. Two important perturbation factors today are human actions and climatic change. In general, communities in early succession will be dominated by fast-growing, well-dispersed species (opportunist, fugitive, or r-selected life-histories). As succession proceeds, these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive (k-selected) species. Trends in ecosystem and community properties in succession have been suggested, but few appear to be general. For example, species diversity almost necessarily increases during early succession as new species arrive, but may decline in later succession as competition eliminates opportunistic species and

neg: Preferential block voting of Order. With or without a preferential element, block voting systems have a number of features which can make them unrepresentative of the diversity of voters' intentions. Block voting regularly produces complete landslide majorities for the group of candidates with the highest level of support. Under preferential block voting, a slate of clones of the first winning candidate are guaranteed to win every available seat. Although less representative, this does tend to lead to greater agreement among those elected. Block voting was used in the Australian Senate from 1901 to 1948; from 1918, this was preferential block voting. Preferential block

neg: Genetic distance mutation and genetic drift. A commonly used measure of genetic distance is the fixation index which varies between 0 and 1. A value of 0 indicates that two populations are genetically identical (minimal or no genetic diversity between the two populations) whereas a value of 1 indicates that two populations are genetically different (maximum genetic diversity between the two populations). No mutation is assumed. Large populations between which there is much migration, for example, tend to be little differentiated whereas small populations between which there is little migration tend to be greatly differentiated. Fst is a convenient measure of this

neg: Beta diversity if the total species diversity of the dataset and the mean species diversity per subunit remained the same, but the subunits shared no species. Some researchers have preferred to partition gamma diversity into additive rather than multiplicative components. Then the beta component of diversity becomes β = γ - α This quantifies how much more species diversity the entire dataset contains than an average subunit within the dataset. This can also be interpreted as the total amount of species turnover among the subunits in the dataset. When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this can be calculated

neg: Northern goshawk those of the boreal forests in North America, Scandinavia, and possibly Siberia, with more equal sex ratio of movement and a strong southward tendency of movements in years where prey such as hares and grouse crash. Male young goshawks tend to disperse farther than females, which is unusual in birds, including raptors. It has been speculated that larger female juveniles displace male juveniles, forcing them to disperse farther, to the incidental benefit of the species’ genetic diversity. In Cedar Grove, Wisconsin, there were more than twice as many juvenile males than females recorded migrating. At the hawk watch at Cape

neg: Stigmella hoheriae the wing from August to November. However adult moths have been recorded in February and from July to December indicating there are likely two generations per year. This species prefers native forest habitat. The larvae feed on "Hoheria" species such as "Hoheria glabrata", "Hoheria populnea", "Hoheria sexstylosa" and "Hoheria angustifolia". Stigmella hoheriae Stigmella hoheriae is a species of moth of the Nepticulidae family. This day flying moth is found in New Zealand where it is rarely noticed as the species is very small and as a result does not tend to attract attention when on the wing. The length of

neg: Wader are seen, including, but not limited to, size (e.g. body size, bill size), color, and agility. In polygynous species, where one male individual mates with multiple female partners over his lifetime, dimorphisms tend to be more diverse. In monogamous species, where male individuals mate with a single female partner, males typically do not have distinctive dimorphic characteristics such as colored feathers, but they still tend to be larger in size compared to females. The suborder of Charadrii displays the widest range of sexual dimorphisms seen in the Charadriiformes order. However, cases of sexual monomorphism, where there are no distinguishing physical

neg: Gamma diversity rare and abundant species in different ways, just as the diversity indices collectively do, but its meaning is intuitively easier to understand. The effective number of species is the number of equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Suppose species diversity is equated with the effective number of species in a dataset. Then gamma diversity can be calculated by first taking the weighted mean of species proportional abundances in the dataset, and then taking the inverse of this mean.

neg: Chirruping wedgebill low, open shrublands with acacia species. Distribution is patchy, but where found, the species is usually locally abundant. Though the species covers a large area, it is rarely found in the southern part of its range. It tends to favour areas with vegetation of bluebush, acacia stands, emu bush and lignum species. The chirruping wedgebill is territorial throughout the year. Adults are generally sedentary, with small flocks of up to 20 birds being regularly recorded. Juvenile birds tend to be more widely dispersed, sometimes forming loose foraging flocks of up to 100 individuals, that wander over greater distances than the

neg: Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows they are represented by a lesser greater diversity than in the eastern Himalaya, where 60 species are reported in the Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. Genera of herbaceous plants include "Doronicum, Delphinium, Gentiana, Meconopsis, Pedicularis, Anemone, Aster, Polygonum, Primula", and "Mertensia". Scree habitats include "Caragana, Saxifraga, Draba", and "Gypsophila". Eighty mammals species are reported in this ecoregion. It contains prime habitat for the snow leopard and the Tibetan wolf. Other mammals include the ibex, markhor, blue sheep, tahr, and Himalayan marmot. There are 172 bird species in this ecoregion. Important birds include the lammergeier, golden eagle, Himalayan griffon vulture, snow

