query: who developed the zone of proximal development theory

pos: Zone of proximal development Zone of proximal development The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can't do. The concept was introduced, but not fully developed, by psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during the last ten years of his life. Vygotsky stated that a child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help. Vygotsky and some other educators believe that the role of education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual

pos: Zone of proximal development Zone of proximal development The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can't do. The concept was introduced, but not fully developed, by psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during the last ten years of his life. Vygotsky stated that a child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help. Vygotsky and some other educators believe that the role of education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual

neg: Zone of proximal development learning such as skills and strategies. The concept of the zone of proximal development was originally developed by Vygotsky to argue against the use of academic, knowledge-based tests as a means to gauge students' intelligence. He also created ZPD to further develop Jean Piaget's theory of children being lone learners. Vygotsky spent a lot of time studying the impact of school instruction on children and noted that children grasp language concepts quite naturally, but that maths and writing don’t come naturally, that these are concepts taught in schools and tend to come along with some difficulty, while Piaget believed that

neg: Peer learning peer learning manifests aspects of self-organization that are mostly absent from pedagogical models of teaching and learning. In his 1916 book, Democracy and Education, John Dewey wrote, “Education is not an affair of 'telling' and being told, but an active and constructive process.” In a later essay, entitled "Experience and Education", Dewey went into greater detail about the science of child development and developed the basic Constructivist theory that knowledge is created through experience, rather than passed down from teacher to student through rote memorization. Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who developed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, was

neg: Zone of proximal development would otherwise be possible. Teachers can also allow students with more knowledge to assist students who need more assistance. Especially in the context of collaborative learning, group members who have higher levels of understanding can help the less advanced members learn within their zone of proximal development. In the context of adults, peers should challenge each other in order to support collaboration and success. Zone of proximal development The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can't do. The concept was introduced, but not fully

neg: Dynamic assessment of the problem that the child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates the level of potential development. Then, the difference between the higher level of potential and the lower level of actual development indicates the zone of proximal development. Combination of the two indexesthe level of actual and the zone of the proximal developmentaccording to Vygotsky, provides a significantly more informative indicator of psychological development than the assessment of the level of actual development alone. The ideas on the zone of development were later developed in a number of psychological and educational theories and practices. Most notably, they

neg: Peer group psychologists, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and social learning theorists have all argued that peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development. Modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory focuses on the importance of a child's culture and notes that a child is continually acting in social interactions with others. He also focuses on language development and identifies the zone of proximal development. The Zone of Proximal development is defined as the gap between what a student can do

neg: Second-language acquisition unique approach to SLA is Sociocultural theory. It was originally developed by Lev Vygotsky and his followers. Central to Vygotsky's theory is the concept of a zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD notion states that social interaction with more advanced target language users allows one to learn language at a higher level than if they were to learn language independently. Sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model. Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general

neg: Cultural-historical psychology The larger project of the new psychology of Vygotsky and Luria failed, and no universal integrative theory of human mind and development was built by the time of Vygotsky's death in 1934 or, for that matter, ever after. However, the earlier intellectual effort and the legacy of the Soviet scholars of the 1920s-1930s was not entirely wasted and later developed in a range of special—typically, loosely related—fields of psychological theory and practice such as cultural and child psychology and education (most notably, in the subfields of dynamic assessment (including the vague idea of the zone of proximal development, the ZPD)

neg: Collaborative learning other activities. The approach is closely related to cooperative learning. Collaborative learning is rooted in Lev Vygotsky's concept of learning called zone of proximal development. Typically there are tasks that learners can and cannot accomplish. Between these two areas is the zone of proximal development, which is a category of things that a learner can learn but with the help of guidance. The zone of proximal development gives guidance as to what set of skills a learner has that are in the process of maturation. In Vygotsky's definition of zone of proximal development, he highlighted the importance of learning through

neg: Zone of proximal development concluded that they were not. However, Vygotsky's untimely death interrupted his work on the zone of proximal development, and it remained mostly incomplete. Since Vygotsky's original conception, the definition for the zone of proximal development has been expanded and modified. The zone of proximal development is an area of learning that occurs when a person is assisted by a teacher or peer with a higher skill set. The person learning the skill set cannot complete it without the assistance of the teacher or peer. The teacher then helps the student attain the skill the student is trying to master, until

