query: who had the most advanced economy in the world before the eighteenth century

pos: Great Divergence later northern China was devastated by Jurchen and Mongol invasions, floods and epidemics. The result was a dramatic shift in the center of population and industry from the home of Chinese civilization around the Yellow River to the south of the country, a trend only partially reversed by the re-population of the north from the 15th century. By 1300, China had fallen behind Italy in living standards. In the late imperial period (1368–1911), comprising the Ming and Qing dynasties, taxation was low, and the economy and population grew significantly, though without substantial increases in productivity. Chinese goods such as silk,

pos: History of the world of gradual decline and collapse. During the Early Modern Period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes. Europe's success in this period stands in contrast to other regions. For example, one of the most advanced civilizations of the Middle Ages was China. It had developed an advanced monetary economy by 1000 CE. China had a free peasantry who were no longer subsistence farmers, and could sell their produce and actively participate in the market. According to Adam Smith, writing in the 18th century, China had long been one of the richest, most fertile, best cultivated,

pos: Economic history of India medieval era after 1000, during the Delhi Sultanate, but was not as productive as 15th century Ming China. After most of the subcontinent was reunited under the Mughal Empire, the empire became the largest economy by 1700, producing about a quarter of global GDP, before fragmenting, and being conquered over the century. According to the Balance of Economic Power, India had the largest and most advanced economy for most of the interval between the 1st century and 18th century, the most of any region for a large part of the last two millennia. During the Mughal Empire, India was the

pos: Chinese economic reform Chinese economic reform The Chinese economic reform () refers to the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" in the People's Republic of China (PRC) which reformists within the Communist Party of China - led by Deng Xiaoping - started in December 1978. China had had one of the world's largest and most advanced economies prior to the nineteenth century. In the 18th century, Adam Smith claimed China had long been one of the richest, that is, one of the most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, most prosperous and most urbanized countries in the world. The Chinese economy

pos: Macau Incident (1799) Hargood sailed to meet the French and Spanish ships, and a chase ensued through the Wanshan Archipelago before contact was lost. Both sides subsequently claimed that the other had refused battle, although it was the allied squadron which withdrew, Hargood later successfully escorting the China convoy safely westwards. The East Indian trade was an essential component of the economy of Great Britain in the eighteenth century. Administered by the East India Company from British India, exotic trade goods were carried on large, well-armed merchant ships known as East Indiamen, which weighed between . Among the most valuable parts of the

pos: Asia world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE. China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history, until the British Empire (excluding India) overtook it in the mid-19th century. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). This

pos: Qing conquest theory Carl Dahlman and Jean-Eric Aubert of the World Bank argue, based on Angus Maddison's data, that China was the world's largest and most advanced economy for the most of the past two millennia and among the wealthiest and most advanced economies until the 18th century. Sinologist Joseph Needham has claimed that China's GDP per capita exceeded Europe by a substantial margin from the 5th century BC onwards, but economic historian Angus Maddison believes that did not happen until the fall of the Roman Empire. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), the country experienced a revolution in agriculture, water transport, finance, urbanization,

pos: Economy of East Asia and economic prosperity. Even as late as the mid-twentieth century, East Asia remained nonindustrial, poverty-stricken, and torn by the ravages of World War II. Since the 1960s, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and Mainland China have all achieved a modern economic takeoff leaving the economic rise of modern East Asia to become one of most important economic success stories in modern world history. In spite of decades of setbacks and turmoil, East Asia is now one of the most prosperous and technologically advanced regions in the world. Driven by rapid modernization and specialization in advanced cutting edge high

pos: Chinese industrialization via repeated forging under a cold blast. By the 11th century, there was also a large amount of deforestation in China due to the iron industry's demands for charcoal. However, by this time the Chinese had figured out how to use bituminous coke to replace the use of charcoal, and with this switch in resources many acres of prime timberland in China were spared. This switch in resources from charcoal to coal was later used in Europe by the 17th century. The economy of the Song Dynasty was one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world.

pos: Economic history of New Zealand Economic history of New Zealand The economic history of New Zealand dates to before European colonisation of the country. By the 20th century, it had become one of the most globalized economies in the world, relying heavily on international trade with developed countries including Australia, Canada, China, European Union, the United States, Japan, and South Korea. It is a mixed economy that functions on free-market principles and has a sizable manufacturing and service sector and an efficient agricultural sector. New Zealand has the 54th largest export economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product. In 2016, New Zealand

pos: Qing dynasty had been awarded exclusive rights to conduct trade with Western merchants in Canton. Until its abolition after the Opium War in 1842, the Canton Cohong system was the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China, and thus became a booming hub of international trade by the early eighteenth century. By the eighteenth century the most significant export China had was tea. British demand for tea increased exponentially up until they figured out how to grow it for themselves in the hills of northern India in the 1880s. By the end of the eighteenth century tea exports going through the

pos: Memoirs of the Twentieth Century era; the focus is instead on the political and religious state of the world in the future. In Madden's future history, much of the world has come to be dominated by the Jesuits. In the early 19th century, Jesuit Paul IX became pope and seized temporal control over most of Italy. The eighteenth century had been one of war between Spain, France, and the Holy Roman Empire but weakened by conflict and mismanagement all three powers became vassals to the Pontiff by the mid-nineteenth century. Also under papal control are vast estates in Africa, China, and Paraguay. In France, King

pos: Chinese industrialization world population in Europe produced only a part of the remaining one-fifth share of world production, to which Europeans and Americans also contributed." China was one of Asia's most advanced economies at the time and was in the middle of its 18th century boom brought on by a long period of stability under the Qing Dynasty. Industrialization of China did occur on a significant scale only from the 1950s, in the Maoist Great Leap Forward (). This was the plan used from 1958 to 1961 to transform the People's Republic of China from a primarily agrarian economy by peasant farmers

neg: Economy of Bangladesh to $3.12 billion every month. Eastern Bengal was known for its fine muslin and silk fabric before the British period. The dyes, yarn, and cloth were the envy of much of the premodern world. Bengali muslin, silk, and brocade were worn by the aristocracy of Asia and Europe. The introduction of machine-made textiles from England in the late eighteenth century spelled doom for the costly and time-consuming hand loom process. Cotton growing died out in East Bengal, and the textile industry became dependent on imported yarn. Those who had earned their living in the textile industry were forced to rely

