query: where is the cartilage found on the surface of a long bone

pos: Long bone Long bone The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at each end of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage"). The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in

pos: Long bone Long bone The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at each end of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage"). The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in

neg: Cuboid bone presents in front a deep groove, the peroneal sulcus, which runs obliquely forward and medialward; it lodges the tendon of the peroneus longus, and is bounded behind by a prominent ridge, to which the long plantar ligament is attached. The ridge ends laterally in an eminence, the tuberosity, the surface of which presents an oval facet; on this facet glides the sesamoid bone or cartilage frequently found in the tendon of the peroneus longus. The surface of bone behind the groove is rough, for the attachment of the plantar calcaneocuboid ligament, a few fibers of the flexor hallucis brevis, and

neg: Temporomandibular joint hyaline cartilage underneath the periosteum on the articulating surface of the condyle. This is the last growth center of bone in the body and is multidirectional in its growth capacity, unlike a typical long bone. This area of cartilage within the bone grows in length by appositional growth as the individual grows to maturity. Over time, the cartilage is replaced by bone, using endochondral ossification. This mandibular growth center in the condyle allows the increased length of the mandible needed for the larger permanent teeth, as well as for the larger brain capacity of the adult. This growth of the

neg: Osteochondroma Osteochondroma Osteochondromas are the most common benign tumors of the bones. The tumors take the form of cartilage-capped bony projections or outgrowth on the surface of bones exostoses. It is characterized as a type of overgrowth that can occur in any bone where cartilage forms bone. Tumors most commonly affect long bones about the knee and in the forearm. Additionally, flat bones such as the pelvis and scapula (shoulder blade) may be affected. Hereditary multiple exostoses usually present during childhood. Yet, the vast majority of affected individuals become clinically manifest by the time they reach adolescence. Osteochondromas occur in 3%

neg: Osteochondroma osteochondroma to become more susceptible to mutations leading to malignancy. Osteochondroma Osteochondromas are the most common benign tumors of the bones. The tumors take the form of cartilage-capped bony projections or outgrowth on the surface of bones exostoses. It is characterized as a type of overgrowth that can occur in any bone where cartilage forms bone. Tumors most commonly affect long bones about the knee and in the forearm. Additionally, flat bones such as the pelvis and scapula (shoulder blade) may be affected. Hereditary multiple exostoses usually present during childhood. Yet, the vast majority of affected individuals become clinically manifest

neg: Epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal plate The epiphyseal plate (or epiphysial plate, physis, or growth plate) is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. It is the part of a long bone where new bone growth takes place; that is, the whole bone is alive, with maintenance remodeling throughout its existing bone tissue, but the growth plate is the place where the long bone grows longer (adds length). The plate is not only found in children and adolescents; in adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line. This replacement is known as

neg: Epiphyseal plate ends and thus demonstrated the existence of the epiphyseal plates. Hunter is considered the "father of the growth plate." Epiphyseal plate The epiphyseal plate (or epiphysial plate, physis, or growth plate) is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. It is the part of a long bone where new bone growth takes place; that is, the whole bone is alive, with maintenance remodeling throughout its existing bone tissue, but the growth plate is the place where the long bone grows longer (adds length). The plate is not only found in children and adolescents;

neg: Synchondrosis Synchondrosis Where the connecting medium is hyaline cartilage, a cartilaginous joint is termed a synchondrosis. An example of a synchondrosis joint is the first sternocostal joint (where the first rib meets the manubrium). In this example, the rib articulates with the manubrium via the costal cartilage. (The rest of the sternocostal joints are synovial plane joints.) Sometimes, this is a temporary form of joint called epiphyseal growth plate, where the cartilage is converted into bone before adult life. Such joints are found between the epiphyses and diaphyses of long bones, between the occipital and the sphenoid, and for some years

neg: Chondrodystrophy of every 25,000 children. Chondrodystrophy and achondroplasia are the most common forms of genetic hyaline disorders. Hyaline cartilage caps the long bones and the spinal vertebrae. Most childhood limb growth takes place at the ends of the long bones, not in the shaft. Normally, as a child grows, the most interior portion of the joint cartilage converts into bone, and new cartilage forms on the surface to maintain smooth joints. The old joint margins (edges) reabsorb, so that the overall shape of the joint is maintained as growth continues. Failure of this process throughout the body results in skeletal dysplasia.

neg: Osteochondritis dissecans Harding described the lateral X-ray as a method to identify the site of an OCD lesion. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is useful for staging OCD lesions, evaluating the integrity of the joint surface, and distinguishing normal variants of bone formation from OCD by showing bone and cartilage edema in the area of the irregularity. MRI provides information regarding features of the articular cartilage and bone under the cartilage, including edema, fractures, fluid interfaces, articular surface integrity, and fragment displacement. A low T1 and high T2 signal at the fragment interface is seen in active lesions. This indicates an unstable lesion

neg: Synchondrosis after birth, between the petrous portion of the temporal and the jugular process of the occipital bone. Synchondrosis Where the connecting medium is hyaline cartilage, a cartilaginous joint is termed a synchondrosis. An example of a synchondrosis joint is the first sternocostal joint (where the first rib meets the manubrium). In this example, the rib articulates with the manubrium via the costal cartilage. (The rest of the sternocostal joints are synovial plane joints.) Sometimes, this is a temporary form of joint called epiphyseal growth plate, where the cartilage is converted into bone before adult life. Such joints are found between

neg: Knee cartilage replacement therapy Knee cartilage replacement therapy Articular cartilage, most notably that which is found in the knee joint, is generally characterized by very low friction, high wear resistance, and poor regenerative qualities. It is responsible for much of the compressive resistance and load bearing qualities of the knee joint and, without it, walking is painful to impossible. Osteoarthritis is a common condition of cartilage failure that can lead to limited range of motion, bone damage and invariably, pain. Due to a combination of acute stress and chronic fatigue, osteoarthritis directly manifests itself in a wearing away of the articular surface and, in

neg: Sp7 transcription factor eventually cartilage rather than creating ossified bone. Outside of the context of development, in adult mice ablation of Sp7 led to a lack of new bone formation, highly irregular cartilage accumulation beneath the growth plate and defects in osteocyte maturation and functionality. Other studies observed that a conditional knockout of Sp7 in adult mice osteoblasts resulted in osteopenia in the vertebrae of the animals, issues with bone turnover and more porosity in cortical outer surface of the long bones of the body. Observation of an opposite effect, overproliferation of Sp7+ osteoblasts, further supports the important regulatory effects of Sp7 in

