query: what is the temperature of absolute zero in kelvin

pos: Absolute zero Absolute zero Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. The fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set

pos: Cryochemistry relative motion of its component molecules/atoms decreases - its temperature decreases. Cooling can continue until all motion ceases, and its kinetic energy, or energy of motion, disappears. This condition is known as absolute zero and it forms the basis for the Kelvin temperature scale, which measures the temperature above absolute zero. Zero degrees Celsius (°C) coincides with 273 Kelvin. At absolute zero most elements become a solid, but not all behave as predictably as this; for instance, helium becomes a highly unusual liquid. The chemistry between substances, however, does not disappear, even near absolute zero temperatures, since separated molecules/atom can

pos: Kelvin Celsius, which has the same magnitude. The definition implies that absolute zero (0 K) is equivalent to . In 1848, William Thomson, who later was made Lord Kelvin, wrote in his paper, "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale", of the need for a scale whereby "infinite cold" (absolute zero) was the scale's null point, and which used the degree Celsius for its unit increment. Kelvin calculated that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C on the air thermometers of the time. This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale. Kelvin's value of "−273" was the negative reciprocal

pos: Thermodynamic temperature Thermodynamic temperature Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest temperature is the null or zero point. At this point, absolute zero, the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and can become no colder. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter at absolute zero is in its ground state, which is its state of lowest energy. Thermodynamic temperature is often also called absolute temperature, for two reasons: one, proposed by Kelvin, that it does not depend on

pos: Kelvin Kelvin The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics. The kelvin (symbol: K) is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI). Until 2018, the kelvin was defined as the fraction of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (exactly 0.01 °C or 32.018 °F). In other words, it is defined such that the triple point of water is exactly 273.16 K. On 16 November 2018, a new definition was adopted, in

pos: Scale of temperature the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different points: absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW (specially prepared water). This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature (symbol: K). Absolute zero, the hypothetical but unattainable temperature at which matter exhibits zero entropy, is defined as being precisely 0 K "and" −273.15 °C. The temperature value of the triple point of water is defined as being precisely 273.16 K "and" 0.01 °C. This definition fixes the magnitude of both the degree Celsius and the kelvin as

pos: Temperature zero point, , is defined to coincide with the coldest physically-possible temperature (called absolute zero). Its degrees are defined through thermodynamics. The temperature of absolute zero occurs at = (or ), and the freezing point of water at sea-level atmospheric pressure occurs at = . The International System of Units (SI) defines a scale and unit for the kelvin or thermodynamic temperature by using the reliably reproducible temperature of the triple point of water as a second reference point (the first reference point being at absolute zero). The triple point is a singular state with its own unique and invariant

pos: Celsius Celsius scale are defined by absolute zero and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW), a specially purified water. This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being exactly 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as exactly . This means that a temperature difference of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin are exactly the same. In 1742, Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius

pos: Temperature goes to infinity. On the empirical temperature scales, which are not referenced to absolute zero, a negative temperature is one below the zero-point of the scale used. For example, dry ice has a sublimation temperature of which is equivalent to . On the absolute Kelvin scale, however, this temperature is . On the absolute scale of thermodynamic temperature no material can have a temperature smaller than or equal to 0 K, both of which are forbidden by the third law of thermodynamics. Temperature is basically defined for a body in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, and in this

pos: Temperature zero, at which point the thermal motion in matter would be zero. However, an actual physical system or object can never attain a temperature of absolute zero. Absolute zero is denoted as on the Kelvin scale, on the Celsius scale, and on the Fahrenheit scale. For an ideal gas, temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of the constituent microscopic particles. Temperature is important in all fields of natural science, including physics, chemistry, Earth science, medicine, and biology, as well as most aspects of daily life. Many physical processes are affected by temperature, such

pos: Planck temperature scale can convert it to 192.8 cµy"T". These units are somewhat comparable to that of that of the Kelvin scale. When using cµy"T", 0 is absolute zero, and 1 × 10 is the Planck temperature. 1 × 10 cµy"T" is a perfect base ten number as opposed to 1.417 × 10 K, 1.417 × 10 °C, or 2.550 × 10 °F. Each centimicroyocto plank temperature is equal to one 100 nonillionth of the Planck temperature. Planck temperature scale The Planck temperature scale is an absolute temperature scale using natural units. On this scale, 0 is absolute zero, and 1 is the

pos: Kelvin constant and can be used to determine the noise temperature of a circuit using the Friis formulas for noise. The symbol is encoded in Unicode at code point . However, this is a compatibility character provided for compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard recommends using instead; that is, a normal capital K. "Three letterlike symbols have been given canonical equivalence to regular letters: , , and . In all three instances, the regular letter should be used." Kelvin The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all

pos: Planck temperature Planck temperature Planck temperature, denoted by "T", is the unit of temperature in the system of natural units known as Planck units. It serves as the defining unit of the Planck temperature scale. In this scale the magnitude of the Planck temperature is equal to 1, while that of absolute zero is 0. Other temperatures can be converted to Planck temperature units. For example, = = . In SI units, the Planck temperature is about kelvin (equivalently, degrees Celsius, since the difference is trivially small at this scale), or degrees Fahrenheit or Rankine. What today is known as the Planck

pos: Rankine scale Rankine scale The Rankine scale () is an absolute scale of thermodynamic temperature named after the Glasgow University engineer and physicist William John Macquorn Rankine, who proposed it in 1859. (The Kelvin scale was first proposed in 1848.) It may be used in engineering systems where heat computations are done using degrees Fahrenheit. The symbol for degrees Rankine is °R (or °Ra if necessary to distinguish it from the Rømer and Réaumur scales). By analogy with kelvin, some authors term the unit "rankine", omitting the degree symbol. Zero on both the Kelvin and Rankine scales is absolute zero, but a