neg: Libelle (literary genre) differed in their scale. Eighteenth-century "libelles" were much heftier volumes than their single (or half) sheet predecessors. Some "libelles" of this period ran as large as thirty-six volumes. The fact that such pamphlets were beginning to be compiled into books increased the longevity of the "libelles". Second, the system which distributed the "libelles" had changed. The publishing industry which circulated eighteenth-century "libelles" was increasingly vast, and no longer localized. Third, the way in which the "libelles" attacked public figures had advanced. In eighteenth-century "libelles", the sex lives of the public figures who were attacked were contextualized as contemporary history. Fourth,

neg: Economy of Japan decades. For the rest of the 17th century most Japanese porcelain production was for export, mostly in Kyushu. The trade dwindled under renewed Chinese competition by the 1740s, before resuming after the opening of Japan in the mid-19th century. Economic development during the Edo period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, "han" authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts. By the mid-eighteenth century, Edo had a

neg: Eric Jones (economic historian) work is "" book (published in 1981). The work popularized the term European miracle, but it also proved controversial, with some scholars describing his interpretation as 'Eurocentric'. Andre Gunder Frank, for example, has claimed that productivity was higher in parts of Asia than in Britain until the late eighteenth century,and that Asia was at the centre of the world economy until at least that date. The world economy, he argues, remained ‘dominated by Asian production,competitiveness, and trade’ through the eighteenth century; Europe, by contrast, was only a ‘marginal player'. In "Growth Recurring" (1988) Jones focused on the states system theory

neg: Visegrád Group high reliability. The economy of the Czech Republic is the group's second largest (GDP PPP of USD $359.054 billion total, ranked 50th in the world). Before the Second World War, Czechoslovakia was one of the most advanced countries in the world. However, the subsequent 41 years of socialism with communist leadership had a significant impact on the country's economy. Since the Velvet Revolution in 1989 and the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 the Czech Republic has successfully transformed itself into a free market economy. Today, the Czech Republic is a highly industrialized country and is, according to the World Bank,

neg: Francisco de Arango y Parreño legal studies. By 1789 he had obtained a law degree. The outbreak of the French Revolution and the subsequent Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) opened up new possibilities for Cuban planters. Before the second half of the eighteenth century, Cuba's agriculture had been fairly backward. The island's economy centered on small tobacco farms and ranching. A series of events, however, helped to transform Cuba into a major plantation colony over the course of the second half of the eighteenth century. Britain occupied Havana in the 1760s and introduced large numbers of slaves during their relatively short occupation- at the time Britain was

neg: Thucydides and his advanced handling of evidence. A virtual cult following developed among such German philosophers as Friedrich Schelling, Friedrich Schlegel, and Friedrich Nietzsche, who claimed that, "[in Thucydides], the portrayer of Man, that culture of the most impartial knowledge of the world finds its last glorious flower." The late-eighteenth-century Swiss historian Johannes von Müller described Thucydides as "the favourite author of the greatest and noblest men, and one of the best teachers of the wisdom of human life". For Eduard Meyer, Thomas Babington Macaulay and Leopold von Ranke, who initiated modern source-based history writing, Thucydides was again the model historian.

neg: Colony of Jamaica law, or through military license. The speedy trial saw Gordon hanged on 23 October, just two days after his trial had begun. He and William Bogle, Paul's brother, "were both tried together, and executed at the same time." During most of the eighteenth century, a monocrop economy based on sugar production for export flourished. In the last quarter of the century, however, the Jamaican sugar economy declined as famines, hurricanes, colonial wars, and wars of independence disrupted trade. Despite the British Parliament's 1807 abolition of the slave trade, under which the transportation of slaves to Jamaica after 1 March 1808

neg: Moral economy Thompson, from a term already used by various eighteenth century authors, who felt that economic and moral concerns increasingly seemed to drift apart (see Götz 2015). Thompson wrote of the moral economy of the poor in the context of widespread food riots in the English countryside in the late eighteenth century. According to Thompson these riots were generally peaceable acts that demonstrated a common political culture rooted in feudal rights to "set the price" of essential goods in the market. These peasants held that a traditional "fair price" was more important to the community than a "free" market price and

neg: Colony of Jamaica the slave regime and the mortality rate for slaves was high, the slave population expanded through the slave trade from West Africa rather than by natural increase. During most of the eighteenth century, a monocrop economy based on sugar production for export flourished. In the last quarter of the century, however, the Jamaican sugar economy declined as famines, hurricanes, colonial wars, and wars of independence disrupted trade. By the 1820s, Jamaican sugar had become less competitive with that from high-volume producers such as Cuba and production subsequently declined. By 1882 sugar output was less than half the level achieved in

neg: Portuguese Restoration War Spain was clearly established, and it proved that it could fend for itself, albeit with difficulty. Its victories on the battlefield had re-awakened Portuguese nationalism. Economically, Portugal’s restoration of independence freed it to pursue the course mapped out by the pioneers of commercial imperialism. During the seventeenth century, its economy depended largely upon entrepôt trade in tobacco and sugar, and the export of salt. During the eighteenth century, even though staples were not abandoned, the Portuguese economy came to be based more upon slaves, gold, leather, and wine. Portuguese trade, centered in the busy port of Lisbon, was most influenced

neg: Ben Cunnington (archaeologist) First World War. The Cunningtons carried out excavations at some of the most important sites in British archaeology. These included the first known Neolithic causewayed enclosure at Knap Hil, the Iron age village at All Cannings Cross, West Kennet Long Barrow, Woodhenge, (which they named) and The Sanctuary. This last monument they rediscovered as it had been lost since William Stukeley saw it in the eighteenth century. Woodhenge and The Sanctuary were bought by the Cunningtons and given to the nation. He died a few months before his wife, who was suffering from Alzheimer's disease. Ben Cunnington (archaeologist) Edward Benjamin

neg: Ottoman Old Regime the Seven Years' War. Thus when war finally broke out with Russia in 1768 the Ottomans suffered devastating defeats, resulting in the loss of Crimea and the signing of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774. The Ottoman economy experienced general expansion and growth during the first three quarters of the eighteenth century. The Ottoman budget grew dramatically, from 1 billion akçe in 1699 to 1.6 billion in 1748. In contrast with the previous century, the Ottomans enjoyed budget surpluses during most of these years. Istanbul's commercial infrastructure was significantly revamped and expanded during the eighteenth century, improvements which underpinned

