query: when was fluoride added to water in melbourne

pos: Water fluoridation in Australia where possible. Supplies south of Elliott have naturally occurring fluoride at levels sufficient to provide an oral health benefit. Approximately 9% of the population of Northern Territory have naturally fluoridated water. As of 2012, 70% of the population in the Northern Territory has access to fluoridated water, and there are plans to extend access to more residents by 2015. Fluoride was first added to the drinking water for the Victorian town of Bacchus Marsh in 1962, with Melbourne beginning fluoridation in 1977. The towns of Portland, Nhill, Port Fairy, Barnawartha, and Kaniva have naturally occurring fluoride in their drinking water.

neg: Fluoridation by country press release statement, the reasons it ended water fluoridation were: "Only some 1% of the water is used for drinking, while 99% of the water is intended for other uses (industry, agriculture, flushing toilets etc.). There is also scientific evidence that fluoride in large amounts can lead to damage to health. When fluoride is supplied via drinking water, there is no control regarding the amount of fluoride actually consumed, which could lead to excessive consumption. Supply of fluoridated water forces those who do not so wish to also consume water with added fluoride." Many in the medical and dental communities

neg: Bottled water in drinking water and 15 secondary maximum contaminant levels. In some areas, tap water may contain added fluoride, which helps prevent tooth decay and cavities. Some bottled water manufacturers in the United States add fluoride to their product, or provide a fluoridated bottled water product. The Food and Drug Administration of the United States does not require bottled water manufacturers to list the fluoride content on the label. However, unlike tap water where the amount of fluoride added by municipalities to drinking water is not federally regulated, the FDA has set specific limits for how much fluoride may be found

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia Some areas within Australia have natural fluoride levels in the groundwater, which was estimated in 1991 to provide drinking water to approximately 0.9% of the population. A key difference between the implementation of drinking water fluoridation in the United States and Australia was the impact of temperature and climate on water consumption. Temperatures are a key factor in the establishment of legislative requirements, such as the Water Fluoridation Regulation 2008 in Queensland, that prescribe concentrations of fluoride to be added to the water. Consequently, areas with higher average temperatures require less fluoride to be added to the drinking water to

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia has always been 100% during the times in which it was added. Water fluoridation was introduced in Western Australia in Perth in 1968, and is regulated by the Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Act 1966. As of 2012, around 92% of the population is provided with fluoridated water through a drinking water supply. An exception exists in the Busselton, Vasse and Wonnerup townsites (approximately 20,000 residents), where fluoride is not artificially added to the water because it has naturally occurring fluoride. Proposals for the addition of fluoride to a public water supply or matters relating to the Act and its

neg: Mercury(I) fluoride Mercury(I) fluoride Mercury(I) fluoride or mercurous fluoride is the chemical compound composed of mercury and fluorine with the formula HgF. It consists of small yellow cubic crystals, which turn black when exposed to light. Mercury(I) fluoride is prepared by the reaction of mercury(I) carbonate with hydrofluoric acid: When added to water, mercury(I) fluoride hydrolyzes to elemental liquid mercury, mercury(II) oxide, and hydrofluoric acid: It can be used in the Swarts reaction to convert alkyl halides into alkyl fluorides: In common with other Hg(I) (mercurous) compounds which contain linear X-Hg-Hg-X units, HgF contains linear FHgF units with an Hg-Hg bond length

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia administration are dealt with by the Advisory Committee for the Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies. Water fluoridation commenced in Adelaide in 1971. There is no legal requirement to add fluoride to drinking water supplies. As of 2010, 90% of the state’s communities have access to reticulated water with appropriate levels of fluoride. Fluoride has been added to public water supplies in Darwin (since 1972), Katherine, and Gove. Similarly to South Australia, there is no legal requirement to add fluoride to the Northern Territory's water supplies, but a position paper published in November 2010 strongly encourages water providers to add fluoride

neg: Water fluoridation Water fluoridation Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water contains fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride. Fluoridated water operates on tooth surfaces: in the mouth, it creates low levels of fluoride in saliva, which reduces the rate at which tooth enamel demineralizes and increases the rate at which it remineralizes in the early stages of cavities. Typically a fluoridated compound is added to drinking water, a process that in the U.S. costs an average of about

neg: Tooth discoloration The known causes of intrinsic staining are listed below, however some causes are unknown. Dental caries (tooth decay) begins as an opaque white spot on the surface of the enamel. As demineralization progresses, the various lesion eventually cavitates and the underlying brown color becomes visible. Fluorosis may occur when there is chronic and excessive exposure to fluoride during the years of tooth development. Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral in water, although some regions have higher levels than others, and in some areas fluoride is added to water supplies in low levels to help prevent tooth decay. Exposure can also

neg: Water fluoridation many industrialized countries the prevalence of fluorosis is increasing even in unfluoridated communities, mostly because of fluoride from swallowed toothpaste. A 2009 systematic review indicated that fluorosis is associated with consumption of infant formula or of water added to reconstitute the formula, that the evidence was distorted by publication bias, and that the evidence that the formula's fluoride caused the fluorosis was weak. In the U.S. the decline in tooth decay was accompanied by increased fluorosis in both fluoridated and unfluoridated communities; accordingly, fluoride has been reduced in various ways worldwide in infant formulas, children's toothpaste, water, and fluoride-supplement schedules.

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia Council decided to not add fluoride to its water supply. Fluoride has been added to water supplies in Canberra and the City of Queanbeyan since 1964. The addition of fluoride is regulated by the Electricity and Water (Amendment) Act (No. 2) 1989 and the Public Health (Drinking Water) Code of Practice 2007 (No 1). There was a brief period in 1989 where fluoridation was suspended following a formal review of the effectiveness of fluoridation on oral health. As only one water supplier provides all of the water for these areas, the percentage of the population with access to fluoridated water

neg: Fluoridation by country Fluoridation by country Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay, and is handled differently by country. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride. Fluoridated water operates on tooth surfaces: in the mouth it creates low levels of fluoride in saliva, which reduces the rate at which tooth enamel demineralizes and increases the rate at which it remineralizes in the early stages of cavities. Typically a fluoridated compound is added to drinking water, a process that in

neg: Sodium fluoride (NaHF). Heating the latter releases HF and gives NaF. In a 1986 report, the annual worldwide consumption of NaF was estimated to be several million tonnes. Fluoride salts are often added to municipal drinking water (as well as certain food products in some countries) for the purposes of maintaining dental health. The fluoride enhances the strength of teeth by the formation of fluorapatite, a naturally occurring component of tooth enamel. Although sodium fluoride is used to fluoridate water and, indeed, is the standard by which other water-fluoridation compounds are gauged, hexafluorosilicic acid (HSiF) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (NaSiF) are

