query: what is the weight of the air on the earth 's surface called

pos: Atmosphere of Earth takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft. Within the five principal layers above, that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties: The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is or , depending on the reference. The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as . This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×10 kg (1.135×10 lb), about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the

pos: Atmospheric pressure mean sea-level pressure, which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea-level for locations above or below sea-level. The average pressure at mean sea-level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is 1013.25hPa, or 1 atmosphere (Atm), or 29.92 inches of mercury. Pressure (P), mass (m), and the acceleration due to gravity (g), are related by P = F/A = (m*g)/A, where A is surface area. Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit area of the atmospheric mass above that location. Pressure on Earth varies with the altitude of the surface; so air pressure on mountains is usually

pos: Atmosphere of Venus The densest part of the atmosphere, the troposphere, begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km. At the furnace-like surface the winds are slow, but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth-like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m/s. The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is about 92 times that of the Earth, similar to the pressure found below the surface of the ocean. The atmosphere has a mass of 4.8 kg, about 93 times the mass of the Earth's total atmosphere. The density of the air at the

pos: Atmosphere may have outer atmospheres with compound molecules. Atmospheric pressure at a particular location is the force per unit area perpendicular to a surface determined by the weight of the vertical column of atmosphere above that location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based on the internationally recognized standard atmosphere (atm), which is defined as 101.325 kPa (760 Torr or 14.696 psi). It is measured with a barometer. Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of "e" (an irrational number

pos: Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure (after the sensor), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as , equivalent to 760mmHg (torr), 29.92inchesHg, or 14.696psi. The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Pressure measures

pos: Energy harvesting in air pressure due to temperature changes or weather patterns vs. a sealed chamber has been used to provide power for mechanical clocks such as the Atmos clock. What is an Atmospheric pressure change? An Atmospheric change is a force exerted on a surface by air above as gravity pulls it to Earth. This is often measured by the barometer, a slight mercury in the glass tube rises and drops depending on changes in altitude and pressure. Usually, atmosphere pressure drops as altitude increases, also vice versa. Atmospheric pressure consists of molecules in constant motion, colliding with each other about

neg: Gravitation of the Moon Gravitation of the Moon The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Moon is about 1.625 m/s, about 16.6% that on Earth's surface or 0.166 . Over the entire surface, the variation in gravitational acceleration is about 0.0253 m/s (1.6% of the acceleration due to gravity). Because weight is directly dependent upon gravitational acceleration, things on the Moon will weigh only 16.6% of what they weigh on the Earth. The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured by tracking the radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The principle used depends on the Doppler effect, whereby the line-of-sight

neg: Weight than the preferred "atomic mass" etc. In a different gravitational field, for example, on the surface of the Moon, an object can have a significantly different weight than on Earth. The gravity on the surface of the Moon is only about one-sixth as strong as on the surface of the Earth. A one-kilogram mass is still a one-kilogram mass (as mass is an intrinsic property of the object) but the downward force due to gravity, and therefore its weight, is only one-sixth of what the object would have on Earth. So a man of mass 180 pounds weighs only about

neg: Gravity of Earth than normal local gravitational fields on the Earth's surface. Less dense sedimentary rocks cause the opposite. In air, objects experience a supporting buoyancy force which reduces the apparent strength of gravity (as measured by an object's weight). The magnitude of the effect depends on air density (and hence air pressure); see Apparent weight for details. The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 µm/s (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day.

neg: Thrust-to-weight ratio thrust due to speed and altitude along with the weight due to the remaining propellant and payload mass. The main factors include freestream air temperature, pressure, density, and composition. Depending on the engine or vehicle under consideration, the actual performance will often be affected by buoyancy and local gravitational field strength. The Russian-made RD-180 rocket engine (which powers Lockheed Martin’s Atlas V) produces 3,820 kN of sea-level thrust and has a dry mass of 5,307 kg. Using the Earth surface gravitational field strength of 9.807 m/s², the sea-level thrust-to-weight ratio is computed as follows: (1 kN = 1000 N =

neg: Gravity of Earth second. This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as "little " (in contrast, the gravitational constant is referred to as "big "). The precise strength of Earth's gravity varies depending on location. The nominal "average" value at Earth's surface, known as is, by definition, 9.80665 m/s. This quantity is denoted variously as , (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033 m/s), , gee, or simply (which is also used for the variable local value). The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion,

neg: Weight refined by requiring that the object be at rest. However, this raises the issue of defining "at rest" (usually being at rest with respect to the Earth is implied by using standard gravity). In the operational definition, the weight of an object at rest on the surface of the Earth is lessened by the effect of the centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation. The operational definition, as usually given, does not explicitly exclude the effects of buoyancy, which reduces the measured weight of an object when it is immersed in a fluid such as air or water. As a result,

neg: Weight in a state of free fall, the weight would be zero. In this sense of weight, terrestrial objects can be weightless: ignoring air resistance, the famous apple falling from the tree, on its way to meet the ground near Isaac Newton, would be weightless. The unit of measurement for weight is that of force, which in the International System of Units (SI) is the newton. For example, an object with a mass of one kilogram has a weight of about 9.8 newtons on the surface of the Earth, and about one-sixth as much on the Moon. Although weight and mass

neg: Glacial motion glacial motion and the landforms that result requires tools from many different disciplines: physical geography, climatology, and geology are among the areas sometime grouped together and called earth science. During the Pleistocene (the last ice age), huge sheets of ice called continental glaciers advanced over much of the earth. The movement of these continental glaciers created many now-familiar glacial landforms. As the glaciers were expanded, due to their accumulating weight of snow and ice, they crushed and redistributed surface rocks, creating erosional landforms such as s, cirques, and hanging valleys. Later, when the glaciers retreated leaving behind their freight of

