query: when did unions start in the united states

pos: Labor unions in the United States (even though Wisconsin's state pension is 100% funded) along with the allegation that the unions are too powerful. States with higher levels of union membership tend to have higher median incomes and standards of living. It has been asserted by scholars and the International Monetary Fund that rising income inequality in the United States is directly attributable to the decline of the labor movement and union membership. Unions began forming in the mid-19th century in response to the social and economic impact of the Industrial Revolution. National labor unions began to form in the post-Civil War Era. The Knights of

pos: Labor unions in the United States (even though Wisconsin's state pension is 100% funded) along with the allegation that the unions are too powerful. States with higher levels of union membership tend to have higher median incomes and standards of living. It has been asserted by scholars and the International Monetary Fund that rising income inequality in the United States is directly attributable to the decline of the labor movement and union membership. Unions began forming in the mid-19th century in response to the social and economic impact of the Industrial Revolution. National labor unions began to form in the post-Civil War Era. The Knights of

neg: Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States on the Chinese in general and led to physical violence. "The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States." The emerging American trade unions, under such leaders as Samuel Gompers, also took an outspoken anti-Chinese position, regarding Chinese laborers as competitors to white laborers. Only with the emergence of the international trade union Industrial Workers of the World did trade unionists start to accept Chinese workers as

neg: Credit Union National Extension Bureau Credit Union National Extension Bureau The Credit Union National Extension Bureau (CUNEB) was the organization that advocated for and fostered credit unions in the United States from 1921 until 1934. CUNEB laid the foundation for the Credit Union National Association (CUNA) and the Federal Credit Union Act. CUNEB was organized and funded by Edward Filene, managed by Roy Bergengren, and was largely responsible for the proliferation of credit unions in the United States. In the early 20th century, many ordinary American workers did not have access to loans when they needed them and fell victim to usury and loan sharks.

neg: Dark money did not provide itemized disclosure of their donors as 4.3% in 2012 and 3.7% in 2014. Dark money In the politics of the United States, dark money is funds given to nonprofit organizations—and include 501(c)(4) (social welfare) 501(c)(5) (unions) and 501(c)(6) (trade association) groups—that can receive unlimited donations from corporations, individuals and unions. They can spend funds to influence elections, but are not required to disclose their donors. Dark money first entered politics with "Buckley v. Valeo" (1976) when the United States Supreme Court laid out Eight Magic Words that define the difference between electioneering and issue advocacy. According to

neg: Public-sector trade unions in the United States unions were too powerful since they helped elect their bosses, and that overly generous pension systems were too heavy a drain on state budgets. Public-sector trade unions in the United States A public-sector trade union (or public-sector labor union) is a trade union which primarily represents the interests of employees within public sector or governmental organizations. Labor unions generally bypassed government employees because they were controlled mostly by the patronage system used by the political parties before the arrival of civil service. Post Office workers did form unions. The National Association of Letter Carriers started in 1889 and grew quickly.

neg: Trade union Commission on Trade Unions" in 1867 agreed that the establishment of the organizations was to the advantage of both employers and employees. This period also saw the growth of trade unions in other industrializing countries, especially the United States, Germany and France. In the United States, the first effective nationwide labour organization was the Knights of Labor, in 1869, which began to grow after 1880. Legalization occurred slowly as a result of a series of court decisions. The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions began in 1881 as a federation of different unions that did not directly enrol workers.

neg: 2011 United States public employee protests 2011 United States public employee protests In February 2011, a series of public employee protests began in the United States against proposed legislation which would weaken the power of labor unions. By March, eighteen states had proposed legislation which would remove some collective bargaining powers from unions, along with another five states which proposed legislation which would negatively affect unions. The protests occurred when public employee unions mounted protests against legislation proposed by Republican governors such as Scott Walker (Wisconsin), Rick Scott (Florida), Mitch Daniels (Indiana), Sean Parnell (Alaska), Rick Snyder (Michigan), John Kasich (Ohio), Paul LePage (Maine) and Jan

neg: Public-sector trade unions in the United States Public-sector trade unions in the United States A public-sector trade union (or public-sector labor union) is a trade union which primarily represents the interests of employees within public sector or governmental organizations. Labor unions generally bypassed government employees because they were controlled mostly by the patronage system used by the political parties before the arrival of civil service. Post Office workers did form unions. The National Association of Letter Carriers started in 1889 and grew quickly. It had 52 branches with 4,600 members in 1890, and 335 branches by 1892. It focused on forcing postmasters to honor federal law mandating

neg: Union violence in the United States and what they regarded as the autocratic ways of its leader, John L. Lewis, broke away and formed the Progressive Miners of America (PMA), later renamed the Progressive Mine Workers of America. The rival unions clashed violently from the start, resulting in numerous deaths on both sides, as well as police officers killed trying to prevent the violence. The violence was especially intense in southern Illinois in 1932 and 1933, when PMA picketers tried to stop UMWA members from entering the mines. Officers and members of both unions were shot on the street and bombed in their homes. In addition,

neg: Public-sector trade unions in the United States members. The postal unions did not engage in strikes, but there was the U.S. postal strike of 1970, a two-week wildcat walkout in New York City and 12 other cities by 200,000 of the 750,000 postal employees. It was not officially sponsored and ended when the Army started delivering the mail in "Operation Graphic Hand." Historian Joseph Slater, says, "Unfortunately for public sector unions, the most searing and enduring image of their history in the first half of the twentieth century was the Boston police strike. The strike was routinely cited by courts and officials through the end of the

neg: Labor unions in the United States powers of state employee unions to balance a state's budget (49%) than disapprove of such a measure (45%), while 6% had no opinion. 66% of Republicans approved of such a measure as did 51% of independents. Only 31% of Democrats approved. A Gallup poll released on March 11, 2011, showed that nationwide, Americans were more likely to give unions a negative word or phrase when describing them (38%) than a positive word or phrase (34%). 17% were neutral and 12% didn't know. Republicans were much more likely to say a negative term (58%) than Democrats (19%). Democrats were much more