neg: Water fluoridation 65–95% of fluoride, and distillation removes all fluoride. Some bottled waters contain undeclared fluoride, which can be present naturally in source waters, or if water is sourced from a public supply which has been fluoridated. The FDA states that bottled water products labeled as de-ionized, purified, demineralized, or distilled have been treated in such a way that they contain no or only trace amounts of fluoride, unless they specifically list fluoride as an added ingredient. Existing evidence suggests that water fluoridation reduces tooth decay. Consistent evidence also suggests that it causes dental fluorosis, most of which is mild and not

neg: Water fluoridation in the United States water (ranging from 2 to 13.7 mg/L) and areas with lower concentrations had no staining (1 mg/L or less). Pikes Peak's rock formations contained the mineral cryolite, one of whose constituents is fluorine. As the rain and snow fell, the resulting runoff water dissolved fluoride which made its way into the water supply. Dental and aluminum researchers then moved toward determining a relatively safe level of fluoride to be added to water supplies. The research had two goals: (1) to warn communities with a high concentration of fluoride of the danger, initiating a reduction of the fluoride levels in order

neg: 2013 Hamilton local elections and referendums six candidates with the most votes were elected, shown in the table below by a green tick. Fluoride has been added to drinking water in Hamilton since 1966 to improve dental health. Hamilton sources its water from the Waikato River, which has a fluoride concentration of 0.1–0.3 parts per million (ppm); in 2012 fluoride concentration in Hamilton drinking water was 0.7 parts per million. Parts of southern and western Waikato District are also served by the Hamilton city water supply. In 2006, a binding referendum was held in which 69.46% of voters supported continuation of public water fluoridation, while 30.54%

neg: Water fluoridation uptake from water, a 2006 statistical analysis did not support concerns that these chemicals cause higher blood lead concentrations in children. Trace levels of arsenic and lead may be present in fluoride compounds added to water, but no credible evidence exists that their presence is of concern: concentrations are below measurement limits. The effect of water fluoridation on the natural environment has been investigated, and no adverse effects have been established. Issues studied have included fluoride concentrations in groundwater and downstream rivers; lawns, gardens, and plants; consumption of plants grown in fluoridated water; air emissions; and equipment noise. Fluoride exerts

neg: Hypothetical types of biochemistry Sneath and Carl Sagan. HF is dangerous to the systems of molecules that Earth-life is made of, but certain other organic compounds, such as paraffin waxes, are stable with it. Like water and ammonia, liquid hydrogen fluoride supports an acid-base chemistry. Using a solvent system definition of acidity and basicity, nitric acid functions as a base when it is added to liquid HF. However, hydrogen fluoride is cosmically rare, unlike water, ammonia, and methane. Hydrogen sulfide is the closest chemical analog to water, but is less polar and a weaker inorganic solvent. Hydrogen sulfide is quite plentiful on Jupiter's moon

neg: Fluoridation by country and Huia Village don't fluoridate water. In 2013, a Hamilton City Council committee voted to remove fluoride from late June 2013. A referendum was held during the council elections in October 2013 with approximately 70% of voters voting for fluoride to be added back into the water supply, and in March 2014, the council voted 9 to 1 to re-introduce fluoride into the supply. In a 2007 referendum about half of voters in the Central Otago, South Otago and the Southland Region did not want fluoridation and voters in the Waitaki District were against water fluoridation for all Wards. Ashburton

neg: Tooth enamel the amount of fluoride in water. For this reason, codes have been developed by dental professionals to limit the amount of fluoride a person should take. These codes are supported by the American Dental Association and the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry; Furthermore, whereas topical fluoride, found in toothpaste and mouthwashes, does not cause fluorosis, its effects are now considered more important than those of systemic fluoride, such as when drinking fluorinated water. However, systemic fluoride works topically as well with fluoride levels in saliva increase also when drinking fluoridated water. Lately, dental professionals are looking for other ways to

neg: Dental fluorosis is fluoridated at the level of 1 ppm, one must consume one litre of water in order to take in 1 mg of fluoride. It is thus improbable a person will receive more than the tolerable upper limit from consuming optimally fluoridated water alone. Fluoride consumption can exceed the tolerable upper limit when someone drinks a lot of fluoride-containing water in combination with other fluoride sources, such as swallowing fluoridated toothpaste, consuming food with a high fluoride content, or consuming fluoride supplements. The use of fluoride supplements as a prevention for tooth decay is rare in areas with water fluoridation,

neg: Water fluoridation $ per person-year. Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits. In 2011 the World Health Organization suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L (milligrams per litre), depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride. Bottled water typically has unknown fluoride levels. Tooth decay remains a major public health concern in most industrialized countries, affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults. Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear. A Cochrane review estimates a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by

neg: 1966 Edmonton municipal election to freeway standards from 101st Avenue to 112th Avenue and to arterial standards from 112th Avenue to 118th Avenue? Should Council pass bylaw No. 2889 allowing fluoride for the prevention of toothdecay to be added to the City water supply sufficient to bring the fluoride content of City water up to the level of one part fluoride to one million parts of water? Should Council pass bylaw No. 2886 as authorized by The Alberta Lord’s Day Act allowing certain public games, contests or sports at which a fee is charged on Sunday afternoons between the hours of half past one

neg: Water fluoridation wish to also consume water with added fluoride. This approach is therefore not accepted in most countries in the world." This change was often motivated by political opposition to water fluoridation, but sometimes the need for water fluoridation was met by alternative strategies. The use of fluoride in its various forms is the foundation of tooth decay prevention throughout Europe; several countries have introduced fluoridated salt, with varying success: in Switzerland and Germany, fluoridated salt represents 65% to 70% of the domestic market, while in France the market share reached 60% in 1993 but dwindled to 14% in 2009; Spain,

neg: Beryllium method involves grinding beryl into a powder and heating it to . The melt is quickly cooled with water and then reheated in concentrated sulfuric acid, mostly yielding beryllium sulfate and aluminium sulfate. Aqueous ammonia is then used to remove the aluminium and sulfur, leaving beryllium hydroxide. Beryllium hydroxide created using either the sinter or melt method is then converted into beryllium fluoride or beryllium chloride. To form the fluoride, aqueous ammonium hydrogen fluoride is added to beryllium hydroxide to yield a precipitate of ammonium tetrafluoroberyllate, which is heated to to form beryllium fluoride. Heating the fluoride to with magnesium