pos: Temperature for zero temperature, according to the third law of thermodynamics. Nevertheless, a Kelvin temperature does in fact have a definite numerical value that has been arbitrarily chosen by tradition and is dependent on the property of a particular materials; it is simply less arbitrary than relative "degrees" scales such as Celsius and Fahrenheit. Being an absolute scale with one fixed point (zero), there is only one degree of freedom left to arbitrary choice, rather than two as in relative scales. For the Kelvin scale in modern times, this choice of convention is made to be that of setting the gas–liquid–solid

pos: Temperature scientists measure temperature using the Celsius scale and thermodynamic temperature using the Kelvin scale, which is the Celsius scale offset so that its null point is = , or absolute zero. Many engineering fields in the U.S., notably high-tech and US federal specifications (civil and military), also use the Kelvin and Celsius scales. Other engineering fields in the U.S. also rely upon the Rankine scale (a shifted Fahrenheit scale) when working in thermodynamic-related disciplines such as combustion. The basic unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI) is the kelvin. It has the symbol K. For everyday applications,

pos: Absolute zero materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time. The average temperature of the universe today is approximately , based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation. Absolute zero cannot be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators, and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures less than a billionth of a kelvin. At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation. To study such phenomena, scientists have

pos: Entropy from absolute zero (also known as absolute entropy) or as a difference in entropy from some other reference state which is defined as zero entropy. Entropy has the dimension of energy divided by temperature, which has a unit of joules per kelvin (J/K) in the International System of Units. While these are the same units as heat capacity, the two concepts are distinct. Entropy is not a conserved quantity: for example, in an isolated system with non-uniform temperature, heat might irreversibly flow and the temperature become more uniform such that entropy increases. The second law of thermodynamics states that a

pos: Thermodynamic temperature temperature using the Rankine scale. By international agreement, the unit "kelvin" and its scale are defined by two points: absolute zero, and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (water with a specified blend of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes). Absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature, is defined as being precisely 0 K "and" −273.15 °C. The triple point of water is defined as being precisely 273.16 K "and" 0.01 °C. This definition does three things: Temperatures expressed in kelvins ("T") are converted to degrees Rankine ("T") simply by multiplying by 1.8 ("T" = 1.8 × "T"). Temperatures expressed

pos: International Temperature Scale of 1990 the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale (referencing absolute zero) as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known as SPRTs, PRTs or Platinum RTDs) and monochromatic radiation thermometers. Although the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. Accordingly, ITS–90 uses numerous defined points, all

pos: Temperature holds. There have not yet been successful experiments of this same kind that directly use the Fermi–Dirac distribution for thermometry, but perhaps that will be achieved in future. Temperature is one of the principal quantities in the study of thermodynamics. The Kelvin scale is called absolute for two reasons. One is that its formal character is independent of the properties of particular materials. The other reason is that its zero is in a sense absolute, in that it indicates absence of microscopic classical motion of the constituent particles of matter, so that they have a limiting specific heat of zero

pos: Equation of state follows. Any consistent set of units may be used, although SI units are preferred. Absolute temperature refers to use of the Kelvin (K) or Rankine (°R) temperature scales, with zero being absolute zero. The classical ideal gas law may be written In the form shown above, the equation of state is thus If the calorically perfect gas approximation is used, then the ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows where formula_19 is the density, formula_20 is the adiabatic index (ratio of specific heats), formula_21 is the internal energy per unit mass (the "specific internal energy"), formula_22 is the

pos: Approximation error error is undefined when the true value is zero as it appears in the denominator (see below). Secondly, relative error only makes sense when measured on a ratio scale, (i.e. a scale which has a true meaningful zero), otherwise it would be sensitive to the measurement units. For example, when an absolute error in a temperature measurement given in Celsius scale is 1 °C, and the true value is 2 °C, the relative error is 0.5, and the percent error is 50%. For this same case, when the temperature is given in Kelvin scale, the same 1 K absolute error

pos: Fahrenheit a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart. A temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at −40° (i.e., −40 °F = −40 °C). Absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. The "Rankine" temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R — the same way that the "Kelvin"

pos: Absolute zero Dalton in his "Chemical Philosophy" gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3000 °C as the natural zero of temperature. After James Prescott Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on Carnot's theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at

pos: Cold Cold Cold is the presence of low temperature, especially in the atmosphere. In common usage, cold is often a subjective perception. A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero, defined as 0.00K on the Kelvin scale, an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. This corresponds to on the Celsius scale, on the Fahrenheit scale, and on the Rankine scale. Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter, which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter, an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and

pos: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the transatlantic telegraph project he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariner's compass, which previously had limited reliability. Absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. While the existence of a lower limit to temperature (absolute zero) was known prior to his work, Lord Kelvin is known for determining its correct value as approximately −273.15 degree Celsius or −459.67 degree Fahrenheit. He was ennobled in 1892 in

pos: Scale of temperature has limited applicability—at some point no gas can exist. One distinguishing characteristic of ideal gas scale, however, is that it precisely equals thermodynamical scale when it is well defined (see below). ITS-90 is designed to represent the thermodynamic temperature scale (referencing absolute zero) as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known as SPRTs, PRTs or Platinum RTDs) and monochromatic radiation thermometers. Although the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the