neg: Gravity of Earth elevation of the terrain. (The two effects would cancel at a surface rock density of 4/3 times the average density of the whole earth. The density of the whole earth is 5.515 g·cm, so standing on a slab of something like iron whose density is over 7.35 g·cm would increase one's weight.) For the gravity below the surface we have to apply the free-air correction as well as a double Bouguer correction. With the infinite slab model this is because moving the point of observation below the slab changes the gravity due to it to its opposite. Alternatively, we can

neg: Craters of the Moon (geothermal site) of the Moon are the result of hydrothermal eruptions. The pressure of the steam beneath the surface exceeds the pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying ground. This results in an explosion. A mixture of hot water, steam, hot mud and pumice is ejected into the air. Material may be blown up to 100 m, leaving behind holes or craters as deep as 20 m. Hydrothermal eruptions occur about once a year. The openings in the earth surface, where geothermal steam and gases are emitted, are called fumaroles. These vary in size from one centimetre to half a meter

neg: Rayleigh wave the surface of the earth at about 10 times the speed of sound in air (0.340 km/s), that is ~3 km/s. Due to their higher speed, the P- and S-waves generated by an earthquake arrive before the surface waves. However, the particle motion of surface waves is larger than that of body waves, so the surface waves tend to cause more damage. In the case of Rayleigh waves, the motion is of a rolling nature, similar to an ocean surface wave. The intensity of Rayleigh wave shaking at a particular location is dependent on several factors: Local geologic structure can

neg: Mass this object from going into a free fall on the moon. Restated in mathematical terms, on the surface of the Earth, the weight "W" of an object is related to its mass "m" by , where is the acceleration due to Earth's gravitational field, (expressed as the acceleration experienced by a free-falling object). For other situations, such as when objects are subjected to mechanical accelerations from forces other than the resistance of a planetary surface, the weight force is proportional to the mass of an object multiplied by the total acceleration away from free fall, which is called the proper

neg: Stefan–Boltzmann law whole surface of the earth is at one temperature. Another interesting question is to ask what the temperature of a blackbody surface on the earth would be assuming that it reaches equilibrium with the sunlight falling on it. This of course depends on the angle of the sun on the surface and on how much air the sunlight has gone through. When the sun is at the zenith and the surface is horizontal, the irradiance can be as high as 1120 W/m. The Stefan–Boltzmann law then gives a temperature of or 102 °C. (Above the atmosphere, the result is even

neg: International System of Units This is true whether the object is floating in space or in a gravity field e.g. at the Earth's surface. Weight is the force exerted on a body by a gravitational field, and hence its weight depends on the strength of the gravitational field. Weight of a 1 kg mass at the Earth's surface is ; mass times the acceleration due to gravity, which is 9.81 newtons at the Earth's surface and is about 3.5 newtons at the surface of Mars. Since the acceleration due to gravity is local and varies by location and altitude on the Earth, weight is

neg: Eötvös effect at 60 degrees latitude, co-moving with the Earth, is following a circular trajectory, with a radius of about 3190 kilometer, and a velocity of about 233 m/s. That circular trajectory requires a centripetal force of about 0.017 newton for every kilogram of mass; 0.17 newton for the 10,000 gram internal weight. At 60 degrees latitude, the component that is perpendicular to the local surface (the local vertical) is half the total force. Hence, at 60 degrees latitude, any object co-moving with the Earth has its weight reduced by about 0.08 percent, thanks to the Earth's rotation. Calculating the Eötvös effect:

neg: Surface wave inversion Surface wave inversion Seismic inversion involves the set of methods which seismologists use to infer properties through physical measurements. Surface-wave inversion is the method by which elastic properties, density, and thickness of layers in the subsurface are obtained through analysis of surface-wave dispersion. The entire inversion process requires the gathering of seismic data, the creation of dispersion curves, and finally the inference of subsurface properties. Surface waves are seismic waves that travel at the surface of the earth, along the air/earth boundary. Surface waves are slower than P-waves(compressional waves) and S-waves(transverse waves). Surface waves are classified into two basic types,

neg: Eötvös effect like that of a racecar on a banked circuit going too slow: on a slippery surface the car will slump down. For an airship that means an increase of the weight. The first term of the Eötvös effect is proportional to the component of the required centripetal force perpendicular to the local Earth surface, and is thus described by a cosine law: the closer to the Equator, the stronger the effect. The same gravimeter is used again, its internal weight has a mass of 10,000 grams. Calculating the weight reduction when stationary with respect to the Earth: An object located

neg: Coriolis frequency Coriolis frequency The Coriolis frequency "ƒ", also called the Coriolis parameter or Coriolis coefficient, is equal to twice the rotation rate "Ω" of the Earth multiplied by the sine of the latitude "φ". The rotation rate of the Earth ("Ω" = 7.2921 × 10 rad/s) can be calculated as 2"π" / "T" radians per second, where "T" is the rotation period of the Earth which is one "sidereal" day (23 hr 56 m 4.1 s). In the midlatitudes, the typical value for formula_2 is about 10 rad/s. Inertial oscillations on the surface of the earth have this frequency. These oscillations

neg: Rocket Tsiolkovsky rocket equation: where: When launched from the Earth practical delta-vs for a single rockets carrying payloads can be a few km/s. Some theoretical designs have rockets with delta-vs over 9 km/s. The required delta-v can also be calculated for a particular manoeuvre; for example the delta-v to launch from the surface of the Earth to Low earth orbit is about 9.7 km/s, which leaves the vehicle with a sideways speed of about 7.8 km/s at an altitude of around 200 km. In this manoeuvre about 1.9 km/s is lost in air drag, gravity drag and gaining altitude. The ratio