neg: Ronchamp coal mines Ronchamp coal mines The Ronchamp Coal Mines were an area of coal mines located in the Vosges and Jura coal mining basins, in eastern France. They covered three municipalities; Ronchamp, Champagney and Magny-Danigon. Operated for more than two centuries, from the mid-eighteenth century until the mid-twentieth century, they have profoundly changed the landscape, the economy and the local population. Mining began in Ronchamp in the mid-18th century and had developed into a large industry by the late 19th century, employing 1500 people. Extraction started in adit before being dug at coal mine Saint Louis in 1810, indroducing the first real

neg: Piracy in the Atlantic World was along the Eastern Seaboard of Canada and the US mainland, from Newfoundland to the Florida Keys. Newfoundland fisheries were known as recruiting areas for pirates in the early eighteenth century. Black Bart Roberts had a run-in off the coast of Newfoundland as well. There he captured Samuel Cary, who gave an in-depth account of the event to a Boston newspaper. New York was a popular place for pirates to unload their goods. One of the best known events is Blackbeard's blockade of Charleston's port. Africa was intimately tied to the economy of the Caribbean. Responsible for fueling the sailors

neg: Bloodhound this meaning is not found before the late eighteenth century. Before then 'bloodhound' had been taken to mean, 'hound for blood', or 'blood-seeking hound'. This was the explanation put forward by John Caius, who was one of the most learned men of his time, and had an interest in etymology, in the sixteenth century. It is supported by considerable historical linguistic evidence, which can be gleaned from such sources as the "Oxford English Dictionary" ("OED"): the fact that first uses of the word 'blood' to refer to good breeding in an animal post date the first use of 'bloodhound'; that

neg: Great Divergence World Economy" (2000). The same phenomenon was discussed by Eric Jones, whose 1981 book "" popularized the alternate term "European Miracle". Broadly, both terms signify a socioeconomic shift in which European countries advanced ahead of others during the modern period. The timing of the Great Divergence is in dispute among historians. The traditional dating is as early as the 16th (or even 15th) century, with scholars arguing that Europe had been on a trajectory of higher growth since that date. Pomeranz and others argue that the period of most rapid divergence was during the 19th century. Citing nutrition data and

neg: Ottoman decline thesis economy in the later seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and also in how easily it seemed to fit with pre-existing ideas about Ottoman decline. However, subsequent research demonstrated that, in the words of Şevket Pamuk, the eighteenth century "was in fact a period of recovery for the Ottoman monetary system," indicating that "the old thesis of continuous decline cannot be sustained." Far from declining, the first half of the eighteenth century was a period of significant expansion and growth for the Ottoman economy. Other supposed manifestations of Ottoman economic decline have also been challenged. The establishment by European merchants of new

neg: Economic history of Brazil the seventeenth century and the early eighteenth century, Portugal had difficulties in maintaining its American colony. The downfall of sugar revealed a fragile colonial economy, which had no commodity to replace sugar. Paradoxically, however, the period of stagnation induced the settlement of substantial portions of the colony's territory. With the decline of sugar, the cattle sector, which had evolved to supply the sugar economy with animals for transport, meat, and hides, assimilated part of the resources made idle, becoming a subsistence economy. Because of extensive cattle production methods, large areas in the colony's interior were settled. Realizing that it could

neg: Treaty of Lisbon (1668) by the pioneers of commercial imperialism. During the seventeenth century, its economy depended largely upon entrepôt trade in tobacco and sugar, and the export of salt. During the eighteenth century, even though staples were not abandoned, the Portuguese economy came to be based more upon slaves, gold, leather, and wine. Portuguese trade, centered in the busy port of Lisbon, was most influenced by Anglo-Dutch capitalism and by the colonial economy in Brazil. Treaty of Lisbon (1668) The Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 was a peace treaty between Portugal and Spain, concluded at Lisbon on 13 February 1668, through the mediation

neg: Java War (1741–1743) escaped to Banjarmasin in Borneo but was captured and exiled to the Cape of Good Hope in 1746. The Dutch East India Company, although it had gained a large amount of coastal land, was "in an advanced state of exhaustion". According to the noted scholar of Indonesia Merle Calvin Ricklefs, the new Sultan of Yogyakarta Mangkubumi went on to be the Dutch colonial government's "most dangerous enemy of the eighteenth century". The Indonesian Joko Widodo government and interior minister Tjahjo Kumolo erected a monument to the victims of the 1740 Batavia massacre and the Javanese and Chinese who fought against

neg: Cyropaedia in classical Attic Greek, mastery of which was part of the cultivation of learning and refinement among gentlemen in eighteenth century Europe and America. For example, Thomas Jefferson had two personal copies of the book in his library, possibly for this reason. In modern times, its reputation has declined, together with the study of the classics; it has been described as "surely one of the most tedious books to have survived from the ancient world," a view countered by others, such as Potter, who found it "written in the most captivating, simple and elegant style imaginable." In the nineteenth century,

neg: History of geology known as Diluvianists or Neptunists. The Neptunist thesis was the most popular during the late eighteenth century, especially for those who were chemically trained. However, another thesis slowly gained currency from the 1780s forward. Instead of water, some mid eighteenth-century naturalists such as Buffon had suggested that strata had been formed through heat (or fire). The thesis was modified and expanded by the Scottish naturalist James Hutton during the 1780s. He argued against the theory of Neptunism, proposing instead the theory of based on heat. Those who followed this thesis during the early nineteenth century referred to this view as

neg: Mallaha king narrowly escaping with a bodyguard. The battles for control over Mallaha continued. The "Itinerary of Richard I" notes that the army had advanced to Merla, "where the king had spent one of the previous nights." Just SE of Mallaha (at grid 2071/2737), excavations have revealed structures, probably dating to thirteenth or fourteenth century, that is after the area fell to Baybars. The structures have been assumed to belong to a sugar-producing installation. Mallaha, like most of Palestine, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in the early sixteenth century. Sufi traveller al-Bakri al-Siddiqi passed by the village in the mid-eighteenth