neg: Labor Party (United States, 1996) Labor Party to exist, others have seen this as a start of a discussion about the future of the Labor Party. Labor Party (United States, 1996) The Labor Party was an American social democratic political party advocating workers' interests. The party was formed in 1996 by the United Mine Workers, International Longshore and Warehouse Union, American Federation of Government Employees, California Nurses Association, and hundreds of other local labor unions. From the beginning a dispute over the Party's running of candidates arose with many of the official unions totally opposed to running candidates that might cause the defeat of their

neg: United States Postal Service strike ended without any concessions from the Federal government, it did ultimately allow for postal worker unions and the government to negotiate a contract which gave the unions most of what they wanted, as well as the signing of the Postal Reorganization Act by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970. The Act replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with a new federal agency, the United States Postal Service, and took effect on July 1, 1971. The United States Postal Service employs some 617,000 workers, making it the third-largest civilian employer in the United States behind the federal government and

neg: The Great Stagnation which traces the pay gap to an increasing demand for skilled workers. Timothy Noah, writing in "Slate", did not share Cowen's optimism about the future of American educational attainment on the basis that President Obama "is getting tough" on teachers' unions. There have been many reforms implemented in the last thirty years that the unions initially opposed, and the United States has poorer outcomes than many OECD countries with stronger unions. Noah reminds us that the earlier authors were optimistic about increased third level enrollment and that has since fallen as have graduation rates. The United States remains significantly behind

neg: Credit unions in the United States Credit Unions (Federation), a national trade association providing investments, technical assistance, education and training and advocacy for community development credit unions (CDCUs) nationwide. Establishing an account at a credit union usually requires a smaller deposit than that of a bank; credit unions usually require $5–$30 to open an account, while major banks sometimes require $50–$100 deposit. The required minimum deposit to join a credit union is called a "share" and establishes the depositor as a member with full ownership rights. Tension has always existed between member-owned cooperative credit unions and for-profit banks in the United States. When credit unions were

neg: United States home front during World War II the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve-day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions. All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses,

neg: National Credit Union Administration of state-chartered credit unions. Credit unions may also offer an array of additional financial services which are not covered by federal insurance. On March 9, 2011, then Board Chairman Debbie Matz unveiled MyCreditUnion.gov, a source of educational information and personal finance tips designed to help individuals make financial decisions. The website also explains how credit unions work, where to find one, and even how to start a credit union. National Credit Union Administration The National Credit Union Administration (NCUA) is the independent federal agency created by the United States Congress to regulate, charter, and supervise federal credit unions. With the

neg: Nuclear weapon nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, and New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia. Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by

neg: History of trade unions in the United Kingdom of organised labour in both Britain and the United States was seriously weakened. It played little role in the formation of the United Nations as the war ended. After the war, the British unions resumed a staunchly anti-communist and anti-Soviet position. Communists did however occupy local positions of power especially in the coal miners' union. While involvement in foreign policy went poorly, British trade unions grew dramatically in membership and power during the Second World War. The unexpected landslide of the Labour Party in 1945 gave it a strong voice in national affairs, Especially with Ernest Bevin as Foreign Minister.

neg: Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower late 1950s and into the 1960s, NASA, the Department of Defensed, and various private sector corporations developed multiple communications satellite research and development programs. Union membership peaked in the mid-1950s, when unions consisting of about one-quarter of the total work force. The Congress of Industrial Organizations and the American Federation of Labor merged in 1955 to form the AFL–CIO, the largest federation of unions in the United States. Unlike some of his predecessors, AFL–CIO leader George Meany did not emphasize organizing unskilled workers and workers in the South. During the late 1940s and the 1950s, both the business community and

neg: League of Revolutionary Struggle (Marxist-Leninist) more left-wing than the Socialists. CPUSA came after attack following World War II when anti-communist sentiment was on the rise. The party's steadfast support for the Soviet Union was not received well. Coupled with anti-Soviet sentiment in the US, communism became increasingly unwelcome in the United States. CPUSA historically took its power from labor unions. However, as these unions were dispelled in 1949 and 1950, the party did not have a solid support system to rely on. Furthermore, left wing organizations were faced with McCarthyism in the early 1950s. Today, CPUSA remains with its existing political ideology. The parks seeks

neg: Industrial Workers of the World philosophy and tactics likewise notes key differences. For example, while European syndicalists operate within mainstream unions, the IWW has always displayed an antagonism toward, and disdain for existing craft based trade unions in the United States. This has led the IWW to embrace the concept of dual unionism. When William Z. Foster offered the IWW an opportunity to begin a European syndicalist style program of "boring from within" the AFL, the IWW rejected it. Foner concludes, therefore, that the IWW did not inherit its philosophy of revolutionary industrial unionism from French Syndicalism. However, he does also note similarities. Foner believes that IWW members

neg: Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan support" and was rewarded with jobs for "tens of thousands of Jamaat activists and sympathisers", giving Zia's Islamic agenda power "long after he died." However, Zia failed to deliver timely elections and distanced himself from the JI. When Zia banned student unions, Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba and pro-JI labor unions protested. However, JI did not participate in the Pakistan Peoples Party's Movement for the Restoration of Democracy. JI also supported Zia's Jihad against the Soviet–Afghan War and its sister party Jamiat-e Islami led by Burhanuddin Rabbani became part of the Peshawar Seven that received aid from Saudi Arabia, United States and other

neg: Charles Morris (legal educator) of the employees in a workplace, the National Labor Relations Act requires an employer to bargain with a union that represents only a minority number of the employees. Morris argued that such "members-only bargaining" was once common practice in the United States, and he suggests that "members-only bargaining" should be used to jump-start the union organizing. Morris' conclusions have generated considerable controversy. On August 14, 2007, seven American labor unions asked the National Labor Relations Board to force employers to bargain with their member-only unions, even though the unions represent a minority number of workers. The case is seen as

neg: Labor unions in the United States or the UK. … [T]hat's what the U.S. and the UK did: they smashed the unions, in the belief that they had to compete on cost. The result? They quickly ended up wrecking their industrial base. Unions have made some attempts to organize across borders. Eder observes that transnational organizing is not a new phenomenon but has been facilitated by technological change. Nevertheless, he claims that while unions pay lip service to global solidarity, they still act largely in their national self-interest. He argues that unions in the global North are becoming increasingly depoliticized while those in the South grow