pos: Shockley–Queisser limit that is not at absolute zero (0 Kelvin), emits electromagnetic radiation through the black-body radiation effect. In a cell at room temperature, this represents approximately 7% of all the energy falling on the cell. Any energy lost in a cell is turned into heat, so any inefficiency in the cell increases the cell temperature when it is placed in sunlight. As the temperature of the cell increases, the outgoing radiation and heat loss through conduction and convection also increase, until an equilibrium is reached. In practice, this equilibrium is normally reached at temperatures as high as 360 Kelvin, and consequently,

pos: Charles's law Lord Kelvin) in 1848: This is what we might anticipate, when we reflect that infinite cold must correspond to a finite number of degrees of the air-thermometer below zero; since if we push the strict principle of graduation, stated above, sufficiently far, we should arrive at a point corresponding to the volume of air being reduced to nothing, which would be marked as −273° of the scale (−100/.366, if .366 be the coefficient of expansion); and therefore −273° of the air-thermometer is a point which cannot be reached at any finite temperature, however low. However, the "absolute zero" on the

pos: Temperature Ocean Water, which is water specially prepared with a specified blend of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes. Absolute zero is defined as precisely and . It is the temperature at which all classical translational motion of the particles comprising matter ceases and they are at complete rest in the classical model. Quantum-mechanically, however, zero-point motion remains and has an associated energy, the zero-point energy. Matter is in its ground state, and contains no thermal energy. The triple point of water is defined as and . This definition serves the following purposes: it fixes the magnitude of the kelvin as being precisely

pos: Temperature it is often convenient to use the Celsius scale, in which corresponds very closely to the freezing point of water and is its boiling point at sea level. Because liquid droplets commonly exist in clouds at sub-zero temperatures, is better defined as the melting point of ice. In this scale a temperature difference of 1 degree Celsius is the same as a increment, but the scale is offset by the temperature at which ice melts (). By international agreement the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined by two fixing points: absolute zero and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean

pos: Thermodynamic temperature wavelength increases (the photons' energy decreases). When the particles of a substance are as close as possible to complete rest and retain only ZPE-induced quantum mechanical motion, the substance is at the temperature of absolute zero ("T"=0). Note that whereas absolute zero is the point of zero thermodynamic temperature and is also the point at which the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion, absolute zero is not necessarily the point at which a substance contains zero thermal energy; one must be very precise with what one means by "internal energy". Often, all the phase changes that "can" occur in

pos: Scale of temperature precisely 1 part in 273.16 parts, the difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water. Thus, it sets the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin as exactly the same. Additionally, it establishes the difference between the two scales' null points as being precisely 273.15 degrees Celsius (−273.15 °C = 0 K and 0 °C = 273.15 K). Thermodynamic scale differs from empirical scales in that it is absolute. It is based on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics or statistical mechanics instead of some arbitrary chosen working material. Besides it covers full range of temperature

pos: History of thermodynamics wave led to the start of the quantitative analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879, Jožef Stefan observed that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the Stefan–Boltzmann law. The law was derived theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884. In 1702 Guillaume Amontons introduced the concept of absolute zero based on observations of gases. In 1810, Sir John Leslie froze water to ice artificially. The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin. In 1906, Walther Nernst stated the third law of thermodynamics. History of thermodynamics The

pos: Supercharger (CDT) and highlights why a method for cooling the air after the compressor is so important. Note: in the example above, the ambient air pressure (1.01 bar) is added to the boost (0.69 bar) to get total pressure (1.70 bar), which is the value used for formula_4 in the equation. The temperatures must be in absolute values, using the Kelvin scale, which begins at absolute zero (0 Kelvin) and where 0 °C is 273.15 K. A Kelvin unit is the same size as a Celsius degree (so 24 °C added to absolute zero is simply 273.15 K + 24 K).

pos: Kelvinator Kelvinator Kelvinator was a home appliance manufacturer that is now a brand name owned by Electrolux. It takes its name from William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who developed the concept of absolute zero and for whom the Kelvin temperature scale is named. The name was thought appropriate for a company that manufactured ice-boxes and domestic refrigerators. Kelvinator was founded on September 18, 1914, in Detroit, Michigan, United States, by engineer Nathaniel B. Wales who introduced his idea for a practical electric refrigeration unit for the home to Edmund Copeland and Arnold Goss. Wales, a young inventor, secured financial backing from

pos: Temperature calibrated. As a practical matter it is not possible to use a gas thermometer to measure absolute zero temperature since the gases tend to condense into a liquid long before the temperature reaches zero. It is possible, however, to extrapolate to absolute zero by using the ideal gas law, as shown in the figure. The kinetic theory assumes that pressure is caused by the force associated with individual atoms striking the walls, and that all energy is translational kinetic energy. Using a sophisticated symmetry argument, Boltzmann deduced what is now called the Maxwell–Boltzmann probability distribution function for the velocity of

pos: Kelvinator Condura. The Electrolux company built and marketed Kelvinator Commercial refrigeration products that included "stainless steel door refrigerators and upright freezers, high performance chest freezers, and glass top ice cream display freezers" designed to NSF and American National Standards Institute standards for food service applications. Kelvinator Kelvinator was a home appliance manufacturer that is now a brand name owned by Electrolux. It takes its name from William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who developed the concept of absolute zero and for whom the Kelvin temperature scale is named. The name was thought appropriate for a company that manufactured ice-boxes and domestic refrigerators.