neg: Reverse-contrast typefaces Latin-alphabet perspective, as the verticals are lighter.) From the arrival of roman type around 1475 to the late eighteenth century, relatively little development in letter design took place, as most fonts of the period were intended for body text, and they stayed relatively similar in design and rooted in traditions of Italian humanistic handwriting. Starting in the eighteenth century, typefounders developed what are now called transitional and then Didone types. These typefaces had a far greater amount of stroke contrast than before, with the difference in stroke width much greater than in earlier types. These had more constructed letterforms, matching

neg: Cairanne Vigne et du Rosaire (Our Lady of the Vine and the Rosary). Many of the stones of Saint Martin had been pillaged during the previous centuries and were used to construct houses in the area. At the same time the village and the apartments and houses which had been built into the fortified walls constructed by the Knights Templars were sold to private owners, mostly from the region. The revival of the old village had begun and by 1980 most of the work had been finished. During the eighteenth century the economy of the region began to revive as wine

neg: British soldiers in the eighteenth century challenging. Plenty of training was needed before a soldier could enter the battlefield; drills and exercises had to be strictly followed as punishments were applied for even the most minor of mistakes. The British Army in the 18th century was commonly seen as disciplined, regimented and harsh. Camp life was dirty and cramped with the potential for a rapid spread of disease, and punishments could be anything from a flogging to a death sentence. Yet, many men volunteered to join the army, to escape the bleak conditions of life in the cities, for a chance to travel the world and

neg: Flor Peeters masterclasses all over the world. He also made recordings of sixteenth-, seventeenth- and eighteenth-century organ music; some of these have been reissued in recent years on compact disc. Most of his own pieces (he wrote well over 100) were for his own instrument, for choir, or for both. He died on his eighty-third birthday; fifteen years before, he had been made a baron by King Baudouin. Peeters studied Renaissance music, particularly of the school of Flemish polyphony. This style was also absorbed into his music. In addition, he showed an interest in twentieth-century techniques such as polyrhythms and polytonality. Pupils

neg: Galley of the Greco-Persian Wars (502–449 BC) and the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), including the battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC, which sealed the defeat of Athens by Sparta and its allies. The trireme was an advanced ship that was expensive to build and to maintain due its large crew. By the 5th century, advanced war galleys had been developed that required sizable states with an advanced economy to build and maintain. It was associated with the latest in warship technology around the 4th century BC and could only be employed by an advanced state with an advanced economy and administration.

neg: Edward Waring great importance in the study of continuous bodies which was almost completely neglected in Britain before Waring's researches. One of the most interesting results in "Meditationes Analyticae" is a test for the convergence of series generally attributed to d'Alembert (the 'ratio test'). The theory of convergence of series (the object of which is to establish when the summation of an infinite number of terms can be said to have a finite 'sum') was not much advanced in the eighteenth century. Waring's work was known both in Britain and on the continent, but it is difficult to evaluate his impact on

neg: Beaton medical kindred the surname "Beaton" in the fifteenth century. By the seventeenth century, most of the seventeen or so families within the kindred had adopted the surname "Beaton", although two used the surname "Bethune". Partly as a result members of the medical kindred mistakenly came to think of themselves as descended from the Bethunes of Balfour, the principal branch of the aforesaid Bethune or Beaton family (who were ultimately of Continental origin). Like other learned Gaelic families, members of the kindred copied and compiled manuscripts. According to Martin Martin, just before the turn of the eighteenth century, a member of the kindred

neg: Economy of Wales location, predominantly upland topography, bad communications and sparse population. Commerce was most advanced in the small coastal ports that had regular commerce with Bristol or Liverpool; the other major sources of external trading contact were the drovers, who drove cattle from Mid Wales along Drovers roads for sale and slaughter in the English Midlands and London's Smithfield Market from the 14th century onwards. The drovers were instrumental in establishing the first banks in Wales, such as "Banc Y Ddafad Ddu" ("Black Sheep Bank") in Aberystwyth. Industrial development from the mid 18th century was stimulated by the potential of Wales' rich

neg: Sicilian nobility not until the nineteenth century that these "signori" were formally designated "baroni" and their property holdings baronies. Some families favoured the Longobard system of land transfer, inheritance divided amongst all male heirs; however, most Norman families were practitioners of male primogeniture, the Frankish custom of inheritance, which served to maintain family fiefdoms in their original form. Conversely, under the Longobard system estates became smaller over time. Over the centuries, established noble families were advanced through the aristocratic ranks. By the eighteenth century, the titles "principe", "duca" and "marchese" were held by many men whose ancestors, only several centuries earlier, had

neg: History of Brazil met with great enthusiasm by Portugal, which had an economy in disarray following years of wars against Spain and the Netherlands. A gold rush quickly ensued, with people from other parts of the colony and Portugal flooding the region in the first half of the eighteenth century. The large portion of the Brazilian inland where gold was extracted became known as the Minas Gerais (General Mines). Gold mining in this area became the main economic activity of colonial Brazil during the eighteenth century. In Portugal, the gold was mainly used to pay for industrialized goods (textiles, weapons) obtained from countries

neg: Bachelor of Commerce the University of Birmingham. The University's School of Commerce was founded by William Ashley, an Englishman from Oxford University, who was the first professor of Political Economy and Constitutional History in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Toronto. Ashley left Toronto in 1892, spent a few years at Harvard University, and then went back to England to the new University of Birmingham where he founded the School of Commerce. Ashley began the program which was the forerunner of many other B.Com. degree programs throughout the British Empire. Eighteenth-century economists had divided the English economy into three sectors: agriculture,

neg: State capitalism market. An example of this would be the military–industrial complex in which autonomous entrepreneurial firms produce for lucrative government contracts and are not subject to the discipline of competitive markets. Both the Trotskyist definition and this one derive from discussion among Marxists at the beginning of the 20th century, most notably Nikolai Bukharin, who in his book "Imperialism and the world economy" thought that advanced, imperialist countries exhibited the latter definition and considered (and rejected) the possibility that they could arrive at the former. State capitalism is practised by a variety of Western countries with respect to certain strategic resources

neg: Gualeguaychú, Entre Ríos been decimated by the mid-eighteenth century. In the final decades of the century, the number of people scattered throughout the area from Buenos Aires and Santa Fe, including Jesuit missionaries, increased. These inhabitants developed a subsistence economy and had conflicts with landowner settlers, who had already been settled there for decades. In 1770, a settlement was established around a chapel in the south of Gualeguaychú. In December 1777 the rancher Esteban Justo García de Zúñiga was appointed as the “commander of the parties of Gualeguaychú, Gualeguay and Uruguay". In 1779 the bishop of Buenos Aires, Sebastián Malvar y Pinto, visited

