query: where did the industrial revolution begin in the late-1700s

pos: Industrial Revolution occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France. An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and

pos: Industrial Revolution Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s. Similarly, the average height of the population declined during the Industrial Revolution, implying that their nutritional status was also decreasing. Real wages were not keeping up with the price of food. During the Industrial Revolution,

pos: Child labour with working with drug dealers, there has been an increase in this area of employment throughout the country. Many factors played a role in Britain’s long-term economic growth, such as the industrial revolution in the late 1700s and the prominent presence of child labour during the industrial age. Children who worked at an early age were often not forced; but did so because they needed to help their family survive financially. Due to poor employment opportunities for many parents, sending their children to work on farms and in factories was a way to help feed and support the family. Child

pos: Economy of East Asia Western World and Japan overtook China it during the mid and late-19th century. China accounted for around one-quarter of the global GDP until the late 1700s and approximately one-third of the global GDP in 1820 as the Industrial Revolution was beginning in Great Britain. China's GDP in 1820 was six times as large as Britain’s, the largest economy in Europe — and almost 20 times the GDP of the nascent United States. Ancient Chinese coinage and money was introduced to Japan about 1500 years ago during the during early Han dynasty. The Japanese did not mint coins from copper and

pos: History of the world the Industrial Revolution, a major transformation of the world's economies. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century had had little immediate effect on industrial technology; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances begin to be applied substantially to practical invention. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required. The Age of Enlightenment also led to the beginnings of modern democracy in the late-18th century American and French Revolutions. Democracy and republicanism

pos: The Pursuit of Glory the existence of the Industrial Revolution. The section "An 'Industrial Revolution'?", in chapter 3. "Trade and Manufacturing", for example, is a detailed discussion of the contrasting viewpoints, mainly whether or not there was indeed an industrial 'revolution'; and Blanning concludes that: 'the changes in commerce and manufacturing do deserve their revolutionary status. The world was transformed by industrialization, it did begin in Great Britain and it did begin in this period.' Reception to the book was extremely favourable. In Britain, it was chosen as "The Sunday Times" history book of the year. "The Spectator" called it 'outstanding', although it did

pos: Pax Britannica with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of the Second British Empire (1783–1815). The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s and new ideas emerged about free markets, such as Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" (1776). Free trade became a central principle that Britain practiced by the 1840s. It played a key role in Britain's economic growth and . From the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 until World War I in 1914, the United Kingdom played the role of global hegemon (most powerful actor). Imposition of a "British Peace" on key maritime trade routes

pos: What the Industrial Revolution Did for Us idea and inventions of the Industrial Revolution that created the features of modern transportation. Cruickshank travels around Britain to introduce the idea and inventions of the Industrial Revolution that created the features of modern medicine. Cruickshank travels around Britain to introduce the idea and inventions of the Industrial Revolution that created the features of modern warfare. Cruickshank travels around Britain to introduce the idea and inventions of the Industrial Revolution that created the features of modern city life. What the Industrial Revolution Did for Us What the Industrial Revolution Did for Us is a BBC documentary series produced in conjunction

pos: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution wagon. Railroad tracks, which were already in use in mines and various other situations, became the new means of transportation after the first locomotive was invented. Steam power during the Industrial Revolution Improvements to the steam engine were some of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishman Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine, of 1712, through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine began to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining, where the

pos: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution Steam power during the Industrial Revolution Improvements to the steam engine were some of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishman Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine, of 1712, through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine began to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining, where the first engines had been used to pump water from deep workings. Early mills had run successfully with water power, but by using a steam engine a

pos: What the Industrial Revolution Did for Us What the Industrial Revolution Did for Us What the Industrial Revolution Did for Us is a BBC documentary series produced in conjunction with the Open University that examines the impact of the Industrial Revolution on modern society. It was originally broadcast on BBC Two from 7 October to 11 November 2003. Cruickshank travels around Britain to introduce the idea and inventions of the Industrial Revolution that created the modern material world. Cruickshank travels around Britain to introduce the idea and inventions of the Industrial Revolution that created the features of modern working life. Cruickshank travels around Britain to introduce the

pos: High-level equilibrium trap land until late in the imperial period. Although overseas colonies provided cheap labor during the Industrial Revolution, local labor in Britain itself was more expensive than in China, providing the capitalist class an incentive to improve worker efficiency. High-level equilibrium trap The high-level equilibrium trap is a concept developed by environmental historian Mark Elvin to explain why China never underwent an indigenous Industrial Revolution despite its wealth, stability, and high level of scientific achievement. Essentially, he claims that the Chinese pre-industrial economy had reached an equilibrium point where supply and demand were well-balanced. Late imperial production methods and trade networks

pos: Industrial Revolution industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution. These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions. The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade

pos: Direct marketing of the books he offered for sale. In 1667, the English gardener, William Lucas, published a seed catalogue, which he mailed to his customers to inform them of his prices. Catalogues spread to colonial America, where Benjamin Franklin is believed to have been the first cataloguer in British America. In 1744, he produced a catalogue of scientific and academic books. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain, the Following the industrial revolution of the late 18th-century, a growing middle class created new demand for

pos: Italians took place after its unification in 1861 and continued through 1914 with the emergence of the First World War. This rapid outflow and migration of Italian people across the globe can be attributed to factors such as the internal economic slump that emerged alongside its unification, family and the industrial boom that occurred in the world surrounding Italy. Italy after its unification did not seek nationalism but instead sought work. Sadly, a unified state did not automatically constitute a sound economy. The global economic expansion, ranging from Britain's Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and through mid 19th century, to