neg: Pannus Pannus Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue. Common sites for pannus formation include over the cornea, over a joint surface (as seen in rheumatoid arthritis), or on a prosthetic heart valve. Pannus may grow in a tumor-like fashion, as in joints where it may erode articular cartilage and bone. In common usage, the term "pannus" is often used to refer to a panniculus (a hanging flap of tissue). The term "pannus" is derived from the Latin for "tablecloth". Inflammation and exuberant proliferation of the synovium leads to formation of pannus and destruction of cartilage, bone,

neg: Osteochondritis dissecans anti-inflammatory medication; drilling of subchondral bone; microfracture; removal or reattachment of loose bodies; mosaicplasty and osteoarticular transfer system (OATS) procedures. The primary goals of treatment are: The articular cartilage's capacity for repair is limited: partial-thickness defects in the articular cartilage do not heal spontaneously, and injuries of the articular cartilage which fail to penetrate subchondral bone tend to lead to deterioration of the articular surface. As a result, surgery is often required in even moderate cases where the osteochondral fragment has not detached from the bone (Anderson Stage II, III). Candidates for non-operative treatment are limited to skeletally immature teenagers

neg: Patella Patella The patella, also known as the kneecap, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. The patella is found in many tetrapods, such as mice, cats and birds, but not in whales, or most reptiles. In humans, the patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the body. Babies are born with a patella of soft cartilage which begins to ossify into bone at about three years of age. The patella is a sesamoid bone roughly triangular in shape, with the apex of the

neg: Patella shallow dish. Patella The patella, also known as the kneecap, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. The patella is found in many tetrapods, such as mice, cats and birds, but not in whales, or most reptiles. In humans, the patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the body. Babies are born with a patella of soft cartilage which begins to ossify into bone at about three years of age. The patella is a sesamoid bone roughly triangular in shape, with the apex

neg: Cartilage conduction bone conduction. Cartilage conduction Cartilage conduction is a pathway in which sound signals are transmitted to the inner ear. This pathway is distinct from conventional sound pathways such as air or bone. Therefore, cartilage conduction it referred to as the third auditory pathway. Since approximately 450 years ago, two pathways have been acknowledged for transmitting sound to the inner ear; one is air conduction and the other is bone conduction. In 2004, Hiroshi Hosoi, a professor at Nara Medical University, discovered the phenomenon of cartilage vibration in the inner ear. By attaching a vibrator to aural cartilage, sound was found

neg: Ossification long bones and other bones. This requires a hyaline cartilage precursor. There are two centers of ossification for endochondral ossification. The primary center In long bones, bone tissue first appears in the diaphysis (middle of shaft). Chondrocytes multiply and form trebeculae. Cartilage is progressively eroded and replaced by hardened bone, extending towards the epiphysis. A perichondrium layer surrounding the cartilage forms the periosteum, which generates osteogenic cells that then go on to make a collar that encircles the outside of the bone and remodels the medullary cavity on the inside. The nutrient artery enters via the nutrient foramen from a

neg: Bone healing hyaline cartilage. The lamellar bone begins forming soon after the collagen matrix of either tissue becomes mineralized. At this stage, the process is induced by IL-1 and TNFα. The mineralized matrix is penetrated by microvessel and numerous osteoblasts. The osteoblasts form new lamellar bone upon the recently exposed surface of the mineralized matrix. This new lamellar bone is in the form of trabecular bone. Eventually, all of the woven bone and cartilage of the original fracture callus is replaced by trabecular bone, restoring most of the bone's original strength. Remodeling begins as early as three to four weeks after fracture

neg: Mandible of it below and behind the incisor teeth becomes ossified and incorporated with this part of the mandible. About the sixth week of fetal life, intramembranous ossification takes place in the membrane covering the outer surface of the ventral end of Meckel's cartilage, and each half of the bone is formed from a single center which appears, near the mental foramen. By the tenth week, the portion of Meckel's cartilage which lies below and behind the incisor teeth is surrounded and invaded by the dermal bone (also known as the membrane bone). Somewhat later, accessory nuclei of cartilage make their

neg: Shoulder provide stability and facilitate movement. Two filmy sac-like structures called bursae permit smooth gliding between bone, muscle, and tendon. They cushion and protect the rotator cuff from the bony arch of the acromion. The glenoid labrum is the second kind of cartilage in the shoulder which is distinctly different from the articular cartilage. This cartilage is more fibrous or rigid than the cartilage on the ends of the ball and socket. Also, this cartilage is also found only around the socket where it is attached. The shoulder joint (also known as the glenohumeral joint) is the main joint of the

neg: Navicular syndrome over the area - lies between the navicular bone and the DDF tendon. There is no single known cause of navicular syndrome, although there are many theories, and several primary factors. The first factor is compression of the navicular bone under the DDF tendon and the back of the small pastern bone. Repeated compression in this area can cause cartilage degeneration, with the cartilage flattening and gradually becoming less springy and shock-absorbing. It may also begin to erode. Cartilage degeneration is common in navicular horses, usually along the flexor surface. This finding, and the associated biochemical changes, have led some

neg: Shoulder arthritis Shoulder arthritis Shoulder arthritis can be one of three types of arthritis in the glenohumeral joint of the shoulder. The glenohumeral joint is a ball and socket joint, which relies on cartilage to move smoothly and to operate normally. Shoulder arthritis is a clinical condition in which the joint that connects the ball of the arm bone (humeral head) to the shoulder blade socket (glenoid) has damaged or worn out cartilage. Normally the ends of the bone are covered with hyaline articular cartilage, a surface so smooth that the friction at the joint is less than that of an ice

neg: Elbow dysplasia the joint cartilage, and specifically osteochondritis dissecans (OCD or OD), the separation of a flap of cartilage from the joint surface as a result of avascular necrosis, which in turn arises from failed blood flow in the subchondral bone. Other common causes of elbow dysplasia included ununited anconeal process (UAP) and fractured or ununited medial coronoid process (FCP or FMCP). In OCD, the normal change of cartilage to bone in the development of the joint fails or is delayed. The cartilage continues to grow and may split or become necrotic. The cause is uncertain, but possibly includes genetics, trauma, and