neg: Middlesex (UK Parliament constituency) party has been identified are classified as Non Partisan. The candidate might have been associated with a party or faction in Parliament or consider himself to belong to a particular political tradition. Political parties before the nineteenth century were not as cohesive or organised as they later became. Contemporary commentators (even the reputed leaders of parties or factions) in the eighteenth century did not necessarily agree who the party supporters were. The traditional parties, which had arisen in the late seventeenth century, became increasingly irrelevant to politics in the eighteenth century (particularly after 1760), although for some contests in some

neg: Westminster (UK Parliament constituency) of parties or factions) in the eighteenth century did not necessarily agree who the party supporters were. The traditional parties, which had arisen in the late seventeenth century, became increasingly irrelevant to politics in the eighteenth century (particularly after 1760), although for some contests in some constituencies party labels were still used. It was only towards the end of the century that party labels began to acquire some meaning again, although this process was by no means complete for several more generations. "Sources": The results for elections before 1790 were taken from the History of Parliament Trust publications on the

neg: Amersham (UK Parliament constituency) for whom no party has been identified are classified as Non Partisan. The candidate might have been associated with a party or faction in Parliament or considered himself to belong to a particular political tradition. Political parties before the nineteenth century were not as cohesive or organised as they later became. Contemporary commentators (even the reputed leaders of parties or factions) in the eighteenth century did not necessarily agree who the party supporters were. The traditional parties, which had arisen in the late seventeenth century, became increasingly irrelevant to politics in the eighteenth century (particularly after 1760), although for some

neg: Cuba revolution, Cuba was one of the most advanced and successful countries in Latin America. Cuba's capital, Havana, was a "glittering and dynamic city". The country's economy in the early part of the century, fuelled by the sale of sugar to the United States, had grown wealthy. Cuba ranked 5th in the hemisphere in per capita income, 3rd in life expectancy, 2nd in per capita ownership of automobiles and telephones, and 1st in the number of television sets per inhabitant. Cuba's literacy rate, 76%, was the fourth highest in Latin America. Cuba also ranked 11th in the world in the number

neg: Appalousa a language isolate) and French. (This area had been colonized by the French since the mid-eighteenth century.) Their language is completely undocumented. In the early twentieth century, anthropologists John R. Swanton and Frederick W. Hodge tentatively classified the Opelousa language as Atakapa. Appalousa The Appalousa (also Opelousa) were an indigenous American people who occupied the area around present-day Opelousas, Louisiana, west of the lower Mississippi River, before European contact in the eighteenth century. At various times in their history, they were associated with the neighboring Atakapa and Chitimacha peoples. The name Opelousa has been thought to have many meanings, but

neg: Jean Jannon By the mid-nineteenth century, Jannon's matrices formed the only substantial collection of printing materials in the Latin alphabet left in Paris from before the eighteenth century. The matrices came to be attributed to Claude Garamond (d. 1561), a revered punchcutter of the sixteenth century who was known to have made punches for the government in the Greek alphabet, albeit a century before the Imprimerie was established. The attribution came to be considered certain by the Imprimerie's director Arthur Christian. Doubt began to be raised by historian Jean Paillard in 1914, but he died in the First World War soon after

neg: Iran domestically, is currently the most advanced ballistic missile of the country. Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. In 2017, GDP was $427.7 billion ($1.631 trillion at PPP), or $20,000 at PPP per capita. Iran is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank. In the early 21st century, the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. The Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran is responsible for developing

neg: Moral economy who raised their prices in years of dearth in an attempt to reassert the concept of the just price. The Marxist historian E. P. Thompson emphasized the continuing force of this tradition in his pioneering article on "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century" (1971). Later historians and sociologists have uncovered the same phenomenon in a variety of other situations, including peasants' riots in continental Europe during the nineteenth century and in many developing countries in the twentieth. The political scientist James C. Scott, for example, showed how this ideology could be used as a method

neg: Consumerism and choices control the economy entirely (a concept directly opposed to the Marxian perception of the capitalist economy as a system of exploitation). Vance Packard worked to change the meaning of the term "consumerism" from a positive word about consumer practices to a negative word meaning excessive materialism and waste. The ads for his 1960 book "The Waste Makers" prominently featured the word "consumerism" in a negative way. The consumer society emerged in the late seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. While some claim that change was propelled by the growing middle-class who embraced new ideas about luxury

neg: History of Mexico City controlled by peninsular wholesale merchants who dealt in long distance trade, who often married into local elite families with commercial ties. Their assets had to amount to at least 28,000 pesos. Although they were not supposed to deal in local retail trade, they often did some indirectly. They mainly lived in Mexico City and had positions on the city council cabildo. A number of them were connected to the crown mint in the capital. They diversified the assets locally, investing in urban real estate. In the eighteenth century, as New Spain's economy boomed, consulados were established in the port of

neg: Mucedorus when Bremo is killed, there is only one line reflecting on his death before the play returns to the romantic plot. Most of the characters in "Mucedorus" are stock expectations for the genre, offering little depth or originality. Mouse's deafness is a play on the stock comedic fools who often wilfully twist a speaker's words. "Mucedorus" was the most frequently reprinted play prior to the Restoration, with 17 quarto texts surviving before the end of the 17th century. "Mucedorus" was performed by strolling players as late as the eighteenth century. One such performance, at Witney in Oxfordshire on 3 February

neg: International political economy academia since it was first articulated by Smith in the eighteenth century. Only during the 1940s to early 1970s did an alternative system, Keynesianism, command wide support in universities. Keynes was concerned chiefly with domestic macroeconomic policy. The Keynesian consensus was challenged by Friedrich Hayek and later Milton Friedman and other scholars out of Chicago as early as the 1950s, and by the 1970s, Keynes' influence on public discourse and economic policy making had somewhat faded. After World War II the Bretton Woods system was established, reflecting the political orientation described as Embedded liberalism. In 1971 President Richard Nixon began

neg: Mixtec in indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”. Despite the development of a local exchange economy, a number of Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “[s]ome of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor

neg: Walpole Society Walpole Society The Walpole Society, named after Horace Walpole, was formed in 1911 to promote the study of the history of British art. From 1762 on, Walpole had published the first history of art in Britain, based on the manuscript notebooks of George Vertue, the most important source of information concerning British art before the mid-eighteenth century. One of the first goals of the Society was to publish these notebooks in their original form, which included much material that Walpole omitted. The Society publishes an annual volume of studies written by its members and scholars around the world. The field

neg: Just price as payment for a valuable service, which is the use of the money, though most banking systems still forbid excessive interest rates. Likewise, during the rapid expansion of capitalism over the past several centuries the theory of the just price was used to justify popular action against merchants who raised their prices in years of dearth. The Marxist historian E. P. Thompson emphasized the continuing force of this tradition in his pioneering article on the "Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century." Other historians and sociologists have uncovered the same phenomenon in variety of other situations including

neg: Minamata disease acetylene, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, vinyl chloride, and octanol, among others. The Minamata factory became the most advanced in all of Japan, both before and after World War II. The waste products resulting from the manufacture of these chemicals were released into Minamata Bay through the factory wastewater. These pollutants had an environmental impact. Fisheries were damaged in terms of reduced catches, and in response, Chisso reached two separate compensation agreements with the fishery cooperative in 1926 and 1943. The rapid expansion of the Minamata factory spurred on the local economy and as Chisso prospered, so did Minamata. This fact, combined

neg: Catalina de Erauso up disappearing from most known historical records, specifically in the period running between her return to Spain in 1624 and her return to the Indies, until the eighteenth century. At the end of the century, states Sonia Perez-Villanueva, on a certain Sunday Urbirú she had in her possession a manuscript copy of her memoirs, which was duplicated by a friend, the poet and playwright Candido Maria Trigueros One of the copies made by Trigueros ended up in the hands of the academic Juan Bautista Muñoz, who was writing the "History of the New World" and included a mention of Catalina

neg: Washington Redskins name controversy representations that tells us more about the depicters than about the depicted." The historical context for the emergence in the Americas of racial identities based upon skin color was the establishment of colonies which developed a plantation economy dependent upon slave labor. Before that, the British identified themselves as Christians rather than white. "At the start of the eighteenth century, Indians and Europeans rarely mentioned the color of each other's skins. By midcentury, remarks about skin color and the categorization of peoples by simple color-coded labels (red, white, black) had become commonplace." Documents from the colonial period indicate that the

neg: Olanchito following ads: On April 26 before five in the afternoon the British had place, two warships and a brigantine at the Voca of Truxillo Port given these and other provisions they go to the place known as The Ofrecedora, which contributed effectively to the back the Governor Intendant, as expressed through a cordon of Olanchito troops who had settled in contours Sonaguera." In the late eighteenth century, due to this situation, the archive and the treasury of Real Hacienda de Truxillo was forwarded to town of Olanchito. Today the city of Olanchito is the second most important city in the

neg: Moral economy It describes the various ways in which custom and social pressure coerce economic actors in a society to conform to traditional norms even at the expense of profit. Prior to the rise of classical economics in the eighteenth century, the economies in Europe and its North American colonies were governed by a variety of (formal and informal) regulations designed to prevent "greed" from overcoming "morality". In its most formal manifestations, examples such as the traditional Christian and Muslim prohibitions on usury represent the limits imposed by religious values on economic activity, and as such are part of the moral economy.

neg: Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg) or 'breast badge'. Most such stars are of plain linen, though enamelled stars in either silver or silver gilt, of about 5.5cm in diameter, also are worn in formal evening attire. A white-enamelled Maltese cross in either gold (generally about 1.8 centimeters in diameter) or silver (1.3), may be worn on the left lapel of a knight's suit coat or sportcoat. From the late eighteenth century, the "Johanniter" have had a uniform similar to the Knights of Malta. Though not abolished, this uniform has not been worn since before the Second World War. In 1946, the Dutch and Swedish commanderies

neg: Agriculture in Scotland in the early modern era in the early eighteenth century, although there were still bad years, like that of 1739–41. Increasing contacts with England after the Union of 1707 led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. The Society of Improvers was founded in 1723, including in its 300 members dukes, earls, lairds and landlords. Before the eighteenth century English books on husbandry had been available or reprinted in Scotland, but in the eighteenth century there were increasing numbers of titles published by Scottish authors in Scotland. In the first half of the century these changes were limited to tenanted

neg: William Everdell the first Advanced Placement World History Exams. A member of the American Historical Association, he has also served as the president of the affiliated Organization of History Teachers, and of the East-Central American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies. He lives in Brooklyn with his wife, Barbara, who was for many years an administrator at Saint Ann's. His sons, Josh and Chris, were born in 1971 and 1974, respectively. William Everdell William Romeyn Everdell is an American teacher and author. Born in 1941, he graduated from St. Paul's School and from Princeton University. A Woodrow Wilson Scholar and Fulbright Scholar, he holds

neg: Pittsylvania County, Virginia rivers, particularly at ferrying points, became commercial centers. The most important for early Pittsylvania was that of Sam Pannill, a Scots-Irishman, who at the end of the eighteenth century, while still a young man, set up a plantation town at Green Hill on the north side of the Staunton River in Campbell County. (Clement 15)" Its economy was tobacco-dominated and reliant on a growing slave labor force. It was a county without towns or a commercial center. Plantation villages on the major river thoroughfares were the only centers of trade, until the emergence of Danville. (Clement 23)" The city of

neg: Manx people two recording vans sent over to record the language before it disappeared completely. As the century progressed, the Manx tourist economy declined, first because of the effects of the two world wars and later as tourists began to take advantage of cheaper air travel to take European package holidays. The Manx government responded in the 1960s by promoting the island as an offshore financial centre. While this has had beneficial effects on the Manx economy, it has had its detractors, who have pointed to negative aspects such as the effects on local house prices, and perhaps also money laundering. The

neg: Historiography of Colonial Spanish America mining have occupied an important place in the history of Spanish America and the Spanish empire, since the two major sources of silver were found in the viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico) and Peru, where there were significant numbers of indigenous and Spanish colonists. With changes in eighteenth-century crown policies, silver production was revived after a slump in the seventeenth century. The impact of silver on the world economy was profound in both Europe and Asia. An early twentieth-century study dealing with the impact of colonial silver on Spain is Earl Hamilton”s. "American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain".