neg: Infant cognitive development of cognitive development. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development there are four stages of cognitive development. Infant cognitive development occurs in the Sensorimotor stage which starts at birth and extends until the infant is about 2 years of age. The sensorimotor stage is made up of six sub-stages. Lev Vygotsky was also very influential in cognitive development theory. His theory included the Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky also believed that social and cultural factors contributed heavily to cognitive development. Vygotsky argued that development first takes place socially as infants observe their parent's behaviour and try to imitate it. As

neg: Social interactionist theory was essentially descriptive in an attempt to describe language development from the stand point of social development, more recently, researchers have been attempting to explain a few varieties of acquisition in which learner factors lead to differential acquisition by the process of socialization; called the theory of "social interactionist approach". Vygotsky, a psychologist and social constructivist, laid the foundation for the interactionists view of language acquisition. According to Vygotsky, social interaction plays an important role in the learning process and proposed the zone of proximal development (ZPD) where learners construct the new language through socially mediated interaction. Vygotsky's social-development theory

neg: Jean Piaget different social interactions, this challenged Piaget's theory that the hierarchy of learning development had to develop in succession. Vygotsky introduced the term Zone of proximal development as an overall task a child would have to develop that would be too difficult to develop alone. Also, the so-called neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development maintained that Piaget's theory does not do justice either to the underlying mechanisms of information processing that explain transition from stage to stage or individual differences in cognitive development. According to these theories, changes in information processing mechanisms, such as speed of processing and working memory, are responsible

neg: Intelligence quotient can be measured by the child's independent problem solving and, at the same time, the level of proximal, or potential development that is measured in the situation of moderately assisted problem solving by the child. The maximum level of complexity and difficulty of the problem that the child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates the level of potential development. Then, the difference between the higher level of potential and the lower level of actual development indicates the zone of proximal development. Combination of the two indexesthe level of actual and the zone of the proximal developmentaccording to Vygotsky,

neg: Language acquisition language acquisition. Specifically, it asserts that much of a child's linguistic growth stems from modeling of and interaction with parents and other adults, who very frequently provide instructive correction. It is thus somewhat similar to behaviorist accounts of language, though it differs substantially in that it posits the existence of a social-cognitive model and other mental structures within children (a sharp contrast to the "black box" approach of classical behaviorism). Another key idea within the theory of social interactionism is that of the zone of proximal development. Briefly, this is a theoretical construct denoting the set of tasks a child

neg: Infant cognitive development this imitation occurs, parents will guide their children, correcting them and provide challenges for them. Play is an integral part of cognitive development according to Vygotsky, as it is through this play that children gain confidence in their language skills, and start regulating their own thought processes. Through his research Vygotsky suggested that a child's performance differs depending on whether they are solving a problem alone or if another child or adult is assisting them. He refers to this difference as the "zone of proximal development". The theory goes that if a child is learning to complete a task, and

neg: Instructional scaffolding was most effective when mothers provided explicit conceptual links during play. Therefore, the results of this study not only suggest that verbal scaffolding aids children's cognitive development, but that the quality of the scaffolding is also important for learning and development. A construct that is critical for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Zone of proximal development is that field between what a learner can do by himself (expert stage) and what can be achieved with the support of a knowledgeable peer or instructor (pedagogical stage) (Ellis & Worthington, 1994). Vygotsky was convinced that

neg: Thesis circle sense, thesis circles are a particular form of collaborative learning, inspired by the sociocratic circular approach as well as Vygotsky's theory of the zone of proximal development. In terms of organizational theory, thesis circles are also inspired by the notion of the Learning Organization (e.g., Mazen, Jones & Sergenian, 2000). Thesis circles appear to have a positive effect on both the quality of the supervision process and the performance of the students involved (Rompa & Romme, 2001; Romme, 2003). For example, a former participant in a thesis circle at Tilburg University observed that "the concept of a master thesis circle

neg: Distributed scaffolding This instructional tool is rooted in Vygotsky’s socioconstructivist model of the Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD) which states that the ZPD is: Scaffolding is not solely support or help and a support can be designated as scaffolding only when the support is adapted to changing ability and this support is temporary. Because the term scaffolding is accessible, there have been many uses of this construct that are atheoretical, and therefore cloud the way the tool is used and applied in a classroom (Palinscar, 1998). Scaffolding is guided by the theory of task and theory of tutee, which requires a combination of

