query: what are three major causes of the french revolution

pos: Causes of the French Revolution the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large." Because the nobles successfully defended their privileges, the king of France lacked the means to impose a "just and proportioned" tax. The desire to do so led directly to the decision in 1788 to call the Estates-General into session. The financial strain of servicing old debt and the excesses of the current royal court caused dissatisfaction with the monarchy, contributed to national unrest, and culminated in the French Revolution of 1789. Louis XVI, his

pos: French Revolution global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. The causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years' War and the American Revolution, the French government was deeply in debt. It attempted to restore its financial status through unpopular taxation schemes, which were heavily regressive. Leading up to the Revolution, years of bad harvests worsened by deregulation of the grain industry also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the aristocracy and the

pos: States and Social Revolutions States and Social Revolutions States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China is a 1979 book by political scientist and sociologist Theda Skocpol, published by Cambridge University Press, which explains the causes of revolutions through the structural functionalism sociological paradigm comparative historical analysis of the French Revolution of 1789 through the early 19th century, the Russian Revolution of 1917 through the 1930s and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 through the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s. Skocpol argues that these three cases, despite being spread over a century and a half, are similar in the sense that

pos: Causes of the French Revolution the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large." Because the nobles successfully defended their privileges, the king of France lacked the means to impose a "just and proportioned" tax. The desire to do so led directly to the decision in 1788 to call the Estates-General into session. The financial strain of servicing old debt and the excesses of the current royal court caused dissatisfaction with the monarchy, contributed to national unrest, and culminated in the French Revolution of 1789. Louis XVI, his

pos: States and Social Revolutions and the ideologies prove meaningless without the proper causes for revolution being present. Jeff Goodwin argues, in his own analysis of “States and Social Revolutions,” that Skocpol's fame comes in large part, not from a substantial amount of people reading her book, but from a small amount of “designated readers” critiquing her book and spreading what they believe to be her main ideas. Goodwin says, “A good part of Skocpol’s fame is due to the wide diffusion of several misformulations of some key ideas.” Goodwin explains three major “misformulations” scholars have made about “States and Social Revolutions.” The first misinterpretation

pos: Theda Skocpol "French Revolution" of 1787-1800, The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921, and The Chinese Revolution of 1911-1949. According to Skocpol, there are two stages to social revolutions: a crisis of state and the emergence of a dominant class to take advantage of a revolutionary situation. The crisis of state emerges from poor economy, natural disaster, food shortage, or security concerns. Leaders of the revolution also have to face these constraints, and their handling of them affects how well they re-establish the state. Skocpol uses Marxism’s class struggle to assert that the main causes of social unrest are state social structures, international competitive

pos: Mathias Döpfner Under the title "Freedom and the Digital Revolution" Döpfner held three lectures, which addressed Germans' difficult relationship to freedom, the global erosion of freedom and its causes, and digitization as the fourth major cultural revolution and its impact on the freedom of press, privacy, and journalism as well as in his book "Die Freiheitsfalle - The freedom trap" published by Propyläen Verlag in 2011, in which he focuses on the West’s growing tiredness of defending freedom. Taking three watershed events as examples – the fall of the Berlin Wall, Nine Eleven and the financial crisis – Döpfner analyzes the triumphs,

pos: Causes of the French Revolution have lagged slightly behind the Low Countries, and possibly Switzerland, in per capita wealth, the sheer size of the French economy made it the premier economic power of continental Europe. Historian John Shovlin states, "It is a truism that the French Revolution was touched off by the near bankruptcy of the state." It was the burden of the national debt that led this to the long-running financial crisis of the French government. Before the revolution, the French debt had risen from 8 billion to 12 billion livres. Extravagant expenditures on luxuries by Louis XVI, whose rule began in 1774, were

pos: States and Social Revolutions says that the convening of the Estates General in 1789 was essential for the start of the French Revolution. This “is not to say that the king intended to start a revolution.” According to Marinas, “to say this is also to say that the ‘causal arguments’ ...are not sufficient to explain the French Revolution...they leave out precisely what one needs in order to explain the French Revolution, or indeed, to explain any historical event.” Skocpol’s book “States and Social Revolutions” gives an understanding of the similarities and differences between the structures of prerevolutionary and postrevolutionary societies in each of the

pos: Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution The Iranian Revolution was a populist, nationalist and Shi'a Islamic revolution that replaced a secular dictatorial monarchy with a theocracy based on "Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists" (or "velayat-e faqi.). Its causes – why the last Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) was overthrown and why he was replaced by an Islamic Republic – are the subject of historical debate. The revolution was in part a conservative backlash against the westernization, modernization and secularization efforts of the Western-backed Shah, and a more popular reaction to social injustice and other shortcomings of the "ancien

pos: Women in the French Revolution Women in the French Revolution Historians since the late 20th century have debated how women shared in the French Revolution and what long-term impact it had on French women. Women had no political rights in pre-Revolutionary France; they were considered "passive" citizens, forced to rely on men to determine what was best for them. That changed dramatically in theory as there seemingly were great advances in feminism. Feminism emerged in Paris as part of a broad demand for social and political reform. The women demanded equality to men and then moved on to a demand for the end of male

pos: Day of the Tiles Day of the Tiles The Day of the Tiles () was an event that took place in the French town of Grenoble on 7 June in 1788. It was one of the first disturbances which preceded the French Revolution, and is credited by a few historians as its start. Grenoble was the scene of popular unrest due to financial hardship from the economic crises. The causes of the French Revolution affected all of France, but matters came to a head first in Grenoble. Unrest in the parlementary town was sparked by the attempts of Cardinal Étienne Charles de Loménie de

pos: Cultural history is often characterised as replacing the allegedly dominant, allegedly Marxist, 'social interpretation' which locate the causes of the Revolution in class dynamics. The revisionist approach has tended to put more emphasis on 'political culture'. Reading ideas of political culture through Habermas' conception of the public sphere, historians of the Revolution in the past few decades have looked at the role and position of cultural themes such as gender, ritual, and ideology in the context of pre-revolutionary French political culture. Historians who might be grouped under this umbrella are Roger Chartier, Robert Darnton, Patrice Higonnet, Lynn Hunt, Keith Baker, Joan Landes,