pos: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio of 11, and a COP of 3.2, which means that 3.2 units of heat are removed from indoors per unit of energy used to run the air conditioner. The SEER and EER of an air conditioner are limited by the laws of thermodynamics. The refrigeration process with the maximum possible efficiency is the Carnot cycle. The COP of an air conditioner using the Carnot cycle is: where formula_2 is the indoor temperature and formula_3 is the outdoor temperature. Both temperatures must be measured using a thermodynamic temperature scale based at absolute zero such as Kelvin or Rankine. The EER is

pos: Temperature 1 part in 273.16 parts of the difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water; it establishes that one kelvin has precisely the same magnitude as one degree on the Celsius scale; and it establishes the difference between the null points of these scales as being ( = and = ). In the United States, the Fahrenheit scale is widely used. On this scale the freezing point of water corresponds to and the boiling point to . The Rankine scale, still used in fields of chemical engineering in the U.S., is an absolute scale based on the Fahrenheit

pos: Thermodynamic temperature on the "x"–axis represents infinite temperature. Additionally, the "x" and "y"–axis on both graphs are scaled proportionally. Although very specialized laboratory equipment is required to directly detect translational motions, the resultant collisions by atoms or molecules with small particles suspended in a fluid produces Brownian motion that can be seen with an ordinary microscope. The translational motions of elementary particles are "very" fast and temperatures close to absolute zero are required to directly observe them. For instance, when scientists at the NIST achieved a record-setting cold temperature of 700 nK (billionths of a kelvin) in 1994, they used optical lattice

pos: International Temperature Scale of 1990 value may then be converted to, and expressed as, a value on the Fahrenheit scale (e.g. 211.953 °F). ITS–90 does not address the highly specialized equipment and procedures used for measuring temperatures extremely close to absolute zero. For instance, to measure temperatures in the nanokelvin range (billionths of a kelvin), scientists using optical lattice laser equipment to adiabatically cool atoms, turn off the entrapment lasers and simply measure how far the atoms drift over time to measure their temperature. A cesium atom with a velocity of 7 mm/s is equivalent to a temperature of about 700 nK (which was a

pos: Supersolid of this state, it is supposed that vacancies, empty sites normally occupied by particles in an ideal crystal, exist even at absolute zero. These vacancies are caused by zero-point energy, which also causes them to move from site to site as waves. Because vacancies are bosons, if such clouds of vacancies can exist at very low temperature, then a Bose–Einstein condensation of vacancies could occur at temperatures less than a few tenths of a kelvin. A coherent flow of vacancies is equivalent to a "superflow" (frictionless flow) of particles in the opposite direction. Despite the presence of the gas of

pos: Thermodynamic temperature in degrees Rankine are converted to kelvins by "dividing" by 1.8 ("T" = "T" ÷ 1.8). Although the kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. ITS-90 is then designed to represent the thermodynamic temperature as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known

pos: Thermodynamic temperature the properties of a particular material; two that it refers to an absolute zero according to the properties of the ideal gas. The International System of Units specifies a particular scale for thermodynamic temperature. It uses the kelvin scale for measurement and selects the triple point of water at 273.16 K as the fundamental fixing point. Other scales have been in use historically. The Rankine scale, using the degree Fahrenheit as its unit interval, is still in use as part of the English Engineering Units in the United States in some engineering fields. ITS-90 gives a practical means of estimating

pos: Level of measurement "how much" of something (i.e. an amount or magnitude) or "how many" (a count). The Kelvin temperature scale is a ratio scale because it has a unique, non-arbitrary zero point called absolute zero. The geometric mean and the harmonic mean are allowed to measure the central tendency, in addition to the mode, median, and arithmetic mean. The studentized range and the coefficient of variation are allowed to measure statistical dispersion. All statistical measures are allowed because all necessary mathematical operations are defined for the ratio scale. While Stevens's typology is widely adopted, it is still being challenged by other theoreticians,

pos: Absolute hot actually reach the infinite temperature. Absolute hot Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter. The concept has been popularized by the television series "Nova". In this article, absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero, which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero. Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature, which has the value . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational

pos: What Is Life? movement of the celestial bodies and the behaviour of mechanical devices such as clocks. But even those are influenced by thermal and frictional forces. The degree to which a system functions mechanically or statistically depends on the temperature. If heated, a clock ceases to function, because it melts. Conversely, if the temperature approaches absolute zero, any system behaves more and more mechanically. Some systems approach this mechanical behaviour rather fast with room temperature already being practically equivalent to absolute zero. Schrödinger concludes this chapter and the book with philosophical speculations on determinism, free will, and the mystery of human consciousness.

pos: Leiden scale to be true. Oxygen under a standard atmosphere boils at a temperature in the 90.15 to 90.18 K range. For hydrogen, it depends on the molecular variety. The boiling point is 20.390 K for "normal" hydrogen (made up of 75% orthohydrogen and 25% parahydrogen) and 20.268 K for pure parahydrogen. Under the purported definition, absolute zero would lie at -20.15 °L. Leiden scale The Leiden scale (°L) was used to calibrate low-temperature indirect measurements in the early twentieth century, by providing conventional values (in kelvins, then termed "degrees Kelvin") of helium vapour pressure. It was used below -183°C, the starting

pos: Absolute hot Absolute hot Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter. The concept has been popularized by the television series "Nova". In this article, absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero, which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero. Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature, which has the value . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become

pos: Thermodynamics statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions are, "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently "it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes". Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to happen, is −273.15 °C (degrees Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit),