neg: Chondrocalcin protein comes from chondrocytes, which are cells that produce and maintain cartilage. Some examples of chondrocytes include collagen and proteoglycans. The chondrocytes that produce chondrocalcin are typically found in growing bone matrices that have not yet matured. These immature bone matrices are found in the epiphyseal plate at both the lower hypertrophic zone and the longitudinal septa of the cartilaginous matrix. One study was conducted on fetal cartilage discovered that the chondrocalcin protein exists as a dimer with 35,000 g/mol subunits. The reason why fetal cartilage was used is because chondrocalcin cannot be detected in mature bone. Another investigation was

neg: Epiphysis Epiphysis The epiphysis is the rounded end of a long bone, at its joint with adjacent bone(s). Between the epiphysis and diaphysis (the long midsection of the long bone) lies the metaphysis, including the epiphyseal plate (growth plate). At the joint, the epiphysis is covered with articular cartilage; below that covering is a zone similar to the epiphyseal plate, known as bone. The epiphysis is filled with red bone marrow, which produces erythrocytes (red blood cells). There are four types of epiphysis: There are many bones that contain an epiphysis: A "pseudo-epiphysis" is an epiphysis-looking end of a bone where

neg: Knee suprapatellar bursa described above. Four considerably smaller bursae are located on the back of the knee. Two non-communicative bursae are located in front of the patella and below the patellar tendon, and others are sometimes present. Cartilage is a thin, elastic tissue that protects the bone and makes certain that the joint surfaces can slide easily over each other. Cartilage ensures supple knee movement. There are two types of joint cartilage in the knees: fibrous cartilage (the meniscus) and hyaline cartilage. Fibrous cartilage has tensile strength and can resist pressure. Hyaline cartilage covers the surface along which the joints move.

neg: Fibrocartilage torn all the way down to the bone, the blood supply from inside the bone is sometimes enough to start some healing inside the lesion. In cases like this, the body will form a scar in the area using a special type of cartilage called fibrocartilage. Fibrocartilage is a tough, dense, and fibrous material that helps fill in the torn part of the cartilage; however, it is not an ideal replacement for the smooth, glassy articular cartilage that normally covers the surface of joints. Degeneration of fibrocartilage is seen in degenerative disc disease. Fibrocartilage White fibrocartilage consists of a mixture

neg: Artificial cartilage Artificial cartilage Artificial cartilage is a synthetic material made of hydrogels or polymers that aims to mimic the functional properties of natural cartilage in the human body. Tissue engineering principles are used in order to create a non-degradable and biocompatible material that can replace cartilage. While creating a useful synthetic cartilage material, certain challenges need to be overcome. First, cartilage is an avascular structure in the body and therefore does not repair itself. This creates issues in regeneration of the tissue. Synthetic cartilage also needs to be stably attached to its underlying surface, bone. Lastly, in the case of creating

neg: Lateral nasal cartilage Lateral nasal cartilage The lateral cartilage (upper lateral cartilage, lateral process of septal nasal cartilage) is situated below the inferior margin of the nasal bone, and is flattened, and triangular in shape. Its anterior margin is thicker than the posterior, and is continuous above with the septal nasal cartilage, but separated from it below by a narrow fissure; its superior margin is attached to the nasal bone and the frontal process of the maxilla; its inferior margin is connected by fibrous tissue with the greater alar cartilage. Where the lateral cartilage meets the greater alar cartilage, the lateral cartilage often

neg: Cartilage conduction Cartilage conduction Cartilage conduction is a pathway in which sound signals are transmitted to the inner ear. This pathway is distinct from conventional sound pathways such as air or bone. Therefore, cartilage conduction it referred to as the third auditory pathway. Since approximately 450 years ago, two pathways have been acknowledged for transmitting sound to the inner ear; one is air conduction and the other is bone conduction. In 2004, Hiroshi Hosoi, a professor at Nara Medical University, discovered the phenomenon of cartilage vibration in the inner ear. By attaching a vibrator to aural cartilage, sound was found be transmitted

neg: Thescelosaurus the bone, instead of a distinct ball and socket as in mammals. The orientation of the shoulder's articular surface also indicates a vertical and not horizontal upper arm in dinosaurs. Large thin flat mineralized plates have been found next to the ribs' sides. Their function is unknown; they may have played a role in respiration. However, muscle scars or other indications of attachment have not been found for the plates, which argues against a respiratory function. Recent histological study of layered plates from a probable subadult indicates that they may have started as cartilage and became bone as the animal

neg: Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone attachment of the septal nasal cartilage of the nose. The surfaces of the plate are smooth, except above, where numerous grooves and canals are seen; these lead from the medial foramina on the cribriform plate and lodge filaments of the olfactory nerves. Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone The perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone (vertical plate) is a thin, flattened lamina, polygonal in form, which descends from the under surface of the cribriform plate, and assists in forming the septum of the nose; it is generally deflected a little to one or other side. The anterior border articulates with the

neg: Scaphoid bone of the wrist, and articulates with the radius, lunate, trapezoid, trapezium and capitate. Over 80% of the bone is covered in articular cartilage. The palmar surface of the scaphoid is concave, and forming a tubercle, giving attachment to the transverse carpal ligament. The proximal surface is triangular, smooth and convex, and articulates with the radius and adjacent carpal bones, namely the lunate, capitate, trapezium and trapezoid. The lateral surface is narrow and gives attachment to the radial collateral ligament. The medial surface has two facets, a flattened semi-lunar facet articulating with the lunate bone, and an inferior concave facet, articulating

neg: Osseointegration as dental implants and improving prosthetics for amputees. Osseointegration is also defined as: "the formation of a direct interface between an implant and bone, without intervening soft tissue". Osseointegrated implant is a type of implant defined as "an endosteal implant containing pores into which osteoblasts and supporting connective tissue can migrate". Applied to oral implantology, this thus refers to bone grown right up to the implant surface without interposed soft tissue layer. No scar tissue, cartilage or ligament fibers are present between the bone and implant surface. The direct contact of bone and implant surface can be verified microscopically. Osseointegration

neg: Pseudoachondroplasia in the spaces between the cells that make up ligaments and tendons. It is also found near chondrocytes (cartilage-forming cells). Chondrocytes play a vital role in osteogenesis (the formation of bone), particularly in the spine, hips, and limbs where osteogenesis begins with the formation of cartilage, which is then calcified and transformed into bone. We do not yet fully understand the normal function of COMP protein, though it is believed to play a part in cellular growth, division and apoptosis (self-destruction) of cells, as well as participating in the regulation of cell movement and attachment (OMIM 2008). Nearly 60 mutations