neg: Overburden pressure in practice for most near-surface applications which require an assessment of lithostatic pressure. In deep-earth geophysics/geodynamics, gravitational acceleration varies significantly over depth and "g" may not be assumed to be constant. This should be compared with the equivalent concept of hydrostatic pressure in hydrodynamics. Overburden pressure Overburden pressure, also called lithostatic pressure, confining pressure or vertical stress, is the pressure or stress imposed on a layer of soil or rock by the weight of overlying material. The Oxford Dictionary of Earth Sciences describes 'confining pressure' as "the combined hydrostatic stress and lithostatic stress; i.e. the total weight of the interstitial

neg: Gravity of Earth the Earth's surface because greater altitude means greater distance from the Earth's centre. All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to causes a weight decrease of about 0.29%. (An additional factor affecting apparent weight is the decrease in air density at altitude, which lessens an object's buoyancy. This would increase a person's apparent weight at an altitude of 9,000 metres by about 0.08%) It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of , equivalent to a

neg: Exkluziv Joker non-structural fibreglass cockpit fairing, tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from bolted-together aluminum tubing, with its double surface wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. The Bautek Pico S "topless" wing has a span of , is supported by struts and uses an "A" frame weight-shift control bar. The powerplant is a four-cylinder, air and liquid-cooled, four-stroke, dual-ignition Rotax 912S engine or a twin cylinder, air-cooled, two-stroke, dual-ignition Hirth 2703 engine. The aircraft has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . With

neg: Land is approximately which is about 29.2% of its total surface. Water covers approximately 70.8% of Earth's surface, mainly in the form of oceans and ice formations. Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the world by a supernatural deity or deities, including accounts wherein the land is separated from the oceans and the air. The Earth itself has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures, the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. To the Aztecs, Earth was called "Tonantzin"—"our mother"; to the Incas, Earth was called

neg: Ballistic missile the world's heaviest payloads are the Russian SS-18 and Chinese CSS-4 and Russia is developing a new heavy-lift, liquid-propellant ICBM called the Sarmat. Throw-weight is normally calculated using an optimal ballistic trajectory from one point on the surface of the Earth to another. An optimal trajectory maximizes the total payload (throw-weight) using the available impulse of the missile. By reducing the payload weight, different trajectories can be selected which either extends the nominal range, or decreases the total time in flight. A depressed trajectory is a non-optimal, lower and flatter trajectory which takes less time between launch and impact, but

neg: Gravity of Earth Gravity of Earth The gravity of Earth, denoted by , is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect of gravitation (from distribution of mass within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's rotation). In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (in symbols, m/s or m·s) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg). Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s, which means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about 9.8 metres per second every

neg: AGM-28 Hound Dog fighters compared to the SAMs. A missile with these capabilities was called for in General Operational Requirement 148, which was released on March 15, 1956, known as WS-131B. GOR 148 called for a supersonic air-to-surface cruise missile with a weight of not more than (fully fueled and armed) to be carried in pairs by the B-52 Stratofortress. Each B-52 would carry two of the missiles, one under each wing, on a pylon located between the B-52's fuselage and its inboard pair of engines. Both Chance Vought and North American Aviation submitted GAM-77 proposals to the USAF in July 1957, and

neg: Daniel W. Bursch first night landing at the Kennedy Space Center. Mission duration was 236 hours and 11 minutes. STS-68, Space Radar Lab-2 (SRL-2), launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on September 30, 1994. As part of NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth, SRL-2 was the second flight of three advanced radars called SIR-C/X-SAR (Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar), and a carbon-monoxide pollution sensor, MAPS (Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites). SIR-C/X-SAR and MAPS operated together in "Endeavour"s cargo bay to study Earth’s surface and atmosphere, creating radar images of Earth’s surface environment and mapping global production and transport of carbon monoxide

neg: Reaction (physics) (ignoring all other celestial bodies for the moment) is to say that they both orbit around the center of mass, referred to in astronomy as the barycenter, of the combined system. Any mass on earth is pulled down by the gravitational force of the earth; this force is also called its weight. The corresponding 'reaction' is the gravitational force that mass exerts on the planet. If the object is supported so that it remains at rest, for instance by a cable from which it is hanging, or by a surface underneath, or by a liquid on which it is floating,

neg: Proper acceleration all such accelerated coordinate systems, in a manner somewhat like the weight produced by the "force of gravity" in systems where objects are fixed in space with regard to the gravitating body (as on the surface of the Earth). The total (mechanical) force that is calculated to induce the proper acceleration on a mass at rest in a coordinate system that has a proper acceleration, via Newton's law F = "m" a, is called the proper force. As seen above, the proper force is equal to the opposing reaction force that is measured as an object's "operational weight" (i.e. its

neg: Atmosphere of Earth Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation). By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water

neg: Planetary surface to humans as it the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of Earth and the Moon. The vast distances and complexities of space makes direct exploration of even near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via space probes. Indirect observations by flyby or orbit currently provide insufficient information to confirm the composition and properties of planetary surfaces. Much of what is known is from the use of

neg: Kármán line full weight equals orbital velocity (assuming wing loading of a typical airplane). In practice, supporting full weight wouldn't be necessary to maintain altitude because the curvature of the Earth adds centrifugal lift as the airplane reaches orbital speed. However, the Kármán line definition ignores this effect because orbital velocity is implicitly sufficient to maintain any altitude regardless of atmospheric density. The Kármán line is therefore the highest altitude at which orbital speed provides sufficient aerodynamic lift to fly in a straight line that doesn't follow the curvature of the Earth's surface. Above 100 kilometers the air density is about 1/2,200,000