neg: Greater galago Greater galago The greater galagos or thick-tailed bushbabies are everyday names for three species of strepsirrhine primates. They are classified in the genus Otolemur in the family Galagidae. The diversity of galago species has historically been grossly underestimated. In 1931, only 5 species were recognized, 4 in the genus "Galago" and 1 in "Euoticus", and only one species that would later be placed in the genus "Otolemur". In 1979, the genus "Otolemur" was separated from "Galago". By 1986, eleven species were recognized with revamped systemic classification including "Otolemur crassicaudatus" and "Otolemur garnettii". Additionally, "O. crassidautus" and "O. monteiri" were recognized

neg: Evolution of biological complexity these become more complex in order to cope better with the diversity of threats offered by the ecosystem formed by the others, the others too will have to adapt by becoming more complex, thus triggering an ongoing evolutionary arms race towards more complexity. This trend may be reinforced by the fact that ecosystems themselves tend to become more complex over time, as species diversity increases, together with the linkages or dependencies between species. If evolution possessed an active trend toward complexity (orthogenesis), as was widely believed in the 19th century, then we would expect to see an active trend of

neg: Germ line theory Germ line theory The germ-line theory was a proposed explanation for immunoglobulin diversity that proposed that each antibody was encoded in a separate germline gene. This does not occur in most species (including humans), but may occur in Elasmobranchs. For decades microbiologists searched for a mechanism that could explain the large diversity of antibody structure. For this reason the germ line theory emerged. According to this theory, the genomes contributed by the germ cell, sperm and egg contained a large repertoire of immunoglobulin genes. It was clear that there should be a mechanism that help the antibody to have diversity

neg: Synodontis geledensis of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in "S. geledensis", there are about 18 teeth on the mandible. The color of the fish is brownish on the back and sides, and whitish on the underside. The maximum total length of the species is . Generally, females in the genus "Synodontis" tend to be slightly larger than males of the same age. In the wild, the species is known in Kenya and Ethiopia, and it is thought to have a greater range. The species is harvested for human consumption. Its habitat is threatened by dam building and

neg: Marajó várzea provides a mechanism for rapid capture and release of nutrients, and hosts many species of freshwater fish and aquatic mammals. There is greater diversity of fauna than in surrounding areas. 99 species of mammals have been reported. Big cats include jaguar ("Panthera onca") and cougar ("Puma concolor"). Fruiting trees such as the buriti palm are sources of food for grazing animals such as gray brocket ("Mazama gouazoubira"), red brocket ("Mazama americana"), and capybara ("Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris"). The estuary is home to large fish that swim through the flooded forest where they eat and spread fruit from the trees. Fish include pacus

neg: Diversity factor the facility's true peak load. The diversity factor does not affect the kWh; it only affects the kW. The coincidence factor is the reciprocal of the diversity factor. However, differing sources define the simultaneity factor to be identical to either the coincidence factor or the diversity factor. The International Electrotechnical Commission defines the coincidence and simultaneity factors identically with the diversity factor being the reciprocal. Since the only change in definition is to take the inverse, all one needs to know is if the factor is greater than or less than one. The (unofficial) term diversity, as distinguished from diversity

neg: Dark diversity diversity can inhabit all localities within study sample, but there must be ecologically suitable parts. Habitat-specificity is making the distinction between dark diversity and beta diversity. If beta diversity is the association between alpha and gamma diversity, dark diversity connects alpha diversity and habitat-specific (filtered) species pool. Habitat-specific species pool only these which can potentially inhabit focal study site. Observed diversity can be studied at any scale, and sites with varying heterogeneity. This is also true for dark diversity. Consequently, as local observed diversity can be linked to very different sample sizes, dark diversity can be applied at any study

neg: Blyde River Canyon been encamped, Treurrivier, or 'mourning river'. In 2005, the Blyde River was renamed to the Motlatse River, and the Mpumalanga Provincial Government announced that the canyon would be renamed as well. The Blyde River Canyon supports large diversity of life, including numerous fish and antelope species as well as hippos and crocodiles, and every primate species that may be seen in South Africa (including both greater and lesser bushbabies, vervet monkeys and Samango monkeys). The diversity of birdlife is similarly high, including the beautiful and much sought Narina trogon as well as species such as the Cape vulture, black eagle,

neg: Allopatric speciation Orr's 2004 publication "Speciation". They list six mainstream arguments that lend support to the concept of vicariant speciation: Allopatric speciation has resulted in many of the biogeographic and biodiversity patterns found on Earth: on islands, continents, and even among mountains. Islands are often home to species endemics—existing only on an island and nowhere else in the world—with nearly all taxa residing on isolated islands sharing common ancestry with a species on the nearest continent. Not without challenge, there is typically a correlation between island endemics and diversity; that is, that the greater the diversity (species richness) of an island, the

neg: Multiculturalism a covert form of racism that does not purport ethnic superiority as much as it asserts stereotypes of perceived "incompatibility of life-styles and traditions". While there is research that suggests that ethnic diversity increases chances of war, lower public goods provision and decreases democratization, there is also research that shows that ethnic diversity in itself is not detrimental to peace, public goods provision or democracy. Rather, it was found that promoting diversity actually helps in advancing disadvantaged students. A 2018 study in the "American Political Science Review" cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision.