pos: Victor Emery in Physics was won by David Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff and Robert Richardson of Cornell University for their 1972 discovery that the isotope helium-3 can become superfluid at a temperature of 0.002 kelvin, very close to absolute zero. Their prize-winning research was sparked by the paper Victor Emery and Andrew Sessler had written in 1960. In 1997 Emery gave the 326th Brookhaven lecture, entitled 'High Temperature Superconductors – The First Ten Years' illustrating his points with simple, non-technical terms. He explained how key experiments at BNL had led to deeper insights into the atomic structure and forces of electricity and

pos: Thermodynamic temperature and exchange energy in collisions. "Figure 1" below shows translational motion in gases; "" below shows translational motion in solids. Thermodynamic temperature's null point, absolute zero, is the temperature at which the particle constituents of matter are as close as possible to complete rest; that is, they have minimal motion, retaining only quantum mechanical motion. Zero kinetic energy remains in a substance at absolute zero (see "Thermal energy at absolute zero", below). Throughout the scientific world where measurements are made in SI units, thermodynamic temperature is measured in kelvins (symbol: K). Many engineering fields in the U.S. however, measure thermodynamic

pos: Ground state According to the third law of thermodynamics, a system at absolute zero temperature exists in its ground state; thus, its entropy is determined by the degeneracy of the ground state. Many systems, such as a perfect crystal lattice, have a unique ground state and therefore have zero entropy at absolute zero. It is also possible for the highest excited state to have absolute zero temperature for systems that exhibit negative temperature. In one dimension, the ground state of the Schrödinger equation can be proven to have no nodes. Consider the average energy of a state with a node at =

pos: Absolute zero worked to obtain even lower temperatures. Absolute zero Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. The fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding

pos: Third law of thermodynamics shown that So the thermal expansion coefficient of all materials must go to zero at zero kelvin. J. Wilks The Third Law of Thermodynamic Third law of thermodynamics The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows, regarding the properties of closed systems in thermodynamic equilibrium: This constant value cannot depend on any other parameters characterizing the closed system, such as pressure or applied magnetic field. At absolute zero (zero kelvin) the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy. Entropy is related to the number of accessible microstates, and there is typically one unique state

pos: Absolute zero energy. The laws of thermodynamics indicate that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically, and a system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero. The kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed. Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity and superfluidity. At temperatures near , nearly all molecular motion ceases and Δ"S" = 0 for any adiabatic process,

pos: Absolute zero Boltzmann constant and "T" representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level. Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain systems can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) can be of a negative quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than "any" system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in

pos: Climate model 0.5 (which must be reduced by the fourth power of the ratio of cloud absolute temperature to average earth absolute temperature) and an average cloud temperature of about . Taking all this properly into account results in an effective earth emissivity of about 0.64 (earth average temperature ). This simple model readily determines the effect of changes in solar output or change of earth albedo or effective earth emissivity on average earth temperature. It says nothing, however about what might cause these things to change. Zero-dimensional models do not address the temperature distribution on the earth or the factors that

pos: Entropy (statistical thermodynamics) the degeneracy of the ground state. Many systems, such as crystal lattices, have a unique ground state, and (since ) this means that they have zero entropy at absolute zero. Other systems have more than one state with the same, lowest energy, and have a non-vanishing "zero-point entropy". For instance, ordinary ice has a zero-point entropy of , because its underlying crystal structure possesses multiple configurations with the same energy (a phenomenon known as geometrical frustration). The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero, or 0 kelvin is zero. This means that

pos: Thermodynamic temperature heat (to avoid logic loop, we should first define entropy through statistical mechanics): For a system in which the entropy "S" is a function "S"("E") of its energy "E", the thermodynamic temperature "T" is therefore given by so that the reciprocal of the thermodynamic temperature is the rate of increase of entropy with energy. Thermodynamic temperature Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest temperature is the null or zero point. At this point, absolute zero,

pos: Dimensional analysis is not the origin 0 in some scales. For absolute zero, but for temperature differences, (Here °R refers to the Rankine scale, not the Réaumur scale). Unit conversion for temperature differences is simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 °F / 1 K (although the ratio is not a constant value). But because some of these scales have origins that do not correspond to absolute zero, conversion from one temperature scale to another requires accounting for that. As a result, simple dimensional analysis can lead to errors if it is ambiguous whether 1 K means the absolute temperature equal

pos: Third law of thermodynamics Third law of thermodynamics The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows, regarding the properties of closed systems in thermodynamic equilibrium: This constant value cannot depend on any other parameters characterizing the closed system, such as pressure or applied magnetic field. At absolute zero (zero kelvin) the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy. Entropy is related to the number of accessible microstates, and there is typically one unique state (called the ground state) with minimum energy. In such a case, the entropy at absolute zero will be exactly zero. If the system does

pos: Temperature kinetic energy of the molecules. Heating will also cause, through equipartitioning, the energy associated with vibrational and rotational modes to increase. Thus a diatomic gas will require more energy input to increase its temperature by a certain amount, i.e. it will have a greater heat capacity than a monatomic gas. The process of cooling involves removing internal energy from a system. When no more energy can be removed, the system is at absolute zero, though this cannot be achieved experimentally. Absolute zero is the null point of the thermodynamic temperature scale, also called absolute temperature. If it were possible to

pos: Absolute zero that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by Boltzmann's constant, and is of the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century. A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external

pos: Zero-point energy altogether. To scientists of the period, it seemed that a true vacuum in space might be completely eliminated by cooling thus eliminating all radiation or energy. From this idea evolved the second concept of achieving a real vacuum: cool it down to absolute zero temperature after evacuation. Absolute zero was technically impossible to achieve in the 19th century, so the debate remained unsolved. In 1900, Max Planck derived the average energy of a single "energy radiator", e.g., a vibrating atomic unit, as a function of absolute temperature: where is Planck's constant, is the frequency, is Boltzmann's constant, and is the

