query: when was the second law of thermodynamics discovered

pos: Second law of thermodynamics law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of thermodynamic theory. Statistical mechanics, classical or quantum, explains the microscopic origin of the law. The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot, who in 1824 showed that there is an upper limit to the efficiency of conversion of heat to work, in a heat engine. The first law of thermodynamics provides the basic definition of internal energy, associated with all thermodynamic systems, and states the rule of conservation of energy. The second law is concerned with

pos: Second law of thermodynamics law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of thermodynamic theory. Statistical mechanics, classical or quantum, explains the microscopic origin of the law. The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot, who in 1824 showed that there is an upper limit to the efficiency of conversion of heat to work, in a heat engine. The first law of thermodynamics provides the basic definition of internal energy, associated with all thermodynamic systems, and states the rule of conservation of energy. The second law is concerned with

pos: Second law of thermodynamics first law of thermodynamics by extracting the massive internal energy of the environment as the power of the machine. Such a machine is called a "perpetual motion machine of the second kind". The second law declared the impossibility of such machines. Carnot's theorem (1824) is a principle that limits the maximum efficiency for any possible engine. The efficiency solely depends on the temperature difference between the hot and cold thermal reservoirs. Carnot's theorem states: In his ideal model, the heat of caloric converted into work could be reinstated by reversing the motion of the cycle, a concept subsequently known as

pos: Laws of thermodynamics of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws. By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his

pos: Second law of thermodynamics a process to be spontaneous. This is the most useful form of the second law of thermodynamics in chemistry, where free-energy changes can be calculated from tabulated enthalpies of formation and standard molar entropies of reactants and products. The chemical equilibrium condition at constant "T" and "p" without electrical work is d"G" = 0. The first theory of the conversion of heat into mechanical work is due to Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. He was the first to realize correctly that the efficiency of this conversion depends on the difference of temperature between an engine and its environment. Recognizing

pos: Entropy (arrow of time) themselves as described above would appear unrealistic and one would be inclined to say that the movie was being played in reverse. See Boltzmann's Second Law as a law of disorder. The mathematics behind the "arrow of time", entropy, and basis of the second law of thermodynamics derive from the following set-up, as detailed by Carnot (1824), Clapeyron (1832), and Clausius (1854): Here, as common experience demonstrates, when a hot body "T", such as a furnace, is put into physical contact, such as being connected via a body of fluid (working body), with a cold body "T", such as a

neg: Quantum thermodynamics third law of thermodynamics both originally were stated by Walther Nernst. The first formulation is known as the Nernst heat theorem, and can be phrased as: The second formulation is dynamical, known as the "unattainability principle" At steady state the second law of thermodynamics implies that the total entropy production is non-negative. When the cold bath approaches the absolute zero temperature, it is necessary to eliminate the entropy production divergence at the cold side when formula_52, therefore For formula_54 the fulfillment of the second law depends on the entropy production of the other baths, which should compensate for the negative

neg: Black hole thermodynamics of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy in an isolated system will be greater than or equal to 0 for a spontaneous process, suggesting a link between entropy and the area of a black-hole horizon. However, this version violates the second law of thermodynamics by matter losing (its) entropy as it falls in, giving a decrease in entropy. However, generalizing the second law as the sum of black-hole entropy and outside entropy, shows that the second law of thermodynamics is not violated in a system including the universe beyond the horizon. The generalized second law of thermodynamics (GSL) was

neg: Laws of thermodynamics memoir "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids", clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics. Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently. In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases. Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law. Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted. Laws of thermodynamics The four laws of thermodynamics define fundamental

neg: Harold J. Morowitz have discovered a "fourth law of thermodynamics" when, in 1968, he found that, "in steady state systems, the flow of energy through the system from a source to a sink will lead to at least one cycle in the system." Eric D. Schneider, for example, says, "Morowitz's cycling theorem is the best candidate for a fourth law of thermodynamics." Morowitz's book "Energy Flow in Biology" laid out his central thesis that "the energy that flows through a system acts to organize that system," an insight later quoted on the inside front cover of "The Last Whole Earth Catalog". He was

neg:
Ginsberg's theorem The "theorem" is given as a restatement of the consequences of the zeroth, first, second, and third laws of thermodynamics, with regard to the usable energy of a closed system: 0. There is a game (consequence of zeroth law of thermodynamics)
 1. You can't win. (consequence of first law of thermodynamics)
 2. You can't break even. (consequence of second law of thermodynamics)
 3. You can't even get out of the game. (consequence of third law of thermodynamics)
 It is sometimes stated as a general adage without specific reference to the laws of thermodynamics. Ginsberg's theorem Ginsberg's theorem is a parody

neg: Second law of thermodynamics of any particular reference thermometric body. The second law of thermodynamics may be expressed in many specific ways, the most prominent classical statements being the statement by Rudolf Clausius (1854), the statement by Lord Kelvin (1851), and the statement in axiomatic thermodynamics by Constantin Carathéodory (1909). These statements cast the law in general physical terms citing the impossibility of certain processes. The Clausius and the Kelvin statements have been shown to be equivalent. The historical origin of the second law of thermodynamics was in Carnot's principle. It refers to a cycle of a Carnot heat engine, fictively operated in the

neg: Entropy (arrow of time) unburnt wood and froze itself in the process. Surprisingly, in either case the vast majority of the laws of physics are not broken by these processes, a notable exception is the second law of thermodynamics. When a law of physics applies equally when time is reversed it is said to show T-symmetry, in this case entropy is what allows one to decide if the video described above is playing forwards or in reverse as intuitively we identify that only when played forwards the entropy of the scene is increasing. Because of the second law of thermodynamics entropy prevents macroscopic processes