pos: Financial history of the Dutch Republic The "rentiers" therefore switched on a major scale to foreign direct investment, especially in infrastructure in Great Britain (where the Industrial Revolution of that country was about to begin, preceded by an agricultural revolution that needed financing), and also in public debt in that country. The Republic in this way for the first time in history became an international capital market, especially geared to foreign sovereign debt in the second half of the 18th century. By 1780 the net value of Dutch foreign government lending exceeded 350 million guilders, about two-thirds of which British government debt. This brought annual foreign

pos: Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line, and ended at the start of World War I. The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in Britain, Germany and the United States, but also in France, the Low Countries, Italy and Japan. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe and later North America. It was characterized by the build out of railroads, large-scale iron and steel production, widespread use of machinery in manufacturing, greatly increased

pos: British Agricultural Revolution a similar rate. Despite its name, the Agricultural Revolution in Britain did not result in overall productivity per hectare of agricultural area as high as in China, where intensive cultivation (including multiple annual cropping in many areas) had been practised for many centuries. The Agricultural Revolution in Britain proved to be a major turning point in history, allowing population to far exceed earlier peaks and sustain the country's rise to industrial pre-eminence. Towards the end of the 19th century, the substantial gains in British agricultural productivity were rapidly offset by competition from cheaper imports, made possible by the exploitation of

pos: Industrial Revolution known as the Antebellum Puzzle. Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the Corn Laws (1815-1846). The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the Great Irish Famine. The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices. In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by Thomas

neg: Catasauqua Creek settled by Irish emigrants (late 1600s–early 1700s) who became bought out by descendants of German extraction. By late 1839, the creek was reshaped to begin providing water power for producing the first North American pig iron using anthracite as the principle fuel, a new breakthrough product, anthracite iron — that in conjunction with the new wonder fuel, anthracite (which began pouring down the Lehigh Canal in 1820), effectively boot strapped the American Industrial Revolution. The first successful anthracite blow and cast of iron occurred there on July, 4th 1840 about which Bartholomew & Metz note: Catasauqua creek is a left

neg: Industrial Revolution In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that

neg: Industrial Revolution in the United States Industrial Revolution in the United States The Industrial Revolution involved a shift in the United States from manual labor-based industry to more technical and machine-based manufacturing which greatly increased the overall production and economic growth of the United States, signifying a shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy widely accepted to have been a result of Samuel Slater's introduction of British Industrial methods in textile manufacturing to the United States, and necessitated by the War of 1812. As Western Europe began industrializing in the late 1700s and early 1800s, the United States remained agrarian in nature with resource processing,

neg: Western culture In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the

neg: Productivity improving technologies where his friend James Watt used knowledge of heat to conceive the separate condenser as a means to improve the efficiency of the steam engine. Probably the first period in history in which economic progress was observable after one generation was during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. However, technological and economic progress did not proceed at a significant rate until the English Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, and even then productivity grew about 0.5% annually. High productivity growth began during the late 19th century in what is sometimes call the Second Industrial Revolution. Most major

neg: Mountmellick sided with Cromwell. Sir Anthony died in about 1666 and is entombed under the floor of the round tower of the Temple Church in the Inner Temple in London. There is still a Quaker population in the town, and a Friends meeting house. The town has numerous examples of Georgian architecture and one of the finest examples of a Georgian square in Ireland. Such was the level of industrial activity in Mountmellick in the late 18th century that Mountmellick became known as "The Manchester of Ireland". Its role as a leading textile producer during the industrial revolution of the mid-1700s

neg: Bridge used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn. With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel. In Canada and the U.S., numerous timber Covered bridges were built in the late 1700s to the late 1800s, reminiscent of earlier designs in Germany and Switzerland. (Some covered bridges were also built

neg: River Dearne points in a flood cycle. In the late 1700s, the river held good populations of fish. Industrial development of the valley consisted of several deep coal mines, but they were fairly small, and did not significantly pollute the river. There were collieries at Smithies, Honeywell, Queens Ground and Mount Osborne. The opening of the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1810 had serious impacts on the river, as it provided a way to transport the coal to Sheffield and Rotherham, where it was used in the steelworks. This led to the rapid development of more and larger collieries. The population grew

neg: Rhigos is heather and '-os' is a diminutive suffix found in place names after words denoting vegetation, and in the modern language it is to seen in 'plantos' = little children). The 'correct' form of the name is 'Y Rugos', a name found in other parts of Wales (also as Y Grugos). Originally farmland until the late 1700s, the village developed in the Industrial Revolution through the mineral industry, extracting coal, iron ore and limestone. The first development was at the British Rhondda Colliery, later called "The Pandy" and finally Rhigos Colliery. A drift mine, it closed in 1965. In the

neg: Sunday roast many Roman Catholics and Anglicans traditionally abstain from eating meats, so ate fish instead. Likewise, it is traditional for Anglicans and English Catholics to fast before Sunday services, with a larger meal to break the fast afterwards. These religious rules created several traditional dishes in the United Kingdom. There are two historical points on the origins of the modern Sunday roast. In the late 1700s during the industrial revolution in the United Kingdom, families would place a cut of meat into the oven as they got ready for church. They would then add in vegetables such as potatoes, turnips and

neg: Warehouse have adapted to standardisation, mechanisation, technological innovation and changes in supply chain methods. The mass production of goods launched by the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries fuelled the development of larger and more specialised warehouses, usually located close to transport hubs on canals, at railways and portside. Specialisation of tasks is characteristic of the factory system, which developed in British textile mills and potteries in the mid-late 1700s. Factory processes speeded up work and deskilled labour, bringing new profits to capital investment. Warehouses also fulfill a range of commercial functions beside simple storage, exemplified by Manchester’s cotton