neg: Connectivism and learning as a process of pattern recognition. Connectivism has similarities with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) and Engeström's Activity theory. The phrase "a learning theory for the digital age" indicates the emphasis that connectivism gives to technology's effect on how people live, communicate, and learn. The central aspect of connectivism is the metaphor of a network with nodes and connections. In this metaphor, a node is anything that can be connected to another node such as an organization, information, data, feelings, and images. Connectivism recognizes three node types: neural, conceptual (internal) and external. Connectivism sees learning as the

neg: Constructivism (philosophy of education) builds on previous successes to enhance learner confidence. This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers). Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way

neg: Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development transforms external, alien skills and concepts into internal, integral ones. The "zone of proximal development" is Vygotsky's idea that at any age the child's potential for understanding and problem solving is not identical to his actual understanding and problem solving ability. Potential ability is always greater than actual ability: the zone of proximal development refers to the range of possibilities that exist between the actual and the potential. Structured interaction (scaffolding) and internalization are the processes that gradually allow potential (for understanding and problem solving) to become actual (concepts and skills). Fischer argued that variations in the development and functioning

neg: Zone of proximal development the teacher is no longer needed for that task. Any function within the zone of proximal development matures within a particular internal context that includes not only the function’s actual level but also how susceptible the child is to types of help, the sequence in which these types of help are offered, the flexibility or rigidity of previously formed stereotypes, how willing the child is to collaborate, along with other factors. This context can impact the diagnosis of a function’s potential level of development. Vygotsky stated that we can’t just look at what students are capable of doing on their

neg: Cultural-historical activity theory to understand individual behavior by examining the ways in which a person's objectivized actions are culturally "mediated". Besides a strong focus on material and symbolic mediation, internalization of external (social, societal, and cultural) forms of mediation, another important, aspect of first generation CHAT is the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), meaning, as advanced in "Mind in Society" (1978), ""the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers"". ZDP is one of the

neg: Student-centred learning doing". Through peer-to-peer interaction, collaborative thinking can lead to an abundance of knowledge. In placing a teacher closer to a peer level, knowledge and learning is enhanced, benefitting the student and classroom overall. According to Lev Vygotsky's theory of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), students typically learn vicariously through one another. Scaffolding is important when fostering independent thinking skills. Vygotsky proclaims, "Learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the viewpoint of the child's overall development. It does not aim for a new stage of the developmental process but rather lags behind

neg: Inquiry-based learning Early Learning Kindergarten Program. As of September 2014, all primary schools in Ontario started the program. The curriculum document outlines the philosophy, definitions, process and core learning concepts for the program. Bronfenbrenner's ecological model, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, Piaget's child development theory and Dewey's experiential learning are the heart of the program's design. As research shows, children learn best through play, whether it is independently or in a group. Three forms of play are noted in the curriculum document, pretend or "pretense" play, socio-dramatic play and constructive play. Through play and authentic experiences, children interact with their environment (people

neg: Language pedagogy Trier), the connection is not considered close. The Growing Participator Approach (GPA) is an alternative way of thinking about second language acquisition, developed by Greg Thomson. GPA as an approach is usually implemented using Thomson's Six Phase Program (SPP) method, which involves 1,500 hours of special growth participation activities, supported by a local native language speaker, and targeted towards the learners growth zone (Zone of proximal development). The Six Phase Program utilises a number of techniques, such as TPR, to quickly grow the leaners comprehension ability without the use of English. The goal is to help learners continually 'grow' in

neg: Cognitive acceleration Cognitive acceleration Cognitive acceleration or CA is an approach to teaching designed to develop students' thinking ability, developed by Michael Shayer and Philip Adey from 1981 at King's College London . The approach builds on work by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky and takes a constructivist approach. From Piaget, CA recognises there are stages in intellectual development. At school the most important transition is from concrete thinking - which deals with facts and descriptions, to abstract thinking - any thinking which involves a mental process. From Vygotsky, CA takes the concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the difference between