pos: Causes of the French Revolution economic crisis was due to the rapidly increasing costs of government and to the overwhelming costs incurred by fighting two major wars: the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War. These costs could not be met from the usual sources of state revenue. Since the 1770s, several attempts by different ministers to introduce financial stability had failed. The taxation system was burdensome upon the middle class and the more prosperous peasants, given that the nobles were largely able to exempt themselves from it. As a result, there was "an insistent demand" for reform of these abuses of privilege, for

pos: Causes of the French Revolution government policy. Dislike of the nobility was especially intense. Successive French kings and their ministers had tried with limited success to suppress the power of the nobles but, in the last quarter of the 18th century, "the aristocracy were beginning once again to tighten their hold on the machinery of government". A growing number of the French citizenry had absorbed the ideas of "equality" and "freedom of the individual" as presented by Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot and other philosophers and social theorists of the Age of Enlightenment. The American Revolution demonstrated that it was plausible for Enlightenment ideas about

pos: Jay Haze money for different causes without any major backing or corporate support. He currently resides in Lima, Peru where he is launching a new project entitled "creative-beats" teaching electronic music production to impoverished children throughout the third world, collaborating with existing social programs and networks. He recently released a short film portraying what life is like in the slums of Lima, Peru. In the early 2000s Jay was involved in the emerging digital revolution within the music industry when he co-founded (together with UC Berkeley professor Björn Hartmann) Textone internet label. Textone was one of the first record labels of its

pos: Alfred Cobban his inaugural lecture as professor of French history at University College, London to attack what he called the "social interpretation" of the French Revolution. The lecture was later published as "The Myth of the French Revolution" (1955). Cobban and Furet believed that the Revolution did little to change French society, in direct opposition to the orthodox Marxist school, which saw the Revolution as the rise of the bourgeoisie and proletariat against the nobility and the transition from feudalism to capitalism, making it a symbol of progress. He believed traditional landowners and the middle class wanted access to political power. He

pos: Defective democracy major impact on the nation’s democracy is the geographical location of the nation. This can have a major impact due to surrounding nations and their influence they can have over other nations in the region. Other causes for defective democracies are: Path of modernization, Level of modernization, Economic trends, Social Capital, Civil Society, Political Institutions, Education. There are many different forms of defective democracy. In order to fully understand what makes a democracy defective, one must first look at what a democratic form of government is, and what makes said democratic system healthy. A democracy is a system of government

pos: French Revolution in the shadow of the French Revolution. Almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. Its central phrases and cultural symbols, such as "La Marseillaise" and "Liberté, fraternité, égalité, ou la mort", became the clarion call for other major upheavals in modern history, including the Russian Revolution over a century later. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day. The Revolution resulted in the suppression of the feudal system, emancipation of the individual, a greater division of landed property, abolition of the privileges of noble birth, and nominal establishment of

pos: James Parkinson the Pitt government. His early career was marked by his being involved in a variety of social and revolutionary causes, and some historians think he most likely was a strong proponent for the French Revolution. He published nearly 20 political pamphlets in the post-French Revolution period, while Britain was in political chaos. Writing under his own name and his pseudonym "Old Hubert", he called for radical social reforms and universal suffrage. Parkinson called for representation of the people in the House of Commons, the institution of annual parliaments. He was a member of several secret political societies, including the London

pos: Causes of poverty all causes and effects of poverty. One of South Africa's major causes and effects of poverty is unemployment. Unemployment causes families to live in unsanitary conditions because a lack of financial means to improve living conditions. If the parents are unemployed, this can also affect how the child is brought up and what kind of education they receive. This issue has been recognized by the South African government and they have created organisations like the Expanded Public Works Program, also known as the EPWP. This program is an important gateway to labor absorption and provides income for poor families. Poverty

pos: Paul Slovic on their perceptions. These perceptions can vary from people’s status, background, education, biology, etc. The different perceptions decide how risky a choice of action is in extreme events over another. Risk perceptions are connected between emotions and reason, which creates rational behavior. Slovic explains what risk actually is. He says it is a hazard, probability, it has consequences, and threat. Since it has so many subjective meanings tied to it, it often causes communication failure. Risk perceptions are studied in three major ways: axiomatic measurement paradigm, socio-cultural paradigm, and psychometric paradigm. The axiomatic measurement looks at how people view consequences

pos: Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution Carter, liberals were in retreat." Another author, Moojan Momen, questions whether Carter "could have said or done" anything to save the Shah – aside from foregoing his human rights policy – since "any direct interference by America would only have increased resentment" against the pro-American Shah. Theda Skocpol, an American socialist specializing in study of social revolutions, proposed an unprecedented cultural theory to account for the unique aspects of the Iranian Revolution which she admit falsified her past history-based theories on causes of social revolutions. Skocpol argued that the revolution diverges from past revolutions in three distinct ways: Although the

neg: Causes of the French Revolution crisis had become a political crisis as well, and the French Revolution loomed just beyond the horizon. Causes of the French Revolution The causes of the French Revolution can be attributed to several intertwining factors: All these factors created a revolutionary atmosphere and a tricky situation for Louis XVI. In order to resolve the crisis, the king summoned the Estates-General in May 1789 and, as it came to an impasse, the representatives of the Third Estates formed a National Assembly, against the wishes of the king, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution. The essence of the revolutionary situation which

neg: Causes of the French Revolution Causes of the French Revolution The causes of the French Revolution can be attributed to several intertwining factors: All these factors created a revolutionary atmosphere and a tricky situation for Louis XVI. In order to resolve the crisis, the king summoned the Estates-General in May 1789 and, as it came to an impasse, the representatives of the Third Estates formed a National Assembly, against the wishes of the king, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution. The essence of the revolutionary situation which existed in France in the 1780s was the bankruptcy of the king, and hence the state. This