neg: Huzzah any supporting evidence. Weatherford says that in Mongolian "Hurree" is a sacred praise much like "amen" or "hallelujah". Often incorrectly used at Renaissance Festivals and American Revolution reenactments, Huzzah was originally spelled Huzza and pronounced huz-ZAY. By looking at the poetry and writings of the late 1700s you see words like say, play, and day which are used to rhyme with Huzza. In the song "Keppel Forever" we get this: "Bonfires, bells did ring; Keppel was all the ding, Music did play; Windows with candles in, for all to honor him: People aloud did sing, “Keppel! Huzza!”" In Shakespeare's "

neg: Air quality and EU legislation values to a point that is almost one tenth of the legal standard of 250 μg/m3." As a result, air pollution from the burning of solid fuel can be of a greater concern in smaller towns in Ireland (Dublin City Council, 2009). Among the many reasons that something had to be done was the importance of reducing the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Before the industrial revolution era of the late 1700s, carbon dioxide could be measured in the atmosphere at around 280 parts per million (ppm), whereas in 2005 it was found to be 379 ppm. Methane,

neg: Machine tool sewing machines; bicycles; automobiles; and aircraft. Others could be included in this list as well, but they tend to be connected with the root causes already listed. For example, rolling-element bearings are an industry of themselves, but this industry's main drivers of development were the vehicles already listed—trains, bicycles, automobiles, and aircraft; and other industries, such as tractors, farm implements, and tanks, borrowed heavily from those same parent industries. Machine tools filled a need created by textile machinery during the Industrial Revolution in England in the middle to late 1700s. Until that time machinery was made mostly from wood, often

neg: Anthropogenic biome numbers of animals for entertainment, disrupting wildlife patterns. Humans have been altering ecosystems since before agriculture first developed, and as the human population has grown and become more technologically advanced over time, the land use for agricultural purposes has increased significantly. The anthropogenic biome in the 1700s, before the industrial revolution, was made up of mostly wild, untouched land, with no human settlement disturbing the natural state. In this time period, most of the Earth's ice-free land consisted of wildlands and natural anthromes, and it wasn't until after the industrial revolution in the 19th century that land use for agriculture

neg: Industrial and production engineering Industrial and production engineering Industrial and Production Engineering (IPE) is an interdisciplinary engineering discipline that includes manufacturing technology, engineering sciences, management science, and optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations. It is concerned with the understanding and application of Engineering Procedures in Manufacturing Processes and Production Methods. Industrial Engineering dates back all the way to the industrial revolution, initiated in 1700s by Sir Adam Smith, Henry Ford, Eli Whitney, Frank Gilbreth and Lilian Gilbreth, Henry Gantt, F.W. Taylor, etc. After the 1970s, industrial and production engineering developed worldwide and started to widely use automation and robotics. Industrial and production Engineering

neg: Economic history of Europe by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives soon reached speeds of 50 miles per hour. While the

neg: Industrial and production engineering structural parts. Manufacturing ACMs is a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. Composite products range from skateboards to components of the space shuttle. The industry can be generally divided into two basic segments, industrial composites and advanced composites. Associations Industrial and production engineering Industrial and Production Engineering (IPE) is an interdisciplinary engineering discipline that includes manufacturing technology, engineering sciences, management science, and optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations. It is concerned with the understanding and application of Engineering Procedures in Manufacturing Processes and Production Methods. Industrial Engineering dates back all the way to the industrial revolution, initiated in 1700s by Sir Adam

neg: Late industrialisation Late industrialisation Alice Amsden, building on the insights of Gerschenkron, identifies Late Industrialization as a particular form of industrialisation the study of which is useful for those interested in study of the prospects for material progress in developing countries. Amsden notes that whilst the 1st industrial revolution in the UK towards the end of the eighteenth century, and the 2nd industrial revolution 100 years later in Germany and the US both involved new products and processes, the countries that did not start industrialization until the 20th century tended to generate neither new products nor processes. These, the late industrializers, raised

neg: Cali the industrial vallecaucana revolution of Cali did not begin until the third decade of the twentieth century, some companies had already begun to build the industrial development of the region, as the printing company Carvajal y Cia (which began operations in 1904). In 1929 there is the creation of" Soap" Varela Hermanos, in the 1930s other industries begin to grow as large scale factories of gas and beer, printing and cigarettes. Smaller companies also appeared focusing on textile clothing, chemicals, chocolates, building materials, leather articles and furniture. In 1940 Cali had already ceased to be a single point of trade

neg: Chamber music used in chamber music. The harpsichord used quills to pluck strings, and it had a delicate sound. Due to the design of the harpsichord, the attack or weight with which the performer played the keyboard did not change the volume or tone. In between about 1750 and the late 1700s, the harpsichord gradually fell out of use. By the late 1700s, the pianoforte became more popular as an instrument for performance. Even though the pianoforte was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori at the beginning of the 1700s, it did not become widely used until the end of that century, when technical

neg: Industrial Revolution common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui's description in 1837 of "la révolution industrielle". Friedrich Engels in "The Condition of the Working Class in England" in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society". However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term. Some historians, such as