neg: Colonization of Venus a lifting gas in the dense carbon dioxide atmosphere, with over 60% of the lifting power that helium has on Earth. In effect, a balloon full of human-breathable air would sustain itself and extra weight (such as a colony) in midair. At an altitude of above the Venerian surface, the environment is the most Earth-like in the Solar System – a pressure of approximately 1 atm or 1000 hPa and temperatures in the range. Protection against cosmic radiation would be provided by the atmosphere above, with shielding mass equivalent to Earth's. At the top of the clouds the wind speed

neg: Space architecture unadorned is called truth to materials. A notable difference between the orbital context of space architecture and Earth-based architecture is that structures in orbit do not need to support their own weight. This is possible because of the microgravity condition of objects in free fall. In fact much space hardware, such as the space shuttle's robotic arm, is designed only to function in orbit and wouldn't be able to lift its own weight on the Earth's surface. Microgravity also allows an astronaut to move an object of practically any mass, albeit slowly, provided he or she is adequately constrained to

neg: 1st Experimental Guided Missiles Group telemetering and optical tracking facilities, and as a target for new surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles (ironically fulfilling the former V1's covername, "Flakzielgerät" — anti-aircraft target device). The JB-2 project used the North American Aviation NATIV (North American Test Instrument Vehicle) Blockhouse and two launch ramps at Holloman: a , two-rail ramp on a 3° earth-filled slope, and a trailer ramp. The 40-foot trailer ramp was the first step toward a system which would eventually be adapted for the forthcoming Martin MGM-1 Matador, first operational surface-to-surface cruise missile built by the United States. The program at Holloman was terminated on 10

neg: Geochemical cycle erupts onto the surface of the Earth. This molten rock magma then cools and crystallizes, forming igneous rocks. If crystallization occurs at the Earth´s surface, extrusive igneous rocks are formed; if crystallization occurs within the Earth´s lithosphere, intrusive igneous rocks are formed which can then be brought to Earth´s surface by denudation. Categories and examples of geochemical cycles: Geochemical cycle In Earth science, a geochemical cycle is the pathway that chemical elements take in the surface and crust of the Earth. The term "geochemical" tells us that geological and chemical factors are all included. The migration of heated and compressed

neg: Mass versus weight the same weight-force is distributed to the surface of the Earth as when the plane was on the runway, but spread over a larger area. A better scientific definition of mass is its description as being composed of inertia, which is the resistance of an object being accelerated when acted on by an external force. Gravitational "weight" is the force created when a mass is acted upon by a gravitational field and the object is not allowed to free-fall, but is supported or retarded by a mechanical force, such as the surface of a planet. Such a force constitutes weight.

neg: Free fall everyday speech, and in the skydiving community. It is not clear, though, whether the more recent sport of wingsuit flying fits under the definition of free fall skydiving. Near the surface of the Earth, an object in free fall in a vacuum will accelerate at approximately 9.8 m/s, independent of its mass. With air resistance acting on an object that has been dropped, the object will eventually reach a terminal velocity, which is around 53 m/s (195 km/h or 122 mph) for a human skydiver. The terminal velocity depends on many factors including mass, drag coefficient, and relative surface area

neg: Schiaparelli EDM lander failure modes of the landing technology employed. Note about masses: on the Mars surface the gravity is less than on Earth, so the weight is 37% of the Earth weight. At one point, Roscosmos offered to contribute a 100 watt radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) power source for the EDM lander to allow it to monitor the local surface environment for a full Martian year, but because of complex Russian export control procedures, it later opted for the use of a non-rechargeable electric battery with enough power for 2 to 8 sols. Solar panels were also considered when a longer mission

neg: Eötvös effect taken into account. At the equator, the velocity of Earth's surface is about 465 meters per second. The amount of centripetal force required to cause an object to move along a circular path with a radius of 6378 kilometres (the Earth's equatorial radius), at 465 m/s, is about 0.034 newtons per kilogram of mass. For a 10,000-gram internal weight, that amounts to about 0.34 newtons. The amount of suspension force required is the mass of the internal weight (multiplied by the acceleration of gravity) minus those 0.34 newtons. In other words: any object co-rotating with the Earth at the equator

neg: Berkeley Earth Berkeley Earth Berkeley Earth is a Berkeley, California based independent 501(c)(3) non-profit focused on land temperature data analysis for climate science. Berkeley Earth was founded in early 2010 (originally called the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project) with the goal of addressing the major concerns from outside the scientific community regarding global warming and the instrumental temperature record. The project's stated aim was a "transparent approach, based on data analysis." In February 2013, Berkeley Earth became an independent non-profit. In August 2013, Berkeley Earth was granted 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status by the US government. The primary product is air temperatures over land,

neg: Atmosphere of Earth from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day. Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation). By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04%

neg: Highest temperature recorded on Earth Highest temperature recorded on Earth According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the highest registered air temperature on Earth was in Furnace Creek Ranch, California, located in the Death Valley desert in the United States, on July 10, 1913. The WMO itself admits that "[a]fter examining the temperature record in detail, [it was] noted that this temperature may be the result of a sandstorm that occurred at the time. Such a storm may have caused superheated surface materials to hit upon the temperature in the shelter" - what would mean the recording did not refer to air temperature. Weather historians

neg: Urban thermal plume far greater impact at higher latitudes (above 40°N and above 40°S), where the Earth-atmosphere system undergoes net "cooling" by radiation. Urban thermal plume An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas. Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island (UHI), but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air, or ‘thermal plumes’ that they produce. We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside

neg: Specific energy MJ/kg, yielding a total of 2655 MJ/kg with a speed of 72.9 km/s. Since the equator is moving at about 0.5 km/s, the impact speed has an upper limit of 73.4 km/s, giving an upper limit for the specific energy of a comet hitting the earth of about 2690 MJ/kg. If the Hale-Bopp comet (50 km in diameter) had hit the earth, it would have vaporized the oceans and sterilized the surface of the earth. Specific energy Specific energy is energy per unit mass. (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means energy per unit