neg: Zeroth law of thermodynamics that the existence of heat and temperature are needed as coherent primitive concepts for thermodynamics, as expressed, for example, by Maxwell and Planck. On the other hand, Planck in 1926 clarified how the second law can be stated without reference to heat or temperature, by referring to the irreversible and universal nature of friction in natural thermodynamic processes. According to Arnold Sommerfeld, Ralph H. Fowler invented the title 'the zeroth law of thermodynamics' when he was discussing the 1935 text of Saha and Srivastava. They write on page 1 that "every physical quantity must be measurable in numerical terms". They

neg: Thermodynamics systems that are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that non-equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production. In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy transfer; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness of molecular chaos. There are many versions of the second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to explain the phenomenon of irreversibility in nature. The third law of thermodynamics is a

neg: Joseph Henry Keenan the Properties of Steam; he served as delegate in all successive conferences on this subject through the eighth in 1974. In 1965, he published the classic textbook "Principles of General Thermodynamics" with George Hatsopoulos which was major turning point in thermodynamics since Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall with their 1923 "Thermodynamics" textbook. Their now famous version of the second law of thermodynamics is: This shows that the second law of thermodynamics can be stated in terms of the existence of stable equilibrium states. He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Society

neg: Second law of thermodynamics the second law of thermodynamics, and remains valid today. It states The efficiency of a quasi-static or reversible Carnot cycle depends only on the temperatures of the two heat reservoirs, and is the same, whatever the working substance. A Carnot engine operated in this way is the most efficient possible heat engine using those two temperatures. The German scientist Rudolf Clausius laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by examining the relation between heat transfer and work. His formulation of the second law, which was published in German in 1854, is known as the "Clausius statement":

neg: Maxwell's demon the demon, and derive further properties of the demon from this assumption, including the necessity of consuming energy when erasing information, etc. It would therefore be circular to invoke these derived properties to defend the second law from the demonic argument. Bennett later acknowledged the validity of Earman and Norton's argument, while maintaining that Landauer's principle explains the mechanism by which real systems do not violate the second law of thermodynamics. Although the argument by Landauer and Bennett only answers the consistency between the second law of thermodynamics and the whole cyclic process of the entire system of a Szilard

neg: Quantum thermodynamics second law of thermodynamics can be interpreted as quantifying state transformations which are statistically unlikely so that they become effectively forbidden. The second law typically applies to systems composed of many particles interacting; Quantum thermodynamics resource theory is a formulation of thermodynamics in the regime where it can be applied to a small number of particles interacting with a heat bath. For processes which are cyclic or very close to cyclic, the second law for microscopic systems takes on a very different form than it does at the macroscopic scale, imposing not just one constraint on what state transformations are

neg: Second law of thermodynamics the "Kelvin-Planck statement" of the law, as for example in the text by ter Haar and Wergeland. The Kelvin–Planck statement (or the "heat engine statement") of the second law of thermodynamics states that Planck stated the second law as follows. Rather like Planck's statement is that of Uhlenbeck and Ford for "irreversible phenomena". Constantin Carathéodory formulated thermodynamics on a purely mathematical axiomatic foundation. His statement of the second law is known as the Principle of Carathéodory, which may be formulated as follows: In every neighborhood of any state S of an adiabatically enclosed system there are states inaccessible from S.

neg: Laws of thermodynamics of entropy that when two bodies initially of different temperatures come into thermal connection, then heat always flows from the hotter body to the colder one. The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law. According to the second law of thermodynamics, in a theoretical and fictive reversible heat transfer, an element of heat transferred, "δQ", is the product of the temperature ("T"), both of the system and of the

neg: Second law of thermodynamics with thermodynamic entropy properly defined for the second law. These other quantities indeed belong to statistical mechanics, not to thermodynamics, the primary realm of the second law. Even though the applicability of the second law of thermodynamics is limited for non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing such systems are still being discussed. One of the guiding principles for systems which are far from equilibrium is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that a system away from equilibrium evolves in such a way as to maximize entropy production, given present constraints. The physics of macroscopically observable fluctuations is beyond the scope

neg: Temperature thermodynamics: "All diathermal walls are equivalent." Thus the present definition of thermodynamic temperature rests on the zeroth law of thermodynamics. Explicitly, this present definition of thermodynamic temperature also rests on the first law of thermodynamics, for the determination of amounts of energy transferred as heat. Implicitly for this definition, the second law of thermodynamics provides information that establishes the virtuous character of the temperature so defined. It provides that any working substance that complies with the requirement stated in this definition will lead to the same ratio of thermodynamic temperatures, which in this sense is universal, or absolute. The second

neg: George N. Hatsopoulos the existence of stable equilibrium states. Their formulation of the second law of thermodynamics states that: The Hatsopoulos-Keenan statement of the Second Law entails the Clausius, Kelvin-Planck, and Carathéodory statements of the Second Law, and has provided a basis to extend the traditional definition of entropy to the non-equilibrium domain. In 1976, Hatsopoulos also contributed to a formulation of a unified theory of mechanics and thermodynamics, arguably a precursor of the emerging field of quantum thermodynamics. While at MIT, Hatsopoulos was head of the Engineering Division of Matrad Corporation (New York). Matrad Corporation and MIT financially supported his doctoral thesis,

neg: Temperature relevant coordinates are fixed. An exceptionally suitable system is the ideal gas, which can provide a temperature scale that matches the absolute Kelvin scale. The Kelvin scale is defined on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. In the previous section certain properties of temperature were expressed by the zeroth law of thermodynamics. It is also possible to define temperature in terms of the second law of thermodynamics which deals with entropy. The second law states that any process will result in either no change or a net increase in the entropy of the universe. This can be understood

neg: Perpetual motion times. Modern designers and proponents often use other terms, such as "over unity", to describe their inventions. There is a scientific consensus that perpetual motion in an isolated system violates either the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, or both. The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy. The second law can be phrased in several different ways, the most intuitive of which is that heat flows spontaneously from hotter to colder places; relevant here is that the law observes that in every macroscopic process, there is friction or something