pos: Neville Robinson of nuclear orientation for the first time. Then in 1951, in the first nuclear cooling experiment, he produced the lowest temperature ever achieved until then at only ten millionths of a degree Kelvin above absolute zero. Robinson was an English Electric Research Fellow from 1955–59. He was a Faculty Fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford from 1958 to 1961, immediately followed by becoming a founding Fellow of St Catherine's College, Oxford where he stayed until his retirement in 1992. He was also a Senior Research Officer at Oxford University during 1959 to 1992, working at the Clarendon Laboratory. During his career,

pos: Absolute scale with an arbitrary zero-point such as the conventional date of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth or the accession of an emperor. Temperature, on the other hand, has a known minimum, absolute zero (where all vibrational motion of atoms ceases), and therefore, can be measured either in absolute terms (kelvins or degrees Rankine), or relative to a reference temperature such as the freezing point of water at a specified pressure (Celsius and Reaumur) or the lowest temperature attainable in 1724 (Fahrenheit). Pressure is a force that can be measured absolutely, because the natural minimum of pressure is total vacuum. Pressure

pos: Zero-point energy determined by the degeneracy of the ground state. Many systems, such as a perfect crystal lattice, have a unique ground state and therefore have zero entropy at absolute zero. It is also possible for the highest excited state to have absolute zero temperature for systems that exhibit negative temperature. The wave function of the ground state of a particle in a one-dimensional well is a half-period sine wave which goes to zero at the two edges of the well. The energy of the particle is given by: where is the Planck constant, is the mass of the particle, is the

pos: Temperature cool a system to absolute zero, all classical motion of its particles would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense. Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics, however, matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero, because of the uncertainty principle. Temperature is a measure of a quality of a state of a material. The quality may be regarded as a more abstract entity than any particular temperature scale that measures it, and is called "hotness" by some writers. The quality of hotness refers to the state of material only in a particular locality,

pos: Gas thermometer system. k is not a fixed constant across all systems and therefore needs to be found experimentally for a given system through testing with known temperature values. The constant volume gas thermometer plays a crucial role in understanding how absolute zero could be discovered long before the advent of cryogenics. Consider a graph of pressure versus temperature made not far from standard conditions (well above absolute zero) for three different samples of any ideal gas "(a, b, c)". To the extent that the gas is ideal, the pressure depends linearly on temperature, and the extrapolation to zero pressure occurs at

pos: Absolute zero their zero points at absolute zero by definition. It is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest "enthalpy" state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter (solid) at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal

pos: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin this scale, to a body B at the temperature ("T"−1)°, would give out the same mechanical effect "[work]", whatever be the number" T"." Such a scale would be "quite independent of the physical properties of any specific substance." By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson postulated that a point would be reached at which no further heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of "absolute zero" about which Guillaume Amontons had speculated in 1702. "Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in French in 1824, the year of Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of the

pos: Thermodynamic temperature energy, retaining only that due to the ever-present background of zero-point energy. One can also say that for a given substance at constant pressure, absolute zero is the point of lowest "enthalpy" (a measure of work potential that takes internal energy, pressure, and volume into consideration). Lastly, it is always true to say that all "T"=0 substances contain zero kinetic thermal energy. Thermodynamic temperature is useful not only for scientists, it can also be useful for lay-people in many disciplines involving gases. By expressing variables in absolute terms and applying Gay–Lussac's law of temperature/pressure proportionality, solutions to everyday problems are

pos: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin absolute zero temperature. Thomson used data published by Regnault to calibrate his scale against established measurements. In his publication, Thomson wrote: — But a footnote signalled his first doubts about the caloric theory, referring to Joule's "very remarkable discoveries". Surprisingly, Thomson did not send Joule a copy of his paper, but when Joule eventually read it he wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of heat into work but that he was planning further experiments. Thomson replied on 27 October, revealing that he was planning his own experiments and hoping for a reconciliation of

pos: Temperature the definitions of many different empirical scales of temperature, the second law of thermodynamics selects the definition of a single preferred, absolute temperature, unique up to an arbitrary scale factor, whence called the thermodynamic temperature. If internal energy is considered as a function of the volume and entropy of a homogeneous system in thermodynamic equilibrium, thermodynamic absolute temperature appears as the partial derivative of internal energy with respect the entropy at constant volume. Its natural, intrinsic origin or null point is absolute zero at which the entropy of any system is at a minimum. Although this is the lowest absolute

pos: Fermi energy near absolute zero temperature, the fermions are still moving around at a high speed. The fastest ones are moving at a velocity corresponding to a kinetic energy equal to the Fermi energy. This speed is known as the Fermi velocity. Only when the temperature exceeds the related Fermi temperature, do the electrons begin to move significantly faster than at absolute zero. The Fermi energy is an important concept in the solid state physics of metals and superconductors. It is also a very important quantity in the physics of quantum liquids like low temperature helium (both normal and superfluid He), and

pos: Zero-point energy example, it has been estimated that human body is 10,000 times more effective at dissipating energy per unit of mass than the sun. One may query what this has to do with zero-point energy. Given the complex and adaptive behaviour that arises from nonlinear systems considerable attention in recent years has gone into studying a new class of phase transitions which occur at absolute zero temperature. These are quantum phase transitions which are driven by EM field fluctuations as a consequence of zero-point energy. A good example of a spontaneous phase transition that are attributed to zero-point fluctuations can be

pos: Heat capacity zero temperature in order for the above integral not to yield an infinite absolute entropy, which would violate the third law of thermodynamics. One of the strengths of the Debye model is that (unlike the preceding Einstein model) it predicts the proper mathematical form of the approach of heat capacity toward zero, as absolute zero temperature is approached. Most physical systems exhibit a positive heat capacity. However, even though it can seem paradoxical at first, there are some systems for which the heat capacity is "negative". These are inhomogeneous systems that do not meet the strict definition of thermodynamic equilibrium.