neg: Benin Bronzes courts contributed substantially to the development of sub-Saharan art. In 1939, heads very similar to those of the Benin Empire were discovered in Ife, the holy city of the Yoruba, which dated to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This discovery supported an earlier tradition holding that it was artists from Ife who had taught Benin the techniques of bronze metalworking. Recognition of the antiquity of the technology in Benin advanced when these sculptures were dated definitively to that era. Few examples of African art had been collected by Europeans in the eighteenth century. Only at the beginning of the nineteenth

neg: Real bills doctrine with the price level and therefore the quantity should be stabilized. The British Banking School who were also weary of excessive increases in money supply. It is also criticised by free bankers who believe the even doctrine is not necessary, that competitive forces would best stabilised the money supply. Before the eighteenth century the system of central banks had not been normalised. Additionally, before the early nineteenth century in many countries before banks could issue their own banknotes. For example, in England and Wales it was not until the Bank Charter Act 1844 that banknote issue was restricted solely to

neg: Lowlands of Holland the Seven Years' War, fought in the Low Countries and Prussia/Silesia in the mid-eighteenth century. This version of the song is most likely a local adaptation of the song as it was known at that time. In this version of the song the singer's love who is leaving is a soldier, rather than a sailor. This is evident in one of the verses, which refers to his participation in the Battle of Minden, 1759. At the Battle of Minden various British regiments advanced to meet the enemy. It is said that as they echeloned forward, the soldiers plucked wild roses

neg: Education in early modern Scotland in the Scottish Enlightenment who had made their mark before the mid-eighteenth century included Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746), who was professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. He was an important link between the ideas of Shaftesbury and the later school of Scottish Common Sense Realism, developing Utilitarianism and Consequentialist thinking. Colin Maclaurin (1698–1746), appointed to a chair of mathematics by the age of 19 at Marischal College, was the leading British mathematician of his era. Perhaps the most significant intellectual figure of early modern Scotland was David Hume (1711–76) whose "Treatise on Human Nature" (1738) and "Essays,

neg: Proteus (2003 film) been imprisoned on Robben Island at age 16 - and were actually known to be a couple for twenty years before they were charged with sodomy and executed, when they were both nearly 40.) Intentional anachronisms - such as transistor radios, electric typewriters and jeeps - are also used in the film to illustrate Greyson's larger theme that homophobia and racism of the type that led to Blank's and Jacobsz' executions are still very much present in today's world. These twentieth-century objects, including modern (c. 1964) dress on many occasions, are invariably presented in juxtaposition with eighteenth-century items. The eighteenth-century

neg: Economic history of Mexico Rather than hauling goods by carts drawn by oxen or mules, the most common mode of transporting goods was via pack mules. Poor infrastructure was coupled with poor security, so that banditry was an impediment to the safe transport of people and goods. In the Northern area, the "índios bárbaros" or uncivilized Indians presented a threat to settlement and travel. The eighteenth century saw New Spain increase the size and complexity of its economy. Silver remained the motor of the economy, and in fact production increased even though few new mines came into production. The key to the increased production

neg: Arboretum the cultivation and display of a wide variety of different kinds of trees and shrubs (that is ligneous plants). Many tree collections have been claimed as the first arboretum, in most cases, however, the term has been applied retrospectively as it did not come into use until the later eighteenth century. Arboreta differ from pieces of woodland or plantations because they are botanically significant collections with a variety of examples rather than just a few kinds. Of course there are many tree collections that are much older than the eighteenth century in different parts of the world. Probably the most

neg: Scottish religion in the eighteenth century for Methodism, it failed to expand as quickly as elsewhere in the Great Britain and Ireland. A number of minor Scottish sects developed, such as the Bereans, Buchanites, Daleites and Glassites. Episcopalianism had retained supporters through the civil wars and changes of regime in the seventeenth century. Since most Episcopalians gave their support to the Jacobite rebellions in the first half of the early eighteenth century, they suffered a decline in fortunes. The remoteness of the Highlands and the lack of a Gaelic-speaking clergy undermined the missionary efforts of the established church. The later eighteenth century saw some success, owing

neg: Portobelo, Colón Portobelo, Colón Portobelo (historically Porto Bello in English) is a port city and corregimiento in Portobelo District, Colón Province, Panama with a population of 4,559 . Established during the Spanish colonial period, it functions as the seat of Portobelo District. Located on the northern part of the Isthmus of Panama, it has a deep natural harbor and served as a center for silver exporting before the mid-eighteenth century and its destruction in 1739 during the War of Jenkins' Ear. It slowly rebuilt and the city's economy revived briefly in the late-nineteenth century during construction of the Panama Canal. In 1980

neg: Spanish Empire dark days at the beginning of the eighteenth century when it was, particularly in continental matters, at the mercy of other powers' political deals. The relatively more peaceful century under the new monarchy had allowed it to rebuild and start the long process of modernizing its institutions and economy, and the demographic decline of the 17th century had been reversed. It was a middle-ranking power with great power pretensions that could not be ignored. But time was to be against it. Bourbon institutional reforms bore fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retook Naples and Sicily from the Austrians in 1734

neg: Western Attitudes Toward Death from the Middle Ages to the Present during the Roman period individual graves had not been uncommon, this practice had faded during the middle ages. By the eighteenth century, the middle and lower classes were also likely to have tombs, or at least plaques, marked with individual inscriptions. As people became more conscious of their individual place in the world, their death reflected that awareness By the early eighteenth century, Ariès observed an abrupt change in the western person’s attitude toward death. Death was dramatized, exalted, feared, and in some cases worshipped. Looking to themes in artwork from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, Ariès argues that death

neg: Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment danger to the state. In essence, Locke advanced a freedom of worship, not a freedom of thought. The vast majority of eighteenth-century writers, like Locke, had no interest in granting religious tolerance to ideas that deviated from the core of revealed religion. Most of these writers were strongly opposed to Spinoza's ideal of toleration, which is "chiefly about individual freedom and decidedly not the freedom of large ecclesiastical structures to impose themselves on society." Voltaire, in his 1763 "A Treatise on Toleration", continued in the tradition of John Locke, arguing that toleration allowed communication and good relationships between differing confessions