neg: Great Divergence tea and ceramics were in great demand in Europe, leading to an inflow of silver, expanding the money supply and facilitating the growth of competitive and stable markets. By the end of the 18th century, population density levels exceeded those in Europe. China had more large cities but far fewer small ones than in contemporary Europe. The traditional view is that the Great Divergence between China and Europe had begun by 1750, before the Industrial Revolution. Revisionist scholarship, however, estimates that the Great Divergence did not begin until the 19th century, during the Industrial Revolution. By the 1500s, India benefited

neg: Ironbridge cheaper production of iron. However, the industrial revolution did not begin in any one place. Darby's iron smelting was but one small part of this generalised revolution and was soon superseded by the great iron-smelting areas. However, the bridge – being the first of its kind fabricated from cast iron, and one of the few which have survived to the present day – remains an important symbol representative of the dawn of the industrial age. The grandson of the first Abraham Darby, Abraham Darby III, built the bridge – originally designed by Thomas Farnolls Pritchard – to link the two

neg: Wenham, Massachusetts King Philip's War in the 1670s, and the French and Indian War in the mid 1700s. In 1774, the town voted to select 15 men as minutemen, and from that time on Loyalists were not welcome in Wenham. The Industrial Revolution, which changed the face of many Massachusetts towns in the 19th century, passed Wenham by. It remained a small community, with one notable exception. Wenham's ice industry brought the name of Wenham to the notice of people as far away as London, where hotels in the 1850s advertised: "We serve Wenham Lake Ice." Artificial refrigeration and a fire that

neg: Lancashire Coalfield went off twice, but did little hurt". A system of coursed air circulation in the workings was introduced in the 1760s using walls and doors, leading to the employment of "trappers", children as young as six or seven, working in darkness, who opened and closed the doors. The air flow was improved by braziers or fire baskets suspended in the shaft, and by the late 1700s underground furnaces, in combination with stoppings and doors. These methods were not without danger from fires or explosions. At the turn of the 19th century demand for coal increased rapidly for domestic and industrial

neg: Industrial Revolution half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows. The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed

neg: Effects of global warming on oceans surface-ocean pH could decrease by an additional 0.3–0.4 units by 2100. Ocean acidification could threaten coral reefs, fisheries, protected species, and other natural resources of value to society. The effects of ocean acidification can already be seen and have been happening since the start of the industrial revolution, with pH levels of the ocean dropping by 0.1 since the pre-industrial revolution times. An effect called coral bleaching can be seen on the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, where ocean acidification’s effects are already taking place. Coral bleaching is when unicellular organisms that help make up the coral begin to die

neg: Exeter period, in the early 1700s. She remarked on the "vast trade" and "incredible quantity" in Exeter, recording that "it turns the most money in a week of anything in England", between £10,000 and £15,000. Early in the Industrial Revolution, Exeter's industry developed on the basis of locally available agricultural products and, since the city's location on a fast-flowing river gave it ready access to water power, an early industrial site developed on drained marshland to the west of the city, at Exe Island. However, when steam power replaced water in the 19th century, Exeter was too far from sources of

neg: Accrington chapel however it did not achieve parochial status until as late as 1870. Until around 1830 visitors considered Accrington to be just a "considerable village". The Industrial Revolution, however, resulted in large changes and Accrington's location on the confluence of a number of streams made it attractive to industry and a number of mills were built in the town in the mid-eighteenth century. Further industrialisation then followed in the late eighteenth century and local landowners began building mansions in the area on the outskirts of the settlement where their mills were located while their employees lived in overcrowded unsanitary conditions

neg: Christianity in the modern era the history of Christianity: The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time: Christianity in the modern era The history of modern Christianity concerns the Christian religion from the end of the Early Modern era to the present day. The Early Modern history of Christianity is usually taken to begin with the Protestant Reformation (usually rounded down to 1500) and ending in the late 18th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the events leading up to the French Revolution of 1789. This article only

neg: Christianity in the modern era Christianity in the modern era The history of modern Christianity concerns the Christian religion from the end of the Early Modern era to the present day. The Early Modern history of Christianity is usually taken to begin with the Protestant Reformation (usually rounded down to 1500) and ending in the late 18th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the events leading up to the French Revolution of 1789. This article only covers 1720 to the current date. For the early modern period, see the articles on the Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation and the Catholic Church and the

neg: Scotland in the modern era Congregationalist and Methodist churches also appeared in Scotland in the 18th century, but did not begin significant growth until the 19th century, partly because more radical and evangelical traditions already existed within the Church of Scotland and the free churches. From 1879 they were joined by the evangelical revivalism of the Salvation Army, which attempted to make major inroads in the growing urban centres. During the Industrial Revolution, Scotland became one of the commercial and industrial centres of the British Empire. With tariffs with England now abolished, the potential for trade for Scottish merchants was considerable, especially with Colonial America.

neg: Science and technology of the Song dynasty since the 1st century BCE during the ancient Han dynasty, and used extensively during the Song. Due to the enormous amount of production, the economic historian Robert Hartwell noted that Chinese iron and coal production in the following 12th century was equal to if not greater than England's iron and coal production in the early phase of the Industrial Revolution during the late 18th century. However, the Chinese of the Song period did not harness the energy potential of coal in ways that would generate power mechanically, as in the later Industrial Revolution that would originate in the West. There

neg: Max Weber 233) Weber's explanations are highly specific to the historical periods he analysed. Some academics disagree, pointing out that, despite the fact that Weber did write in the early twentieth century, his ideas remain alive and relevant for understanding issues like politics, bureaucracy, and social stratification today. Many scholars, however, disagree with specific claims in Weber's historical analysis. For example, the economist Joseph Schumpeter argued that capitalism did not begin with the Industrial Revolution but in 14th century Italy. In Milan, Venice and Florence, the small city-state governments led to the development of the earliest forms of capitalism. In the 16th