neg: Trike Icaros Adventure S aircraft is made from bolted-together aluminum tubing, with its single surface wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. Its span Trike Icaros Millenium wing is supported by a single tube-type kingpost and uses an "A" frame weight-shift control bar. The seat assembly tilts and has an under-seat baggage compartment. The powerplant is a four-cylinder, air and liquid-cooled, four-stroke, dual-ignition Rotax 912UL engine. The aircraft has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . With full fuel of the payload is . A number of different wings can be fitted to the basic carriage, including

neg: Aeros ANT optionally double surface wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. The wing is supported by a single tube-type kingpost and uses an "A" frame weight-shift control bar. The powerplant is a single-cylinder, air-cooled, two-stroke, single-ignition Cors-Air M25Y engine, normally used for powered paragliders. The Cors-Air M25Y engine is equipped with a clutch that allows the propeller to stop at idle engine speeds. A Bailey engine is optional. With the Cors-Air engine and a single surface wing, the ANT has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . With full fuel of the payload is

neg: Eötvös effect then the weight of the airship is not the same as when the airship is stationary with respect to the Earth. If an airship has an eastward velocity, then the airship is in a sense "speeding". The situation is comparable to a racecar on a banked circuit with an extremely slippery road surface. If the racecar is going too fast then the car will drift wide. For an airship in flight that means a reduction of the weight, compared to the weight when stationary with respect to the Earth. If the airship has a westward velocity then the situation is

neg: Mel Chin in Nashville, Tennessee. Shortly after, in 1976, Chin created "See/Saw: The Earthworks" for Hermann Park in Houston, Texas, where the artist manipulated two sections of the park’s surface to create a kinetic, minimalist earthwork. In this mimic of a childhood pastime, Chin altered the landscape with an underground hydraulic device that allowed the participant to shift large sections of earth with their body weight. The title also questions psychological perception of what is above and below an object's surface. This piece addressed three of the major art trends of the time: minimalism, conceptualism, and earthworks. In 1983, Chin moved to

neg: Ski geometry the waist is in the air. Without camber, when the skier's weight is applied at the waist, the weight would be distributed on the surface closest to the foot, diminishing along the length. Camber distributes weight onto the tips and tails, extending the surface area bearing the skier's weight, and thereby improving the amount of ski edge in contact with the surface. The technique was first introduced by ski makers in Telemark, Norway, and remained largely unchanged through the 20th century. Today alpine skis often feature a combination of rocker and camber. This is often subtle, with natural camber at

neg: Land effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much solar radiation reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and precipitation on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes condensation and precipitation. Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary albedo and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected

neg: Mass versus weight unit of mass. The object's weight will be less on Mars (where gravity is weaker), more on Saturn, and negligible in space when far from any significant source of gravity, but it will always have the same mass. Objects on the surface of the Earth have weight, although sometimes this weight is difficult to measure. An example is a small object floating in water, which does not appear to have weight since it is buoyed by the water; but it is found to have its usual weight when it is added to water in a container which is entirely supported

neg: In situ resource utilization have return delta-v's from their surfaces to LEO which are less than the return from the Moon. Ceres is further out than Mars, with a higher delta-v, but launch windows and travel times are better, and the surface gravity is just 0.028 g, with a very low escape velocity of 510 m/s. Researchers have speculated that the interior configuration of Ceres includes a water-ice-rich mantle over a rocky core. Near Earth Asteroids and bodies in the asteroid belt could also be sources of raw materials for ISRU. Proposals have been made for "mining" for rocket propulsion, using what is called

neg: Reaction rate are formed, the IUPAC recommends the use of the terms rate of appearance and rate of disappearance for products and reactants, properly. Reaction rates may also be defined on a basis that is not the volume of the reactor. When a catalyst is used the reaction rate may be stated on a catalyst weight (mol g s) or surface area (mol m s) basis. If the basis is a specific catalyst site that may be rigorously counted by a specified method, the rate is given in units of s and is called a turnover frequency. For example, coal burns in

neg: Northern Hemisphere Earth tend to turn to the right because of the coriolis effect. As a result, large-scale horizontal flows of air or water tend to form clockwise-turning gyres. These are best seen in ocean circulation patterns in the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. For the same reason, flows of air down toward the northern surface of the Earth tend to spread across the surface in a clockwise pattern. Thus, clockwise air circulation is characteristic of high pressure weather cells in the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely, air rising from the northern surface of the Earth (creating a region of low pressure) tends

neg: Free fall all objects experience the same acceleration due to gravity. (On the Moon, the gravitational acceleration is much less than on Earth, approximately 1.63 m/s.) This is the "textbook" case of the vertical motion of an object falling a small distance close to the surface of a planet. It is a good approximation in air as long as the force of gravity on the object is much greater than the force of air resistance, or equivalently the object's velocity is always much less than the terminal velocity (see below). where This case, which applies to skydivers, parachutists or any body of

neg: Atmosphere of Venus They actually move at only a few kilometres per hour (generally less than 2 m/s and with an average of 0.3 to 1.0 m/s), but due to the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, this is still enough to transport dust and small stones across the surface, much like a slow-moving current of water. All winds on Venus are ultimately driven by convection. Hot air rises in the equatorial zone, where solar heating is concentrated, and flows to the poles. Such an almost-planetwide overturning of the troposphere is called Hadley circulation. However, the meridional air motions are much

neg: Wind prevailing winds range in speed from along the equator to at the poles. At 70° S latitude on Neptune, a high-speed jet stream travels at a speed of . The fastest wind on any known planet is on HD 80606 b located 190 light years away, where it blows at more than 11,000 mph or 5 km/s. Wind Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space,