neg: François-René de Chateaubriand on his own literary work. His exile forced Chateaubriand to examine the causes of the French Revolution, which had cost the lives of many of his family and friends; these reflections inspired his first work, "Essai sur les Révolutions" (1797). An attempt in 18th-century style to explain the French Revolution, it predated his subsequent, romantic style of writing and was largely ignored. A major turning point in Chateaubriand's life was his conversion back to the Catholic faith of his childhood around 1798. Chateaubriand took advantage of the amnesty issued to "émigrés" to return to France in May 1800 (under the

neg: Economic history of Nigeria Only a monopoly company could afford to build and maintain the forts considered essential to hold stocks of slaves and trade goods. In the early 18th century, Britain and France repired the Dutch hold on West African trade; and by the end of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815), Britain had become the dominant commercial power in West Africa. The slave trade was one of the major causes of the devastating internecine strife in southern Nigeria during the three centuries to the mid-19th century, when abolition occurred. In the 19th century, Britain was interested primarily in opening

neg: Judicial system of the Russian Empire what had been given. It was reserved for the third Duma, after the revolution, to begin the reversal of this process. The system established by the law of 1864 was remarkable in that it set up two wholly separate orders of tribunals, each having their own courts of appeal and coming in contact only in the senate, as the supreme court of cassation. The first of these, based on the English model, are the courts of the elected justices of the community, with jurisdiction over petty causes, whether civil or criminal; the second, based on the French model, are the

neg: French Revolution a feminist by virtue of the fact that she was a woman working to influence the world. Her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join. As she was led to the scaffold, Madame Roland shouted "O liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name!" Most of these activists were punished for their actions. Many of the women of the Revolution were even publicly executed for "conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic". A major aspect of the

neg: Childers Incident 1790. The French Atlantic Fleet however was in poor condition: the principal fleet base at Brest in Brittany had been the scene of a significant mutiny in 1790 and by 1791 desertion rates among French naval officers were running at more than 80%. Despite its strong republican politics and command difficulties, the fleet itself was very strong, having been expanded and improved during the 1780s – indeed the tax rises to pay for the French Navy had been one of the causes of the original Revolution in 1789. The strength of the French Atlantic fleet was a major cause of

neg: French Revolution present, almost all of them Jacobins. In reaction, on 19 August the Prussian general Duke of Brunswick invaded France and besieged Longwy. On 26 August, the Assembly decreed the deportation of refractory priests in the west of France, as "causes of danger to the fatherland", to destinations like French Guiana. In reaction, peasants in the Vendée took over a town, in another step toward civil war. What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. With enemy troops advancing, the Commune looked for potential traitors in Paris. On 2, 3 and 4 September 1792, hundreds

neg: French language in the United States sources have recorded as many as 13 million people claiming this ancestry. Most French-speaking Americans are of this heritage, but there are also significant populations not of French descent who speak it as well, including those from Belgium, Switzerland, Haiti and numerous Francophone African countries. There are three major groups of French dialects that emerged in what is now the United States: Louisiana French, Missouri French, and New England French (essentially a variant of Canadian French). Louisiana French is traditionally divided into three dialects, Colonial French, Louisiana Creole French, and Cajun French. Colonial French is traditionally said to have been

neg: History of anarchism and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed". The debate of the effects of the French Revolution to the anarchist causes spans to our days. Anarchist historian Max Nettlau, French revolutions did nothing more than re-shaping and modernizing the militaristic state while Kropotkin on the other hand, traced the origins of the anarchist movement in the struggle of the revolutionaries. The Frenchman Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is regarded as the first self-proclaimed anarchist, a label he adopted in his groundbreaking work "What is Property?", published in 1840. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon

neg: Major William Haymond former residence at Quiet Dell, WV. Prickett's Fort State Park Virginia Regiment Major William Haymond William Haymond (January 4, 1740 – November 12, 1821) was military officer and surveyor. Haymond served in the French and Indian War and the Revolutionary War. Prior to the Revolution, he served in George Washington's Virginia Regiment. During his military career, he reached the rank of major. After the Revolution, he served as an official surveyor in what is now West Virginia. William Haymond was born in the colony of Maryland, January 4, 1740, to John Haymond and Margaret Calder. John and Margaret were married

neg: Major William Haymond Major William Haymond William Haymond (January 4, 1740 – November 12, 1821) was military officer and surveyor. Haymond served in the French and Indian War and the Revolutionary War. Prior to the Revolution, he served in George Washington's Virginia Regiment. During his military career, he reached the rank of major. After the Revolution, he served as an official surveyor in what is now West Virginia. William Haymond was born in the colony of Maryland, January 4, 1740, to John Haymond and Margaret Calder. John and Margaret were married August 22, 1723, at Queen Anne's Parish in Maryland. They had at

neg: The Affair of the Necklace The Affair of the Necklace The Affair of the Necklace is a 2001 American historical drama film directed by Charles Shyer. The screenplay by John Sweet is based on what became known as the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, an incident that helped fuel the French populace's disillusionment with the monarchy and, among other causes, eventually led to the French Revolution. The film received negative reviews from critics, but the sets, music and costume design were widely praised. Jeanne de Saint-Rémy de Valois, orphaned at an early age, is determined to reclaim her royal title and the home taken from

neg: Ancien Régime and they became a vehicle for the expansion of royal power in matters of justice, taxation and policing. By the Revolution, there were 36 généralités; the last two were created in 1784. The desire for more efficient tax collection was one of the major causes for French administrative and royal centralization in the early modern period. The taille became a major source of royal income. Exempted from the taille were clergy and nobles (except for non-noble lands they held in "pays d'état", see below), officers of the crown, military personnel, magistrates, university professors and students, and certain cities ("villes franches")