neg: Immigration policies of American labor unions however, did not include a guest worker program, but the business community has suggested that such a program needs to be a central component of any reform package. Nevertheless, labor's unity on this issue is expected to give Obama additional leverage on the issue. Immigration policies of American labor unions Labor unions in the United States, since their early beginnings, have held various viewpoints on immigration. There were differences among the labor unions and occasionally opposition to contemporary majority opinions and public policies. In the first half of the 20th century, the majority of labor unions within the American Federation

neg: Same-sex unions in the United States Same-sex unions in the United States Same-sex unions in the United States are available in various forms in all states and territories, except American Samoa. All states have legal same-sex marriage, while others have the options of civil unions, domestic partnerships, or reciprocal beneficiary relationships. The federal government only recognizes marriage and no other legal union for same-sex couples. Hawaii was the first state to recognize limited legal same-sex unions, doing so in 1997 in the form of reciprocal beneficiary partnerships. The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are complicated by the nation's federal system of government.

neg: Augustus Granville Dill that had by then accepted African Americans, such as the United Mine Workers of America; they also examined exclusively black unions such as "The American Brotherhood of Cement Workers" and unions from which blacks were entirely excluded, such as "Order of Railway Conductors of America". The rest of the section notes the attitudes of different states on African Americans in unions. In the next section the attitude of the African American is assessed. Some African Americans believed in unions; others did not. The study brings to light the racial inequalities faced by the African American labor force from 1902 to

neg: Political activity of the Catholic Church on LGBT issues after divorce." In Austria the blessing of same sex unions has been conducted in at least two churches. Responding to a document published by the United States Department of Education regarding transgender students, the bishops of the United States said that "children, youth, and parents in these difficult situations deserve compassion, sensitivity, and respect." However, they criticized the document for "infringing on legitimate concerns about privacy and security on the part of the other young students and parents" when allowing transgender students to use facilities designated for the gender with which they identify. The bishops said the government did "not

neg: Ben Gold Lewis' refusal to endorse Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1940 presidential election, but unlike Lewis did not endorse Wendell Willkie or Montana Senator Burton K. Wheeler (whom Lewis supported as a third party candidate). After the United States entered World War II, Gold proved an ardent patriot. As war approached, in November 1941, he led large rallies in New York City urging union members to buy war bonds. When the CIO advocated a no-strike pledge for all American unions, Gold wholeheartedly and strongly supported the pledge. He readily agreed to the seven-day work week after the United States declared war

neg: History of union busting in the United States and unions therefore try to mislead workers; that workers should be grateful to employers, and are therefore ungrateful and immoral when they join unions; that the business is solely the employer's to manage; that unions are operated by non-employees, and they are therefore necessarily outsiders; that unions restrict the right of employees to work when, where, and how they wish; and that the law, the courts, and the police represent absolute and impartial rights and justice, and therefore unions are to be condemned when they violate the law or oppose the police. Given the proliferation of employers' associations created primarily

neg: Labor unions in the United States strength. These scholars use foreign direct investment (FDI) and the size of a country's international trade as a percentage of its GDP to assess a country's relative degree of market integration. These researchers typically find that globalization does affect union density, but is dependent on other factors, such as unions' access to the workplace and the centralization of bargaining. Sano and Williamson argue that globalization's impact is conditional upon a country's labor history. In the United States in particular, which has traditionally had relatively low levels of union density, globalization did not appear to significantly affect union density. Studies focusing

neg: Causes of income inequality in the United States public policy and party politics, or "stuff the government did, or didn't do". They argue these have led to a trend of declining labor union membership rates and resulting diminishing political clout, decreased expenditure on social services, and less government redistribution. Moreover, the United States is the only advanced economy without a labor-based political party. As of 2011, several state legislatures have launched initiatives aimed at lowering wages, labor standards, and workplace protections for both union and non-union workers. The economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that "Strong unions have helped to reduce inequality, whereas weaker unions have made it easier for

neg: United Public Workers v. Mitchell United Public Workers v. Mitchell United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U.S. 75 (1947), is a 4-to-3 ruling by the United States Supreme Court which held that the Hatch Act of 1939, as amended in 1940, does not violate the First, Fifth, Ninth, or Tenth amendments to U.S. Constitution. At the start of the 20th century, several unions (such as the National Federation of Federal Employees, American Federation of Government Employees, and the United Federal Workers of America) began representing employees working for the federal government of the United States. The leadership of the United Federal Workers of America (UFWA)

neg: Labor aristocracy to the labor aristocracy model of trade unionism. In defense of these unions, the AFL–CIO's jurisdictional rules may forbid such unions from organizing workers in certain occupational classes. At the beginning of the 20th century in the United States, "most American Federation of Labor (AFL) unions did not admit unskilled mass-production workers". Selig Perlman wrote in 1923 that skilled workers organized into craft unions were more interested in trade separatism than in labor solidarity. The craft workers were capable of demanding more from their employers due to their skills and preferred to fight separately from unskilled or semiskilled workers. In

neg: Labor unions in the United States Labor unions in the United States Labor unions in the United States are organizations that represent workers in many industries recognized under US labor law. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger trade unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level. Most unions in the United States are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL-CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split

neg: Labor unions in the United States need not be connected organizationally to others around the world to effectively influence the behavior of a transnational corporation. History: International: General: Labor unions in the United States Labor unions in the United States are organizations that represent workers in many industries recognized under US labor law. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger trade unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level. Most unions in the United States

neg: Coalition of Labor Union Women AFL-CIO in Washington, D.C. CLUW pursues by four goals: to bring women into union leadership, to organise unorganized women workers, to bring women's issues onto the labor agenda, and to involve women into political action. Women had participated in unions throughout time. Beginning with the first national women's labor union in the United States, The Daughters of St. Crispin. Followed by many other unions such as: printer unions, The Knights of Labor, Women's Trade Union League, National Organization for Women, and many more. However, these unions did not support all women and discriminated against certain races. CLUW was founded in