neg: Zone of proximal development been further developed by Mercedes Chaves Jaime, Ann Brown, among others. Several instructional programs were developed based on this interpretation of the ZPD, including reciprocal teaching and dynamic assessment. For scaffolding to be effective, one must start at the child's level of knowledge and build from there. One example of children using ZPD is when they are learning to speak. As their speech develops, it influences the way the child thinks, which in turn influences the child's manner of speaking. This process opens more doors for the child to expand their vocabulary. As they learn to convey their thoughts in

neg: Robert Parkes doctoral studies on Valentine's Day 2006 under the supervision of Professor Jennifer Gore. His PhD work drawing upon the historical, philosophical, and literary methods of Poststructural Curriculum Inquiry re-examined the nature of the alleged ‘threat’ to ‘history’ posed by postmodernism, and the implications of postmodern social theory for History as curriculum. Robert is the author of two books, both with Peter Lang. In addition to exploring the cultural politics of education, his research work has focused on: His early work attempted to rethink Vygotsky's notion of the Zone of Proximal Development through a poststructural lens. Professor Alain Senteni, Director of

neg: Growing Participator Approach Growing Participator Approach The Growing Participator Approach (GPA) is an alternative paradigm for second language acquisition created by Greg Thomson. In GPA, the goal is not language acquisition, but participation in the life of a new community, which is constantly growing over time. Thus, GPA uses the terminology of a 'growing participator' instead of a language learner, and a 'nurturer' instead of a teacher. Theoretically, GPA draws upon James Wersch's sociocultural theory and concepts of mediated learning, along with Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. In the language of pedagogy, GPA involves an approach, a method, and techniques. Thomson suggests

neg: Zone of proximal development finding that adult peers don't necessarily need to be more capable to provide assistance in the ZPD, Vygotsky’s definition has been adapted to better suit the adult L2 developmental context The concept of the ZPD is widely used to study children's mental development as it relates to education. The ZPD concept is seen as a scaffolding, a structure of "support points" for performing an action. This refers to the help or guidance received from an adult or more competent peer to permit the child to work within the ZPD. Although Vygotsky himself never mentioned the term, scaffolding was first developed

neg: Lev Vygotsky the concept of IQ for describing individual differences in attainment or potential". Other authors also suggest clearly distinguishing between Vygotsky's original notion of "zona blizhaishego razvitiia" ("ZBR") and its later Western superficial interpretations known under the umbrella term, "zone of proximal development" ("ZPD"). The criticism continued and reached a peak in the 2000s. Most often these critiques address numerous distortions of Vygotsky's ideas, mere "declarations of faith", "versions of Vygotsky", the "concepts and inferences curiously attributed to Lev Vygotsky", "multiple readings of Vygotsky", some of which—for instance, "activity theory"—are referred to as "dead end” for cultural-historical psychology and, moreover, for

neg: Lev Vygotsky Vygotsky's texts proper: the manuscripts, original lifetime publications, and Vygotsky's posthumous Soviet editions that most often were subsequently uncritically translated into other languages. The revisionist strand is solidly grounded in a series of studies in Vygotsky's archives that uncovered previously unknown and unpublished Vygotsky materials. Thus, some studies of the revisionist strand show that certain phrases, terms, and expressions typically associated with Vygotskian legacy as its core notions and concepts—such as "cultural-historical psychology", "cultural-historical theory", "cultural-historical school", "higher psychical/mental functions", "internalization", "zone of proximal development", etc., -- in fact, either occupy not more than just a few dozen pages within

neg: Dynamic assessment tests, and it originated in the writings of psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) of his most mature and highly productive period of 1932-1934. The notion of the zone of proximal development that he introduced in 1933, roughly a year before his death, served as the banner for his proposal to diagnose development as the level of actual development that can be measured by the child's independent problem solving and, at the same time, the level of proximal, or potential development that is measured in the situation of moderately assisted problem solving by the child. The maximum level of complexity and difficulty

neg: Trait leadership proximal traits in trait leadership theory will help researchers answer the ancient question: are leaders born or made? Proximal individual differences suggest that the characteristics that distinguish effective leaders from non-effective leaders are not necessarily stable through the life-span, implying that these traits may be able to be developed. Hoffman and others (2011) examined the effects of distal vs. proximal traits on leader effectiveness. He found that distal individual differences of achievement motivation, energy, flexibility, dominance, honesty/integrity, self-confidence, creativity, and charisma were strongly correlated with leader effectiveness. Additionally, he found that the proximal individual differences of interpersonal skills, oral communication,