neg: Deism in England and France in the 18th century sixteenth century by Pierre Viret and culminated as atheism in the eighteenth century by Voltaire and Rousseau. French Deism was anti-religious and shaded into atheism, pantheism, and skepticism. France had its own tradition of religious skepticism and natural theology. The first French deist writers share few social characteristics. Most of them are educated laymen. Gilbert was a provincial lawyer, Lahontan an aristocratic adventurer, and the Militaire philosophe a professional soldier; at the social level there seem to be no connecting link. Most of the early works of French deism written before 1715 are among clandestine manuscripts. There are three common

neg: Benecko in year 1628 as "Bennešsko", meaning the residency of Beneš. The name is also said to be derived from a local legend about a hermit of Benedikt order, whose hermitage was located near Jindra rock near the site of the modern Chapel of Saint Hubert. People migrated to parts of municipality in the seventeenth and eighteenth century and built an economy based on farming, hand weaving and the manufacture of jewellery. In the nineteenth century, tourism was developed, with rich tourists bringing economic wealth and new industries to the area. This development was interrupted by the Second World War. In

neg: Jeanne Dumée H. "No. 407: Women in Astronomy." No. 407: Women in Astronomy. Accessed April 29, 2016. http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi407.htm. "European Life in the Eighteenth Century - Family Life and Education." European Life in the Eighteenth. Accessed April 29, 2016. http://www.historydoctor.net/Advanced Placement European History/Notes/european_life_in_the_eighteenth_century_family_life.htm. "The International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center." Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (10001)-(15000). Accessed April 29, 2016. http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/NumberedMPs010001.html. Schiebinger, Londa (1991). The mind has no sex? : women in the origins of modern science (1st Harvard pbk. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Caminer Turra, Elisabetta (2003). Selected writings of an eighteenth-century Venetian woman of letters. Edited and Translated by

neg: Economy of Italy share, are Germany (12.6%), France (11.1%), United States (6.8%), Switzerland (5.7%), United Kingdom (4.7%), and Spain (4.4%). In the post-war period, Italy was transformed from an agricultural based economy which had been severely affected by the consequences of the World Wars, into one of the world's most advanced nations, and a leading country in world trade and exports. According to the Human Development Index, the country enjoys a very high standard of living, and has the world's 8th highest quality of life according to "The Economist". Italy owns the world's third-largest gold reserve, and is the third net contributor to

neg: Paliochora the women, children, and bishop took refuge in a nearby cave. Tales of Paliochora indicate the location of the cave was never given to Barbarossa, who left quickly after the village had been sacked. The island remote location and subsequent lack of a substantial population or economy led major powers to neglect it in coming centuries. At the turn of the eighteenth century the island was claimed by France, followed by Russia, Britain, and finally Greece in 1864. The remnants of Paliochora along with the folktales from the island of Kythira play into the history of Hayreddin Barbarossa. The history

neg: Biblioteca Vasconcelos 2006 that included cuts for all three branches of government. National Action Party (PAN) presented an alternative budget that preserved funds for Enciclomedia and the Vasconcelos Library. Then President of Mexico Vicente Fox inaugurated the library on 16 May 2006, and stated that this was one of the most advanced constructions of the 21st century, and that it would be spoken of throughout the world. This inauguration took place a week before the deadline the president had to promote his accomplishments before the 2006 presidential election. The library had to close in March 2007 due to construction defects. The Superior

neg: Economy of Switzerland Economy of Switzerland The economy of Switzerland is one of the world's most advanced economies. The service sector has come to play a significant economic role, particularly the Swiss banking industry and tourism. The economy of Switzerland ranks first in the world in the 2015 Global Innovation Index and the 2017 Global Competitiveness Report. According to United Nations data for 2016, Switzerland is the third richest landlocked country in the world after Liechtenstein and Luxembourg, and together with the latter and Norway the only three countries in the world with a GDP per capita above US$70,000 that are neither island

neg: Obstetrical forceps forceps, male doctors invented lying in hospitals to provide safe, somewhat advanced obstetrical care because of the use of the obstetrical forceps. Child birth was not considered a medical practice before the eighteenth century. It was mostly overseen by a midwife, mother, stepmother, neighbor, or any female relative. "Around the 19th and 20th Century, childbirth was considered dangerous for women." With the introduction of obstetrical forceps, this allowed non-medical professionals, such as the aforementioned individuals, to continue to oversee childbirths. In addition, this gave some of the public more comfort in trusting childbirth oversight to common people. However, the introduction

neg: Gift economy riots in the English countryside in the late eighteenth century. According to Thompson these riots were generally peaceable acts that demonstrated a common political culture rooted in feudal rights to "set the price" of essential goods in the market. These peasants held that a traditional "fair price" was more important to the community than a "free" market price and they punished large farmers who sold their surpluses at higher prices outside the village while there were still those in need within the village. A moral economy is thus an attempt to preserve an alternative exchange sphere from market penetration. The

neg: Voice flute the needs of the Festival low alto recorders in E for Bach's cantata "Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit", BWV 106, sixth flutes for concertos by Woodcock and other eighteenth-century English composers, and voice flutes. The latter were used to play parts written for transverse flutes since, before 1930, there was no one in the Haslemere circle who had mastered the embouchure of the Baroque one-keyed flute . In Germany between the two world wars both soprano and alto recorders were made in different sizes, in part because of the difficulty of playing the cross-fingered flats and sharps on instruments

neg: Spirit of Bermuda of them for their own merchant fleet and for export before being obliged to turn to other trades in the nineteenth century. At the end of the twentieth century, no Bermuda sloop remained anywhere in the world, and most Bermudians had no practical or romantic connection to the island's long history as a maritime economy. These were among the facts that prompted the construction of a new Bermuda sloop, the "Spirit of Bermuda", and the creation of a sail training organisation, the Bermuda Sloop Foundation, to utilise her in instilling an awareness of the sea and of Bermuda's maritime heritage

neg: Lili Schönemann into France more than a century before, but which throughout the eighteenth century had remained culturally, linguistically and for most purposes economically more German than Francophone. The engagement with Bernard was called off in 1776, however. He had only recently inherited the family steel plant, and when he went to investigate it he discovered that its value - and accordingly his own value as a potential husband - had been very greatly over-stated. In despair, he fled to America and then to Jamaica in order to make his fortune. Instead, quite soon he died. The emotional and physical impact of