neg: Kristian Laake the protesters were rarely convicted in court. The army continued to have a counter-revolutionary function, and as late as in November 1937 Laake approved the inclusion of mountain artillery in the units in Western Norway which were designated to deal with internal troubles. He did, however, refuse to allow air support to be used for possible internal security operations. Only in 1938 did the army begin to scale down its preparations to put down a revolution. The process of dismantling the anti-revolution preparations in the Norwegian Army began in 1936, and was founded to end the fears of the establishment

neg: Cannabis in Canada under the "Narcotics Drug Act Amendment Bill" after a vague reference to a "new drug" during a late night session of the House of Commons on 23 April 1923. According to one government official, cannabis was outlawed after the Director of the Federal Division of Narcotic Control returned from League of Nations meetings where the international control of cannabis was broached. Cannabis did not begin to attract official attention in Canada until the later 1930s, and even then it was minimal; the first seizure of cannabis by Canadian police was not until 1937. Commercial cultivation of industrial hemp was forbidden

neg: Destination Docklands show attracted an estimated live audience of 200,000, not including those in parks surrounding the venue listening to the concert on a simultaneous broadcast on Radio 1. The concert programme featured drawings of the redevelopment works due to take place in the years after the concerts, as did some of the projections on the building facades. Part 1: Industrial Revolution - Industrial Revolution: Overture* - Industrial Revolution: Part 1* - Industrial Revolution: Part 2* - Industrial Revolution: Part 3* - Équinoxe 5^ - Ethnicolor^ Part 2: Swinging Sixties - Computer Weekend^ - Les Chants Magnétiques II / Magnetic Fields II*

neg: Digital Revolution Digital Revolution The Digital Revolution, also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, is the shift from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day. Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during (and after) the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age. Central to

neg: Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism by others aligning themselves with the exceptional notion that America is called by history to advance its principles in the world. In 1991 Ryn argued in a book, "The New Jacobinism", that Neoconservatism bears a close resemblance to the ideas behind the French Revolution. The French Jacobins of the late 1700s appointed France the agent of universal principles; the new Jacobins of the late 1900s had similarly selected the United States for the task of transforming the world. Ryn thus warned of the dangers of ideological imperialism. The late Samuel T. Francis, a leading Paleoconservative intellectual and a white supremacist,

neg: History of Brazil Dutch incursion, much of Brazil's exports were carried in Dutch ships. After the American Revolution, U.S. ships called at Brazilian ports. When the Portuguese monarchy fled Iberia to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars, one of the first acts of the monarch was to open Brazilian ports to foreign ships. Brazil was one of only three modern states in the Americas to have its own indigenous monarchy (the other two were Mexico and Haiti) – for a period of almost 90 years. As the Haitian Revolution for independence against the French crown was taking place in the late 1700s,

neg: Americas inhabitants of North America and South America, with a general population crash of Native Americans occurring in the mid-16th century, often well ahead of European contact. European immigrants were often part of state-sponsored attempts to found colonies in the Americas. Migration continued as people moved to the Americas fleeing religious persecution or seeking economic opportunities. Millions of individuals were forcibly transported to the Americas as slaves, prisoners or indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution and the Haitian Revolution in the late 1700s. This was followed by numerous Latin American wars of independence in the early

neg: Architecture of Leeds and cities across the industrial belts of Yorkshire and Lancashire did, providing Leeds with a few rare examples of industry from before the period that is generally accepted as the beginning of the industrial revolution (late 18th century) had begun. Armley Mills was built in 1788 and is currently the largest woollen mill museum. There are several examples of industrial architecture from the latter part of this era in Holbeck, Hunslet, Armley and areas surrounding Leeds city centre. The Granary Buildings date from the same period. The main infirmary was originally on Infirmary Street (near City Square and Quebec Street).

neg: Charles Knickerbocker Harley joined the faculty of St. Antony's College, Oxford, where he stayed until becoming an Emeritus Fellow in 2011. He has been a frequent collaborator with N.F.R. Crafts. He has been awarded The Cliometric Society's "Clio Can" in 1999 in recognition of his exceptional support of cliometrics and the "Arthur H. Cole Prize" by the "Journal of Economic History", for his essay, "British Industrialization Before 1841: Evidence of Slower Growth During the Industrial Revolution". Charles Knickerbocker Harley Charles Knickerbocker Harley is an academic economic historian who has written on a wide range of topics including the British industrial revolution, the late

neg: Industrial Revolution in the United States dominate technological change and growth in the Second Industrial Revolution in its Gilded Age. The American System (economic plan) gave way to new economic thought such as the classical school of economics which assisted in the growth of trade and commerce, but this time with the U.S. as a much larger exporter than importer, which would continue until the late Cold War era with the drastic increase in imports from China. The Industrial Revolution also saw a decrease in the rampancy of labor shortages which characterized the U.S. economy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was because

neg: Marine engineering engineer, having developed a number of marine engineering systems in antiquity. Modern marine engineering dates back to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (early 1700s). In 1712 Thomas Newcomen, a blacksmith, created a steam powered engine to pump water out of mines. In 1807 Robert Fulton successfully used a steam engine to propel a vessel through the water. Fulton's ship used the engine to power a small wooden paddle wheel as its propulsion system. The integration of steam engines into ships was the start of the marine engineering profession. Paddle wheel ships were the front runner of the industry for