neg: Cyclic model cyclic model for the universe as an (everlasting) alternative to the model of an expanding universe. However, work by Richard C. Tolman in 1934 showed that these early attempts failed because of the cyclic problem: according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, entropy can only increase. This implies that successive cycles grow longer and larger. Extrapolating back in time, cycles before the present one become shorter and smaller culminating again in a Big Bang and thus not replacing it. This puzzling situation remained for many decades until the early 21st century when the recently discovered dark energy component provided new

neg: Entropy and life it to every part of the body, as discovered by William Harvey, that “acts like the piston of an engine and is dependent upon and consequently due to the cycle of nutrition and excretion which sustains physical or organic life.” It is likely, here, that McCulloch was modeling parts of this argument on that of the famous Carnot cycle. In conclusion, he summarizes his first and second law argument as such: In the 1944 book "What is Life?", Nobel-laureate physicist Erwin Schrödinger theorizes that life, contrary to the general tendency dictated by the Second law of thermodynamics, decreases or maintains

neg: Second law of thermodynamics Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease over time. The total entropy of a system and its surroundings can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, or is undergoing a (fictive) reversible process. In all processes that occur, including spontaneous processes, the total entropy of the system and its surroundings increases and the process is irreversible in the thermodynamic sense. The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes, and the asymmetry between future and past. Historically, the second

neg: Second law of thermodynamics limiting mode of extreme slowness known as quasi-static, so that the heat and work transfers are between subsystems that are always in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The Carnot engine is an idealized device of special interest to engineers who are concerned with the efficiency of heat engines. Carnot's principle was recognized by Carnot at a time when the caloric theory of heat was seriously considered, before the recognition of the first law of thermodynamics, and before the mathematical expression of the concept of entropy. Interpreted in the light of the first law, it is physically equivalent to

neg: Michele Trancossi second law of thermodynamics for vehicles, increse of energy efficiency of electric and hybrid aircrafts, high energy efficiency container housing with peltier cells based acclimatization for social housing. He also published 24 papers with Bachelor students. Recently, he placed in quescence for developing start-up companies to exploit the ideas produced with bachelor students about fluid dynamic models based on the second law of thermodynamics, a new CFD using Bejan number as dimensionless variable, innovative concepts of drones, to the demonstration of the necessity of open access dissemination of the research and open source software according to second law of thermodynamics.

neg: Fluctuation theorem invalid. The second law of thermodynamics is a statement about macroscopic systems. The FT is more general. It can be applied to both microscopic and macroscopic systems. When applied to macroscopic systems, the FT is equivalent to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. A simple consequence of the fluctuation theorem given above is that if we carry out an arbitrarily large ensemble of experiments from some initial time t=0, and perform an ensemble average of time averages of the entropy production then an exact consequence of the FT is that the ensemble average cannot be negative for any value of the

neg: Exergonic process the surroundings (the external region) during a given process. All physical and chemical systems in the universe follow the second law of thermodynamics and proceed in a downhill, i.e., "exergonic", direction. Thus, left to itself, any physical or chemical system will proceed, according to the second law of thermodynamics, in a direction that tends to lower the free energy of the system, and thus to expend energy in the form of work. These reactions occur spontaneously. A chemical reaction is also exergonic when spontaneous. Thus in this type of reactions the Gibbs free energy decreases. The entropy is included in

neg: Entropy (statistical thermodynamics) second law of thermodynamics: Since its discovery, this idea has been the focus of a great deal of thought, some of it confused. A chief point of confusion is the fact that the Second Law applies only to "isolated" systems. For example, the Earth is not an isolated system because it is constantly receiving energy in the form of sunlight. In contrast, the universe may be considered an isolated system, so that its total entropy is constantly increasing. (Needs clarification. See: Second law of thermodynamics#cite note-Grandy 151-21) In classical statistical mechanics, the number of microstates is actually uncountably infinite, since

neg: Second law of thermodynamics is therefore performing thermodynamic operations on a microscopic scale, not just observing ordinary spontaneous or natural macroscopic thermodynamic processes. Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease over time. The total entropy of a system and its surroundings can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, or is undergoing a (fictive) reversible process. In all processes that occur, including spontaneous processes, the total entropy of the system and its surroundings increases and the process is irreversible in the thermodynamic sense. The increase

neg: Second law of thermodynamics With this formulation, he described the concept of adiabatic accessibility for the first time and provided the foundation for a new subfield of classical thermodynamics, often called geometrical thermodynamics. It follows from Carathéodory's principle that quantity of energy quasi-statically transferred as heat is a holonomic process function, in other words, formula_9. Though it is almost customary in textbooks to say that Carathéodory's principle expresses the second law and to treat it as equivalent to the Clausius or to the Kelvin-Planck statements, such is not the case. To get all the content of the second law, Carathéodory's principle needs to be

neg: Laws of thermodynamics to thermodynamics and were clearly stated in the nineteenth century, the desire to explicitly number the above law was not widely felt until Fowler and Guggenheim did so in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and third law were already widely understood and recognized. Hence it was numbered the zeroth law. The importance of the law as a foundation to the earlier laws is that it allows the definition of temperature in a non-circular way without reference to entropy, its conjugate variable. Such a temperature definition is said to be 'empirical'. The first law of thermodynamics may be stated

neg: T-symmetry T-symmetry T-symmetry or time reversal symmetry is the theoretical symmetry of physical laws under the transformation of time reversal: T-symmetry can be shown to be equivalent to the conservation of entropy, by Noether's Theorem. But as the second law of thermodynamics does not permit entropy to be conserved in general, it follows that the observable universe does not in general show symmetry under time reversal. In other words, time is said to be non-symmetric, or asymmetric, except for special equilibrium states when the second law of thermodynamics predicts the time symmetry to hold. However, quantum noninvasive measurements are predicted to