neg: Ossification distal femur and proximal tibia which occurs during 9th month of fetal development). The epiphyseal arteries and osteogenic cells invade the epiphysis, depositing osteoblasts and osteoclasts which erode the cartilage and build bone. This occurs at both ends of long bones but only one end of digits and ribs. Several hypotheses have been proposed for how bone evolved as a structural element in vertebrates. One hypothesis is that bone developed from tissues that evolved to store minerals. Specifically, calcium-based minerals were stored in cartilage and bone was an exaptation development from this calcified cartilage. However, other possibilities include bony tissue

neg: In vivo bioreactor calcium from the alginate gel, these cells become bone cells and start producing bone matrix through the intra-membranous ossification process, recapitulating all steps of bone matrix deposition. The extension of the IVB paradigm to engineering autologous hyaline cartilage was also recently demonstrated. In this case, agarose is injected and this triggers local hypoxia, which then results in the differentiation of the periosteal MSCs into articular chondrocytes, i.e. cells similar to those found in the joint cartilage. Since this processes occurs in a relative short period of less than two weeks and cartilage can remodel into bone, this approach might provide

neg: Sublingua be a vestigial version, although that is still disputed. The structure and appearance of the sublingua, frenal lamella, lingual frenulum, and other sublingual tissue vary greatly between primates, and as a result, their terminology is often confused. In the species that have cartilage in the sublingua or lytta, that cartilage is not derived from the hyoid bone or hyoid arch (the bone and cartilage that supports the tongue). Instead, the cartilage of the sublingua is a separately developed structure specifically adapted to support the sublingua. Sublingua The sublingua ("under-tongue") is a muscular secondary tongue found below the primary tongue in

neg: Chondroblast cartilage extracellular matrix as the interior and because here where capillaries are located. The type of growth maintained by chondroblasts is called appositional bone growth and increases the girth of the affected tissue. It is important to note that perichondrium, and thus chondroblasts, are not found on the articular cartilage surfaces of joints. The extracellular matrix secreted by chondroblasts is composed of fibers, collagen, hyaluronic acid, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, water, and a host of macromolecules. Within finished cartilage, collagen fibers compose 10-20% of the volume, water 65-80%, and the proteoglycan-hyaluronic acid aggregates the remaining portion. Due to the proliferative nature of

neg: Bone certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). At skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified. The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are

neg: Bone development of the periosteum. Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones and most other bones in the body; it involves the development of bone from cartilage. This process includes the development of a cartilage model, its growth and development, development of the primary and secondary ossification centers, and the formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plates. Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and

neg: Endochondral ossification Endochondral ossification Endochondral ossification is one of the two essential processes during fetal development of the mammalian skeletal system by which bone tissue is created. Unlike intramembranous ossification, which is the other process by which bone tissue is created, cartilage is present during endochondral ossification. Endochondral ossification is also an essential process during the rudimentary formation of long bones, the growth of the length of long bones, and the natural healing of bone fractures. The cartilage model will grow in length by continuous cell division of chondrocytes, which is accompanied by further secretion of extracellular matrix. This is called interstitial

neg: Hyaline cartilage type II collagen and chondroitin sulphate, both of which are also found in elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage exists on the ventral ends of ribs, in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi, and on the articulating surfaces of bones. It gives the structures a definite but pliable form. The presence of collagen fibres makes such structures and joints strong, but with limited mobility and flexibility. Hyaline cartilage is the most prevalent type of cartilage. It also forms the temporary embryonic skeleton, which is gradually replaced by bone, and the skeleton of elasmobranch fish. When a thin slice of hyaline cartilage is examined

neg: Cetiosauriscus articulates with the coracoid. The coracoid is incomplete, but enough is preserved to show it is rectangular, and longer, at , than it is wide—. A long humerus is known, and complete with minimal crushing. The bone is short and stout, with a robust crest for the deltoid muscle along the upper half of the bone. The shape of the humerus is similar to the shortness of "Neuquensaurus", although overall the forelimb is long, as in "Diplodocus" and "Cetiosaurus", being 69% of the femur length. The distal end is roughened for a large cartilage cap as found in some other

neg: Rib cage and its head is inclined slightly downward. The sternum is a long, flat bone that forms the front of the rib cage. The cartilages of the top seven ribs (the "true ribs") join with the sternum at the sternocostal joints. The costal cartilage of the second rib articulates with the sternum at the sternal angle making it easy to locate. The transversus thoracis muscle is innervated by one of the intercostal nerves and superiorly attaches at the posterior surface of the lower sternum. Its inferior attachment is the internal surface of costal cartilages two through six and works to depress

neg: Osteochondritis dissecans periosteal cells and bone marrow stem cells, as opposed to chondrocytes. These too have demonstrated the ability to regenerate both the cartilage and the underlying subchondral bone. Similar to OATS, arthroscopic articular cartilage paste grafting is a surgical procedure offering cost-effective, long-lasting results for stage IV lesions. A bone and cartilage paste derived from crushed plugs of the non-weight-bearing intercondylar notch can achieve pain relief, repair damaged tissue, and restore function. Some methods of fixation for unstable lesions include countersunk compression screws and Herbert screws or pins made of stainless steel or materials that can be absorbed by the body.

neg: Thyroid cartilage gives attachment to the lateral thyrohyoid ligament. The "inferior horn" is short and thick; it is directed downward, with a slight inclination forward and medialward, and presents, on the medial side of its tip, a small oval articular facet for articulation with the side of the cricoid cartilage. The entire superior edge of the thyroid cartilage is attached to the hyoid bone by the thyrohyoid membrane. The thyroid cartilage is found between the levels of the C4 to C5 vertebrae. The "oblique line" is a line on the thyroid cartilage. It marks the upper lateral borders of the thyroid gland.