neg: Atmospheric methane sources. Seasonal flooding during the spring and summer naturally increases the amount of methane released into the air. The most clearly identified rise in atmospheric methane as a result of human activity occurred in the 1700s during the industrial revolution. As technology increased at a considerable rate, humans began to build factories and plants, burn fossil fuels for energy, and clear out forests and other vegetation for the purpose of building and agriculture. This growth continued to rise at a rate of almost 1 percent per year until around 1990 when growth rates dropped to almost zero. A 2003 article

neg: Technology shock permitted (or demanded) in the market. ANumerous studies have shown that technology shocks can have a significant effect on investment, economic growth, labor productivity, collaboration patterns, and innovation. The Industrial Revolution is an example of a positive technology shock. The Industrial Revolution occurred between the 18th and the 19th centuries where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transport, and technology occurred. What this did to the economy at the time was notable. It increased wages steadily over the period of time and it also increased population because people had the wages for standard living. This is an example of a

neg: Ashton-under-Lyne average of 3.1%, and was higher than the average of 2.5% for Tameside. In Ashton-under-Lyne are located 6 mosques (October 2013), including on Hillgate Street in Penny Meadow (Ashton Central Mosque, formerly known as Markazi Jamia Mosque) and on Katherine Street in West End (Masjid Hamza Mosque). In the medieval period, farming was important in Ashton, particularly arable farming. By the 18th century, textiles had also become more to the town's economy; in the 1700s, 33.2% of those with jobs worked in textiles and 36% in agriculture. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the

neg: Hunsrück Slate Laurussia. The Hunsrück Slate roughly comprises the Sauerthal-Schichten, Bornich-Schichten and Kaub-Schichten. These are 408–400 Mya old, making them part of the Latest Pragian to Early Emsian stages of the Devonian. The Hunsrück slate was a source for Rhenish slate over several centuries. Archaeological finds in West Germany show that the slate was used in Roman times. The first documented case of mining in this area dates from the 14th century. The production continued with the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 1700s, but in 1846-49, the industry fell into crisis, resulting in poverty and misery in the mining areas.

neg: Postliberal theology during global economic change (see Industrial Revolution). Prominent postliberals becoming Catholic is especially notable because George Lindbeck's ecumenical work at the Second Vatican Council and beyond expressed no interest in individual conversions to the Catholic Church, but did suggest the need for a communal transformation of liberal Protestantism so that Protestant Christianity might begin to be more identifiable as a form of Catholic Christianity. Postliberalism partly arose in response to a decline of the prestige of mainline Protestantism in America, in light of which conservative evangelicalism and Roman Catholicism were seen by some theologians and ministers as the only serious

neg: Blacksmith only swing their swords two or three times before having to step on their swords to straighten them. On the Indian subcontinent, Wootz steel was, and continues to be, produced in small quantities. In southern Asia and western Africa, blacksmiths form endogenous castes that sometimes speak distinct languages. In the medieval period, blacksmithing was considered part of the set of "seven mechanical arts". Prior to the industrial revolution, a "village smithy" was a staple of every town. Factories and mass-production reduced the demand for blacksmith-made tools and hardware. The original fuel for forge fires was charcoal. Coal did not begin

neg: Machine Age Machine Age The Machine Age is an era that includes the early 20th century, sometimes also including the late 19th century. An approximate dating would be about 1880 to 1945. Considered to be at a peak in the time between the first and second world wars, it forms a late part of the Second Industrial Revolution. The 1940s saw the beginning of the Atomic Age, where modern physics saw new applications such as the atomic bomb, the first computers, and the transistor. The Digital Revolution ended the intellectual model of the machine age founded in the mechanical and heralding a

neg: Urban planning in China considered to be a social characteristic that many Chinese peasants have continued as they gradually urbanize into global city regions and other more urbanized and planned environments. In contrast, European peasants did not begin to urbanize in a similar manner until the advent of a modern transportation during the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and arrived in urban areas with little or no urban experience due to the disbursed settlement patterns of the West. Ortuzar furthers, that the urban tradition in China has been ever present "as its origins can be traced back to the early ages of development; one

neg: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Glasgow by Bishop Jocelyn (consecrated 1175, died 1199) and received its last additions from Archbishop Blackader (consecrated 1484, died 1508). Glasgow did not again become a centre of Roman Catholic life until about the beginning of the 19th century during the process of Catholic Emancipation. The progress of the Industrial Revolution also began to draw to the city and its neighbourhood Roman Catholics from the Scottish Highlands and later, in far greater numbers, from Ireland. The arrival of the Irish necessitated Rev Andrew Scott, the sole Priest in Glasgow to begin the erection of the Catholic Cathedral in Clyde St in

neg: Industrial Revolution The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size

neg: QSZ-class submersible capability of the time to achieve. Due to the political turmoil in China during the Cultural Revolution, work did not begin until 1980. When work finally begun, Chinese designers took a practical approach by proceeding in several stages, realizing the limitations of Chinese industrial capability. The Type-I diving bell was the first stage of development. Type I diving bell, short for Type I rescue diving bell (Yi-xing Jiu-sheng Zhong, I型救生钟), is used mainly for submarine rescue, and it is also capable of being used to carry out some underwater work. For rescue operations, it is primarily used for wet rescue,

neg: Industrial Revolution by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear "take-off". Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer: Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical. Germany's political disunity – with three dozen states – and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to

neg: Industrial Revolution sectors of the economy. However, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century. Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine. Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull's seed