neg: Bureau of Federal Credit Unions Bureau of Federal Credit Unions The Bureau of Federal Credit Unions was a federal agency in the United States that supervised and chartered federal credit unions from 1934 until 1970. The Bureau was created through the Federal Credit Union Act as part of the New Deal. It was self-financing and did not receive appropriations from general Treasury funds. In 1970, the Bureau was replaced by the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA). On June 26, 1934, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Federal Credit Union Act into law as part of the New Deal. The Act sought to promote thrift in

neg: Bureau of Federal Credit Unions the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), an independent federal agency. Bureau of Federal Credit Unions The Bureau of Federal Credit Unions was a federal agency in the United States that supervised and chartered federal credit unions from 1934 until 1970. The Bureau was created through the Federal Credit Union Act as part of the New Deal. It was self-financing and did not receive appropriations from general Treasury funds. In 1970, the Bureau was replaced by the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA). On June 26, 1934, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Federal Credit Union Act into law as part of

neg: Labor history of the United States and wounding many others. The anarchists were blamed, and their spectacular trial gained national attention. The Knights of Labor were seriously injured by the false accusation that the Knights promoted anarchistic violence. Many Knights locals transferred to the less radical and more respectable AFL unions or railroad brotherhoods. The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions began in 1881 under the leadership of Samuel Gompers. Like the National Labor Union, it was a federation of different unions and did not directly enroll workers. Its original goals were to encourage the formation of trade unions and to obtain legislation, such as

neg: Free Association of German Trade Unions War I, the congress did not take place. The "Bulletin" only published for eighteen issues before the war caused it to cease publication. During the buildup to World War I, the FVdG denounced the SPD's anti-war rhetoric as "complete humbug". With the start of war, the SPD and the mainstream labor movement entered into the "Burgfrieden" (or civil truce) with the German state. Under this agreement, the unions' structures remained intact and the government did not cut wages during the war. For their part, the unions did not support new strikes, ended current ones, and mobilized support for the war

neg: History of union busting in the United States by employers' associations to attack unions. The list was published in 1921, as part of the book "Trade Unionism in the United States". These methods include counter organization, inducing union leaders to support management, supporting other pro-business enterprises, refusing to work with pro-union enterprises, obtaining information on unions among others. Hoxie summarized the underlying theories, assumptions, and attitudes of employers' associations of the period. According to Hoxie, these included the supposition that employers' interests are always identical to society's interests, such that unions should be condemned when they interfere; that the employers' interests are always harmonious with the workers' interests,

neg: Credit unions in the United States museum on the history of credit unions, America's Credit Union Museum, is located in Manchester, New Hampshire. It opened in 2002. Credit unions in the United States may either be chartered by the federal government ("federal credit unions") or a state government. The states of Delaware, South Dakota, and Wyoming do not regulate credit unions at the state level; in those states, a credit union must obtain a federal charter to operate. All federal credit unions and 95% of state-chartered credit unions have "share insurance" (deposit insurance) of at least $250,000 per member through the National Credit Union Share Insurance

neg: Union violence in the United States Union violence in the United States On various occasions violence has been committed by unions or union members during labor disputes in the United States. When union violence has occurred, it has frequently been in the context of industrial unrest. Violence has ranged from isolated acts by individuals to wider campaigns of organised violence aimed at furthering union goals within an industrial dispute. Anti-union violence has also occurred frequently in the context of industrial unrest, and has often involved the collusion of management and government authorities, private agencies, or citizens' groups in organising violence against unions and their members. According

neg: Charter schools in the United States for charters has led some unions to start charters themselves. Several AFT chapters, such as those in Houston and Dallas, have themselves started charters. In New York City, the United Federation of Teachers operates a charter school serving grades 9-12 in Brooklyn, NY. The National Education Association has allocated $1.5 million to help members start charter schools. Proponents claim that charters offer teachers a measure of empowerment, employee ownership, and governance that might be enhanced by union assistance (Nathan). Former President Bush's No Child Left Behind Act also promotes charter schools. Over two dozen private management companies are scrambling to

neg: Buffalo switchmen's strike The other unions refused to take their members out on strike. Unable to fight both soldiers and scabs without help, the switchmen ended their strike on August 25, 1892. The switchmen agreed to return to work, but the railroads blacklisted most of the workers. Prior to the Buffalo switchmen's strike, most railroad unions in the United States did not engage in consultation and coordination in order to increase their collective bargaining power. Attempts in 1886 and 1889 to form a federation of rail unions quickly collapsed. But the defeat of the Buffalo switchmen's union proved to be a powerful lesson

neg: Leo Wolman unions, and from the ALB's outset unions complained that they did not get a fair hearing from Wolman. Wolman proceeded to implement a plan to hold a series of elections throughout the auto industry beginning in late 1934. But the disenchanted AFL withdrew from the ALB on December 13, 1934. Wolman and the ALB proceeded with the elections all the same, and although only about 19,000 workers had elected to form unions a plan was drawn up in April 1935 to guide the anticipated collective bargaining process. On May 27, 1935, the Supreme Court of the United States held in

neg: History of hard rock miners' organizations slowdown in 1865 finally did result in a wage cut, and when the stock market crashed that year, the miners did not organize to oppose the lower wage. In 1879 the Miners' Cooperative Union (MCU) in Leadville, Colorado was the first hard rock miners' union in the United States to affiliate with another organization, in this case the national Knights of Labor. Like many unions of the period, the MCU ceased to exist after its first labor strike. By 1888, however, there were 43 local Knights of Labor organizations in Colorado, including several in mining communities. The Knights opted for

neg: History of the socialist movement in the United States Movement and labor unions had gained socialists credibility and influence, and had helped to push politicians in the Democratic Party towards social liberal or social democratic positions, at least on civil rights and the War on Poverty. Harrington, Kahn and Horowitz were officers and staff-persons of the League for Industrial Democracy (LID), which helped to start the New Left Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). The three LID officers clashed with the less experienced activists of SDS, like Tom Hayden, when the latter's Port Huron Statement criticized socialist and liberal opposition to communism and criticized the labor movement while promoting

neg: Manufacturing in the United States paying jobs for workers without a college education, particularly for men. The jobs paid well enough so that women did not have to work when they had young children. Unions were strong and owners did not want to risk strikes in their factories due to large capital investments and significant on the job training. Such jobs are much less available in the post-2001 era in the U.S. though they remain available in Germany, Switzerland and Japan, leading to calls to bring those jobs back from overseas, establish protectionism, and reduce immigration. Making it illegal for companies to purchase shares of