neg: Body of sphenoid bone groove, in the angle between the body and greater wing, is a ridge of bone, called the sphenoidal lingula. The posterior surface, quadrilateral in form [Fig. 3], is joined, during infancy and adolescence, to the basilar part of the occipital bone by a plate of cartilage. Between the eighteenth and twenty-fifth years this becomes ossified, ossification commencing above and extending downward. The anterior surface of the body [Fig. 2] presents, in the middle line, a vertical crest, the sphenoidal crest, which articulates with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, and forms part of the nasal septum. On either side of

neg: Talus bone of the bones in the human body with the highest percentage of its surface area covered by articular cartilage. Additionally, it is also unusual in that it has a retrograde blood supply, i.e. arterial blood enters the bone at the distal end. In humans, no muscles attach to the talus, unlike most bones, and its position therefore depends on the position of the neighbouring bones. Though irregular in shape, the talus can be subdivided into three parts. Facing anteriorly, the head carries the articulate surface of the navicular bone, and the neck, the roughened area between the body and the

neg: Pubic symphysis extent resemble tendon cells. The collagenous fibers are usually placed in an orderly arrangement parallel to tension on the tissue. It has a low content of glycosaminoglycans (2% of dry weight). Glycosaminoglycans are long, unbranched polysaccharides (relatively complex carbohydrates) consisting of repeating disaccharide units. Fibrocartilage does not have a surrounding perichondrium. Perichondrium surrounds the cartilage of developing bone; it has a layer of dense, irregular connective tissue and functions in the growth and repair of cartilage. Hyaline cartilage is the white, shiny gristle at the end of long bones. This cartilage has poor healing potential, and efforts to induce it

neg: Human skeleton The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis: Osteoarthritis can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be. Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative

neg: Articular cartilage repair bone and cartilage is removed from the joint. Then a new healthy dowel of bone with its cartilage covering is punched out of the same joint and replanted into the hole left from removing the old damaged bone and cartilage. The healthy bone and cartilage are taken from areas of low stress in the joint so as to prevent weakening the joint. Depending on the severity and overall size of the damage multiple plugs or dowels may be required to adequately repair the joint, which becomes difficult for Osteochondral Autografts. The clinical results may deteriorate over time. For Osteochondral Allografts

neg: Tooth mammals have deep roots, and this pattern is also found in some fish, and in crocodilians. In most teleost fish, however, the teeth are attached to the outer surface of the bone, while in lizards they are attached to the inner surface of the jaw by one side. In cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, the teeth are attached by tough ligaments to the hoops of cartilage that form the jaw. Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn

neg: Theories of Craniofacial Growth cartilage was transplanted into the cultures to see the effects on the growth. When the cartilage was transplanted into the in vitro cultures, it was found that the cartilage from nasal septum grew as nearly as it did in vivo. In comparison, cartilage from mandibular condyle did not grow as well. Therefore, cartilage at condyle, cranial base synchondroses and nasal septum can act as growth centers. The functional matrix hypothesis was popularized by Melvin Moss in 1962. This theory said that neither bone nor cartilage is a major determinant of growth but soft tissue is. His view stated that as

neg: In vivo bioreactor in the procedure is the elevation of the periosteum without damaging the cambium surface and to ensure this a new technique called hydraulic elevation was developed. The choice of the sub-periosteum site is used because stimulation of the cambium layer using transforming growth factor–beta resulted in enhanced chondrogenesis, i.e., formation of cartilage. In development the formation of bone can either occur via a Cartilage template initially formed by the MSCs that then gets ossified through a process called endochondral ossification or directly from MSC differentiation to bone via a process termed "intra-membranous ossification". Upon exposure of the periosteal cells to

neg: Skeleton periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an infant. During embryogenesis the precursor to bone development is cartilage. Much of this substance is then replaced by bone during the second and third trimester, after the flesh such as muscle has formed around it; forming the skeleton. Cartilage is a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the

neg: German Shepherd Shepherds have reduced symptoms of degenerative joint disease and accelerated cartilage healing. Anti-inflammatory effects of glucosamine are believed to contribute to the reduction of pain, promote joint recovery and mobility, and prevent further cartilage degradation. Similarly, chondroitin supplementation is proposed to have comparable results in inhibiting degradative enzymes within the cartilage matrix to reduce the effects of osteoarthritis, but further research is required to assess long term benefits. Vitamins such as A and D also have crucial roles in bone development and maintenance by regulating bone and calcium metabolism. Adequate levels should be incorporated into a German shepherd diet to

neg: Chondrocalcin Chondrocalcin Chondrocalcin comes from a family of pro-collagen molecules. This protein is found in the bone and is involved in calcium-binding, which occurs in order to harden (or calcify) the cartilage. Another one of its roles is to assemble the triple collagen helix, which is predominately entails the linkage of glycine and proline amino acids and then the twisting of those linkages. Chondrocalcin is important because cartilage calcification of the growth plate is one of the main occurrences in endochondral bone formation. Because of its importance, it is one of the most highly created polypeptides in human cartilage. This calcium-binding

neg: Osteochondritis dissecans is fragmentation (dissection) of both cartilage and bone, and the free movement of these bone and cartilage fragments within the joint space, causing pain and further damage. OCD can be difficult to diagnose because these symptoms are found with other diseases. However, the disease can be confirmed by X-rays, computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Non-surgical treatment is rarely an option as the ability for articular cartilage to heal is limited. As a result, even moderate cases require some form of surgery. When possible, non-operative forms of management such as protected reduced or non-weight bearing and immobilization

neg: Nasal chondrocytes local differences in cell size and the amounts of extracellular matrix. In the outer region of the cartilage, NC are numerous, small, flat and oriented parallel to the surface. In the intermediate and central regions, NC are spheroid in shape, less dense, and are aligned perpendicular to the cartilage surface. The cartilage matrix is mainly composed of type II collagen (90-95%), although small amounts of type IX and XI collagen are also found. Nasal cartilage is tightly connected to perichondrium, consisting of several layers of connective tissue fibers (mainly based on type I collagen) running parallel to the cartilage Articular

neg: Chondrogenesis hyaline articular cartilage is progressively mineralized at the junction between cartilage and bone. It is then termed "articular calcified cartilage". A mineralization front advances through the base of the hyaline articular cartilage at a rate dependent on cartilage load and shear stress. Intermittent variations in the rate of advance and mineral deposition density of the mineralizing front, lead to multiple "tidemarks" in the articular calcified cartilage. Adult articular calcified cartilage is penetrated by vascular buds, and new bone produced in the vascular space in a process similar to endochondral ossification at the physis. A "cement line" demarcates articular calcified cartilage

neg: Basilar part of occipital bone Basilar part of occipital bone The basilar part of the occipital bone (also basioccipital) extends forward and upward from the foramen magnum, and presents in front an area more or less quadrilateral in outline. In the young skull this area is rough and uneven, and is joined to the body of the sphenoid by a plate of cartilage. By the twenty-fifth year this cartilaginous plate is ossified, and the occipital and sphenoid form a continuous bone. On its "lower surface", about 1 cm. in front of the foramen magnum, is the pharyngeal tubercle which gives attachment to the fibrous raphe