neg: Dogtown, Massachusetts early 1700s, the land was opened up to individual settlement as previously it had been used as common land for wood and pasturing cattle and sheep. It is estimated that at one point 60 to 80 homes stood in Dogtown at the peak height of its population. In the mid-1700s as many as 100 families inhabited Dogtown which was stable until after the American Revolution. Various factors led to the demise of Dogtown which included a revived fishing industry from Gloucester Harbor after the American Revolution had ended. The area had become safe again from enemy ships which allowed cargo

neg: WCGQ Director, David Tate: ""This is WCGQ, Columbus, Georgia, 'The New 107-Q', where the Rock revolution starts NOW"". Then, Tate played the first musical selection ever broadcast on WCGQ, Revolution, recorded by the British pop band, The Beatles. Indeed, a Rock revolution did begin at WCGQ-FM that day. WCGQ trounced its direct competitor, WDAK-AM, in only 4 months. In the April/May, 1974 Arbitron ratings Radio Market Report for Columbus, GA, WCGQ became the leading FM popular music radio station in the Columbus, GA metropolitan area. 107-Q's earliest musical style was marked by a decidedly eclectic, "left-of-center", musical mixture, featuring playlists with

neg: Suncook Village Commercial–Civic Historic District river were an early feature, with a sawmill and gristmill being followed by a fulling mill in the 1700s. The area did not begin to grow substantially until the 1830s, when the first textile mills began to be built there in 1814, although it did benefit from the presence first of ferry services and then bridges, placing the nascent village on major travel routes. Declining agricultural income and rising factory income led to the growth of the commercial center adjacent to the mill complexes that lined the river. In the 1850s the arrival of railroads spurred further growth. By the

neg: Edwardsburgh/Cardinal once stood was permanently flooded during the construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway. In the late 1700s, most of the Loyalists upon their arrival to the area were farmers, and did not see formal education as a valuable or important thing. In 1787, three years after their arrival, more privileged Loyalists began to petition for a school to be built in each district, to teach mathematics, arithmetic, English and Latin. Finally, in the early 1800s, the government of Upper Canada passed The Common School Act of 1816, which allowed for a common school to be built in every district where

neg: Economic history of Birmingham It is believed he converted the machinery for use in metal working. As well as milling grain it has been used for grinding bones for fertiliser, sheet metal rolling (Matthew Boulton) and wire drawing. The long-established industrial processes in the city meant that it was actually quite late in adopting the methods of the Industrial Revolution – manufacturing was so efficient and workshops so small that the steam engine, developed in Birmingham by Boulton and James Watt around 1770, did not find widespread use in the city for another sixty years (in 1815, there were only about forty steam engines

neg: Industrious Revolution technology. This new technology eventually developed into factories. The Industrious Revolution addresses this belief, saying instead, that the overwhelming desire for more goods directly preceded the Industrial Revolution. The theory states that during the Industrious Revolution there was an increase in demand for goods, but that supply did not rise as quickly. Eventually, some achievements of industry and agriculture, as well as the decisions made by households, helped to increase the supply, as well as the demand for goods. These behaviours, when combined constitute an Industrious Revolution. A quick summation of the differences between the Industrious Revolution and the Industrial

neg: Evolutionary mismatch new dangers that humans brought. Before the English Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries the most common phenotypic color of the peppered moth was white with black speckles. However, that changed when the Industrial Revolution produced high levels of pollution. Due to the Industrial Revolution the trees blackened in urban regions, causing the original phenotype to stand out significantly more to predators. Natural selection then began favoring the rare dark peppered carbonaria moth in order for the species to camouflage and prevent attacks. The dark moth's population expanded rapidly and by the 1950s vast amounts of

neg: Bersham Bersham Bersham () is a small Welsh village in the suburbs of the county borough of Wrexham that lies next to the River Clywedog, and in the community of Esclusham. Wrexham owes a large amount of its original industrial heritage to Bersham, but despite this the village still retains a rural feeling. The village holds special importance for economic historians, for not only did it house the workshops of the skilled Davies brothers, it was one of the cradles of the Industrial Revolution. This is the place where British iron making began in 1670, where smelting iron ore with coke

neg: Orleans, Massachusetts 13 colonies during the American Revolution, and because the town did not want an English name, as they had been captured twice by the British during the war. Early history, like much of the Cape, revolved around fishing, whaling and agriculture. As the fishing industry grew, salt works sprang up in the town to help preserve the catches. However, the town's growth helped deplete the town of lumber, a situation that did not begin to be remedied until the railroad came and brought lumber from the mainland in the mid-to-late 19th century. The rail also helped bring tourism to the

neg: Industrial Revolution in Scotland on the young or female immigrants. Industrial Revolution in Scotland The Industrial Revolution in Scotland was the transition to new manufacturing processes and economic expansion between the mid-eighteenth century and the late nineteenth century. By the start of the eighteenth century, a political union between Scotland and England became politically and economically attractive, promising to open up the much larger markets of England, as well as those of the growing British Empire, resulting in the Treaty of Union of 1707. There was a conscious attempt among the gentry and nobility to improve agriculture in Scotland. New crops were introduced and

neg: Industrial Revolution in Scotland Industrial Revolution in Scotland The Industrial Revolution in Scotland was the transition to new manufacturing processes and economic expansion between the mid-eighteenth century and the late nineteenth century. By the start of the eighteenth century, a political union between Scotland and England became politically and economically attractive, promising to open up the much larger markets of England, as well as those of the growing British Empire, resulting in the Treaty of Union of 1707. There was a conscious attempt among the gentry and nobility to improve agriculture in Scotland. New crops were introduced and enclosures began to displace the run