neg: Stöber process is controllable through the introduction of a swelling agent, the choice of temperature, and the quantity of sodium fluoride catalyst added. A swelling agent (such as mesitylene) causes increases in volume and hence in pore size, often by solvent absorption, but is limited by the solubility of the agent in the system. Pore size varies directly with temperature, bound by the lower out of the surfactant cloud point and the boiling point of water. Sodium fluoride concentration produces direct but non-linear changes in porosity, with the effect decreasing as the added fluoride concentration tends to an upper limit. The LaMer

neg: Water fluoridation of total fluoride is the F ion, with the magnesium–fluoride complex (MgF) being the next most common. Because fluoride levels in water are usually controlled by the solubility of fluorite (CaF), high natural fluoride levels are associated with calcium-deficient, alkaline, and soft waters. Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits. It can be accomplished by percolating water through granular beds of activated alumina, bone meal, bone char, or tricalcium phosphate; by coagulation with alum; or by precipitation with lime. Pitcher or faucet-mounted water filters do not alter fluoride content; the more-expensive reverse osmosis filters remove

neg: Salt and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries. A lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries. Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France, 35% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride. Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates, traces of algal

neg: Water fluoridation controversy cause higher blood lead concentrations in children. Trace levels of arsenic and lead may be present in fluoride compounds added to water; however, concentrations are below measurement limits. The effect of water fluoridation on the natural environment has been investigated, and no adverse effects have been established. Issues studied have included fluoride concentrations in groundwater and downstream rivers; lawns, gardens, and plants; consumption of plants grown in fluoridated water; air emissions; and equipment noise. Reviews have shown that water fluoridation reduces cavities in children. A conclusion for the efficacy in adults is less clear with some reviews finding benefit and

neg: Nitric acid g/cm. An "inhibited" fuming nitric acid (either IWFNA, or IRFNA) can be made by the addition of 0.6 to 0.7% hydrogen fluoride (HF). This fluoride is added for corrosion resistance in metal tanks. The fluoride creates a metal fluoride layer that protects the metal. White fuming nitric acid, pure nitric acid or WFNA, is very close to anhydrous nitric acid. It is available as 99.9% nitric acid by assay. One specification for white fuming nitric acid is that it has a maximum of 2% water and a maximum of 0.5% dissolved NO. Anhydrous nitric acid has a density of 1.513

neg: Water fluoridation controversy 'fifth column'." In 1987, Ian E. Stephens authored a self-published booklet, an extract of which was published in the Australian New Age publication Nexus Magazine in 1995. In it he claimed he was told by "Charles Elliot Perkins" that: "Repeated doses of infinitesimal amounts of fluoride will in time reduce an individual's power to resist domination by slowly poisoning and narcotising a certain area of the brain and will thus make him submissive to the will of those who wish to govern him ... Both the Germans and the Russians added sodium fluoride to the drinking water of prisoners of

neg: Uranyl fluoride Uranyl fluoride Uranyl fluoride (UOF), a compound of uranium, is an intermediate in the conversion of uranium hexafluoride UF to an uranium oxide or metal form and is a direct product of the reaction of UF with moisture in the air. It is very soluble in water. Uranyl fluoride also is hygroscopic and changes in color from brilliant orange to yellow after reacting with water. Uranyl fluoride is reported to be stable in air to 300 °C, above which slow decomposition to UO occurs. When heated to decomposition, UOF emits toxic fluorine fumes. In accidental releases of UF, UOF, as

neg: Environmental issues in New York City ensure its purity at the tap under normal conditions. However, all groundwater entering New York City's distribution system is treated with chlorine, fluoride, food-grade phosphoric acid, and, in some cases, sodium hydroxide. New York City uses chlorine to meet the New York State Sanitary Code and federal Safe Drinking Water Act disinfection requirements. Fluoride, at a concentration of one part per million, is added to help prevent tooth decay and has been added since 1966 in accordance with the New York City Health Code. Phosphoric acid is added to create a protective film on pipes that reduces the release of

neg: Uranyl fluoride skin absorption. Ingestion or inhalation may be fatal. Effects of exposure may be delayed. Uranyl fluoride Uranyl fluoride (UOF), a compound of uranium, is an intermediate in the conversion of uranium hexafluoride UF to an uranium oxide or metal form and is a direct product of the reaction of UF with moisture in the air. It is very soluble in water. Uranyl fluoride also is hygroscopic and changes in color from brilliant orange to yellow after reacting with water. Uranyl fluoride is reported to be stable in air to 300 °C, above which slow decomposition to UO occurs. When heated

neg: Environmental disease to soil when decomposes. In the dry and arid climates, fluoride concentrates on top soil and slowly dissolves in shallow groundwater. This has been the cause of high fluoride levels in drinking water where the majority of the rural Sri Lankans obtain their drinking water from backyard wells. High fluoride in drinking water has caused a high incidence of fluorosis among dry zone population in Sri Lanka. However, in the wet zone, high rainfall effectively removes fluoride from soils where no fluorosis is evident. In some parts of Sri Lanka iodine deficiency has also been noted which has been identified

neg: Water fluoridation demineralization exceeds the rate of remineralization, typically in a process that requires many months or years. All fluoridation methods, including water fluoridation, create low levels of fluoride ions in saliva and plaque fluid, thus exerting a topical or surface effect. A person living in an area with fluoridated water may experience rises of fluoride concentration in saliva to about 0.04 mg/L several times during a day. Technically, this fluoride does not prevent cavities but rather controls the rate at which they develop. When fluoride ions are present in plaque fluid along with dissolved hydroxyapatite, and the pH is higher than

neg: Water fluoridation Communities have discontinued water fluoridation in some countries, including Finland, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. On 26 August 2014, Israel stopped mandating fluoridation, stating "Only some 1% of the water is used for drinking, while 99% of the water is intended for other uses (industry, agriculture, flushing toilets etc.). There is also scientific evidence that fluoride in large amounts can lead to damage to health. When fluoride is supplied via drinking water, there is no control regarding the amount of fluoride actually consumed, which could lead to excessive consumption. Supply of fluoridated water forces those who do not so

neg: Southern Nevada Water Authority first treat the water with ozone to kill any potentially harmful microscopic organisms. As the water leaves the water treatment facilities, chlorine is added to protect it on the way to customers' taps. Since 2000, SNWA has also added fluoride to the municipal water supply. Southern Nevada Water Authority The Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) is a government agency that was founded in 1991 to manage Southern Nevada's water needs on a regional basis in Clark County. SNWA provides wholesale water treatment and delivery for the greater Las Vegas Valley and is responsible for acquiring and managing long-term water resources