pos: Internal energy mechanics has demonstrated that even at zero temperature particles maintain a residual energy of motion, the zero point energy. A system at absolute zero is merely in its quantum-mechanical ground state, the lowest energy state available. At absolute zero a system of given composition has attained its minimum attainable entropy. The microscopic kinetic energy portion of the internal energy gives rise to the temperature of the system. Statistical mechanics relates the pseudo-random kinetic energy of individual particles to the mean kinetic energy of the entire ensemble of particles comprising a system. Furthermore, it relates the mean microscopic kinetic energy to

pos: Temperature relationship gives us our first hint that there is an absolute zero on the temperature scale, because it only holds if the temperature is measured on an absolute scale such as Kelvin's. The ideal gas law allows one to measure temperature on this absolute scale using the gas thermometer. The temperature in kelvins can be defined as the pressure in pascals of one mole of gas in a container of one cubic meter, divided by the gas constant. Although it is not a particularly convenient device, the gas thermometer provides an essential theoretical basis by which all thermometers can be

pos: Temperature as Temperature scales differ in two ways: the point chosen as zero degrees, and the magnitudes of incremental units or degrees on the scale. The Celsius scale (°C) is used for common temperature measurements in most of the world. It is an empirical scale that was developed by a historical progress, which led to its zero point being defined by the freezing point of water, and additional degrees defined so that was the boiling point of water, both at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Because of the 100-degree interval, it was called a centigrade scale. Since the standardization of the kelvin in

pos: Third law of thermodynamics entropy at any other temperature. The entropy of a closed system, determined relative to this zero point, is then the "absolute" entropy of that system. Mathematically, the absolute entropy of any system at zero temperature is the natural log of the number of ground states times Boltzmann's constant . The entropy of a "perfect" crystal lattice as defined by Nernst's theorem is zero provided that its ground state is unique, because . If the system is composed of one-billion atoms, all alike, and lie within the matrix of a perfect crystal, the number of combinations of one-billion identical things taken

pos: Entropy is now known that the maximum work that a heat engine can produce is the product of the Carnot efficiency and the heat absorbed from the hot reservoir: To derive the Carnot efficiency, which is (a number less than one), Kelvin had to evaluate the ratio of the work output to the heat absorbed during the isothermal expansion with the help of the Carnot-Clapeyron equation which contained an unknown function, known as the Carnot function. The possibility that the Carnot function could be the temperature as measured from a zero temperature, was suggested by Joule in a letter to Kelvin.

pos: Phonon phonon density of states which determines the heat capacity of a crystal. At absolute zero temperature, a crystal lattice lies in its ground state, and contains no phonons. A lattice at a nonzero temperature has an energy that is not constant, but fluctuates randomly about some mean value. These energy fluctuations are caused by random lattice vibrations, which can be viewed as a gas of phonons. (The random motion of the atoms in the lattice is what we usually think of as heat.) Because these phonons are generated by the temperature of the lattice, they are sometimes designated thermal phonons.

neg: Degree (temperature) temperature: (Measurement of temperature) "Degrees Kelvin" (K) is a former name for the SI unit of temperature on the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale. Since 1967 it has been known simply as the kelvin, with symbol K (without a degree symbol). Degree absolute (°A) is obsolete terminology, often referring specifically to the kelvin but sometimes the degree Rankine as well. Degree (temperature) The term degree is used in several scales of temperature. The symbol ° is usually used, followed by the initial letter of the unit, for example “°C” for degree(s) Celsius. A degree can be defined as a set change

neg: Temperature Temperature Temperature is a physical quantity expressing hot and cold. It is measured with a thermometer calibrated in one or more temperature scales. The most commonly used scales are the Celsius scale (formerly called "centigrade") (denoted °C), Fahrenheit scale (denoted °F), and Kelvin scale (denoted K). The kelvin (spelled with a lower-case k) is the unit of temperature in the International System of Units (abbreviated SI), in which temperature is one of the seven fundamental base quantities. The Kelvin scale is widely used in science and technology. Theoretically, the coldest a system can be is when its temperature is absolute

neg: Kelvin value and the kelvin symbol (e.g. "99.987 K"). Before the 13th CGPM in 1967–1968, the unit kelvin was called a "degree", the same as with the other temperature scales at the time. It was distinguished from the other scales with either the adjective suffix "Kelvin" ("degree Kelvin") or with "absolute" ("degree absolute") and its symbol was °K. The latter term (degree absolute), which was the unit's official name from 1948 until 1954, was ambiguous since it could also be interpreted as referring to the Rankine scale. Before the 13th CGPM, the plural form was "degrees absolute". The 13th CGPM changed

neg: Temperature the International System of Units, it has subsequently been redefined in terms of the equivalent fixing points on the Kelvin scale, and so that a temperature increment of one degree Celsius is the same as an increment of one kelvin, though they differ by an additive offset of 273.15. The United States commonly uses the Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at and boils at at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale (unit symbol: K), named in honor of the Scots-Irish physicist who first defined it. It is a thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale. Its