neg: Gordon Van Wylen Gordon Van Wylen Gordon John Van Wylen (born February 6, 1920) is an American physicist and author of textbooks on thermodynamics. He was chair of the physics department at the University of Michigan from 1969 to 1972 and President of Hope College in Holland, Michigan, from 1972 to 1987. He was born in Grant, Michigan. He received recognition for mentioning "a Creator" in his summation of the second law of thermodynamics. “A final point to be made is that the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of increase in entropy have great philosophical implications. The question that arises is

neg: Loop quantum gravity hole thermodynamics is the area of study that seeks to reconcile the laws of thermodynamics with the existence of black hole event horizons. The no hair conjecture of general relativity states that a black hole is characterized only by its mass, its charge, and its angular momentum; hence, it has no entropy. It appears, then, that one can violate the second law of thermodynamics by dropping an object with nonzero entropy into a black hole. Work by Stephen Hawking and Jacob Bekenstein showed that one can preserve the second law of thermodynamics by assigning to each black hole a "black-hole

neg: Exergy exergy content less than their energy content. The exact proportion of exergy in a substance depends on the amount of entropy relative to the surrounding environment as determined by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Exergy is useful when measuring the efficiency of an energy conversion process. The exergetic, or 2nd Law, efficiency is a ratio of the exergy output divided by the exergy input. This formulation takes into account the quality of the energy, often offering a more accurate and useful analysis than efficiency estimates only using the First Law of Thermodynamics. Work can be extracted also from bodies colder

neg: Relativistic heat conduction is compatible with the first law of thermodynamics, as well as the second law of thermodynamics, in their 4D upgraded form. The imaginary terms in these equations are direct manifestation of the wave nature of heat, and are essential for the heat equation to become compatible with all laws of physics. The real terms in these equations are identical to those in the classical heat model. It has been observed that RHC reduces the second law of thermodynamics to a statement of the form which is the "no action at a distance" principle of special relativity. Essentially, the RHC asserts

neg: Quantum thermodynamics possible, but an entire family of constraints. These second laws are not only relevant for small systems, but also apply to individual macroscopic systems interacting via long-range interactions, which only satisfy the ordinary second law on average. By making precise the definition of thermal operations, the laws of thermodynamics take on a form with the first law defining the class of thermal operations, the zeroth law emerging as a unique condition ensuring the theory is nontrivial, and the remaining laws being a monotonicity property of generalised free energies. Gemmer, Jochen, M. Michel, and Günter Mahler. "Quantum thermodynamics. Emergence of thermodynamic

neg: Exergy "from work", but the concept was developed by J. Willard Gibbs in 1873. Energy is neither created nor destroyed during a process. Energy changes from one form to another ("see First Law of Thermodynamics"). In contrast, exergy is always destroyed when a process is irreversible, for example loss of heat to the environment ("see Second Law of Thermodynamics"). This destruction is proportional to the entropy increase of the system together with its surroundings. The destroyed exergy has been called anergy. For an isothermal process, exergy and energy are interchangeable terms, and there is no anergy. Exergy is a combination property

neg: Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics) hot reservoir. Based on modern thermodynamics, Carnot's theorem is a result of the second law of thermodynamics. Historically, it was based on contemporary caloric theory and preceded the establishment of the second law. The proof of the Carnot theorem is a proof by contradiction, or reductio ad absurdum, as illustrated by the figure showing two heat engines operating between two reservoirs of different temperature. The heat engine with more efficiency (formula_3) is driving a heat engine with less efficiency (formula_4), causing the latter to act as a heat pump. This pair of engines receives no outside energy, and operates solely

neg: Maxwell's demon cool down, thereby decreasing entropy and violating the second law of thermodynamics. This thought experiment has provoked debate and theoretical work on the relation between thermodynamics and information theory extending to the present day, with a number of scientists arguing that theoretical considerations rule out any practical device violating the second law in this way. The thought experiment first appeared in a letter Maxwell wrote to Peter Guthrie Tait on 11 December 1867. It appeared again in a letter to John William Strutt in 1871, before it was presented to the public in Maxwell's 1872 book on thermodynamics titled "Theory

neg: H-theorem H-theorem In classical statistical mechanics, the "H"-theorem, introduced by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872, describes the tendency to decrease in the quantity "H" (defined below) in a nearly-ideal gas of molecules. As this quantity "H" was meant to represent the entropy of thermodynamics, the "H"-theorem was an early demonstration of the power of statistical mechanics as it claimed to derive the second law of thermodynamics—a statement about fundamentally irreversible processes—from reversible microscopic mechanics. It is thought to prove the second law of thermodynamics, albeit under the assumption of low-entropy initial conditions. The "H"-theorem is a natural consequence of the kinetic equation

neg: Biological thermodynamics primarily on photosynthesis. The total energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants from the solar radiation is about 2 x 10 joules of energy per year. Annual energy captured by photosynthesis in green plants is about 4% of the total sunlight energy that reaches Earth. The energy transformations in biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents are exceptions; they oxidize sulfur, obtaining their energy via chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis. The field of biological thermodynamics is focused on principles of chemical thermodynamics in biology and biochemistry. Principles covered include the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, statistical

neg: H-theorem extent that one accepts that the ensemble becomes blurred, then, Gibbs' approach is a cleaner proof of the second law of thermodynamics. H-theorem In classical statistical mechanics, the "H"-theorem, introduced by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872, describes the tendency to decrease in the quantity "H" (defined below) in a nearly-ideal gas of molecules. As this quantity "H" was meant to represent the entropy of thermodynamics, the "H"-theorem was an early demonstration of the power of statistical mechanics as it claimed to derive the second law of thermodynamics—a statement about fundamentally irreversible processes—from reversible microscopic mechanics. It is thought to prove the

neg: Black hole thermodynamics needed to present the second law of thermodynamics as valid. This is because the second law of thermodynamics, as a result of the disappearance of entropy near the exterior of black holes, is not useful. The GSL allows for the application of the law because now the measurement of interior, common entropy is possible. The validity of the GSL can be established by studying an example, such as looking at a system having entropy that falls into a bigger, non-moving black hole, and establishing upper and lower entropy bounds for the increase in the black hole entropy and entropy of

neg: Classical mechanics 1833 by William Rowan Hamilton. Some difficulties were discovered in the late 19th century that could only be resolved by more modern physics. Some of these difficulties related to compatibility with electromagnetic theory, and the famous Michelson–Morley experiment. The resolution of these problems led to the special theory of relativity, often still considered a part of classical mechanics. A second set of difficulties were related to thermodynamics. When combined with thermodynamics, classical mechanics leads to the Gibbs paradox of classical statistical mechanics, in which entropy is not a well-defined quantity. Black-body radiation was not explained without the introduction of quanta.