neg: History of Manchester the late 18th century, and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The Spinning Jenny in 1764 marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution bringing with it the first fully mechanised production process, although some sources define the start of the Industrial Revolution as July 1761, when the Duke of Bridgewater's canal reached Castlefield. The myriad small valleys in the Pennine Hills to the north and east of the town, combined with the damp climate, proved ideal for the construction of water-powered cotton mills such as Quarry Bank Mill, which industrialised the spinning and weaving of cloth. Indeed, it was the

neg: Industrial Revolution Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills" of Blake's poem "And did those feet in ancient time". Mary Shelley's novel "Frankenstein" reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry. Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods

neg: Cistercians the furnace did not survive Henry's Dissolution in the late 1530s, and the type of blast furnace pioneered there did not spread outside Rievaulx. Some historians believe that the suppression of the English monasteries may have stamped out an industrial revolution. In the 17th century another great effort at a general reform was made, promoted by the pope and the king of France; the general chapter elected Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Cîteaux, thinking he would protect them from the threatened reform. In this they were disappointed, for he threw himself wholly on the side of reform. So great, however, was

neg: Ulft the time. However, in 1753 Mr. Bogel, Mr. Henning, Earl Van Den Bergh and his counselor Roukens signed an agreement to begin an iron forge in the old water tower. With the foundation of the "Ironhut" in 1754, they laid the foundations for one of the first iron plants in the Netherlands, long before the regional arrival of the industrial revolution. Because of the money that was made out of the ore, the village flourished and the farmers where freed of their iron-problem. In 1885 “Bellaard, Becking and Bongers” started a second iron forge. This forge was called “The new

neg: Franklin Falls Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. The Franklin Falls area was occupied by the Penacook tribe of the Abenaki people at the time of European settlement of New England in the 17th century (documentation which has been confirmed by archaeological evidence found at Odell Park). Colonial settlement of the area did not begin until the late 1740s, and the area did not experience significant growth until the arrival of the railroad in 1846 and the subsequent expansion of industrial development. Walter Aiken, inventor of a knitting machine, in 1864 established a factory in the Franklin Falls area

neg: Machine shop both be scarce and valuable. The first machine shops started to appear in the 19th century when the Industrial Revolution was already long underway. Before the industrial revolution parts and tools were produced in workshops in local villages and cities on small-scale often for a local market. The first machinery that made possible the Industrial Revolution were also developed in similar workshops. The production machines in the first factories were built on site, where every part was still individually made to fit. After some time those factories started their own workshops, where parts of the existing machinery were repaired or

neg: Beaver Meadows, Pennsylvania a Colonel William H. Wilson moved to the town and built a tavern. In 1831, James Lamison became citizen No. 3 and also opened a tavern. By that time the Beaver Meadow Railroad and Coal Company had been formed and was subscribing stock. It was chartered on April 13, 1830, and the industrial revolution was about to begin using Beaver Meadows as a center. The company Building down the valleys from Beaver and Black Creeks, the tributaries dumped into the Lehigh below and near Penn Haven Junction where the railroad expected to ship to the Lehigh Canal. At the time,

neg: Ejido problems that contributed to the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution, notably Morelos where Emiliano Zapata led revolutionary peasants seeking return of their lands. "Tierra y libertad" (land and liberty) was one of the slogans of the Revolution. Distribution of large amounts of land did not begin until Lázaro Cárdenas became president in 1934. The "ejido" system was introduced as an important component of the agrarian land reform in Mexico. The typical procedure for the establishment of an ejido involved the following steps: Ejidatarios do not actually own the land, but are allowed to use their allotted parcels indefinitely as long

neg: Kristine Church, Falun late 1700s. The tower was built during the years 1658 - 1660. The bricks of which the church was built were handmade in Rankhyttan, 25 kilometers from Falun. Limestone for the pillars of the church was taken from Rättvik. The interior was considerably altered by the restoration in 1905: A new organ and organ balcony were built. The enclosed pews were exchanged for open ones. The doors of the old pews as well as the endpieces were used as panelling around the walls. The interior woodwork, which to begin with was unpainted and then later was painted white, received at

neg: Model engineering locomotive. The aim of model engineering to build mechanical models is now usually purely recreational, although beginning with the industrial revolution in the late 18th century through to the late 20th century such models were widely produced as aids to technical education, either as apprentice projects or as classroom or public institutional exhibits. They were also produced as commercial props to support a patent, to visualise a proposed capital venture, or to advertise a manufacturer's trade. Many museums in the old industrialised countries house original collections of mechanical models stemming from the earliest days of the industrial revolution. One of

neg: Architecture of Manchester the Industrial Revolution and the Bridgewater Canal and Manchester Liverpool Road station became the first true canal and railway station used to transport goods. The Industrial Revolution made Manchester a wealthy place but much of the wealth was spent on lavish projects that were often at the expense of its population. Engineering developments such as the Manchester Ship Canal symbolised a wealthy and proud Manchester, so too did Mancunian buildings of the Victorian era, the finest examples of which include the neo-gothic town hall and the John Rylands Library. At the height of the Industrial Revolution, the city had nearly

neg: Rule of thumb was inconsistent, and wife beating did continue. However, such a "rule of thumb" was never codified in law. English jurist William Blackstone wrote in the late 1700s in his "Commentaries on the Laws of England" that by an "old law", a husband had formerly been justified in using "moderate correction" against his wife, but was barred from inflicting serious violence. According to Blackstone, by the late 1600s this custom was in doubt, and a woman was by then allowed "security of the peace" against an abusive husband (Blackstone did not mention either thumbs or sticks). Citing Blackstone, the twentieth-century legal