neg: Georges Lefebvre reprinted in 1970. Its reputation was already secure in the English-speaking world, however, since the English translation, "The Coming of the French Revolution" (1939) had established it as a clear, yet subtle, classic. It remains the definitive explanation of the Marxist interpretation of the causes of the Revolution. His seminal work, "La Révolution Française" (revised edition, 1951) was translated into English as two volumes: "The French Revolution From Its Origins To 1793" (1962-4) and "The French Revolution from 1793 to 1799" (1964). He also wrote a highly regarded study of "Napoléon" (4th edition 1953; translated in 2 volumes, 1969). A

neg: The Genius of Christianity Catholics. Within five years, he had quarrelled with the author and sent him into internal exile. In "The Genius of Christianity", Chateaubriand defends the wisdom and beauty of Christianity against the attacks on it by French Enlightenment philosophers and revolutionary politicians. The book had an immense influence on nineteenth-century culture and not just on religious life. In fact, it might be said its greatest impact was on art and literature: it was a major inspiration for the Romantic movement. The book emerged from Chateaubriand's attempt to understand the causes of the French Revolution, which had led to the deaths of

neg: Causes of the French Revolution an equitable means of taxation and for improved government processes. David Thomson argued that the "bourgeoisie" and peasantry had "something to lose, not merely something to gain" in their demands for a fairer society and this fear too was a major factor in the revolutionary situation. The population of France in the 1780s was about 26 million, of whom 21 million lived in agriculture. Few of these owned enough land to support a family and most were forced to take on extra work as poorly paid labourers on larger farms. There were regional differences but, by and large, French peasants

neg: The Castle of Wolfenbach the rest of his life in penitence for his criminal and immoral actions. The French Revolution was a major event taking place while Eliza Parsons was writing the Castle of Wolfenbach and there are a lot of references to it throughout the book. The moment that “began” the French Revolution was the burning of the prison Bastille. The Bastille resembles a castle-like structure, and that relates to the burning of the Castle of Wolfenbach in Parson's novel. This correlation shows the influence of the French Revolution on Parson's writings because she's using scenes from the French Revolution, ideas/feelings from the

neg: Jürgen Habermas most of the 18th century in Continental Europe. In his view, the French Revolution was in large part caused by the collapse of "representational" culture, and its replacement by "Öffentlichkeit" culture. Though Habermas' main concern in "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" was to expose what he regarded as the deceptive nature of free institutions in the West, his book had a major effect on the historiography of the French Revolution. According to Habermas, a variety of factors resulted in the eventual decay of the public sphere, including the growth of a commercial mass media, which turned the critical

neg: General maximum General maximum The General Maximum, or Law of the Maximum, was a law during the French Revolution, as an extension of the Law of Suspects on 29 September 1793. It succeeded the 4 May 1793 "loi du maximum" that also set price limits, deterred price gouging, and allowed for the continued flow of food supply to the French people. Competing theories exist as to the causes of the conditions the General Maximum was intended to ameliorate. Eugene White, in his 1995 publication "The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance, 1770–1815", views that years of revolution, international conflicts, and

neg: Reign of Terror "A Short History of the French Revolution". 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2016. “Robespierre, "On Political Morality",” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 19, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/413. Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon." "The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 ", no. 4 (1988): 771-93. doi:10.2307/204824. https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824. “"Terror Is the Order of the Day",” "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity", accessed October 26, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/416. Voltaire. "Voltaire, Selections from the Philosophical Dictionary." Omeka RSS. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/273/. Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror, or The Terror (), is the label given by most

neg: Jay Jay French every year, for causes that are near and dear to each band member. The songs "We're Not Gonna Take It" and "I Wanna Rock" are universally recognized and have been featured in numerous television shows and commercials, radio commercials, product sponsorships, movies, major sports events and political events. With the advent of iTunes and other online music services, recording artists soon recognized that their previous recording contracts were now obsolete and unfair. Seeing that this presented what it felt was an unfair and inequitable change in how it was compensated for its songs Twisted Sister took the initiative in the

neg: Causality the distinction between necessary conditions and sufficient conditions. It seems that Ishikawa was not even aware of this distinction. In the discussion of history, events are sometimes considered as if in some way being agents that can then bring about other historical events. Thus, the combination of poor harvests, the hardships of the peasants, high taxes, lack of representation of the people, and kingly ineptitude are among the "causes" of the French Revolution. This is a somewhat Platonic and Hegelian view that reifies causes as ontological entities. In Aristotelian terminology, this use approximates to the case of the "efficient" cause.

neg: French Revolution on countries he controlled, such as Italy. The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World, decisively changing the course of human history. It brought an end to feudalism and made a path for future advances in broadly defined individual freedoms. Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism." Nationalism was emphasised by historian Carlton J. H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was

neg: Causes of the May Revolution of Independence stated that all men are created equal (and thus become equal before the law), and had unalienable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. They had also chosen a republican form of government, instead of keeping a monarchic one. Even more, the fact that Spain aided the colonies in their struggle against Britain weakened the argument that ending allegiance to the mother country could be considered a crime. The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 were spreading as well. During the Revolution, centuries of monarchy were ended with the overthrow and execution of the King

neg: History of economic thought the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" happened to coincide not only with the American Revolution, shortly before the Europe-wide upheavals of the French Revolution, but also the dawn of a new industrial revolution that allowed more wealth to be created on a larger scale than ever before. Smith was a Scottish moral philosopher, whose first book was "The Theory of Moral Sentiments" (1759). He argued in it that people's ethical systems develop through personal relations with other individuals, that right and wrong are sensed through others' reactions to one's behaviour. This gained Smith more popularity than his

neg: Versailles, Yvelines during the Revolution, was left abandoned, with only Napoleon briefly staying one night there and then leaving the castle for good. Louis-Philippe, who took the throne in the July Revolution of 1830, transformed the palace into a National Museum dedicated to "all the glories of France" in 1837. Versailles had become a sleepy town, a place of pilgrimage for those nostalgic for the old monarchy. Included in the French Revolution was the storming of the Bastille that took place on 14 July, 1789. The storming of bastille was one of the causes of the French Revolution. The Franco-Prussian War of