neg: James Prescott Joule (1850–1922), a daughter, Alice Amelia (1852–1899) and a second son, Henry (born 1854, who died three weeks later). James Prescott Joule James Prescott Joule (; 24 December 1818 11 October 1889) was an English physicist, mathematician and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work (see energy). This led to the law of conservation of energy, which in turn led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named after him. Joule worked with Lord Kelvin to develop an absolute

neg: Ludwig Boltzmann that a systematic (power series) extension of the Boltzmann equation to high densities is mathematically impossible. Consequently, nonequilibrium statistical mechanics for dense gases and liquids focuses on the Green–Kubo relations, the fluctuation theorem, and other approaches instead. The idea that the second law of thermodynamics or "entropy law" is a law of disorder (or that dynamically ordered states are "infinitely improbable") is due to Boltzmann's view of the second law of thermodynamics. In particular, it was Boltzmann's attempt to reduce it to a stochastic collision function, or law of probability following from the random collisions of mechanical particles. Following Maxwell,

neg: Second law of thermodynamics of this article. Thermodynamic Asymmetry in Time The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law that is not symmetric to reversal of the time direction. This does not conflict with notions that have been observed of the fundamental laws of physics, namely CPT symmetry, since the second law applies statistically, it is hypothesized, on time-asymmetric "boundary conditions". The second law has been proposed to supply a partial explanation of the difference between moving forward and backwards in time, such as why the cause precedes the effect (the causal arrow of time). Irreversibility in thermodynamic processes is a consequence of

neg: Black hole This result, now known as the second law of black hole mechanics, is remarkably similar to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the total entropy of a system can never decrease. As with classical objects at absolute zero temperature, it was assumed that black holes had zero entropy. If this were the case, the second law of thermodynamics would be violated by entropy-laden matter entering a black hole, resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe. Therefore, Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy, and that it should be proportional to its

neg: Thermodynamic equilibrium triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring, it is said to be in a metastable equilibrium. Though it is not a widely named law, it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The second law of thermodynamics states that when a body of material starts from an equilibrium state, in which, portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions, and a thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable and it is isolated, then it spontaneously reaches its own new

neg: Fundamental thermodynamic relation zero for a reversible process. If the system has more external parameters than just the volume that can change, the fundamental thermodynamic relation generalizes to Here the formula_19 are the generalized forces corresponding to the external parameters formula_20. The above derivation uses the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics is essentially a definition of heat, i.e. heat is the change in the internal energy of a system that is not caused by a change of the external parameters of the system. However, the second law of thermodynamics is not a defining relation for the entropy.

neg: Thermodynamic equilibrium Classical thermodynamics allows that even though a process may take a very long time to settle to thermodynamic equilibrium, if the main part of its course is at a finite rate, then it is considered to be natural, and to be subject to the second law of thermodynamics, and thereby irreversible. Engineered machines and artificial devices and manipulations are permitted within the surroundings. The allowance of such operations and devices in the surroundings but not in the system is the reason why Kelvin in one of his statements of the second law of thermodynamics spoke of "inanimate" agency; a system

neg: Biological thermodynamics this energy from the sunlight and undergo photosynthesis, effectively converting solar energy into chemical energy. To transfer the energy once again, animals will feed on plants and use the energy of digested plant materials to create biological macromolecules. The biological evolution may be explained through a thermodynamic theory. The four laws of thermodynamics are used to frame the biological theory behind evolution. The first law of thermodynamics states that states that energy can not be created or destroyed. No life can create energy but must obtain it through its environment. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy can be

neg: Second law of thermodynamics often be considered as open systems, because they take in nutrients and give out waste products. Thermodynamics of open systems is currently often considered in terms of passages from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another, or in terms of flows in the approximation of local thermodynamic equilibrium. The problem for living organisms may be further simplified by the approximation of assuming a steady state with unchanging flows. General principles of entropy production for such approximations are subject to unsettled current debate or research. Nevertheless, ideas derived from this viewpoint on the second law of thermodynamics are enlightening about living

neg: Second law of thermodynamics large scale, and consequently it may be difficult or impossible to apply the second law to it. Beyond this, the thermodynamics of systems described by the general theory of relativity is beyond the scope of the present article. The theory of classical or equilibrium thermodynamics is idealized. A main postulate or assumption, often not even explicitly stated, is the existence of systems in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium. In general, a region of space containing a physical system at a given time, that may be found in nature, is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, read in the most stringent

neg: Thermal physics Thermal physics Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory. This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students and functions to provide a general introduction to each of three core heat-related subjects. Other authors, however, define thermal physics loosely as a summation of only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Thermal physics, generally speaking, is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energetic perspective. Starting with the basics of heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the

neg: Second law of thermodynamics the first law of thermodynamics, the change "dU" in the internal energy of the sub-system is the sum of the heat "δq" added to the sub-system, "less" any work "δw" done "by" the sub-system, "plus" any net chemical energy entering the sub-system "d ∑μN", so that: where μ are the chemical potentials of chemical species in the external surroundings. Now the heat leaving the reservoir and entering the sub-system is where we have first used the definition of entropy in classical thermodynamics (alternatively, in statistical thermodynamics, the relation between entropy change, temperature and absorbed heat can be derived); and then