neg: Hamilton, New Zealand ML/d. It was built to a Patterson Candy design with coagulation, rapid sand gravity filtration and chlorine gas disinfection. Chlorine is added at 0.3 ppm and Fluoride has been added since 1966, though with a brief withdrawal in 2013/14 and referenda supporting it in 2006 and 2013. The river water has 0.2 to 0.4 ppm fluoride which is increased to around 0.75ppm through the station. Arsenic in the Waikato River is also monitored. It can be about 3 times above the WHO limit, but treatment effects a 5-fold reduction to a level which meets the standards. From river level the

neg: 1959 Edmonton municipal election tooth decay, be added to the City water supply sufficient to bring the fluoride content of City water up to the level of one part fluoride to one million parts of water? Shall Council pass a bylaw creating a debenture debt in the sum of $75,000.00 for the purchase of land to be used as a refuse disposal area employing the sanitary fill method? Shall Council pass a bylaw creating a debenture debt in the sum of $160,000.00 in order to purchase and locate traffic lights on certain highway intersections within the City? Shall Council pass a bylaw creating a

neg: 1957 Edmonton municipal election fluorides, for the prevention of tooth decay, be added to the City water supply sufficient to bring the fluoride content of City water up to the level of one part fluoride to one million parts of water? Shall Council pass a bylaw creating a debenture debt in the sum of $965,000.00 for the City share of standard paving of arterial and residential streets? Shall Council pass a bylaw creating a debenture debt in the sum of $200,000.00 for the improvement of City parks and the commencement of work on unsubdivided park land, circles, buffer zones, ravine side boulevards and similar

neg: Fluoridation by country They also found that many people found fluoridation to infringe upon personal liberty/freedom of choice by forcing them to be medicated, and that the long-term effects of fluoridation were insufficiently acknowledged. They also lacked a proper study on the effects of fluoridation on formula-fed infants. In the year 2004 the allowed amount of fluoride in the water was decreased to 1,5 mg/l. In Switzerland, since 1962, two fluoridation programs had operated in tandem: water fluoridation in the City of Basel, and salt fluoridation in the rest of Switzerland (around 83% of domestic salt sold had fluoride added). However it became

neg: Clive McCay nutritionally-sound rations during World War II, and the creation of Cornell Bread, a type of high protein, high vitamin bread meant to echo the same high protein vitamin meal he fed to his mice in longevity experiments. His further research centered on canine nutrition, fluoride and its use in water treatment, and parabiosis. A 1957 study on fluoridation showed that low levels (1-10 ppm) of sodium fluoride added to the drinking water of rats did not have carie-protective effects. Clive McCay Clive Maine, McCay (18981967) was an American biochemist, nutritionist, gerontologist, and professor of animal husbandry at Cornell University from

neg: Fluoride toxicity limits in exposure to fluoride compounds and associated detrimental health effects. Ingested fluoride initially acts locally on the intestinal mucosa, where it forms hydrofluoric acid in the stomach. The NRC report stated that "many of the untoward effects of fluoride are due to the formation of AlFx [aluminum fluoride] complexes". This topic has been identified previously as cause for concern. The NRC noted that rats administered fluoride had twice as much aluminum in their brains. When water (1 ppm fluoride) is boiled in aluminum cookware more aluminum is leached and more aluminum fluoride complexes are formed. However, an epidemiological study

neg: Water fluoridation to be of aesthetic or public health concern. There is no clear evidence of other adverse effects from water fluoridation. Fluoride's effects depend on the total daily intake of fluoride from all sources. Drinking water is typically the largest source; other methods of fluoride therapy include fluoridation of toothpaste, salt, and milk. The views on the most efficient method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed. The Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective way to achieve fluoride exposure that is community-wide. The World Health Organization reports that water fluoridation, when feasible and culturally acceptable, has

neg: Fluoridation by country and washes is strongly encouraged by the German Ministry of Health. Kassel-Wahlershausen in West Germany became the second location in Europe where water fluoridation was practiced in 1952. By 1962, no other part of the FRG was fluoridating, and Kassel-Wahlershausen discontinued the practice in 1971. In the GDR (East Germany) in the late 1980s, about 3.4 million people (20%) were receiving water with added fluoride. Fluoride tablets were also provided. The fluoridated areas of the GDR included the towns of Karl-Marx-Stadt (now Chemnitz), Plauen, Zittau, and Spremberg. Children in those towns were part of large long-running studies of caries prevalence.

neg: Drinking water quality in the United States prevention of tooth decay. However, fluoride can also enter public water systems from natural sources, including runoff from weathering of fluoride-containing rocks and soils and leaching from soil into groundwater. Fluoride pollution from various industrial emissions can also contaminate water supplies. In a few areas of the United States, fluoride concentrations in water are much higher than normal, mostly from natural sources. In 1986, EPA established a maximum allowable concentration for fluoride in drinking water of 4 milligrams per liter (mg/L). After reviewing research on various health effects from exposure to fluoride, the Committee on Fluoride in Drinking Water of

neg: Ammonium fluoride salt, ammonium fluoride absorbs the gas to form the addition compound ammonium bifluoride. The reaction occurring is: It sublimes when heated—a property common among ammonium salts. In the sublimation, the salt decomposes to ammonia and hydrogen fluoride, and the two gases can recombine to give ammonium fluoride, "i.e." the reaction is reversible: This substance is commonly called "commercial ammonium fluoride". The word "neutral" is sometimes added to "ammonium fluoride" to represent the neutral salt—[NH]F "vs." the "acid salt" (NHHF). The acid salt is usually used in preference to the neutral salt in the etching of glass and related silicates. This

neg: Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia every 9 days. This is still better than in 2008, when the respective figures were 5 and 23 days. While systematic data on service quality are now available for several cities, they are not publicly available. In some localities groundwater used for drinking water supply is naturally contaminated with levels of fluoride in excess of the recommended level of 0.7 to 1.2 mg/l. For example, a 1990 study showed that the fluoride level in drinking water in Mecca was 2.5 mg/l. In Riyadh the level of fluoride is reduced far below the recommended level by blending groundwater with desalinated seawater.