neg: Reflections on the Revolution in France causes and sided with the Americans in their war for independence; opponents and allies alike were surprised at the strength of his conviction that the French Revolution was a disaster and the revolutionists 'a swinish multitude.'". In 1789, soon after the fall of the Bastille, the French aristocrat Charles-Jean-François Depont asked his impressions of the Revolution; Burke replied with two letters. The longer, second letter, drafted after he read Richard Price's speech "A Discourse on the Love of Our Country" in January 1790, became "Reflections on the Revolution in France". Published in November 1790, the work was an instant bestseller:

neg: The Old Regime and the Revolution The Old Regime and the Revolution L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution (1856) is a work by the French historian Alexis de Tocqueville translated in English as either The Old Regime and the Revolution or; The Old Regime and the French Revolution. The book analyzes French society before the French Revolution, the so-called "Ancien Régime", and investigates the forces that caused the Revolution. It is one of the major early historical works on the French Revolution. In this book, de Tocqueville develops his main theory about the French revolution, the theory of continuity, in which he states that even though the

neg: Infant mortality what causes this disease. This disease is more common in Western countries. Even though researchers are not sure what causes this disease, they have discovered that it is healthier for babies to sleep on their backs instead of their stomachs. This discovery saved many families from the tragedy that this disease causes. Scientists have also discovered three causes within a model they created called, the contemporary triple risk model. This model states that three conditions such as the mother smoking while pregnant, the age of the infant, and stress referring to conditions such as overheating, prone sleeping, co-sleeping, and head

neg: Arc de Triomphe the Peace of 1815. In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major French victories in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. The inside walls of the monument list the names of 660 people, among which are 558 French generals of the First French Empire; The names of those generals killed in battle are underlined. Also inscribed, on the shorter sides of the four supporting columns, are the names of the major French victories in the Napoleonic Wars. The battles that took place in the period between the departure of

neg: Georges Lefebvre the French Revolution" identified four key champions: the aristocracy (which prevented monarchical reform), the bourgeoisie, the urban revolution (storming the Bastille), and the peasant revolution. Fellow historians tend to examine the last 35 years of Lefebvre's writings (1924-1959). This period is chosen because it is when he wrote his most influential and "much more complex interpretation of the Revolution than had hitherto prevailed amongst historians". Peter Jones elaborates that Lefebvre’s take on the Revolution has three major emphases: the idea that the countryside peasantry actively participated in the Revolution, the idea that this participation was not significantly influenced by the

neg: Belgian nobility families bear today the title of Marquess. The titles always had origins before the French Revolution, and used to be connected to a physical marquisate. In most of these families, the title descends by masculine primogeniture. The titles Count of Hainault and Count of Flanders, historically associated with major provinces of what is now Belgium, are used as dynastic titles for members of the Belgian Royal Family. Count is the highest-ranked title still granted by the Belgian monarch. There are approximately 90 families in Belgium where at least one of the members bears the title of count or countess. An

neg: French Revolution and the English Gothic Novel French Revolution was, "the most astonishing that has hitherto happened to the world." The gothic novel was therefore a way for English writers to come to terms with what they considered to be wonderful and astounding events, perceiving what happened to their neighbors in France and with the consequences upon their own society. Creating elements of terror and fantasy gave expression to their anxieties of what was to come, and gave voice to their incredulousness at the events taking place in France. Because of the French Revolution and France's proximity to England, English writers during that period were concerned with

neg: February Revolution February Revolution, was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. When discussing the historiography of the February Revolution there are three historical interpretations which are relevant: Liberal, Soviet, and Revisionist. These three different approaches exist separately from one another because of their respective beliefs of what ultimately caused the collapse of a Tsarist government in February. Out of these three approaches, all of them have received modern criticism. The February Revolution is seen by many present-day scholars as an event which gets "mythologized". Online sources February Revolution The February Revolution (), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois

neg: Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution is a book by the historian Simon Schama, published in 1989, the bicentenary of the French Revolution. <br>"The terror," declared Schama in the book, "was merely 1789 with a higher body count; violence ... was not just an unfortunate side effect ... it was the Revolution's source of collective energy. It was what made the Revolution revolutionary." In short, “From the very beginning [...] violence was the motor of revolution.” Schama considers that the French Revolutionary Wars were the logical corollary of the universalistic language of

neg: Industrial Revolution to use modern production methods. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological innovations were of British origin. By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way.

neg: Causes of the French Revolution replaced by Jacques Necker, who supported the American Revolution and proceeded with a policy of taking large international loans instead of raising taxes. France sent Rochambeau, Lafayette and de Grasse, along with large land and naval forces, to help the Americans. French aid proved decisive in forcing the main British army to surrender at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. The Americans gained their independence, and the war ministry rebuilt the French army. However, the British sank the main French fleet in 1782, and France gained little, except for the colonies of Tobago and Senegal, from the Treaty of Paris

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution many French intellectuals was itself a result of their commitment to the ideals of the French Revolution. Working much of the year at the University of Chicago after 1979, Furet also rejected the Annales School, with its emphasis on very long-term structural factors, and emphasized intellectual history. Influenced by Alexis de Tocqueville and Augustin Cochin, Furet argues that Frenchmen must stop seeing the revolution as the key to all aspects of modern French history. His works include "Interpreting the French Revolution" (1981), a historiographical overview of what has preceded him and "A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution" (1989). Some

neg: Revolutionary situation is indisputable that a revolution is impossible without a revolutionary situation; furthermore, it is not every revolutionary situation that leads to revolution. What, generally speaking, are the symptoms of a revolutionary situation? We shall certainly not be mistaken if we indicate the following three major symptoms: (1) when it is impossible for the ruling classes to maintain their rule without any change; when there is a crisis, in one form or another, among the “upper classes”, a crisis in the policy of the ruling class, leading to a fissure through which the discontent and indignation of the oppressed classes burst