neg: Cartilage Cartilage Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than muscle.The matrix of cartilage is made up of chondrin. Because of its rigidity, cartilage often serves the purpose of holding tubes open in the body. Examples include the rings of the trachea, such

neg: Cartilage conduction with robots. Currently, loudspeaker systems are used to convey sounds produced by robots. However, such loudspeakers generate loud noises in a room filled with many robots that simultaneously emit speech sounds. Therefore, a man-to-man communication system is needed to overcome this problem. Cartilage conduction can realize better communication than loudspeaker systems. It was initially thought that cartilage conduction was a type of bone conduction. However, several studies demonstrated that the mechanisms of cartilage conduction differ from that of bone conduction. Bone conduction is attributed to bone vibration at the skull, which is transmitted to the inner ear. In contrast, cartilage

neg: ROR2 ROR2 Tyrosine-protein kinase transmembrane receptor ROR2 also known as neurotrophic tyrosine kinase, receptor-related 2, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "ROR2" gene located on position 9 of the long arm of chromosome 9. This protein is responsible for aspects of bone and cartilage growth. It is involved in Robinow syndrome and autosomal dominant brachydactyly type B. ROR2 is a member of the receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor (ROR) family. The protein encoded by this gene is a receptor tyrosine kinase and type I transmembrane protein that belongs to the ROR subfamily of cell surface receptors. The

neg: Osteotomy a triangle form in the shinbone. A standard oscillating saw is run along the guide wires, removing most of the bone wedge from underneath the outside of the knee, below the healthy cartilage. The cartilage surface on the top of the outside (lateral side) of the shinbone is left intact. The top of the shinbone is then lowered on the outside and attached with surgical staples or screws, depending on the size of the wedge that was removed. The layers of tissue in the knee are stitched together, usually with absorbable sutures. A fall or torque to the leg during

neg: Chondroblast proteoglycan and collagen fibers, until they lie in the matrix lacunae. Once they embed themselves into the cartilage matrix, they grow the cartilage matrix by growing more cartilage extracellular matrix rather than by dividing further. Within adults and developing adults, most chondroblasts are located in the perichondrium. This is a thin layer of connective tissue which protects cartilage and is where chondroblasts help to expand cartilage size whenever prompted to by hormones such as GH, TH, and glycosaminoglycans. They are located on the perichondrium because the perichondrium, located on the outside of developing bone, is not as heavily ensheathed in

neg: Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair microdrilling (also microfracture) surgery followed by post-operative injections of autologous peripheral blood progenitor cells (PBPC) in combination with hyaluronic acid(HA). Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells found in multiple human adult tissues including bone marrow, synovial tissues, and adipose tissues. Since they are derived from the mesoderm, they have been shown to differentiate into bone, cartilage, muscle, and adipose tissue. MSCs from embryonic sources have shown promise scientifically while creating significant controversy. As a result, many researchers have focused on adult stem cells, or stem cells isolated from adult humans that can

neg: Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells found in multiple human adult tissues including bone marrow, synovial tissues, and adipose tissues. Since they are derived from the mesoderm, they have been shown to differentiate into bone, cartilage, muscle, and adipose tissue. MSCs from embryonic sources have shown promise scientifically while creating significant controversy. As a result, many researchers have focused on adult stem cells, or stem cells isolated from adult humans that can be transplanted into damaged tissue. Because of their multi-potent capabilities, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) lineages have been used successfully in

neg: Kevin R. Stone stem cell with shell graft approach to replacing the articular cartilage surface of the knee. Allison Gannet, a World Cup freeskier Champion, had had 7 previous knee surgeries before having a biological joint replacement, with Stone as her surgeon. This procedure included the articular cartilage paste grafting procedure, and following, Gannet reported being pain free for the first time in 8 years. Xenograft ligament cartilage, bone, and tendon transplantation. FDA-Approved ACL Replacement Study 2003 - PRESENT CE Mark issued April 2014. Stone's experience with collagen scaffolds sourced from bovine Achilles tendons led him to focus on other animal tissues that

neg: Hereditary multiple exostoses or neurological compromise should arouse suspicion of involvement of the vertebrae. It is characterized by the growth of cartilage-capped benign bone tumours around areas of active bone growth, particularly the metaphysis of the long bones. Typically five or six exostoses are found in upper and lower limbs. Most common locations are: HME can lead to the shortening and bowing of bones; affected individuals often have a short stature. Depending on their location the exostoses can cause the following problems: pain or numbness from nerve compression, vascular compromise, inequality of limb length, irritation of tendon and muscle, Madelung's deformity as well

neg: Senior dog diet important to note the effects of these supplements is not instant and the aforementioned studies showed approximately a 3-month period between the beginning of supplementation and the reduction of symptoms. Glucosamine is a building block for the synthesis of cartilage tissue. It is found naturally in the body, mainly in the fluid which surrounds the joints. This can help aging joints by maintaining the cartilage, thus reducing the pain caused by bone-on-bone contact within the joint (this is the primary source of joint pain in aging animals). This will increase the mobility of the dog which is vital for the

neg: Cartilage conduction conduction is accounted for by sound (vibration) energy stimulating the cartilage at the external auditory canal to create sonic waves in the ear canal. Such sonic wave energy passes through the eardrum and the middle ear before finally activating the auditory nerve. These different mechanisms would explain the following observed differences between cartilage and bone pathways: 1. A variety of sound pressure levels can be created by contact pressure in cartilage conduction compared with that in bone conduction. 2. A sound in cartilage conduction is more stereophonic than that in bone conduction. 3. Frequency characteristics are different between cartilage and

neg: In vivo bioreactor some advantages in treatment of both cartilage and bone loss. The IVB concept needs to be however realized in humans and this is currently being undertaken. In vivo bioreactor The in vivo bioreactor (IVB) is a regenerative medicine paradigm where bone is grown in vivo. The IVB has basic elements: An example of the implementation of the IVB approach was in the engineering of autologous bone by injecting calcium alginate in a sub-periosteal location. The periosteum is a membrane that covers the long bones, jawbone, ribs and the skull. This membrane contains an endogenous population of pluripotent cells called the