neg: Thrust-to-weight ratio formula_3 is propulsive efficiency (typically 0.8), formula_4 is the engine's shaft horsepower, and formula_5is true airspeed in feet per second. The thrust-to-weight ratio of a rocket, or rocket-propelled vehicle, is an indicator of its acceleration expressed in multiples of gravitational acceleration g. Rockets and rocket-propelled vehicles operate in a wide range of gravitational environments, including the "weightless" environment. The thrust-to-weight ratio is usually calculated from initial gross weight at sea-level on earth and is sometimes called "Thrust-to-Earth-weight ratio". The thrust-to-Earth-weight ratio of a rocket or rocket-propelled vehicle is an indicator of its acceleration expressed in multiples of earth’s gravitational acceleration,

neg: Hygrometer dynasty in Ancient China to study weather. The Chinese used a bar of charcoal and a lump of earth: its dry weight was taken, then compared with its damp weight after being exposed in the air. The differences in weight were used to tally the humidity level. Other techniques were applied using mass to measure humidity, such as when the air was dry, the bar of charcoal would be light, while when the air was humid, the bar of charcoal would be heavy. By hanging a lump of earth and a bar of charcoal on the two ends of a

neg: Balanced flow particular time. Such values represent the weight of the air column overhead without indicating the details of the changes of the air's specific weight overhead. Also, by Bernoulli's theorem, the measured pressure is not exactly the weight of the air column, should significant vertical motion of air occur. Thus, the pressure force acting on individual parcels of air at different heights is not really known through the measured values. When using information from a surface-pressure chart in balanced-flow formulations, the forces are best viewed as applied to the entire air column. One difference of air speed in every air column

neg: Super-Earth the relevant planet what the structural composition is. For Gliese 876 d, calculations range from 9,200 km (1.4 Earth radii) for a rocky planet and very large iron core to 12,500 km (2.0 Earth radii) for a watery and icy planet. Within this range of radii the super-Earth Gliese 876 d would have a surface gravity between 1.9g and 3.3g (19 and 32 m/s). However, this planet is not known to transit its host star. The limit between rocky planets and planets with a thick gaseous envelope is calculated with theoretical models. Calculating the effect of the active XUV saturation

neg: Root race island called the "white island" in the middle of what was then an inland sea in what is now the Gobi desert, where they established the "City of the Bridge". (The "City of the Bridge" was constructed directly below the etheric city called Shamballa where Theosophists believe the governing deity of Earth, Sanat Kumara, dwells; thus, the ongoing evolution of the Aryan root race has been divinely guided by the being Theosophists call "The Lord of the World".) The esoteric name of the whole of the present land surface of Earth, i.e. the World Island, the Americas, the Australian continent

neg: Barometer thought (especially by the Aristotelians) that the air did not have weight: that is, that the kilometers of air above the surface did not exert any weight on the bodies below it. Even Galileo had accepted the weightlessness of air as a simple truth. Torricelli questioned that assumption, and instead proposed that air had weight and that it was the latter (not the attracting force of the vacuum) which held (or rather, pushed) up the column of water. He thought that the level the water stayed at (c. 10.3 m) was reflective of the force of the air's weight pushing

neg: Geodesy causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates and of volcanism, resisted by the Earth's gravity field. This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography) and the Earth's atmosphere. For this reason, the study of the Earth's gravity field is called physical geodesy. The geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographical features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents and air pressure variations, and continued under the continental masses. The

neg: Crewed Mars rover called MOLAB. One of the ideas for Molab was for it touch down on its wheels, what was called a "rover first" concept. MOLAB had a pressurized cylinder for crews to operate in a shirt-sleeve environment even on an extraterrestrial surface. For options for keeping track of location as the rover moves around Mars include: Navigation on Mars is noted as important issue for human missions to the planet. Celestial navigation, used for over 500 years on Earth, may provide a way of locating on the Mars surface to within about 100 meters (109 yards). Navigation is especially relevant to

neg: Death Valley Moving masses of super-heated air blow through the valley creating extremely high temperatures. The hottest air temperature ever recorded in Death Valley was on July 10, 1913, at Furnace Creek, which is the highest atmospheric temperature ever recorded on earth. During the heat wave that peaked with that record, five consecutive days reached or above. Some meteorologists dispute the accuracy of the 1913 temperature measurement. The highest surface temperature ever recorded in Death Valley was on July 15, 1972, at Furnace Creek, which is the highest ground surface temperature ever recorded on earth, as well as the only recorded surface

neg: Low Earth orbit orbit is about 7.8 km/s, but reduces with increased orbital altitude. Calculated for circular orbit of 200 km it is 7.79 km/s and for 1500 km it is 7.12 km/s. The delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km/s. Atmospheric and gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1.3–1.8 km/s to the launch vehicle delta-v required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around . The pull of gravity in LEO is only slightly less than on the earth's surface. This is because the distance to LEO from the earth's surface is far less than the earth's

neg: Consumptive water use production depends on many factors, especially the irrigation technology. Consumptive water use Consumptive water use is water removed from available supplies without return to a water resource system (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and food preparation that is not returned to a stream, river, or water treatment plant). Evaporation from the surface of the earth into clouds of water in the air which then falls to the ground as "rain" is excluded from this model. Crop consumptive water use is the amount of water transpired during plant growth plus what evaporates from the soil surface and foliage in the

neg: Type 91 surface-to-air missile training equipment. The Type 91 weights at 11.5 kilograms, which is lighter than the Stinger as it has a weight of 15.2 kilograms. Improvements of the Type 91 Kai included missile with image-infra-red seeker, smokeless motor and the capability to have faster shooting and target acquisition and was also improved for the ability to be used at night. An improved version of the Type 91, called the Type 91 Kai, was delivered to replace the original. A vehicle based variant, the Type 93 Surface-to-air missile launcher, has also been developed. This is also made by Toshiba Heavy Industries. The system

neg: Ocean also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster. The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or "waves", are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell. Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans. The gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn,

neg: Gravitational metric system which depends on the gravity of the earth at its position are strictly distinguished. However historically, the kilopond was also called kilogram, and only later the kilogram-mass (today's kilogram) was separated from the kilogram-force (today's kilopond). A kilopond originally referred to the weight of a mass of one kilogram. Since the gravitational acceleration on the surface of the earth can differ, one gets different values for the unit kilopond and its derived units at different locations. To avoid this, the kilopond was first defined at sea-level and a latitude of 45 degrees, since 1902 via the standard gravity of .