neg: Murphy's law mathematics and senior research investigator at Imperial College London, points out that the law of truly large numbers should lead one to expect the kind of events predicted by Murphy's law to occur occasionally. Selection bias will ensure that those ones are remembered and the many times Murphy's law was not true are forgotten. There have been persistent references to Murphy's law associating it with the laws of thermodynamics from early on (see the quotation from Anne Roe's book above). In particular, Murphy's law is often cited as a form of the second law of thermodynamics (the law of entropy)

neg: Non-equilibrium thermodynamics forces. If free energies are very useful in equilibrium thermodynamics, it must be stressed that there is no general law defining stationary non-equilibrium properties of the energy as is the second law of thermodynamics for the entropy in equilibrium thermodynamics. That is why in such cases a more generalized Legendre transformation should be considered. This is the extended Massieu potential. By definition, the entropy ("S") is a function of the collection of extensive quantities formula_1. Each extensive quantity has a conjugate intensive variable formula_2 (a restricted definition of intensive variable is used here by comparison to the definition given in

neg: Exergy of thermodynamics"), several scientists added mathematical precision to the first and second laws of thermodynamics and developed the concept of entropy. Carnot's focus on processes at the human scale (above the thermodynamic limit) led to the most universally applicable concepts in physics. Entropy and the second-law are applied today in fields ranging from quantum mechanics to physical cosmology. In the 1870s, Josiah Willard Gibbs unified a large quantity of 19th century thermochemistry into one compact theory. Gibbs's theory incorporated the new concept of a chemical potential to cause change when distant from a chemical equilibrium into the older work begun

neg: Laws of thermodynamics in several ways : More specifically, the First Law encompasses several principles: where denotes the amount of energy transferred into the system as heat. Combining these principles leads to one traditional statement of the first law of thermodynamics: it is not possible to construct a machine which will perpetually output work without an equal amount of energy input to that machine. Or more briefly, a perpetual motion machine of the first kind is impossible. The second law of thermodynamics indicates the irreversibility of natural processes, and, in many cases, the tendency of natural processes to lead towards spatial homogeneity of

neg: Chemical thermodynamics chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes: The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics: Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions. The 3 laws of thermodynamics: Chemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances. Breaking or making of chemical bonds involves energy or heat, which may be either absorbed or evolved from

neg: Exergy efficiency nor the second law of thermodynamics includes a measure of the rate of energy transformation. When a measure of the maximal rate of energy transformation is included in the measure of second law efficiency it is known as second law efficiency under maximum power, and directly related to the maximum power principle (Gilliland 1978, p. 101). Exergy efficiency Exergy efficiency (also known as the second-law efficiency or rational efficiency) computes the effectiveness of a system relative to its performance in reversible conditions. It is defined as the ratio of the thermal efficiency of an actual system compared to an idealized

neg: Second law of thermodynamics made by Borgnakke and Sonntag. They do not offer it as a full statement of the second law: Differing from Planck's just foregoing principle, this one is explicitly in terms of entropy change. Removal of matter from a system can also decrease its entropy. The second law has been shown to be equivalent to the internal energy "U" being a weakly convex function, when written as a function of extensive properties (mass, volume, entropy, ...). Before the establishment of the second law, many people who were interested in inventing a perpetual motion machine had tried to circumvent the restrictions of

neg: Clausius theorem we proved the Clausius Theorem. We summarize the following, (the inequality in the third statement below, being obviously guaranteed by the second law of thermodynamics,which is the basis of our calculation), For a reversible cyclic process, there is no generation of entropy in each of the infinitesimal heat transfer processes, and thus we would have the equality Thus, the Clausius inequality is a consequence of applying the second law of thermodynamics at each infinitesimal stage of heat transfer, and is thus in a sense a weaker condition than the Second Law itself. Clausius theorem The Clausius theorem (1855) states that

neg: Arrow of time distinguish between future and past, though measuring entropy does not accurately measure time. Also, in an open system, entropy can decrease with time. British physicist Sir Alfred Brian Pippard wrote, "There is thus no justification for the view, often glibly repeated, that the Second Law of Thermodynamics is only statistically true, in the sense that microscopic violations repeatedly occur, but never violations of any serious magnitude. On the contrary, no evidence has ever been presented that the Second Law breaks down under any circumstances." However, there are a number of paradoxes regarding violation of the second law of thermodynamics, one

neg: Black hole thermodynamics "T" constant for thermal equilibrium for a normal system is analogous to formula_10 constant over the horizon of a stationary black hole. The left side, "dE", is the change in energy (proportional to mass). Although the first term does not have an immediately obvious physical interpretation, the second and third terms on the right side represent changes in energy due to rotation and electromagnetism. Analogously, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation, which contains on its right side the term "T dS". The second law is the statement of Hawking's area theorem. Analogously, the second law

neg: Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics) It follows immediately that Substituting Equation back into Equation gives a relationship for the efficiency in terms of temperature: Since fuel cells and batteries can generate useful power when all components of the system are at the same temperature (formula_34), they are clearly not limited by Carnot's theorem, which states that no power can be generated when formula_35. This is because Carnot's theorem applies to engines converting thermal energy to work, whereas fuel cells and batteries instead convert chemical energy to work. Nevertheless, the second law of thermodynamics still provides restrictions on fuel cell and battery energy conversion. Carnot's theorem

neg: Relativistic heat conduction of the heat flux vector, q, as a function of temperature gradient, into the first law of thermodynamics where the del operator, ∇, is defined in 3D as It can be shown that this definition of the heat flux vector also satisfies the second law of thermodynamics, where "s" is specific entropy and "σ" is entropy production. Alternatively, the second law can be written as which leads to the condition which is always true, because "k" is a non-negative material property. It is well known that the Fourier equation (and the more general Fick's law of diffusion) is incompatible with