neg: Canadian Labour Congress Woodworkers of America (IWA) in British Columbia was also Communist-led. When, in 1948, CCF supporters gained control of the IWA's New Westminster local, other BC-based (and Communist-led) locals of the IWA withdrew in an attempt to form an independent union. However, this effort failed when the union members did not endorse the change. Efforts to dislodge communists from the United Electrical (UE) and the Mine Mill union did not succeed, and these unions were expelled from the Canadian Congress of Labour. Hence by 1950, the Canadian Congress of Labour had become a federation of unions which, to a greater or

neg: Credit unions in the United States the issue. His findings are summarized in Credit Union Conversions: Ripe for Abuse ... and Reforms, published in the Credit Union Times July 2006. Credit unions in the United States Credit unions in the United States serve 100 million members, comprising 43.7% of the economically active population. U.S. credit unions are not-for-profit, cooperative, tax-exempt organizations. The clients of the credit unions became partner of the financial institution and their presence focuses in certain neighborhoods because they center their services in one specific community. As of March 2016, the largest American credit union was Navy Federal Credit Union, serving U.S. Department

neg: Credit unions in the United States Credit unions in the United States Credit unions in the United States serve 100 million members, comprising 43.7% of the economically active population. U.S. credit unions are not-for-profit, cooperative, tax-exempt organizations. The clients of the credit unions became partner of the financial institution and their presence focuses in certain neighborhoods because they center their services in one specific community. As of March 2016, the largest American credit union was Navy Federal Credit Union, serving U.S. Department of Defense employees, contractors, and families of servicepeople, with over $75 billion USD in assets and over 6.1 million members. Total credit union assets

neg: Trade union German and Dutch unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in corporate boards and co-determination than have unions in the United States. Moreover, in the United States, collective bargaining is most commonly undertaken by unions directly with employers, whereas in Austria, Denmark, Germany or Sweden, unions most often negotiate with employers associations. Concerning labour market regulation in the EU, Gold (1993) and Hall (1994) have identified three distinct systems of labour market regulation, which also influence the role that unions play: The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting some minimum standards but leaving most

neg: Association of College Unions International Association of College Unions International ACUI (Association of College Unions International) is one of the oldest associations in higher education, and dates to 1914. This association is the largest organization that represents student activity centers and student unions in the United States. the organization has 522 member institutions in ten countries. Although primarily a United States organization, with university and college campus organizations as members in all 50 US states, ACUI also has affiliated student unions in Australia, Bermuda, Canada, Guam, Ireland, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Qatar, and the United Kingdom. ACUI's educational programs including seminars, distance learning support, an annual

neg: International Longshoremen's Association leadership was unable to resist increasingly powerful business interests. Unions were broken. LUPA was disbanded before the start of the 20th century. But other labor unions fought back. There were countless wildcat and/or organized work stoppages resulting in violence and massive losses in wages. Between 1881 and 1905 there were more than 30,000 strikes. In 1892, delegates from eleven ports convened in Detroit where they adopted the by-laws of the Longshoremen's Chicago local and the name National Longshoremen's Association of The United States. By 1895, the name was changed to International Longshoremen's Association to reflect the growing numbers of Canadian

neg: Labor unions in the United States unions based on the place of those workers' employment, either along geographical lines or by adopting the boundaries between political jurisdictions. Although not as overwhelmingly supportive as it was from the 1930s through the early 1960s, a clear majority of the American public approves of labor unions. The Gallup organization has tracked public opinion of unions since 1936, when it found that 72 percent approved of unions. The overwhelming approval declined in the late 1960s, but - except for one poll in 2009 in which the unions received a favorable rating by only 48 percent of those interviewed, majorities have

neg: Democratic Party (United States) the regulation of business (especially finance and banking) and the promotion of labor unions as well as federal spending to aid to the unemployed, help distressed farmers and undertake large-scale public works projects. It marked the start of the American welfare state. The opponents, who stressed opposition to unions, support for business and low taxes, started calling themselves "conservatives". Until the 1980s, the Democratic Party was a coalition of two parties divided by the Mason–Dixon line: liberal Democrats in the North and culturally conservative voters in the South, who though benefitting from many of the New Deal public works projects

neg: History of trade unions in the United Kingdom as international bodies such as the international Confederation of Free Trade Unions that excluded communist unions of the sort that joined the Soviet-dominated World Federation of Trade Unions. In some trades, especially coal mining, the Communists did have some power, as typified by Arthur Scargill, the president of the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) from 1982 to 2002. Scargill defied public opinion, a trait Prime Minister Thatcher exploited when she defeated his strike in 1985. More effective in the Communist cause was Ken Gill, president of a large union and in 1974 the first Communist elected in decades to the

neg: United States labor law In early colonial history, labor unions were routinely suppressed by the government. Recorded instances include cart drivers being fined for striking in 1677 in New York City, and carpenters prosecuted as criminals for striking in Savannah, Georgia in 1746. After the American Revolution, however, courts departed from repressive elements of English common law. The first reported case, "Commonwealth v Pullis" in 1806 did find shoemakers in Philadelphia guilty of "a combination to raise their wages". Nevertheless, unions continued, and the first federation of trade unions was formed in 1834, the National Trades' Union, with the primary aim of a 10-hour

neg: Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1937–50) the CP did, in fact, exercise a good deal of influence in a number of CIO unions in the 1940s, both in the leadership of unions such as the ILWU, UE, Transport Workers Union of America and Fur and Leather Workers and in staff positions in a number of other unions. Those persons had an uneasy relationship with Murray while he headed the CIO. He mistrusted the radicalism of some of their positions and was innately far more sympathetic to anti-Communist organizations such as the Association of Catholic Trade Unionists. He also believed, however, that making anti-Communism a crusade would

neg: Labor history of the United States The various postal unions did not engage in strikes. Historian Joseph Slater, says, "Unfortunately for public sector unions, the most searing and enduring image of their history in the first half of the twentieth century was the Boston police strike. The strike was routinely cited by courts and officials through the end of the 1940s." Governor Calvin Coolidge broke the strike and the legislature took control of the police away from city officials. The police strike chilled union interest in the public sector in the 1920s. The major exception was the emergence of unions of public school teachers in the