neg: Causes of the French Revolution theory, this would eventually lead to a war of revenge and see France regain its colonies from Britain. In practice, it resulted in a mountain of debts. On the advice of, what many believed was, his mistress, the Marquise de Pompadour, the king supported the policy of fiscal justice designed by d'Arnouville. In order to finance the budget deficit, which amounted to 100 million livres in 1745, Machault d'Arnouville created a tax of 5% on all revenues (the "vingtième"), a measure that affected the privileged classes as well as the rest of the population. Still, expenditures outpaced revenues. Ultimately, Louis

neg: Causes of the French Revolution from regions enjoying overproduction. It could also force a merchant to dump the price of his flour (he was later compensated for his loss in times of abundance). During the Age of Enlightenment, the physiocrat school of economy emerged. The physiocrats, or "économistes" as they called themselves, had a great impact on Turgot, Louis XVI's Controller-General of Finances. Their opinion on what government economic policy should be was summarized in the term Vincent de Gournay laid claim to: "laissez faire, laissez passer", meaning leave it alone and let it pass, also known as the "invisible hand" notion. Turgot passionately defended

neg: Causes of the French Revolution shortages and less grain availability. The price of grain also increased, and became hard for some to afford. News of a grain shortage was met with skepticism and frustration rose from higher prices. Those in opposition of the reform rioted, and seized grain that came in on shipments. They offered what they felt was the "just price" for it. This demonstrated a way in which the people took some power back into their own hands. This practice was known as "taxation populaire", or popular taxation. While there were documented efforts to deal with the grain shortage problems, such as increasing

neg: French Revolution of 1848 the real reasons of economical troubles were, according to Bastiat, the main causes of the French Revolution of the 1848 and the rise of socialists and anarchists in the years preceding the revolution itself. Because political gatherings and demonstrations were outlawed in France, activists of the largely middle class opposition to the government began to hold a series of fund-raising banquets. This campaign of banquets (Campagne des banquets), was intended to circumvent the governmental restriction on political meetings and provide a legal outlet for popular criticism of the regime. The campaign began in July 1847. Friedrich Engels was in Paris

neg: Right-wing politics institutions of all European societies and especially in Catholic European monarchies, could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation of rationalist political programs, as in the French Revolution. The Church of England was established by Henry VIII and some churchmen are given seats in the House of Lords, but are considered politically neutral rather than being specifically right or left-wing. Religious fundamentalists frequently feel that governments should enact laws supporting their religious tenets. The Christian right is a major force in North America. They generally support laws upholding what they consider religious values, such as opposition to abortion,

neg: History of liberalism of the governed, as it had been put as early as the Declaration of Independence, was epoch-marking". The American Revolution had its impact on the French Revolution and later movements in Europe. Leopold von Ranke, a leading German historian, in 1848 argued that American republicanism played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism: Historians widely regard the French Revolution as one of the most important events in history. The Revolution is often seen as marking the "dawn of the modern era", and its convulsions are widely associated with "the triumph of liberalism". Three years into the French Revolution,

neg: Institut national d'études démographiques surveillance sites in three groups of villages where it records demographic events and causes of death to analyse ongoing trends: Half the INED research budget (excluding payroll costs) is devoted to major surveys of households and individuals. They are conducted by the INED Surveys Department, often in collaboration with INSEE. Surveys carried out since the 1980s include: INED produces a range of publications: Institut national d'études démographiques The French Institute for Demographic Studies (INED) is a French research institute specialized in demography and population studies in general. In 1941, Nobel Prize winner Alexis Carrel, an early proponent of eugenics and

neg: Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution remarks: "He pities the plumage, but forgets the dying bird". Slavin finds it "regrettable that such a capable historian as Schama [...] should be so prejudiced against the Revolution". Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution is a book by the historian Simon Schama, published in 1989, the bicentenary of the French Revolution. <br>"The terror," declared Schama in the book, "was merely 1789 with a higher body count; violence ... was not just an unfortunate side effect ... it was the Revolution's source of collective energy. It was what made the Revolution revolutionary."

neg: Canton of Bern force to put down peasant revolts. In Vaud the Bernese occupants were not popular amongst the population. In 1723, Major Abraham Davel led a revolt against Bern, in protest at what he saw as the denial of political rights of the French-speaking Vaudois by the German-speaking Bernese, and was subsequently beheaded. Inspired by the French Revolution, the Vaudois drove out the Bernese governor in 1798 and declared the Lemanic Republic. Vaud nationalists like Frédéric-César de La Harpe had called for French intervention in liberating the area and French Revolutionary troops moved in, taking over the whole of Switzerland itself in

neg: Federalist No. 10 types of faction and in his argument for an extended republic. Madison first assessed that there are two ways to limit the damage caused by faction: either remove the causes of faction or control its effects. He then describes the two methods to removing the causes of faction: first, destroying liberty, which would work because "liberty is to faction what air is to fire", but it is impossible to perform because liberty is essential to political life. After all, Americans fought for it during the American Revolution. The second option, creating a society homogeneous in opinions and interests, is impracticable.

neg: French Revolution the fall of 1794, made peace with revolutionary France at Basel in April 1795, and soon thereafter Spain also made peace with France. Britain and Austria were the only major powers to remain at war with France. Although the French Revolution had a dramatic impact in numerous areas of Europe, the French colonies felt a particular influence. As the Martinican author Aimé Césaire put it, "there was in each French colony a specific revolution, that occurred on the occasion of the French Revolution, in tune with it." The Haitian Revolution (Saint Domingue) became a central example of slave uprisings in

neg: Spain and the American Revolutionary War for little clear military or economic gain. France had been left with crippling debts which it struggled to pay off, and which would become one of the major causes of the French Revolution that broke out in 1789. Spain, in comparison, disposed of its debts more easily, partly due to the stunning increases in silver production from the mines in Mexico and Bolivia. One particular outcome of the war was the manner in which it enhanced the position of Prime Minister Floridablanca, and his government continued to dominate Spanish politics until 1792. Don Diego de Gardoqui, of the Gardoqui trading