neg: Leg raise for support. Due to leverage, the hardest portion of a supine (lying) leg raise is generally the first part when the legs are on the floor, as this is when the femur is parallel with the earth and perpendicular to the pull of gravity. A seated leg raise is halfway between a lying raise and a hanging/suspended/tractioned one. They are done seated on an elevated surface. Usually the hands are placed on the surface (or arm rests) and bear some of the body's weight to lessen the weight borne on the buttocks and increase abdominal recruitment. Leg raises can also

neg: Broad-footed mole that run laterally and vertically up to the surface. The excess earth pushed out of these shafts form distinct volcano-shaped mounds with the older earth towards the outer base and the newer earth towards the core. Shallow surface tunnels are sometimes dug and form a ridge in the soil on the surface. How often exactly these tunnels are used is unknown seeing as they are used irregularly. Up to 12 subspecies of "S. latimanus" have been recognized, but a taxonomic revision published in 2004 recommended the southernmost subspecies, "S. l. anthonyi" (Anthony's Mexican mole) be elevated to full species, and

neg: Mass the Earth or the Moon. This force keeps the object from going into free fall. Weight is the opposing force in such circumstances, and is thus determined by the acceleration of free fall. On the surface of the Earth, for example, an object with a mass of 50 kilograms weighs 491 newtons, which means that 491 newtons is being applied to keep the object from going into free fall. By contrast, on the surface of the Moon, the same object still has a mass of 50 kilograms but weighs only 81.5 newtons, because only 81.5 newtons is required to keep

neg: Mass versus weight Mass versus weight In common usage, the mass of an object is often referred to as its weight, though these are in fact different concepts and quantities. In scientific contexts, mass is the amount of "matter" in an object (though "matter" may be difficult to define), whereas weight is the force exerted on an object by gravity. In other words, an object with a mass of 1.0 kilogram will weigh approximately 9.81 newtons on the surface of the Earth (its mass multiplied by the gravitational field strength), since the newton is a unit of force, while the kilogram is a

neg: Tropical cyclone the temperature of the outflow ([K]), formula_11 is the enthalpy difference between the surface and the overlying air ([J/kg]), and formula_12 and formula_13 are the surface exchange coefficients (dimensionless) of enthalpy and momentum, respectively. The surface-air enthalpy difference is taken as formula_14, where formula_15 is the saturation enthalpy of air at sea surface temperature and sea-level pressure and formula_16 is the enthalpy of boundary layer air overlying the surface. The maximum potential intensity is predominantly a function of the background environment alone (i.e. without a tropical cyclone), and thus this quantity can be used to determine which regions on Earth

neg: Herbert Nitsch dive in June 2012 to . Nitsch worked part-time as a pilot for Tyrolean Airways. Nitsch holds the No-Limits record, the title of "Deepest man on Earth" in which the diver can make use of a weighted sled to descend as far as possible and uses an air-filled balloon to return to the surface. Nitsch set the world record in Spetses, Greece in June 2007 when he descended to , beating his own record of set the previous year. He also held the world record in the Constant Weight event, which is considered by many to be the classic free-diving

neg: Equatorium of the universe. The Equatorium was based on the notion that the stars were on a large sphere, where the earth is right in the middle of it held in place by air. Ptolemy theorized that all of the stars moved around the earth every single day, and the motion of the sun, moon, and planets surrounded it. He believed that each planet moved on a small sphere or circle, called an epicycle, that moved on a larger sphere or circle, called a “deferent” which contains the earth at the center. The epicycle and deferent are the basis of what

neg: History of chemistry to earth was not possible, but that the sediment observed from boiling water came from the container. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. Thus, in 1789, he established the Law of Conservation of Mass, which is also called "Lavoisier's Law." Repeating the experiments of Priestley, he demonstrated that air is composed of two parts, one of which combines with metals to form calxes. In "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" (1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion

neg: Weight a unit of mass. The distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for many practical purposes because the strength of gravity does not vary too much on the surface of the Earth. In a uniform gravitational field, the gravitational force exerted on an object (its weight) is directly proportional to its mass. For example, object A weighs 10 times as much as object B, so therefore the mass of object A is 10 times greater than that of object B. This means that an object's mass can be measured indirectly by its weight, and so, for everyday purposes, weighing (using

neg: Inversion (meteorology) violent thunderstorms. Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates. Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it, e.g., by thermals (convective heat transfer). Given the right conditions, the normal vertical temperature gradient is inverted such that the air is colder near the surface of the Earth. This can occur when, for example, a warmer,

neg: Venera 8 at 09:32 UT in what is now called Vasilisa Region, within 150 km radius of , in sunlight, about 500 km from the morning terminator. The lander mass was 495 kg. The lander continued to send back data for 50 minutes, 11 seconds after landing before failing due to the harsh surface conditions. The probe confirmed the earlier data on the high Venus surface temperature and pressure (470 degrees Celsius, 90 atmospheres) returned by Venera 7, and also measured the light level as being suitable for surface photography, finding it to be similar to the amount of light on Earth