neg: Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1919–37) front from below," the Party attacked other socialist parties as "social fascists" and denounced the AFL as "an organ to suppress and disorganize the masses" which workers should join only to "overthrow the reformist bureaucracy" that ran them. The CP instead focused on founding new revolutionary unions in the expectation that the collapse of capitalism was just around the corner. These new dual unions were, in fact, often more like ginger groups than unions, with few members and even fewer long-term members. Nonetheless these groups did make some heroic efforts to organize the unorganized. In 1929 the National Textile Workers

neg: Lewis v. Harris court dismissed that motion. After the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in "United States v. Windsor" in June 2013, the "Lewis" plaintiffs joined in a new lawsuit, "Garden State Equality v. Dow", seeking a ruling that the status of civil unions failed to establish equal rights for same-sex couples. Their suit was successful. The trial court ruled that the fact that the federal government did not recognize New Jersey's civil unions as the equivalent of marriage established that same-sex couples in civil unions continued to be denied equal protection. Lewis v. Harris Lewis v. Harris, 188 N.J. 415; 908 A.2d 196

neg: History of labor law in the United States actually unusual in strictly following the English common law and holding that a combination to raise wages was by itself illegal. More often combination cases prior to "Hunt" did not hold that unions were illegal "per se", but rather found some other justification for a conviction. After "Pullis" in 1806, eighteen other prosecutions of laborers for conspiracies followed within the next three decades. However, only one such case, "People v. Fisher", also held that a combination for the purpose of raising wages was illegal. Several other cases held that the methods used by the unions, rather than the unions themselves,

neg: White Student Union (Towson University) of Higher Education" mentions a number of white student unions created at the time to oppose racial integration and affirmative action; two of the unions obtained official recognition from their colleges. In 2015, Facebook pages appeared announcing "White Student Unions" at over 25 major United States colleges. These pages were all hoaxes; the groups in question did not actually exist. White Student Union (Towson University) The White Student Union (WSU) was an unaffiliated organization founded in Towson, Maryland by Matthew Heimbach, who is a former member of Youth for Western Civilization and considered by many to be the face of

neg: Labor history of the United States economy was so perilous that the unemployment rate hit the 25 percent mark. Unions lost members during this time because laborers could not afford to pay their dues and furthermore, numerous strikes against wage cuts left the unions impoverished: "one might have expected a reincarnation of organizations seeking to overthrow the capitalistic system that was now performing so poorly. Some workers did indeed turn to such radical movements as the Communist Party, but, in general, the nation seemed to have been shocked into inaction". Though unions were not acting yet, cities across the nation witnessed local and spontaneous marches by

neg: LGBT rights in the United States their organization. "I believe the Boy Scouts is a private organization and they should be able to set the standards that they choose to set," Bush said. Bush would also express his support for bans on gay foster parenting and adoption. During the 2000 campaign he did not endorse a single piece of gay rights legislation. In a 2000 Republican presidential debate, George W. Bush, said he opposes same-sex marriage, but supports states' rights when it came to the issue of same-sex marriage. During the campaign he had refused to comment on Vermont's civil unions law. On April 13, 2000,

neg: History of left-wing politics in the United States to the day-to-day struggles of the civil-rights movement and labor unions had gained socialists credibility and influence, and had helped to push politicians in the Democratic Party towards "social-liberal" or social-democratic positions, at least on civil rights and the War on Poverty. Harrington, Kahn, and Horowitz were officers and staff-persons of the League for Industrial Democracy (LID), which helped to start the New Left Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). The three LID officers clashed with the less experienced activists of SDS, like Tom Hayden, when the latter's Port Huron Statement criticized socialist and liberal opposition to communism and criticized

neg: Immigration policies of American labor unions Eastern and Southern Europe, which argued that reducing immigration was the wrong tactic to reduce unemployment and to raise bargaining power. Unlike the AFL, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) did not promote policies to restrict the flow of immigration into the United States. Its members were industrial unions, a more inclusive organizing philosophy to organize both skilled and unskilled workers by industry, regardless of "race, color, creed, or nationality." The AFL, on the other hand, had mostly skilled craft workers, with unions divided by their craft. The CIO was more supportive towards immigration and more receptive towards welcoming immigrants

neg: 1860 United States House of Representatives election in Florida in both the First and Second Confederate Congress. Florida's seat in the United States Congress was vacant from January 21, 1860 until July 1, 1868 when Florida was readmitted following Reconstruction. 1860 United States House of Representatives election in Florida The election to the United States House of Representatives in Florida for the 37th Congress was held October 1, 1860 at the same time as the election for Governor. The winner of this election did not serve, as Florida seceded before the start of the 37th Congress. The incumbent George S. Hawkins (D), who had first been elected in 1856,

neg: Same-sex unions in the United States their own domestic partnership registries (as Cook County, Illinois did in May 2011), while others which enacted such local registries prior to the state's own registry may retain their registries for various reasons. Such registries continue to be separate from state-level registries and unions, and usually must be filed after the dissolution of a state-level union. Those states include California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Nevada, New Jersey, and Washington. Some public- and private-sector U.S. employers provide health insurance or other spousal benefits to same-sex partners of employees, although the employee receiving benefits for his or her partner may have to

neg: Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1919–37) policy; in 1928 the CP began establishing new CP-led unions in the coal, textile, food and garment industries and renamed the TUEL the Trade Union Unity League in 1929. This change in policy coincided with Stalin's turn to the left as he moved against his former ally Nikolai Bukharin. CP leaders, such as Foster, willing to make the switch, held on to their positions in the Party, while those who did not, such as Jay Lovestone, were expelled. The CP's Third Period stance towards unions was nearly as ultra-left as its position in 1919 through 1921. While advocating a "united

neg: Bracero program temporary work. There were a number of hearings about the United States–Mexico migration, which overheard complaints about Public Law 78 and how it did not adequately provide them with a reliable supply of workers. Simultaneously, unions complained that the braceros' presence was harmful to U.S. workers. The outcome of this meeting was that the United States ultimately got to decide how the workers would enter the country by way of reception centers set up in various Mexican states and at the United States border. At these reception centers, potential braceros had to pass a series of examinations. The first step