neg: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances Sciences" on "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids," and "Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by means of Surfaces." His subsequent and most important publication was "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (in two parts, 1876 and 1878). In this monumental, densely woven, 300-page treatise, the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, the fundamental thermodynamic relation, are applied to the predication and quantification of thermodynamic reaction tendencies in any thermodynamic system in a visual, three-dimensional graphical language of Lagrangian calculus and phase transitions, among others. As stated by Henri Louis Le Chatelier,

neg: Thermodynamics thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated prior and found common acceptance in the physics community. Once the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized, it was impracticable to renumber the other laws, hence it was numbered the "zeroth law". The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. It states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed. The first law is usually formulated by saying that the

neg: Second law of thermodynamics in a presentation at the Philosophical Society of Zurich on April 24, in which, in the end of his presentation, Clausius concludes: The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. This statement is the best-known phrasing of the second law. Because of the looseness of its language, e.g. universe, as well as lack of specific conditions, e.g. open, closed, or isolated, many people take this simple statement to mean that the second law of thermodynamics applies virtually to every subject imaginable. This is not true; this statement is only a simplified version of a more extended and precise description.

neg: Second law of thermodynamics each microstate that the system might be in is equally likely to occur, and when this assumption is made, it leads directly to the conclusion that the second law must hold in a statistical sense. That is, the second law will hold on average, with a statistical variation on the order of 1/ where "N" is the number of particles in the system. For everyday (macroscopic) situations, the probability that the second law will be violated is practically zero. However, for systems with a small number of particles, thermodynamic parameters, including the entropy, may show significant statistical deviations from that

neg: Fluctuation theorem Since then, much mathematical and computational work has been done to show that the FT applies to a variety of statistical ensembles. The first laboratory experiment that verified the validity of the FT was carried out in 2002. In this experiment, a plastic bead was pulled through a solution by a laser. Fluctuations in the velocity were recorded that were opposite to what the second law of thermodynamics would dictate for macroscopic systems. See and later. This work was widely reported in the press. Note that the FT does not state that the second law of thermodynamics is wrong or

neg: Jacob Bekenstein the first to suggest that black holes should have a well-defined entropy. He wrote that a black hole's entropy was proportional to the area of its (the black hole's) event horizon. Bekenstein also formulated the generalized second law of thermodynamics, black hole thermodynamics, for systems including black holes. Both contributions were affirmed when Stephen Hawking (and, independently, Zeldovich and others) proposed the existence of Hawking radiation two years later. Hawking had initially opposed Bekenstein's idea on the grounds that a black hole could not radiate energy and therefore could not have entropy. However, in 1974, Hawking performed a lengthy calculation

neg: T-symmetry violation). There are two possible origins of this asymmetry, one through the mixing of different flavours of quarks in their weak decays, the second through a direct CP violation in strong interactions. The first is seen in experiments, the second is strongly constrained by the non-observation of the EDM of a neutron. Time reversal violation is unrelated to the second law of thermodynamics, because due to the conservation of the CPT symmetry, the effect of time reversal is to rename particles as antiparticles and "vice versa". Thus the second law of thermodynamics is thought to originate in the initial conditions

neg: Fluctuation theorem the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematically, the FT is expressed as: This means that as the time or system size increases (since formula_4 is extensive), the probability of observing an entropy production opposite to that dictated by the second law of thermodynamics decreases exponentially. The FT is one of the few expressions in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics that is valid far from equilibrium. The FT was first proposed and tested using computer simulations, by Denis Evans, E.G.D. Cohen and Gary Morriss in 1993 in the journal "Physical Review Letters". The first derivation was given by Evans and Debra Searles in 1994.

neg: Arcadia (play) more random or chaotic. "Surprisingly, within these random states, windows of order reappear. [...] There is order in chaos — an unpredictable order, but a determined order nonetheless, and not merely random behavior." Closely related scientific and mathematical concepts in "Arcadia" are the second law of thermodynamics and entropy. Fleming describes these two principles. "Entropy is the measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. The law of increase of entropy states that as a whole, the universe is evolving from order to disorder. This relates to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat spontaneously flows in

neg: History of physics first law of thermodynamics—a restatement of the law of conservation of energy—which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron–as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work—to formulate the first law. Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics, which was originally formulated in terms of the fact

neg: Work (thermodynamics) the second law of thermodynamics. For a closed thermodynamic system, the first law of thermodynamics relates changes in the internal energy to two forms of energy transfer, as heat and as work. In theory, heat is properly defined for a process in a closed system (no transfer of matter) by the amount of adiabatic work that would be needed to effect the change occasioned by the process. In practice it is often estimated calorimetrically, through change of temperature of a known quantity of calorimetric material substance; it is of the essence of heat transfer that it is not mediated by

neg: Thermodynamic system in constructing mathematical models of certain natural phenomena. In the attempt to justify the postulate of entropy increase in the second law of thermodynamics, Boltzmann’s H-theorem used equations, which assumed that a system (for example, a gas) was isolated. That is all the mechanical could be specified, treating the walls simply as mirror boundary conditions. This inevitably led to Loschmidt's paradox. However, if the stochastic behavior of the molecules in actual walls is considered, along with the randomizing effect of the ambient, background thermal radiation, Boltzmann’s assumption of molecular chaos can be justified. The second law of thermodynamics for isolated

neg: Thermodynamics employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work. The second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic "system" and its "surroundings". A

neg: Black hole thermodynamics Black hole thermodynamics In physics, black hole thermodynamics is the area of study that seeks to reconcile the laws of thermodynamics with the existence of black-hole event horizons. As the study of the statistical mechanics of black-body radiation led to the advent of the theory of quantum mechanics, the effort to understand the statistical mechanics of black holes has had a deep impact upon the understanding of quantum gravity, leading to the formulation of the holographic principle. The second law of thermodynamics requires that black holes have entropy. If black holes carried no entropy, it would be possible to violate