neg: Water fluoridation and Human Services (HHS) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lowered the recommended level of fluoride to 0.7 mg/L. In 2015, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), based on the recommendation of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) for fluoridation of community water systems, recommended that bottled water manufacturers limit fluoride in bottled water to no more than 0.7 milligrams per liter (mg/L)(milligrams per liter, equivalent to parts per million). Previous recommendations were based on evaluations from 1962, when the U.S. specified the optimal level of fluoride to range from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L (milligrams per liter, equivalent

neg: Stöber process shape of the product particles as well as the pore size are determined solely by the reaction kinetics and the quantity of sodium fluoride introduced; higher relative fluoride levels produces a greater number of nucleation sites and hence smaller particles. Decoupling the hydrolysis and condensation process affords a level of product control that is substantially superior to that afforded by the one-step Stöber process, with particle size controlled nearly completely by the sodium fluoride-to-TEOS ratio. The two-step Stöber process begins with a mixture of TEOS, water, alcohol, and a nonionic surfactant, to which hydrochloric acid is added to produce a

neg: Niobium(IV) fluoride Niobium(IV) fluoride Niobium(IV) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula NbF; it is a nonvolatile black solid. It absorbs vapor strongly. It turns into NbOF in moist air. NbF reacts with water to form a brown solution and a brown precipitate whose components are unknown. It is stable between 275 °C and 325 °C when heated in a vacuum. However, it disproportionates at 350 °C rapidly to form niobium(V) fluoride and niobium(III) fluoride: Niobium(IV) fluoride adopts a crystal structure analogous to that of tin(IV) fluoride, in which each niobium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms forming an octahedron.

neg: Fluoride and its anhydrous form, hydrogen fluoride, is also used in the production of fluorocarbons. Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of specialized applications, including its ability to dissolve glass. Fluoride-containing compounds, such as sodium fluoride or sodium monofluorophosphate are used in topical and systemic fluoride therapy for preventing tooth decay. They are used for water fluoridation and in many products associated with oral hygiene. Originally, sodium fluoride was used to fluoridate water; hexafluorosilicic acid (HSiF) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (NaSiF) are more commonly used additives, especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay

neg: Water fluoridation the fluoride is added to milk, to powdered milk, or to yogurt. For example, milk powder fluoridation is used in rural Chilean areas where water fluoridation is not technically feasible. These programs are aimed at children, and have neither targeted nor been evaluated for adults. A systematic review found low-quality evidence to support the practice, but also concluded that further studies were needed. Other public-health strategies to control tooth decay, such as education to change behavior and diet, have lacked impressive results. Although fluoride is the only well-documented agent which controls the rate at which cavities develop, it has been

neg: Fluoridation by country the U.S. costs an average of about $ per person-year. Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits. In 2011 the World Health Organization suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L (milligrams per litre), depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride. Bottled water typically has unknown fluoride levels. Dental caries remains a major public health concern in most industrialized countries, affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults. Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear. A Cochrane review estimates a reduction in

neg: Fluoridation by country While fluoridation can result in mild dental fluorosis, this effect is barely detectable and causes no concerns with the appearance or health of teeth. Countries practicing artificial water fluoridation vary in their recommended fluoride levels according to what health authorities in each have determined to be most effective for its citizens. The US recently reset the recommended optimal level of fluoride in drinking water, lowering it slightly, because of observed increased Fluorosis levels, likely due to additional fluoride sources like toothpaste and mouthwash which were not present when this level was originally set. Of Africa's 1.1 billion people, about 400,000

neg: Bottled water as the Environmental Protection Agency standards for tap water. The FDA has established "Standards of Identity" for bottled water products sold in the U.S. For a product to be considered “bottled water”, it cannot contain sweeteners or chemical additives (other than flavors, extracts or essences) and must be calorie-free and sugar-free. If flavors, extracts and essences—derived from spice or fruit—are added to the water, these additions must comprise less than 1% by weight of the final product. The FDA Code of Federal Regulations establishes limitations for the amount of fluoride that can be added to water. Mineral water contains at

neg: Manganese(IV) fluoride application of manganese tetrafluoride is in the purification of elemental fluorine. Fluorine gas is produced by electrolysis of anhydrous hydrogen fluoride (with a small amount of potassium fluoride added as a support electrolyte) in a Moissan cell. The technical product is contaminated with HF, much of which can be removed by passing the gas over solid KF, but also with oxygen (from traces of water) and possibly heavy-metal fluorides such as arsenic pentafluoride (from contamination of the HF). These contaminants are particularly problematic for the semiconductor industry, which uses high-purity fluorine for etching silicon wafers. Further impurities, such as iron,

neg: Fluoridation by country was interrupted during 1976–1978 due to the shortage of sodium silico-fluoride. It was resumed only in the Fangcun district of the city, due to objections, and was halted in 1983. The fluoridation reduced the number of cavities, but increased dental fluorosis; the fluoride levels could have been set too high, and low-quality equipment led to inconsistent, and often excessive, fluoride concentrations. All Hong Kong residents receive natural occurring fluoride in water, at about half the traditionally-recommended fluoride level. The Water Supplies Department fluoridates rainwater from 17 local reservoirs, in 21 treatment plants. Recent tests showed drinking water to have an

neg: Groundwater pollution "with more than 200 million people at risk of drinking water with elevated concentrations." Fluoride can especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when water hardness is low. High levels of fluoride in groundwater is a serious problem in the Argentinean Pampas, Chile, Mexico, India, Pakistan, the East African Rift, and some volcanic islands (Tenerife) In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of fluoride in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both dental and skeletal fluorosis can be prevalent and severe. The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed wells, can

neg: Aluminium fluoride ingests both a fluoride source (e.g., fluoride in drinking water or residue of fluoride-based pesticides) and an aluminum source; sources of human exposure to aluminum include drinking water, tea, food residues, infant formula, aluminum-containing antacids or medications, deodorants, cosmetics, and glassware. Fluoridation chemicals may also contain aluminum fluoride. Data on the potential neurotoxic effects of chronic exposure to the aluminum species existing in water is limited. Aluminium fluoride Aluminium fluoride (AlF) is an inorganic compound used primarily in the production of aluminium. This colorless solid can be prepared synthetically but also occurs in nature as minerals rosenbergite and oskarssonite. The

neg: Water fluoridation in the United States to reduce incidences of fluorosis, and (2) to encourage communities with a low concentration of fluoride in drinking water to add fluoride in order to help prevent tooth decay. By 2006, 69.2% of the U.S. population on public water systems were receiving fluoridated water, amounting to 61.5% of the total U.S. population; 3.0% of the population on public water systems were receiving naturally occurring fluoride. In April 2015, fluoride levels in the United States were lowered for the first time in 50 years, to the minimum recommended levels of 0.7ppm, because too much fluoride exposure has become a common issue

neg: Luting agent zinc phosphate, zinc polycarboxylate has been found to be distinctly superior in its adhesion to enamel and dentin under tensile loading. Glass Ionomer This is the first of the GI luting cements to appear in 1978. It consists of fluoroaluminosilicate glass and a liquid containing polyacrylic acid, itaconic acid and water. Alternatively, the acid may be freeze dried and added to powder with distilled water. When in position it will release fluoride ions which could have a potential anti caries effect. It also binds physicochemically to tooth structure and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, both of which are

neg: Fluoride therapy Fluoride therapy Fluoride therapy is the use of fluoride for medical purposes. Fluoride supplements are recommended to prevent tooth decay in children older than 6 month in areas where the drinking water is low in fluoride. It is typically used as a liquid, pill, or paste by mouth. Where public water supplies are fluoridated further fluoride by mouth is typically not needed. Fluoride has also been used to treat a number of bone diseases. Normal doses may occasionally result in white marks on the teeth. Excessive doses can result in brown or yellow coloring of the teeth. Fluoride therapy typically