neg: Eugene C. Whitney built. The turbine generators had to be shipped as parts and assembled at the dam. His Westinghouse manager recalled being surprised when they worked perfectly from the start. Gene designed and installed turbine generators for hydroelectric and pumped-storage hydroelectric facilities throughout the United States. When his equipment was installed at the Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility, Gene "was present when the machines were first to be started. The operator was reluctant to take the first step. Gene said, 'Call your boss.' The boss said, 'If Gene says to start the machines, start them.' So they did, and water rose from

neg: United Public Workers v. Mitchell warned: One legal scholar has concluded that congressional debate in 1791 supports Webster's opinion, not the decision by Justice Reed in "United Public Workers". United Public Workers v. Mitchell United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U.S. 75 (1947), is a 4-to-3 ruling by the United States Supreme Court which held that the Hatch Act of 1939, as amended in 1940, does not violate the First, Fifth, Ninth, or Tenth amendments to U.S. Constitution. At the start of the 20th century, several unions (such as the National Federation of Federal Employees, American Federation of Government Employees, and the United Federal Workers

neg: Association of College Unions International are listed in the BCA's "Billiards: The Official Rules and Records Book". Association of College Unions International ACUI (Association of College Unions International) is one of the oldest associations in higher education, and dates to 1914. This association is the largest organization that represents student activity centers and student unions in the United States. the organization has 522 member institutions in ten countries. Although primarily a United States organization, with university and college campus organizations as members in all 50 US states, ACUI also has affiliated student unions in Australia, Bermuda, Canada, Guam, Ireland, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Qatar, and the

neg: Norwegian Air UK request for an exemption, which would have allowed the airline to start flights to the United States while its foreign air-carrier permit (FACP) remained under review. Meanwhile, the department placed the airline's application for a FACP on hold. The USDOT stated that it needed more time to review issues raised by various labour unions, such as the claim that Norwegian Air UK would violate labour laws by employing flight crew based in East Asia. In July 2017, the USDOT approved Norwegian Air UK's application for its foreign air-carrier permit, citing commitments to hire crew based in the United States and

neg: History of the socialist movement in the United States its philosophy solidified and its influence quickly grew and by around the start of the 20th century the SLP was the foremost American socialist party. Bringing to light the resemblance of the American party's politics to those of Lassalle, Daniel De Leon emerged as an early leader of the Socialist Labor Party. He also adamantly supported unions, but criticized the collective bargaining movement within the United States at the time, favoring a slightly different approach. The resulting disagreement between De Leon's supporters and detractors within the party led to an early schism. De Leon's opponents, led by Morris Hillquit, left

neg: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in Afghanistan, which took place later that year. The Soviet legislature also did not ratify it. The agreement expired on December 31, 1985 and was not renewed. The talks led to the STARTs, or Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties, which consisted of START I (a 1991 completed agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union) and START II (a 1993 agreement between the United States and Russia, which was never ratified by the United States), both of which proposed limits on multiple-warhead capacities and other restrictions on each side's number of nuclear weapons. A successor to START I, New START,

neg: Labor unions in the United States Ronald Reagan—a former union president—broke the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) strike in 1981, dealing a major blow to unions. Republicans began to push through legislative blueprints to curb the power of public employee unions as well as eliminate business regulations. Today most labor unions in the United States are members of one of two larger umbrella organizations: the American Federation of Labor–Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) or the Change to Win Federation, which split from the AFL-CIO in 2005-2006. Both organizations advocate policies and legislation favorable to workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active

neg:
Roy Bergengren the federal level. Filene poured more than $1 million of his own money into the project. Many ordinary American workers did not have access to loans when they needed them and fell victim to usury and loan sharks. Bergengren and Filene proposed credit unions as the solution. The Extension Bureau, of which Bergengren was the executive secretary, had four goals: 1. to bring about the laws needed for credit union development in the various states,
 2. subsequently, to organize some credit unions in each state that could serve as examples to others,
 3. to expand the number of credit unions

neg: Lucky Cow ended in a dramatic fashion with its final series, in which the employees of the franchise are getting ready to welcome Javier, a Mexican exchange student who will be working there, to the United States. To make him feel at home, Gary hangs a Mexican flag in front of the restaurant, launching a controversy when photographs turn up on the internet with the caption, "United States of Mexico? When did Lucky Cow start hating America?!" Picketers, including Clare, line up outside the restaurant demanding a nationwide boycott of Lucky Cow franchises. Lucky Cow corporate responds to the damage the flag

neg: Dark money Dark money In the politics of the United States, dark money is funds given to nonprofit organizations—and include 501(c)(4) (social welfare) 501(c)(5) (unions) and 501(c)(6) (trade association) groups—that can receive unlimited donations from corporations, individuals and unions. They can spend funds to influence elections, but are not required to disclose their donors. Dark money first entered politics with "Buckley v. Valeo" (1976) when the United States Supreme Court laid out Eight Magic Words that define the difference between electioneering and issue advocacy. According to the Center for Responsive Politics, "spending by organizations that do not disclose their donors has increased

neg: Labor unions in the United States number of major strikes and lockouts fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010. On the political front, the shrinking unions lost influence in the Democratic Party, and pro-Union liberal Republicans faded away. Union membership among workers in private industry shrank dramatically, though after 1970 there was growth in employees unions of federal, state and local governments. The intellectual mood in the 1970s and 1980s favored deregulation and free competition. Numerous industries were deregulated, including airlines, trucking, railroads and telephones, over the objections of the unions involved. The climax came when President

neg: Trade unions in Costa Rica to restrict the rights of unions. Problems became so difficult for public sector workers that unions took their cases to the International Labour Organization. Despite their resurgence in the 1990s, many private sector unions faced repression and opposition. Specific instances include the 1994 Korean-owned Kokomerica case in which workers denounced union repression, unsanitary work conditions, non-payment of wages, and other issues to the Ministry of Labor. When Carteco's workers at the SARET free-trade zone in Alajuela Province complained of mistreatment and then tried to form a union, the owner from the United States fired all workers. Workers at another company

neg: History of banking in the United States Despite opposition from the banking industry, the Federal Credit Union Act was signed into law in 1934 as part of the New Deal, allowing the creation of federally chartered credit unions in the United States. The Credit Union National Association (CUNA) was formed and by 1937, 6400 credit unions with 1.5 million members were active in 45 states. Today there are over 9500 credit unions in the United States and they are regulated by the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA). The McFadden Act was enacted in 1927 based on recommendations made by the comptroller of the currency, Henry May Dawes.