neg: Boomerang dysplasia Boomerang dysplasia Boomerang dysplasia is a lethal form of osteochondrodysplasia known for a characteristic congenital feature in which bones of the arms and legs are malformed into the shape of a boomerang. Death usually occurs in early infancy due to complications arising from overwhelming systemic bone malformations. Osteochondrodysplasias are skeletal disorders that cause malformations of both bone and cartilage. Prenatal and neonatal diagnosis of boomerang dysplasia includes several prominent features found in other osteochondrodysplasias, though the "boomerang" malformation seen in the long bones is the delineating factor. Featured symptoms of boomerang dysplasia include: dwarfism (a lethal type of infantile dwarfism

neg: Boomerang dysplasia caused by systemic bone deformities), underossification (lack of bone formation) in the limbs, spine and ilium (pelvis); proliferation of multinucleated giant-cell chondrocytes (cells that produce cartilage and play a role in skeletal development - chondrocytes of this type are rarely found in osteochondrodysplasias), brachydactyly (shortened fingers) and micromelia (undersized, shortened bones). The characteristic "boomerang" malformation presents intermittently among random absences of long bones throughout the skeleton, in affected individuals. For example, one individual may have an absent radius and fibula, with the "boomerang" formation found in both ulnas and tibias. Another patient may present "boomerang" femora, and an absent tibia.

neg: Thyrohyoid membrane Thyrohyoid membrane The thyrohyoid membrane (or hyothyroid membrane) is a broad, fibro-elastic sheet of the larynx. It is attached below to the upper border of the thyroid cartilage and to the front of its superior cornu, and above to the upper margin of the posterior surface of the body and greater cornua of the hyoid bone, thus passing behind the posterior surface of the body of the hyoid. It is separated from the hyoid bone by a mucous bursa, which facilitates the upward movement of the larynx during swallowing. Its middle thicker part is termed the median thyrohyoid ligament, its

neg: Bone and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon. Cancellous bone, also called trabecular or spongy bone, is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone because it is less dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red

neg: Microfracture surgery due to a lack of studies on the long-term effects and the fact that an unsuccessful surgery could end an athlete's career. Dr. Steadman has also adapted the surgery into a treatment to help reattach torn ligaments (a technique he calls the "healing response") The surgery is performed by arthroscopy, after the joint is cleaned of calcified cartilage. Through use of an awl, the surgeon creates tiny fractures in the subchondral bone plate. Blood and bone marrow (which contains stem cells) seep out of the fractures, creating a blood clot that releases cartilage-building cells. The microfractures are treated as an

neg: Marine life and rays, have jaws and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Megalodon is an extinct species of shark that lived about 28 to 1.5 Ma. It looked much like a stocky version of the great white shark, but was much larger with fossil lengths reaching . Found in all oceans it was one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history, and probably had a profound impact on marine life. The Greenland shark has the longest known lifespan of all vertebrates, about 400 years. Bony fish have jaws and skeletons made of bone rather than cartilage. Bony

neg: Tympanoplasty to the bone chain of the middle ear. Commonly affected bone is the long process of incus, where it gets necrosed. The bone chain can be repaired using autograft of incus or cartilage. Prosthetic implants made of hydroxyapatite or teflon are also used. Tympanoplasty can be performed through the ear canal (transcanal approach), through an incision in the ear (endaural approach) or through an incision behind the ear (postauricular approach). A graft may be taken to reconstruct the tympanic membrane. Common graft sites include the temporalis fascia and the tragus. The surgery takes ½ to 1 hour if done through

neg: Osteoblast major extent where chondrocyte differentiation occurs and where spaces are left between bones. The system of cartilage replacement by bone has a complex regulatory system. BMP2 also regulates early skeletal patterning. transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), is part of a superfamily of proteins that include BMPs, which possess common signaling elements in the TGF beta signaling pathway. TGF-β is particularly important in cartilage differentiation, which generally precedes bone formation for endochondral ossification. An additional family of essential regulatory factors is the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) that determine where skeletal elements occur in relation to the skin. Many other regulatory systems

neg: Lateral nasal cartilage curls up, to join with an inward curl of the greater alar cartilage. That curl of the inferior portion of the lateral cartilage is called its "scroll." Lateral nasal cartilage The lateral cartilage (upper lateral cartilage, lateral process of septal nasal cartilage) is situated below the inferior margin of the nasal bone, and is flattened, and triangular in shape. Its anterior margin is thicker than the posterior, and is continuous above with the septal nasal cartilage, but separated from it below by a narrow fissure; its superior margin is attached to the nasal bone and the frontal process of the

neg: Chondrocalcin conducted to determine the mechanism behind calcium binding in chondrocalcin. It was discovered that along with cartilage building, the protein also had a role in cartilage destruction. Chondrocalcin Chondrocalcin comes from a family of pro-collagen molecules. This protein is found in the bone and is involved in calcium-binding, which occurs in order to harden (or calcify) the cartilage. Another one of its roles is to assemble the triple collagen helix, which is predominately entails the linkage of glycine and proline amino acids and then the twisting of those linkages. Chondrocalcin is important because cartilage calcification of the growth plate is

neg: Enchondroma or several tumors. The conditions that involve multiple lesions include the following: While the exact cause of enchondroma is not known, it is believed to occur either as an overgrowth of the cartilage that lines the ends of the bones, or as a persistent growth of original, embryonic cartilage. Enchondroma is a type of benign bone tumor that originates from cartilage. The exact etiology of it is not known. An enchondroma most often affects the cartilage that lines the inside of the bones. The bones most often involved with this benign tumor are the miniature long bones of the hands

neg: Maxillary sinus Maxillary sinus The pyramid-shaped maxillary sinus (or antrum of Highmore) is the largest of the paranasal sinuses, and drains into the middle meatus of the nose. It is the largest air sinus in the body. Found in the body of the maxilla, this sinus has three recesses: an alveolar recess pointed inferiorly, bounded by the alveolar process of the maxilla; a zygomatic recess pointed laterally, bounded by the zygomatic bone; and an infraorbital recess pointed superiorly, bounded by the inferior orbital surface of the maxilla. The medial wall is composed primarily of cartilage. The ostia for drainage are located high

neg: Osteotomy years. The location of the removed wedge of bone depends on where osteoarthritis has damaged the knee cartilage. The most common type of osteotomy performed on arthritic knees is a high tibial osteotomy, which addresses cartilage damage on the inside (medial) portion of the knee. The procedure usually takes 60 to 90 minutes to perform. During a high tibial osteotomy, surgeons remove a wedge of bone from the outside of the knee, which causes the leg to bend slightly inward. This resembles the realigning of a bowlegged knee to a knock-kneed position. The patient's weight is transferred to the outside