neg: Basal (phylogenetics) root of every cladogram, those clades may differ widely in rank and/or species diversity. Greater diversification "may" be associated with more evolutionary innovation, but ancestral characters should not be imputed to the members of a less species-rich basal clade without additional evidence, as there can be no assurance such an assumption is valid. In general, clade "A" is more basal than clade "B" if "B" is a subgroup of the sister group of "A". Within large groups, "basal" may be used more loosely to mean 'closer to the root than the great majority of', and in this context terminology such

neg: Biodiversity loss the upcoming years. Locally bounded loss rates can be measured using species richness and its variation over time. Raw counts may not be as ecologically relevant as relative or absolute abundances. Taking into account the relative frequencies, a considerable number of biodiversity indexes has been developed. Besides richness, evenness and heterogeneity are considered to be the main dimensions along which diversity can be measured. As with all diversity measures, it is essential to accurately classify the spatial and temporal scope of the observation. "Definitions tend to become less precise as the complexity of the subject increases and the associated spatial

neg: Comparison of American and Canadian football produce drives that lead to points unless they are markedly superior to their opponents. The larger field generally permits greater YAC (yards after catch) on each individual catch, where the NFL produces passing plays where there are either very few YAC yards (immediate tackle) or huge YAC yards (missed tackle or broken coverage for huge gains.) For this reason, Canadian teams usually prefer passing over rushing to a greater extent than American, since pass attempts generally tend to gain more yards than rushing. Offensive drives (continuous possession of the ball) tend to be shorter. Long drives of half a quarter

neg: Nectocaris surface itself. Although "Nectocaris" is known from Canada, China and Australia, in rocks spanning some 20 million years, there does not seem to be much diversity; size excepted, all specimens are anatomically very similar. Historically, three genera have been erected for nectocaridid taxa from different localities, but these 'species' – "Petalilium latus" and "Vetustovermis planus" – likely belong to the same genus or even the same species as "N. pteryx". Within "N. pteryx", there seem to be two discrete morphs, one large (~10 cm in length), one small (~3 cm long). These perhaps represent separate male and female forms. The

neg: Deroceras internally. The pneumostome lies in the posterior half of the mantle. Generally external appearance does not reliably distinguish one species from certain others, so species identification requires dissection to reveal the genitalia, unless the local species diversity is known to be low. The taxonomy, anatomy and other aspects of the biology of this genus were reviewed in 2000, and the diverse mating behaviors were reviewed in 2007. In 2000, in the most recent monograph on the genus, Wiktor rejected earlier attempts (including his own) at a subgeneric ("Agriolimax" Mörch, 1865, "Plathystimulus" Wiktor, 1973) classification, because there appeared to be so

neg: Cyatheales found growing in tropical and subtropical areas, as well as temperate rainforests in South Africa, Australia, Spain, Portugal, New Zealand, and other island groups nearby; a few genera extend further, such as "Culcita" in southern Europe. While many ferns are able to achieve a widespread distribution because of their spore reproduction, tree fern species tend to be very local. This makes their species much more susceptible to the effects of local deforestation. Why species are not more widespread is unknown, especially considering they have sufficient height to have a greater chance of getting spores into the wind stream. Where feral

neg: Elevational diversity gradient elevations in temperate regions), the LDG does not account for elevational changes. The first recorded observation of the elevational diversity gradient was by Carl Linnaeus in his treatise "On the growth of the habitable earth". In this document, Linnaeus based his predictions on flood geology, assuming most of the world was at one point inundated, leaving only the highest elevations available for terrestrial life. Since, by Linnaeus’ hypothesis, all life was concentrated at high elevations, a higher species diversity would be observed there even as life re-populated lower elevations. In 1799, Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland described elevational changes

neg: Fly flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the actual species diversity is much greater, with the flies from many parts of the world yet to be studied intensively. The suborder Nematocera include generally small, slender insects with long antennae such as mosquitoes, gnats, midges and crane-flies, while the Brachycera includes broader, more robust flies with short antennae. Many nematoceran larvae are aquatic. There are estimated to be a total of about 19,000 species of Diptera in Europe, 22,000 in the Nearctic region, 20,000 in the Afrotropical region, 23,000 in the Oriental region and 19,000 in the Australasian region.

neg: Ecoforestry been many proposals of principles outlined for ecoforestry. They are covered over books, articles, and environmental agencies. All of the principles relate to the idea that in ecoforestry, less should be harvested, and diversity must be managed. Through harvesting less, there is enough biomass left in the forest, so that the forest may stay healthy and still stay maintained. It will grow at a sustainable level annually, and thus it will be able to still be harvested the following year. Through management of the diversity, species may cohabitate in an ecosystem where the forest may feed off of other species