neg: Nike Zeus US Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson attempted to end the fighting and prevent duplication. His solution was to limit the Army to weapons with range, and those involved in surface-to-air defense to only . The memo also placed limits on Army air operations, severely limiting the weight of the aircraft it was allowed to operate. To some degree this simply formalized what had largely already been the case in practice, but Jupiter fell outside the range limits and the Army was forced to hand them to the Air Force. The result was another round of fighting between the two

neg: Coriolis force position 3 the ball returns to the tosser. Straight-line paths are followed because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied. An important case where the Coriolis force is observed involves the rotating Earth together with its atmosphere. The atmosphere rotates in sync with the surface of the earth due to frictional forces between the air molecules of the atmosphere (air viscosity) and the earth's surface which causes the air molecules to be carried along and move in step with the earth's surface. Unless otherwise stated, directions of forces and motion apply

neg: SACI-2 cm long and 40 cm square, with a circular base plate and surrounded by a metal ring, both about 80 cm in diameter. Besides being a technology testbed, it carried four scientific payloads (PLASMEX, MAGNEX, OCRAS and PHOTO), with a total weight of 10 kg, to investigate plasma bubbles in the geomagnetic field, air glow, and anomalous cosmic radiation fluxes. It was meant to circle the Earth on a circular orbit at 750 km altitude, inclined 17.5 ° from the Equator. The spin-stabilized spacecraft carried two S-band communication links (a 2W, 256 kb/ s downlink and 19.2 kbit/s uplink), and

neg: Weight the weight an object would have at a nominal standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s (approx. 32.174 ft/s). However, this calibration is done at the factory. When the scale is moved to another location on Earth, the force of gravity will be different, causing a slight error. So to be highly accurate, and legal for commerce, spring scales must be re-calibrated at the location at which they will be used. A "balance" on the other hand, compares the weight of an unknown object in one scale pan to the weight of standard masses in the other, using a lever mechanism –

neg: Jet force moves the aircraft upward/forward. Weight is the downward force that the lift must overcome to produce upward movement. On earth, weight is fairly easy to calculate: formula_4 In this equation, m represents the mass of the object and g is the acceleration that is produced by gravity. On earth, this value is approximately 9.8 m/s squared. When the force for lift is greater than the force of weight, the aircraft accelerates upwards. To calculate the speed of the vessel due to the jet force itself, analysis of momentum is necessary. Conservation of momentum states the following: formula_5 In this situation,

neg: Surface effect ship Surface effect ship A Surface Effect Ship (SES) or Sidewall Hovercraft is a watercraft that has both an air cushion, like a hovercraft, and twin hulls, like a catamaran. When the air cushion is in use, a small portion of the twin hulls remain in the water. When the air cushion is turned off ("off-cushion" or "hull borne"), the full weight of the vessel is supported by the buoyancy of the twin hulls. The SES has two advantages over a hovercraft for open sea operation: it is more resistant to slipping sideways when acted on by air or sea, and

neg: Geographic coordinate system of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the Equator and to each other. The North Pole is 90° N; the South Pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the Equator, the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The Equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The "longitude" (abbreviation: Long., λ, or lambda) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great

neg: Last Armageddon North America as "A Side Story of Armageddon" in 1995, but the localization was cancelled due to the demise of the Sega CD system. The humans, who breathed the toxin-filled air on Earth's surface, became one with the Earth and kept dissolving. The history of humanity ended and dominion of the planet returned to the demons. These mutant creatures did not depend on oxygen to survive. Therefore, they were able to breathe the air and use the land. Meanwhile, an army of robots wage World War IV against the demons in order to conquer what is now known as "Makai

neg: Horizon would be accurate. However, Earth has an atmosphere of air, whose density and refractive index vary considerably depending on the temperature and pressure. This makes the air refract light to varying extents, affecting the appearance of the horizon. Usually, the density of the air just above the surface of the Earth is greater than its density at greater altitudes. This makes its refractive index greater near the surface than at higher altitudes, which causes light that is travelling roughly horizontally to be refracted downward. This makes the actual distance to the horizon greater than the distance calculated with geometrical formulas.

neg: Satellite temperature measurements of the atmosphere, as demonstrated by theory and direct comparisons with atmospheric temperatures from radiosonde (balloon) profiles. Upwelling radiance is measured at different frequencies; these different frequency bands sample a different weighted range of the atmosphere. The brightness temperature (T) measured by satellite is given by: formula_1 where formula_2 is the surface weight, formula_3 and formula_4 are the temperatures at the surface and at the atmospheric level formula_5 and formula_6 is the atmospheric weighting function. Both the surface and atmospheric weights are dependent on the surface emissivity formula_7, the absorption coefficient formula_8 and the earth incidence angle formula_9; the surface

neg: Common surface features of Mars they do on Earth at times. What seems to happen it that much ice melts, the water goes away, and then the surface cracks and collapses. These exhibit concentric fractures and large pieces of ground that seemed to have been pulled apart. Sites like this may have recently had held liquid water, hence they may be fruitful places to search for evidence of life. In the spring, various shapes appear because frost is disappearing from the surface, exposing the underling dark soil. Also, in some places dust is blown out of in geyser-like eruptions that are sometimes called "spiders." If

neg: Star Blazers: Space Battleship Yamato 2199 military base on Pluto, then started planetary bombardment with modified asteroids called "planet bombs". The planet bombs hampered United Nations efforts to rebuild their space fleet and forced Earth to build underground cities to protect humanity. The planet bombs altered the atmosphere and irradiated the planetary surface, causing the complete destruction of the planet's biosphere. The Gamilas then started what is believed to be their first step in terraforming—preparing the Earth to be inhabited by themselves—by introducing plant life that was lethal to any life on Earth. With mankind facing extinction, the United Nations started planning for a small colony