neg: Pannus lenses) or inflammation may lead to peripheral corneal vascularization, or pannus. Pannus may also develop in diseases of the corneal stem cells, such as aniridia. It is often resolved by peritomy. Pannus Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue. Common sites for pannus formation include over the cornea, over a joint surface (as seen in rheumatoid arthritis), or on a prosthetic heart valve. Pannus may grow in a tumor-like fashion, as in joints where it may erode articular cartilage and bone. In common usage, the term "pannus" is often used to refer to a panniculus (a

neg: Theories of Craniofacial Growth sutures lead to expansion of bone and thus growth of craniofacial skeleton. Cranial vault increases in size via the primary growth of bone that happens at the suture. Sicher theorized that tissues such as periosteum, Cartilage and sutures are growth centers just like epiphysis of the long bone that allow the bone to form. He said that growth of maxilla happens at expansion of the circummaxillary sutures which push maxilla down and forward. Evidence says that sutures are growth sites that respond intrinsically to signals. This theory was popularized by Scott in 1950s and states that cartilage determines the craniofacial

neg: Articular cartilage repair pain, mechanical restriction and inflammation. Lavage focusses on removing degenerative articular cartilage flaps and fibrous tissue. The main target group are patients with very small defects of the articular cartilage. Marrow stimulating techniques attempt to solve articular cartilage damage through an arthroscopic procedure. Firstly, damaged cartilage is drilled or punched until the underlying bone is exposed. By doing this, the subchondral bone is perforated to generate a blood clot within the defect. Studies, however, have shown that marrow stimulation techniques often have insufficiently filled the chondral defect and the repair material is often fibrocartilage (which is not as good mechanically

neg: Osteochondroma can also occur due to bursal inflammation, swelling or fracture at the base of the tumor stalk. Some of the clinical signs and symptoms of malignant osteochondroma are pain, swelling, and mass enlargement. Osteochondromas are long and slender, pedunculated on a stalk often taking the shape of a cauliflower. The cartilage cap is covered by fibrous perichondrium and continues with the periosteum of the underlying bone. The cartilage cap is less than 2 cm thick and the thickness decreases with age. A cap more than 2 cm thick, indicates malignant transformation of a tumor. The cartilage cap merges with the

neg: Fibrocartilaginous mesenchymoma of bone and radiodense foci admixed to speckled calcification. Cortical destruction is a common finding with no soft tissue expansion in many cases. Histopathology of the lesion shows large areas of mature fibrous stroma undergoing hyaline cartilage metaplasia resulting in conspicuous lobules or gradual transformation into chondroid foci. Both hyaline cartilage and chondroid in turn undergo calcification and endochondral cancellous bone formation mimicking epiphyseal plate-like cartilage. Differential diagnosis is concerned with fibrocartilaginous dysplasia of bone, desmoplastic fibroma, low-grade fibrosarcoma, chondromyxoid fibroma and low-grade chondrosarcoma. A full account of imaging findings on radiography, bone scan, CT and magnetic resonance has been provided by

neg: Bone healing the granulation tissue develop into chondroblasts which also form hyaline cartilage. These two new tissues grow in size until they unite with each other. These processes culminate in a new mass of heterogeneous tissue known as a fracture callus. Callus formation peaks at day 14 of fracture. Eventually, the fracture gap is bridged. The next phase is the replacement of the hyaline cartilage and woven bone with lamellar bone. The replacement process is known as endochondral ossification with respect to the hyaline cartilage and bony substitution with respect to the woven bone. Substitution of woven bone happens before substitution of

neg: TGF beta signaling pathway are a variety of mechanisms where the pathway is modulated either positively or negatively: There are agonists for ligands and R-SMADs; there are decoy receptors; and R-SMADs and receptors are ubiquitinated. Both chordin and noggin are antagonists of BMPs. They bind BMPs preventing the binding of the ligand to the receptor. It has been demonstrated that Chordin and Noggin dorsalize mesoderm. They are both found in the dorsal lip of "Xenopus" and convert otherwise epidermis specified tissue into neural tissue (see neurulation). Noggin plays a key role in cartilage and bone patterning. Mice Noggin-/- have excess cartilage and lacked joint

neg: Dermal bone variation in shape and in the number of bones in the skull roof and postcranial structures. In bony fish, dermal bone is found in the fin rays and scales. A special example of dermal bone is the clavicle. Dermal bone A dermal bone or membrane bone is a bony structure derived from intramembranous ossification forming components of the vertebrate skeleton including much of the skull, jaws, gill covers, shoulder girdle and fin spines rays (lepidotrichia), and the shell (of tortoises and turtles). In contrast to endochondral bone, dermal bone does not form from cartilage that then calcifies, and it is

neg: Knee cartilage replacement therapy extreme cases, bone can be exposed in the joint. Some additional examples of cartilage failure mechanisms include cellular matrix linkage rupture, chondrocyte protein synthesis inhibition, and chondrocyte apoptosis. There are several different repair options available for cartilage damage or failure. "Maci" or autologous cultured chondrocytes on porcine collagen membrane, is a treatment to correct cartilage defects in the knee. This treatment has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2016 for adult treatment only. Autologous matrix-induced chondrogenesis, which is also known as AMIC, is a biological treatment option for articular cartilage damage bone marrow stimulating technique in combination

neg: Artificial cartilage stresses. Similarly, collagen fibers are aligned perpendicular to the surface in the deep zone in order to restrict compressive forces. Between bone and the deep zone lies calcified cartilage. Cell arrangement also varies between the zones, in deeper zones chondrocytes are stacked into columns while in the superficial zones they are arranged randomly. In the superficial regions the cells are also more elongated, while in deeper zones they are more spherical in nature. Synthetic cartilage can be composed of many different materials that mimic its functional properties. Tissue engineering principles include the use of cells, growth factors, and synthetic scaffolds

neg: Bone morphogenetic protein 4 it rescues a defect of terminal differentiation in SVZ neurospheres where the gene Tis21/BTG2 - required for terminal differentiation - has been deleted. Tis21 is a positive regulator of BMP4 expression in the SVZ. BMP4 is important for bone and cartilage metabolism. The BMP4 signaling has been found in formation of early mesoderm and germ cells. Limb bud regulation and development of the lungs, liver, teeth and facial mesenchyme cells are other important functions attributed to BMP4 signaling. Digit formation is influenced by BMP4, along with other BMP signals. The interdigital mesenchyme exhibits BMP4, which prevents apoptosis of the region.