neg: Extended irreversible thermodynamics circumventing the paradox of signals moving at infinite velocity. The range of applications of EIT is not limited to situations near equilibrium but encompasses several and various domains including -memory effects (fast processes, polymers, superfluids), -non-local effects (micro- and nano-materials), -non-linear effects (high powers, shock waves). However, the discussion is not closed. Several fundamental questions as the definition of a non-equilibrium entropy and temperature, the status of the Second law of thermodynamics, a univocal choice of state variables receive only partial responses and ask for more definitive answers. Extended irreversible thermodynamics Extended irreversible thermodynamics is a branch of non-equilibrium thermodynamics

neg: Philosophy of space and time of time as relating to the nature of thermodynamics. The answer from classical thermodynamics states that while our basic physical theory is, in fact, time-reversal symmetric, thermodynamics is not. In particular, the second law of thermodynamics states that the net entropy of a closed system never decreases, and this explains why we often see glass breaking, but not coming back together. But in statistical mechanics things become more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a

neg: Second law of thermodynamics which is, of course, equivalent to the formulation of the principle in terms of entropy. The zeroth law of thermodynamics in its usual short statement allows recognition that two bodies in a relation of thermal equilibrium have the same temperature, especially that a test body has the same temperature as a reference thermometric body. For a body in thermal equilibrium with another, there are indefinitely many empirical temperature scales, in general respectively depending on the properties of a particular reference thermometric body. The second law allows a distinguished temperature scale, which defines an absolute, thermodynamic temperature, independent of the properties

neg: Second law of thermodynamics by an external agent, the refrigeration system. Lord Kelvin expressed the second law as Suppose there is an engine violating the Kelvin statement: i.e., one that drains heat and converts it completely into work in a cyclic fashion without any other result. Now pair it with a reversed Carnot engine as shown by the figure. The net and sole effect of this newly created engine consisting of the two engines mentioned is transferring heat formula_6 from the cooler reservoir to the hotter one, which violates the Clausius statement(This is a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, as for the

neg: Second law of thermodynamics long, likely longer than the life of the universe, and depends sensitively on the geometry of the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. The recurrence theorem may be perceived as apparently contradicting the second law of thermodynamics. More obviously, however, it is simply a microscopic model of thermodynamic equilibrium in an isolated system formed by removal of a wall between two systems. For a typical thermodynamical system, the recurrence time is so large (many many times longer than the lifetime of the universe) that, for all practical purposes, one cannot observe the recurrence. One might wish, nevertheless, to

neg: Second law of thermodynamics supplemented by Planck's principle, that isochoric work always increases the internal energy of a closed system that was initially in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium. In 1926, Max Planck wrote an important paper on the basics of thermodynamics. He indicated the principle This formulation does not mention heat and does not mention temperature, nor even entropy, and does not necessarily implicitly rely on those concepts, but it implies the content of the second law. A closely related statement is that "Frictional pressure never does positive work." Using a now-obsolete form of words, Planck himself wrote: "The production of heat by

neg: Second law of thermodynamics in "B" will have increased while in "A" they will have slowed down on average. Since average molecular speed corresponds to temperature, the temperature decreases in "A" and increases in "B", contrary to the second law of thermodynamics. One response to this question was suggested in 1929 by Leó Szilárd and later by Léon Brillouin. Szilárd pointed out that a real-life Maxwell's demon would need to have some means of measuring molecular speed, and that the act of acquiring information would require an expenditure of energy. Maxwell's 'demon' repeatedly alters the permeability of the wall between "A" and "B". It

neg: Objections to evolution entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution of self-organizing life. Since the second law of thermodynamics has a precise mathematical definition, this argument can be analyzed quantitatively. This was done by physicist Daniel F. Styer, who concluded: "Quantitative estimates of the entropy involved in biological evolution demonstrate that there is no conflict between evolution and the second law of thermodynamics." In a published letter to the editor of "The Mathematical Intelligencer" titled "How anti-evolutionists abuse mathematics," mathematician Jason Rosenhouse stated: The fact is that natural

neg: D-brane dropping an amount of hot gas into a black hole. Since the gas cannot escape from the hole's gravitational pull, its entropy would seem to have vanished from the universe. In order to maintain the second law of thermodynamics, one must postulate that the black hole gained whatever entropy the infalling gas originally had. Attempting to apply quantum mechanics to the study of black holes, Stephen Hawking discovered that a hole should emit energy with the characteristic spectrum of thermal radiation. The characteristic temperature of this Hawking radiation is given by where "G" is Newton's gravitational constant, "M" is the

neg: Perpetual motion through accepted and understood physical processes. However, in all cases, a flaw has been found when all of the relevant physics is considered. Examples include: Perpetual motion Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a hypothetical machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics. These laws of thermodynamics apply regardless of the size of the system. For example, the motions and rotations of celestial bodies such as planets may appear perpetual, but are actually

neg: Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics) as formula_18 for both engines: It may seem odd that a hypothetical heat pump with low efficiency is being used to violate the second law of thermodynamics, but the figure of merit for refrigerator units is not efficiency, formula_21, but the coefficient of performance (COP), which is formula_22. A reversible heat engine with low thermodynamic efficiency, formula_21 delivers more heat to the hot reservoir for a given amount of work when it is being driven as a heat pump. Having established that the heat flow values shown in the figure are correct, Carnot's theorem may be proven for irreversible and

neg: Quantum thermodynamics second law of thermodynamics. Thermodynamic adiabatic processes have no entropy change. Typically, an external control modifies the state. A quantum version of an adiabatic process can be modeled by an externally controlled time dependent Hamiltonian formula_48. If the system is isolated, the dynamics are unitary, and therefore, formula_42 is a constant. A quantum adiabatic process is defined by the energy entropy formula_50 being constant. The quantum adiabatic condition is therefore equivalent to no net change in the population of the instantaneous energy levels. This implies that the Hamiltonian should commute with itself at different times: formula_51. When the adiabatic conditions