neg: New Deal and the railroads. Historians generally agree that apart from building up labor unions, the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation's power structure". The New Deal preserved democracy in the United States in a historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries democracy failed. The most common arguments can be summarized as follows: Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of the New Deal. A fiscally conservative approach was supported by Wall Street and local investors

neg: Moses Coady was its promotion of credit unions" which delivered microfinance. The farmers, fishers and miners who formed the backbone of the movement had little access to credit before the Great Depression, and lost what little they had as the downturn started to bite. When the Antigonish movement looked for external allies in credit union development, it did not seek them from the movement in Quebec, where Alphonse Desjardins had founded the first credit union movement in North America three decades earlier. Instead, it looked across the border to the United States – to Roy Bergengren and Credit Union National of America.

neg: Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States) and collapses, Congress established the United States Bureau of Mines to conduct research into mine safety (although the Bureau had no authority to regulate mine safety). Backed by trade unions, many states also enacted workers' compensation laws which discouraged employers from permitting unsafe workplaces. These laws, as well as the growing power of labor unions and public anger toward poor workplace safety, led to significant reductions in worker accidents for a time. Industrial production increased significantly in the United States during World War II, and industrial accidents soared. Winning the war took precedence over safety, and most labor unions were

neg: Credit unions in the United States banker and Edward Filene, a Bostonian merchant and philanthropist, were instrumental in establishing enabling legislation in Massachusetts in 1908. Filene's philanthropy, combined with the practical implementation efforts of his associate Roy Bergengren were critical to the emergence of credit unions across the United States. Unlike the credit unions of Germany or Quebec, most credit unions in the US emerged from an employer-based bond of association. In addition to the traditional information and enforcement advantages resulting from the fact that members shared the same workplace, the employer-based bond permitted credit unions to use future paychecks as collateral. The Credit Union National

neg: Credit unions in the United States Extension Bureau, the forerunner of the Credit Union National Association, was formed as a confederation of state leagues at a meeting in Estes Park, Colorado in 1934. Attendees at the meeting included Dora Maxwell who would go on to help establish hundreds of credit unions and programs for the poor in her lifetime and Louise McCarren Herring, whose work to form credit unions and ensure their safe operation earned the title of "Mother of Credit Unions" in the United States. The number of credit unions reached their peak in 1969 with 23,866 institutions and total assets of $16 billion. A

neg: Catholic Church and politics in the United States labor movement, even if its exhortation to form specifically Catholic labor unions was widely interpreted as irrelevant to the pluralist context of the United States. While atheism underpinned many European unions and stimulated Catholic unionists to form separate labor federations, the religious neutrality of unions in the U.S. provided no such impetus. American Catholics seldom dominated unions, but they exerted influence across organized labor. Catholic union members and leaders played important roles in steering American unions away from socialism. By 1900, Catholics represented 14 percent of the total U.S. population, soon became the single largest religious denomination in the country.

neg: History of Christianity in the United States emphasized the need for Catholics to form and join unions that were not compromised by secular and revolutionary ideologies. "Rerum novarum" provided new impetus for Catholics to become active in the labor movement, even if its exhortation to form specifically Catholic labor unions was widely interpreted as irrelevant to the pluralist context of the United States. While atheism underpinned many European unions and stimulated Catholic unionists to form separate labor federations, the religious neutrality of unions in the U.S. provided no such impetus. American Catholics seldom dominated unions, but they exerted influence across organized labor. Catholic union members and leaders

neg: United States Postal Service conduct. Unions of the U.S. Postal Service History International associations Mail bag types Workplace violence United States Postal Service The United States Postal Service (USPS; also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service) is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States, including its insular areas and associated states. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution. The U.S. Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, when Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The

neg: Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the United States and Canada (FOTLU) was a federation of labor unions created on November 15, 1881, at Turner Hall in Pittsburgh. It changed its name to the American Federation of Labor (AFL) on December 8, 1886. During the Long Depression of 1873-1878, the Knights of Labor emerged as a potent force for workers in the United States. But as Marxists and Socialists joined the labor movement and fought for dominance within various labor unions, influential newspapers began to advocate for the suppression of

neg: Roy Bergengren began to realize its goals. When Bergengren started what he referred to as his "crusade," there were only 199 credit unions in the U.S. By 1925, 15 states had passed credit union laws and 419 credit unions were serving 108,000 members. The collaboration between Bergengren and Filene, and the work of the Extension Bureau, proved very effective. It brought state laws to fruition in 26 states and substantially revised flawed legal frameworks in 5 others. In 1934 the Roosevelt Administration passed the Federal Credit Union Act, making it possible to form a credit union anywhere in the United States. The

neg: Civil Service Alliance was struggling. In 1919, the post office clerks' unions had formed the Union of Post Office Workers, which did not affiliate to the federation. At the start of 1921, it agreed to merge with the Alliance, to form a new Civil Service Confederation, with Shayler as its leader. Initially, this represented 87 unions, with a total membership of 66,209. Many were members of the Civil Service Clerical Association (CSCA), which became increasingly unhappy that it could be outvoted by a combination of smaller unions. As a result, it withdrew in 1937, and the next largest affiliates, the Inland Revenue Staff

neg: Same-sex unions in the United States states must license and recognize same-sex marriages. Consequently, same-sex marriage is legal in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands. Officials in American Samoa are discussing whether the ruling applies to the territory; currently same-sex marriages are neither licensed nor recognized there. The Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in the states and territories did not legalize same-sex marriage on Indian lands. In the United States, Congress (not the federal courts) have legal authority over Indian country. Thus, unless Congress passes a law imposing same-sex marriage on Indian tribes, federally