neg: Temperature triple point of water, a point which can be reliably reproduced as a standard experimental phenomenon, at a numerical value of 273.16 kelvins. The Kelvin scale is also called the thermodynamic scale. However, to demonstrate that its numerical value is indeed arbitrary, it is useful to point out that an alternate, less widely used absolute temperature scale exists called the Rankine scale, made to be aligned with the Fahrenheit scale as Kelvin is with Celsius. The thermodynamic definition of temperature is due to Kelvin. It is framed in terms of an idealized device called a Carnot engine, imagined to define

neg: Temperature relevant coordinates are fixed. An exceptionally suitable system is the ideal gas, which can provide a temperature scale that matches the absolute Kelvin scale. The Kelvin scale is defined on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. In the previous section certain properties of temperature were expressed by the zeroth law of thermodynamics. It is also possible to define temperature in terms of the second law of thermodynamics which deals with entropy. The second law states that any process will result in either no change or a net increase in the entropy of the universe. This can be understood

neg: Rupes Kelvin Union (IAU). Rupes Kelvin Rupes Kelvin is an escarpment near Promontorium Kelvin (after which it is named), at . It is 78.0 km long. Opposite to the escarpment in the east are Rimae Hippalus, Hippalus Crater is to the northeast. Other nearby craters include Dunthorne to the southwest, Vitello to the southwest and Puiseux to the west-southwest. Together with the mountainous cape, the escarpment was named after the Irish scientist, physicist and engineer William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin who was the creator of the Kelvin scale of absolute temperature measurement. The escarpment land point was renamed in 1935 by the

neg: Rupes Kelvin Rupes Kelvin Rupes Kelvin is an escarpment near Promontorium Kelvin (after which it is named), at . It is 78.0 km long. Opposite to the escarpment in the east are Rimae Hippalus, Hippalus Crater is to the northeast. Other nearby craters include Dunthorne to the southwest, Vitello to the southwest and Puiseux to the west-southwest. Together with the mountainous cape, the escarpment was named after the Irish scientist, physicist and engineer William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin who was the creator of the Kelvin scale of absolute temperature measurement. The escarpment land point was renamed in 1935 by the International Astronomical

neg: Kelvin terms of a fixed value of the Boltzmann constant. For legal metrology purposes, the new definition will officially come into force 20 May 2019 (the 130th anniversary of the Metre Convention). The Kelvin scale is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), who wrote of the need for an "absolute thermometric scale". Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to or written as a degree. The kelvin is the primary unit of temperature measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in conjunction with the degree

neg: Promontorium Kelvin of absolute temperature measurement. The escarpment land point was renamed in 1935 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Promontorium Kelvin Promontorium Kelvin is a raised mountainous cape or a small mountain range located in the southeast of the basin, Mare Nubium on the Moon. it is narrowly connected to Rupes Kelvin which that escarpment feature is on the other side. Its length is about 45 km. Its coordinates are . Nearby craters are Hippalus to the northeast, Vitello being 150 km southwest and 155 km almost west-southwest is Puiseux. Together with the escarpment, the mountainous cape was named after the

neg: Kelvin the unit name to simply "kelvin" (symbol: K). The omission of "degree" indicates that it is not relative to an arbitrary reference point like the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales (although the Rankine scale continued to use "degree Rankine"), but rather an absolute unit of measure which can be manipulated algebraically (e.g. multiplied by two to indicate twice the amount of "mean energy" available among elementary degrees of freedom of the system). In science and engineering, degrees Celsius and kelvins are often used simultaneously in the same article, where absolute temperatures are given in degrees Celsius, but temperature intervals are given

neg: Compressibility factor coefficient of compressibility or isothermal compressibility) of a material which is the measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid in response to a pressure change. The compressibility factor is defined in thermodynamics and engineering frequently as: where p is the pressure, formula_3 is the density of the gas and formula_4 is the specific gas constant, formula_5 being the molar mass, and the formula_6 is the absolute temperature (Kelvin or Rankine scale). In statistical mechanics the description is: where p is the pressure, n is the number of moles of gas, formula_6 is the absolute temperature, and

neg: Reduced properties formula_1 divided by its critical pressure formula_2: The reduced temperature of a fluid is its actual temperature, divided by its critical temperature: where the actual temperature and critical temperature are expressed in absolute temperature scales (either Kelvin or Rankine). Both the reduced temperature and the reduced pressure are often used in thermodynamical formulas like the Peng–Robinson equation of state. The reduced specific volume (or "pseudo-reduced specific volume") of a fluid is computed from the ideal gas law at the substance's critical pressure and temperature: This property is useful when the specific volume and either temperature or pressure are known, in

neg: Temperature of work done on the work reservoir, and the first law of thermodynamics. The amounts of energy transferred as heat respectively from reservoir 1 and from reservoir 2 may then be denoted respectively and . Then the absolute or thermodynamic temperatures, and , of the reservoirs are defined so that to be such that Kelvin's original work postulating absolute temperature was published in 1848. It was based on the work of Carnot, before the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics. Kelvin wrote in his 1848 paper that his scale was absolute in the sense that it was defined "independently

neg: Eccentric training heavy object. "Eccentric actions place a stretch on the sarcomeres to the point where the myofilaments may experience strain, otherwise known as exercise induced delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)" (Aaron Bubbico & Len Kravitz, 2010). One area of research that has much promise in relation to DOMS and eccentric exercise is the repeated-bout effect (RBE). To help prevent or lessen DOMS from eccentric exercise, or to facilitate recovery from it, the exerciser would eccentrically stimulate the muscle then repeat at weekly intervals to build up strength and allow the strain (in response to a given force level) to reduce over