neg: Cult of Reason Cult of Reason The Cult of Reason () was France's first established state-sponsored atheistic religion, intended as a replacement for Roman Catholicism during the French Revolution. It also rivaled Robespierre's Cult of the Supreme Being. Opposition to the Roman Catholic Church was integral among the causes of the French Revolution, and this anti-clericalism solidified into official government policy in 1792 after the First French Republic was declared. Most of the dechristianisation of France was motivated by political and economic concerns, and philosophical alternatives to the Church developed more slowly. Among the growing heterodoxy, the so-called "Culte de la Raison" became

neg: Robert K. Merton dissertation on the role of military institutions in stimulating scientific research during the era of the Scientific Revolution. Merton carried out extensive research into the sociology of science, developing the Merton Thesis explaining some of the religious causes of the Scientific Revolution, and the Mertonian norms of science, often referred to by the acronym "Cudos". This is a set of ideals that are dictated by what Merton takes to be the goals and methods of science and to be binding on scientists. They include: The CUDOS set of Mertonian scientific norms is sometimes identified as Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, *Originality* (novelty

neg: Nostradamus Many of Nostradamus's supporters believe his prophecies are genuine. Owing to the subjective nature of these interpretations, however, no two of them completely agree on what Nostradamus predicted, whether for the past or for the future. Many supporters, however, do agree, for example, that he predicted the Great Fire of London, the French Revolution, and the rises of Napoleon and Adolf Hitler, both world wars, and the nuclear destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Popular authors frequently claim that he predicted whatever major event had just happened at the time of each book's publication, such as the Apollo moon landings in

neg: Adolphe Thiers generals. The first work on the French Revolution, published between 1823 and 1827, was highly praised by French critics. It was the first major history in French of the Revolution, and won Thiers a seat as the second-youngest elected member of the Academie Française, and in addition was a major commercial success. It condemned the violence of the Terror and the most radical leaders, including Marat, Robespierre, and Saint-Just, and glorified the ideals and the more moderate leaders of the French Revolution, including Mirabeau, Bailly and Lafayette, though at the time the book was published France was still a monarchy,

neg: History of tennis royal families of Europe were besieged and real tennis was largely abandoned. Real tennis played a minor role in the history of the French Revolution, through the Tennis Court Oath, a pledge signed by French deputies on a real tennis court, which formed a decisive early step in starting the revolution. In England, during the 18th and early 19th centuries as real tennis declined, three other racquet sports emerged: racquets, squash racquets, and lawn tennis (the modern game). The modern sport is tied to two separate inventions. Between 1859 and 1865, in Birmingham, England, Major Harry Gem, a solicitor, and

neg: Riyoko Ikeda Riyoko Ikeda Ikeda was a philosophy major and a member of the Democratic Youth League of Japan. Ikeda has written and illustrated many shōjo manga, many of which are based on historical events, such as the French Revolution or the Russian Revolution. Her use of foreign settings and androgynous themes made "The Rose of Versailles" and "Orpheus no Mado" enormous successes. Her most famous manga is "The Rose of Versailles", also known as "Lady Oscar" in Europe. This manga, loosely based on the French Revolution, has been made into several Takarazuka musicals and into an anime series and a live-action

neg: Athenaeus of Attalia following report:Athenaeus of Attaleia ... founded the medical school known as the Pneumatists. It suits his doctrine to speak of a containing cause in illness since he bases himself upon the Stoics and he was a pupil and disciple of Posidonius ... Athenaeus’ three types are as follows: the first consists of containing causes, the second of preceding causes, and the third of the matter of antecedent causes: for this is what they call everything external to the body which harms it and produces disease in it. If what is produced in the body belongs to the class of what

neg: What Is a Nation? What Is a Nation? "What is a Nation?" ("Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?") is an 1882 lecture by French historian Ernest Renan (1823–1892), known for the statements that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget, as what they remember. It is frequently quoted or anthologized in works of history or political science pertaining to nationalism and national identity. Renan wrote "What is a Nation" in order to symbolize the nationalism which was born in France as a result of the French Revolution of 1789. Renan begins his essay by noting

neg: Charles E. Stanton May 8, 1933. He was buried at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, California. On July 4, 1917, Stanton visited the tomb of French Revolution and American Revolution hero Marquis de La Fayette and (according to Pershing) said, "Lafayette, we are here!" to honor the nobleman's assistance during the Revolutionary War and assure the French people that the people of the United States would aid them in World War I. The famous quote is often misattributed to Pershing. In context, he said: America has joined forces with the Allied Powers, and what we have of blood and treasure are yours.

neg: Communalism large. Communalists see as equally important the need for confederation – the interlining of communities with one another through recallable delegates mandated by municipal citizens’ assemblies and whose sole functions are coordinative and administrative. This is similar to the system of "nested councils" found in participatory politics. According to Bookchin, "Confederation has a long history of its own that dates back to antiquity and that surfaced as a major alternative to the nation-state. From the American Revolution through the French Revolution and the Spanish Revolution of 1936, confederalism constituted a major challenge to state centralism". Communalism is seen to add

neg: Influence of the French Revolution was a long-range influence on liberal ideas and the ideal of legal equality, as well as the notion of opposition to a tyrannical government. In this regard, the French Revolution brought such influential themes as constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, individual liberty, legal equality, and the sense of ethnic nationalism. These came to fruition about 1876. Influence of the French Revolution The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. In the short-term, France lost thousands of her countrymen in the form of émigrés,

neg: Corsicans around 200,000). Causes of this emigration are various; poverty is the main reason (the French laws for restriction of exportations, the Second Industrial Revolution and the agricultural crisis had an adverse effect on the local economy). Later, the departures have become more considerable owing to the demographic strain caused by First World War. Alongside French ("Français"), the official language throughout France, Corsican ("Corsu") is the other most widely spoken language on the island: it is a Romance language pertaining to the Italo-Dalmatian branch and akin to medieval Tuscan. Corsican was long the vernacular language besides Italian ("Italiano"), which retained official