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia programs, Australia has organised anti-fluoride groups that contest the health benefits of fluoride. In addition to claiming that fluoride offers no health benefits whatsoever, they claim that moderate fluoride exposure can lead to reduced IQ, damaged bones, brain, kidneys and thyroid, dental fluorosis, and many more severe effects. The first town to fluoridate the water supply in Australia was Beaconsfield, Tasmania in 1953. Although all public water supplies in Tasmania are fluoridated, approximately 15% of the residents do not have access to public water supplies. The fluoridation of drinking water supplies in Tasmania is regulated by the Fluoridation Act 1968.

neg: Fluoridation by country where the fluoride content is too high. Legislation around mandatory fluoridation was introduced in 2002, but has been delayed since then pending further research after opposition from water companies, municipalities and the public. Approximately 947,000 (7% of the population) receives water with naturally occurring fluoride in it. Roughly 2,600,000 (21% of the population) receives water with naturally occurring fluoride in it. Fluoridation is banned in China. Naturally high fluoride levels in water are a serious problem in China. As of 2003, there is no water fluoridation in China. Water fluoridation began in 1965 in the urban area of Guangzhou. It

neg: Activated alumina exposure to fluoride as a child correlated with lower IQ. As per researches conducted by V.K.Chhabra {Chief Chemist (retd.) P.H.E.D.Raj.} Activated alumina, when used as a fluoride filter, under field conditions can best be regenerated by a solution of lye (sodium hydroxide; NaOH), sulphuric acid (HSO). The fluoride uptake capacity (FUC) of activated alumina can be up to 5000 mg/kg. The FUC can be determined as follows: "V.K.Chhabra’s method (Chief Chemist retired, PHED Raj., India)": Fluoride solution: Dissolve 22.1 g anhydrous NaF in distilled water and dilute to 1,000 mL. 1 mL = 10 mg fluoride. 10 mL/L = 100

neg: Osteosarcoma mice. Fluoridation of water has been practiced around the world to improve citizens' dental health. It is also deemed as major health success. Fluoride concentration levels in water supplies are regulated, such as United States Environmental Protection Agency regulates fluoride levels to not be greater than 4 milligrams per liter. Actually, water supplies already have natural occurring fluoride, but many communities chose to add more fluoride to the point that it can reduce tooth decay. Fluoride is also known for its ability to cause new bone formation. Yet, further research shows no osteosarcoma risks from fluoridated water in humans. Most

neg: Tooth decay xylitol and amorphous calcium phosphate products. Silver diamine fluoride may work better than fluoride varnish to prevent cavities. Systemic fluoride is found as lozenges, tablets, drops and water fluoridation. These are ingested orally to provide fluoride systemically. Water fluoridation has been shown to be beneficial to prevent tooth decay, especially in low social economical areas, where other forms of fluoride is not available. However, a Cochrane systematic review found no evidence to suggest that taking fluoride systemically daily in pregnant women was effective in preventing dental decay in their offspring. An oral health assessment carried out before a child reaches

neg: Barium fluoride discrimination techniques to separate them from simultaneously occurring gamma photons. When heated to 500 °C, it gets corroded by water, but in dry environments it can be used up to 800 °C. Prolonged exposure to moisture degrades transmission in the vacuum UV range. It is less resistant to water than calcium fluoride, but is the most resistant of all the optical fluorides to high-energy radiation, though its far ultraviolet transmittance is lower than theirs. It is quite hard, very sensitive to thermal shock and fractures quite easily. Barium fluoride is used as a preopacifying agent and in enamel and glazing

neg: Bismuth phosphate process fluoride process was used. Lanthanum salts and hydrogen fluoride were added again and lanthanum fluoride was precipitated, while hexavalent plutonium was left in solution. This removed lanthanides like cerium, strontium and lanthanum, that bismuth phosphate could not. The plutonium was again reduced with oxalic acid and the lanthanum fluoride process was repeated. This time potassium hydroxide was added to metathesize the solution. Liquid was removed with a centrifuge and the solid dissolved in nitric acid to form plutonium nitrate. At this point, a batch sent would have been concentrated to . The final step was carried out at the 231-Z

neg: Niobium(IV) fluoride Of the six fluorine atoms surrounding a single niobium atom, four are bridging to adjacent octahedra, leading to a structure of octahedra connected in layers. Niobium(IV) fluoride Niobium(IV) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula NbF; it is a nonvolatile black solid. It absorbs vapor strongly. It turns into NbOF in moist air. NbF reacts with water to form a brown solution and a brown precipitate whose components are unknown. It is stable between 275 °C and 325 °C when heated in a vacuum. However, it disproportionates at 350 °C rapidly to form niobium(V) fluoride and niobium(III) fluoride: Niobium(IV)

neg: Defluoridation Defluoridation Defluoridation is the downward adjustment of the level of fluoride in drinking water. Worldwide, fluoride is one of the most abundant anions present in groundwater. Fluoride is more present in groundwater than surface water mainly due to the leaching of minerals. Groundwater accounts for 98 percent of the earth's potable water. An excess of fluoride in drinking water causes dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. The World Health Organization has recommended a guideline value of 1.5 mg/L as the concentration above which dental fluorosis is likely. Fluorosis is endemic in more than 20 developed and developing nations. Fluorosis was not

neg: Tooth enamel Fluoride can be found in many locations naturally, such as the ocean and other water sources. The recommended dosage of fluoride in drinking water depends on air temperature. Fluoride catalyzes the diffusion of calcium and phosphate into the tooth surface, which in turn remineralizes the crystalline structures in a dental cavity. The remineralized tooth surfaces contain fluoridated hydroxyapatite and fluorapatite, which resist acid attack much better than the original tooth did. Fluoride therapy is used to help prevent dental decay. Fluoride ion, as an antimicrobial, may activate bacteria fluoride-induced genes associated with fluoride riboswitches. The combination of fluoride ion and

neg: Water fluoridation in the United States were receiving fluoridated water, amounting to 61.5% of the total U.S. population. Near the end of 2012, 67.1% of the U.S. population were getting water from community water systems (CWS) supplying water that had fluoride at or above recommended levels. Those included the 3.5% of the population that were on CWS with naturally occurring fluoride at or above recommended levels. 74.6% of those on CWS were receiving water with fluoride at or above recommended levels. U.S. regulations for bottled water do not require disclosing fluoride content. A survey of bottled water in Cleveland and in Iowa, published in 2000, found

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia Fluoridation Act 2008. Several areas of Queensland, such as Julia Creek, Quilpie, Thargomindah and Adavale are known to have naturally occurring fluoride present in their drinking water, a characteristic that has been studied since the late 1920s. In 2009 an accident occurred at the North Pine treatment plant, and some homes received water having many times the recommended level of fluoride. Gladstone Regional Council has voted to remove fluoride from their water supply. Mackay council votes to remove fluoride from their water supply. Water fluoridation in Australia Australia is one of many countries that have water fluoridation programs currently operating

neg: Water fluoridation salt were not successful. The history of water fluoridation can be divided into three periods. The first () was research into the cause of a form of mottled tooth enamel called the Colorado brown stain. The second (c. 1933–1945) focused on the relationship between fluoride concentrations, fluorosis, and tooth decay, and established that moderate levels of fluoride prevent cavities. The third period, from 1945 on, focused on adding fluoride to community water supplies. In the first half of the 19th century, investigators established that fluoride occurs with varying concentrations in teeth, bone, and drinking water. In the second half they

neg: Biocide 21). It should noted that one active substance can be used in several product types, such as for example sulfuryl fluoride, which is approved for use as a wood preservative (PT 8) as well as an insecticide (PT 18). Biocides can be added to other materials (typically liquids) to protect them against biological infestation and growth. For example, certain types of quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) are added to pool water or industrial water systems to act as an algicide, protecting the water from infestation and growth of algae. It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for

neg: Water fluoridation in Australia Before the 2008 legislation the addition of fluoride to water supplies was regulated by the Fluoridation of Water Supplies Act 1963. Under this legislation only 5% of drinking water supplies were fluoridated. Queensland was unique in that it did not pursue water fluoridation like all the other Australian States and Territories, with only 7 of the 850 fluoridated supplies in 1984 operating in Queensland. Those supplies operated in the towns of Biloela, Dalby, Gatton, Mareeba, Moranbah, and Townsville/Thuringowa, with some adding fluoride to their drinking water since 1972. A few of these towns stopped adding fluoride prior to the Water

neg: Defluoridation require chemicals. It works at wide pH range and interference by other ions is negligible. Negatives include higher costs and it skilled labour . This process is not suitable for water with high salinity. Defluoridation Defluoridation is the downward adjustment of the level of fluoride in drinking water. Worldwide, fluoride is one of the most abundant anions present in groundwater. Fluoride is more present in groundwater than surface water mainly due to the leaching of minerals. Groundwater accounts for 98 percent of the earth's potable water. An excess of fluoride in drinking water causes dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. The

neg: Fluoride In areas where water is fluoridated this can be expected to be a significant source of fluoride, however fluoride is also naturally present in virtually all foods and beverages at wide range of concentrations. The maximum safe daily consumption of fluoride is 10 mg/day for an adult (U.S.) or 7 mg/day (European Union). The upper limit of fluoride intake from all sources (fluoridated water, food, beverages, fluoride dental products and dietary fluoride supplements) is set at 0.10 mg/kg/day for infants, toddlers, and children through to 8 years old. For older children and adults, who are no longer at risk for

neg: Ammonium fluoride Ammonium fluoride Ammonium fluoride is the inorganic compound with the formula NHF. It crystallizes as small colourless prisms, having a sharp saline taste, and is exceedingly soluble in water. Ammonium fluoride adopts the wurtzite crystal structure, in which both the ammonium cations and the fluoride anions are stacked in ABABAB... layers, each being tetrahedrally surrounded by four of the other. There are N−H···F hydrogen bonds between the anions and cations. This structure is very similar to ice, and ammonium fluoride is the only substance which can form mixed crystals with water. On passing hydrogen fluoride gas (in excess) through the

neg: Cardinia Reservoir back of water. The surface area of Cardinia Reservoir is and the catchment area is . The ungated uncontrolled spillway is capable of discharging . Construction of the dam was completed in 1973, following which it took another four years to fill, including substantial water transfers from Silvan Reservoir. As part of the Victorian Government's policy that fluoride should be added to all public water supplies, construction began on local fluoridation plants. In 1981, following continued demand for potable water on the Mornington Peninsula finally exceeded the district's ability to meet its own water supply needs. Despite upgrading of existing

neg: Tap water residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved. In many areas a compound of fluoride is added to tap water in an effort to improve dental health among the public. In some communities "fluoridation" remains a controversial issue. (See water fluoridation controversy.) This supply may come from several possible sources. Domestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, such as a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending waste water away from the residences. Modern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable

neg: Mouthwash the mouth moist in xerostomia (dry mouth). Cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste. Rinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste can reduce the availability of salivary fluoride. This can lower the anti-cavity re-mineralization and antibacterial effects of fluoride. Fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride. A group of experts discussing post brushing rinsing in 2012 found that although there was clear guidance given in many public health advice publications to "spit, avoid rinsing with water/excessive rinsing with water" they believed

neg: Water fluoridation on the average (range: $–$; all costs in this paragraph are for the U.S. and are in dollars, inflation-adjusted from earlier estimates). Larger water systems have lower per capita cost, and the cost is also affected by the number of fluoride injection points in the water system, the type of feeder and monitoring equipment, the fluoride chemical and its transportation and storage, and water plant personnel expertise. In affluent countries the cost of salt fluoridation is also negligible; developing countries may find it prohibitively expensive to import the fluoride additive. By comparison, fluoride toothpaste costs an estimated $–$ per person-year,

neg: Fluoride therapy fluoride lozenges and fluoride pills provided clear evidence early that fluoride acts topically. Medical fluoride supplements in the form of tablets, lozenges, or liquids (including fluoride-vitamin preparations) are used primarily for children in areas without fluoridated drinking water. The evidence supporting the effectiveness of this treatment for primary teeth is weak. The supplements prevent cavities in permanent teeth. A significant side effect is mild to moderate dental fluorosis. A Cochrane review also found no evidence that daily fluoride supplementation in pregnant women was effective in preventing tooth decay or causing fluorosis in their children. Fluoride therapy Fluoride therapy is the

neg: Fluoride therapy the mouthrinse is retained in the saliva which helps prevent tooth decay. Fluoride mouth rinses are recommended for use in conjunction with other fluoride therapies, but is usually contraindicated for children under 6 years old as they may swallow the rinse and increase their risk of dental fluorosis. In areas without fluoridated drinking water, these rinses are recommended for children. Many brands of topical fluoride exist. They are not recommended if a person is drinking water that already contains sufficient fluoride. There are several types of professionally-applied fluoride gels and foams on the market. The types of professionally-applied fluoride gels