neg: French language in Canada descendant of Acadian French, analysis reveals it is morphosyntactically identical to Quebec French. It is believed to have resulted from a localized levelling of contact dialects between Québécois and Acadian settlers. "New England French" is spoken in parts of New England in the United States. Essentially a local variant of Quebec French, it is one of three major forms of French that developed in what is now the U.S., the others being Louisiana French and the nearly-extinct Missouri French. It is endangered, though its use is supported by bilingual education programs in place since 1987. There are two main sub-varieties

neg: Edward Baines (1774–1848) twenty years past." As well as his journalistic output, Baines was the author of a number of histories and gazetteers. His first book - a "History of the Wars of the French Revolution" - was published in 1817, having first been published as a part-work from 1814 onwards. Its account up to 1801 borrowed extensively (and sometimes "verbatim") from another author's earlier work of 1803 on the same topic (A Stephens "The History of the Wars Which Arose out of the French Revolution to Which is Prefixed a Review of the Causes of that Event" (London 1803)). This went unacknowledged

neg: Influence of the French Revolution trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.<br>The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism." Nationalism was emphasized by historian Carlton J.H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of

neg: Three marks of existence that all beings conditioned by causes ("saṅkhāra") are impermanent ("anicca") and suffering ("dukkha"), and that not-self ("anattā") characterises all dhammas, meaning there is no "I", "me", or "mine" in either the conditioned or the unconditioned (i.e. nibbāna). The teaching of three marks of existence in the Pali Canon is credited to the Buddha. The Greek philosopher Pyrrho traveled to India with Alexander the Great's army, spending approximately 18 months there learning Indian philosophy from the Indian gymnosophists. Upon returning to Greece Pyrrho founded one of the major schools of Hellenistic philosophy, Pyrrhonism, which he based on what appears to have

neg: Symbolism in the French Revolution people came day after day and vied for the best locations from which to observe the proceedings; knitting women (tricoteuses) formed a cadre of hardcore regulars, inciting the crowd. Parents often brought their children. By the end of the Terror, the crowds had thinned drastically. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored. What it is that horrifies people changes over time. Doyle comments: Symbolism in the French Revolution Symbolism in the French Revolution was a device to distinguish and celebrate (or vilify) the main features of the French Revolution and ensure public identification and

neg: Wilfried Zahibo a three-year deal with Segunda División side Gimnàstic de Tarragona. He made his debut in the competition on 21 August, starting in a 2–2 home draw against CD Lugo. On 5 January 2018, Zahibo cut ties with "Nàstic". Six days later, he signed with Major League Soccer side New England Revolution. Born in France, Zahibo is of Ivorian descent. Wilfried Zahibo Wilfried Aimeric Jocelyn Ziri Zahibo (born 21 August 1993) is a French footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for New England Revolution in Major League Soccer. Born in Marseille, Zahibo was an AC Ajaccio youth graduate, and made

neg: Tannin a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and might help in regulating plant growth. The astringency from the tannins is what causes the dry and puckery feeling in the mouth following the consumption of unripened fruit, red wine or tea. Likewise, the destruction or modification of tannins with time plays an important role when determining harvesting times. Tannins have molecular weights ranging from 500 to over 3,000 (gallic acid esters) and up to 20,000 (proanthocyanidins). There are three major classes of tannins: Shown below are the base unit or monomer of the tannin. Particularly in the

neg: Sociocultural evolution including Voltaire (1694–1778). The second process was the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism, which together allowed and promoted continual revolutions in the means of production. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution reflected a belief that the changes in Europe brought by the Industrial Revolution and capitalism were improvements. Industrialisation, combined with the intense political change brought about by the French Revolution of 1789 and the U.S. Constitution, which paved the way for the dominance of democracy, forced European thinkers to reconsider some of their assumptions about how society was organised. Eventually, in the 19th century three major classical theories

neg: Marseille population had recovered by mid century. In 1792 the city became a focal point of the French Revolution and was the birthplace of France's national anthem, "La Marseillaise". The Industrial Revolution and establishment of the French Empire during the 19th century allowed for further expansion of the city, although it was occupied by the German Wehrmacht in November 1942 and subsequently heavily damaged during World War II. The city has since become a major center for immigrant communities from former French colonies, such as French Algeria. Marseille is a major French centre for trade and industry, with excellent transportation infrastructure

neg: History of liberalism 1789 in France, is a foundational document of both liberalism and human rights. The intellectual progress of the Enlightenment, which questioned old traditions about societies and governments, eventually coalesced into powerful revolutionary movements that toppled what the French called the Ancien Régime, the belief in absolute monarchy and established religion, especially in Europe, Latin America and North America. William Henry of Orange in the Glorious Revolution, Thomas Jefferson in the American Revolution and Lafayette in the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after

neg: Vidame de Chartres duke died of natural causes in 1793, the last vidame of the Ancien regime. At the Bourbon Restoration, the chateau was restored to his daughter, Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, Duchess of Orléans. On her death in 1821, the domaine passed to her eldest son Louis-Philippe I, future king of the French. Notable holders before the revolution include: Vidame de Chartres Vidame de Chartres was a title in the French nobility. There are a few vidame titles in France, of which that of Chartres is probably the best known, because a number of holders have been notable in widely different

neg: Normans centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the 11th and first of the 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century. The French Wars of Religion in the 16th century and the French Revolution in the 18th successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The former, with their violence, caused the

neg: Peter Ochs union and no central government. Like most of Europe, Switzerland was deemed feudal in nature since the wealthiest members of society benefited from privileges that others were denied. There was much resentment over this which led to many conspiracies and uprisings, such as that led by Major Abraham Davel who protested at what he saw as the oppressive treatment that Berne meted out to his native Vaud which was then under Berne's control. Upon the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789, Ochs joined the partisans of revolutionary reform. With Frédéric-César de La Harpe, he called for the French to