neg: Copper(II) fluoride but it starts to decompose when in hot water, to form basic F and Cu(OH) ions. Copper(II) fluoride together has not been researched well on toxicity levels. However the toxicity affect of copper compounds and fluoride compounds individually. Copper can affect the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. Some more serious conditions can occur such as metal fume fever, and hemolysis of the red blood cells. It can cause damage to the liver and other major organs as well. Fluoride can cause nausea, vomiting, as well as causing upset stomach. More serious affects are weakness followed by tremors, problems breathing, serious

neg: Biological aspects of fluorine advised for special patient groups, particularly those undergoing radiation therapy to the head (cancer patients). The patient receives a four-minute application of a high amount of fluoride. Varnishes, which can be more quickly applied, exist and perform a similar function. Fluoride is also contained in prescription and non-prescription mouthwashes and is a trace component of foods manufactured using fluoridated water supplies. Of all commercialized pharmaceutical drugs, twenty percent contain fluorine, including important drugs in many different pharmaceutical classes. Fluorine is often added to drug molecules as even a single atom can greatly change the chemical properties of the molecule in

neg: Carbonyl fluoride is unstable in the presence of water, hydrolyzing to carbon dioxide and hydrogen fluoride: Carbonyl fluoride is toxic with a recommended exposure limit of 2 ppm as an 8-hour time weighted average and a 5 ppm as a short-term (15-minute average) exposure. Carbonyl fluoride Carbonyl fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula COF. This gas, like its analog phosgene, is colourless and highly toxic. The molecule is planar with "C" symmetry. Carbonyl fluoride is usually produced as a decomposition product of fluorinated hydrocarbons in the thermal decomposition thereof, for example from trifluoromethanol or tetrafluoromethane in the presence of water:

neg: Dental public health a public health problem and what is the best way to manage health problems in communities. The following are questions should be considered when addressing public health problems: Once these questions have been answered, the way a public health problem is acted upon to protect a population can be determined. Water fluoridation is the implementation of artificial fluoride in public water supplies with the intentions to halt the progression of dental diseases. Fluoride has the ability to interfere with the demineralisation and remineralisation process that occurs on the tooth surface and improves the mineral intake when the pH level may

neg: Sodium monofluorophosphate of Crest toothpaste (containing stannous fluoride, marketed as "Fluoristan"). In the early 1980s, Crest was reformulated to use MFP, under the trademark "Fluoristat"; today Crest toothpastes use sodium fluoride or stannous fluoride. Compared to straight fluorides, sodium monofluorophosphate has slightly less aftertaste. MFP is also used in some medications for the treatment of osteoporosis. In 1991, sodium monofluorophosphate was found by Calgon to inhibit the dissolution of lead in drinking water when used in concentrations between 0.1 mg/L and 500 mg/L. Tooth decay is caused by bacteria naturally present in one's mouth. These bacteria form a sticky, colorless soft film

neg: Water fluoridation about any differences. A 2007 Australian systematic review used the same inclusion criteria as York's, plus one additional study. This did not affect the York conclusions. A 2011 European Commission systematic review based its efficacy on York's review conclusion. A 2015 Cochrane systematic review estimated a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by children who had no access to other sources of fluoride to be 35% in baby teeth and 26% in permanent teeth. The evidence was of poor quality. Fluoride may also prevent cavities in adults of all ages. A 2007 meta-analysis by CDC researchers found that

neg: Halogen binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen halides: hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen bromide (HBr), hydrogen iodide (HI), and hydrogen astatide (HAt). All of these compounds form acids when mixed with water. Hydrogen fluoride is the only hydrogen halide that forms hydrogen bonds. Hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, and hydroastatic acid are all strong acids, but hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid. All of the hydrogen halides are irritants. Hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride are highly acidic. Hydrogen fluoride is used as an industrial chemical, and is highly toxic, causing pulmonary edema and damaging cells. Hydrogen

neg: Water fluoridation no special advantage and prefer topical application strategies. Those opposed argue that water fluoridation has no or little cariostatic benefits, may cause serious health problems, is not effective enough to justify the costs, is pharmacologically obsolete, and presents a moral conflict between the common good and individual rights. Water fluoridation Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water contains fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride. Fluoridated water operates on tooth surfaces: in the mouth, it creates low

neg: Hydrogen fluoride shorter, consisting on average of only five or six molecules. Hydrogen fluoride does not boil until 20 °C in contrast to the heavier hydrogen halides which boil between −85 °C (−120 °F) and −35 °C (−30 °F). This hydrogen bonding between HF molecules gives rise to high viscosity in the liquid phase and lower than expected pressure in the gas phase. Hydrogen fluoride is miscible with water (dissolves in any proportion), whereas the other hydrogen halides have large solubility gaps with water. Hydrogen fluoride and water also form several compounds in the solid state, most notably a 1:1 compound that

neg: Fluoridation by country get artificially-fluoridated water (in Libya, data pre-2003). Water is fluoridated in Egypt, with no recommended minimum value but with a maximum value of 0.4 mg/L. Before 2003, 400,000 Libyans were receiving artificially-fluoridated water. Only a fraction of Nigerians receive water from waterworks, so water fluoridation affects very few people. A 2009 study found that about 21% of water sources naturally contain fluoride to the recommended range of 0.3–0.6 ppm. About 62% have fluoride below this range. South Africa's Health Department recommends adding fluoridation chemicals to drinking water in some areas. It also advises removal of fluoride from drinking water (defluoridation)

neg: Fluoride toxicity liter of water – updating and replacing the previous recommended range of 0.7 to 1.2 milligrams issued in 1962. The new recommended level is intended to reduce the occurrence of dental fluorosis while maintaining water fluoridation. In India an estimated 60 million people have been poisoned by well water contaminated by excessive fluoride, which is dissolved from the granite rocks. The effects are particularly evident in the bone deformities of children. Similar or larger problems are anticipated in other countries including China, Uzbekistan, and Ethiopia. Historically, most cases of acute fluoride toxicity have followed accidental ingestion of sodium fluoride based

neg: Fluoride and is considered by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as "one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century". In some countries where large, centralized water systems are uncommon, fluoride is delivered to the populace by fluoridating table salt. For the method of action for cavity prevention, see Fluoride therapy. Fluoridation of water has its critics (see Water fluoridation controversy). Fluoridated toothpaste is in common use, but is only effective at concentrations above 1,000 ppm, as is common in North America and Europe. Fluoride salts are commonly used in biological assay processing to inhibit the