neg: Eli Review Eli Review Eli Review is a web-based service which provides instructors with tools to facilitate peer learning through the three primary activities in the writing process: writing, review, and revision. Its main theoretical basis is a concept associated with Lev Vygotsky known as the zone of proximal development, or instructional scaffolding, where learners build confidence and skill through working with a more capable peer and with the guidance of an experienced teacher or mentor. It was originally developed at Michigan State University, and functioned for several years in the MSU community before commercialisation in 2011. Eli Review positions instructors as

neg: Tanya Maria Geritsidou non-similar children (in age and educational levels) and the method of introducing new learning objectives to it. Her goal was to prepare them for healthy inclusion in society and to cultivate the ability to adjust while developing intelligence and matuaity, according to the principles of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD), along with the removal of inhibitions in intelligence developed initially by her mother.om She owns Mindpower, a small press publishing house. Aside from her scholarly work, she has written fiction. She wrote the is fantasy trilogy "The Art of Veiling", the novel "Wood to Glass" and several short stories

neg: Zone of proximal development a more effective way, they receive more sophisticated feedback, therefore increasing their vocabulary and their speaking skills. Wells gives the example of dancing: when a person is learning how to dance, they look to others around them on the dance floor and imitate their moves. A person does not copy the dance moves exactly, but takes what they can and adds their own personality to it. In mathematics, proximal development uses mathematical exercises for which students have seen one or more worked examples. In secondary school some scaffolding is provided, and generally much less at the tertiary level. Ultimately students

neg: Cognitive apprenticeship apprentice identifies relevant behaviors and develops a conceptual model of the processes involved. The apprentice then attempts to imitate those behaviors as the master observes and coaches. Coaching provides assistance at the most critical level– the skill level just beyond what the learner/apprentice could accomplish by themself. Vygotsky (1978) referred to this as the Zone of Proximal Development and believed that fostering development within this zone would lead to the most rapid development. The coaching process includes providing additional modeling as necessary, giving corrective feedback, and giving reminders, which all intend to bring the apprentice's performance closer to that of

neg: Progress zone Progress zone The progress zone is a layer of mesodermal cells immediately beneath the apical ectodermal ridge in the developing limb bud. The fate of the mesodermal cells is thought to be patterned by the length of time spent in the progress zone during limb outgrowth. However, some recent evidence using microinjected embryos suggests that the cells are prespecified early in limb bud development. The progress zone acts as positional information to tell which cells to develop into the limb. If cells spend a very short time in this area as they receive signals from the ridge, then more proximal

neg: Bioecological model and cognitive variables as a function of proximal processes. Together, Bronfenbrenner and Ceci published the beginnings of the bioecological model and made it an accessible framework to use in understanding developmental processes. The history of bioecological systems theory is divided into two periods. The first period resulted in the publication of Bronfenbrenner's theory of ecological systems theory, titled "The Ecology of Human Development", in 1979. Bronfenbrenner described the second period as a time of criticism and evaluation of his original work. The development of ecological systems theory arose because Bronfenbrenner noted a lack of focus on the role of context

neg: Social ecological model the original model, the Process–Person–Context–Time model is more suitable for scientific investigation. Per Bronfenbrenner: "Processes" play a crucial role in development. Proximal processes are fundamental to the theory. They constitute the engines of development because it is by engaging in activities and interactions that individuals come to make sense of their world, understand their place in it, and both play their part in changing the prevailing order while fitting into the existing one. The nature of proximal processes varies according to aspects of the individual and of the context—both spatially and temporally. As explained in the second of the two

neg: Parallel play other, home environment was a big factor and playing house was the most common form of social play among children. Research indicates that these forms of play emerge in the order suggested by Parten, but they do not form a developmental sequence in which later-appearing ones replace earlier ones. All types coexist during the preschool years. Vygotsky believed that play during childhood created a zone of proximal development of the child and guided in intellectual development. Socioeconomic status appeared to only impact associative play, where British children who were used in the study of low socioeconomic status preferred that type

neg: Proximal gradient method proximal because each non smooth function among formula_4 is involved via its proximity operator. Iterative Shrinkage thresholding algorithm, projected Landweber, projected gradient, alternating projections, alternating-direction method of multipliers, alternating split Bregman are special instances of proximal algorithms. Details of proximal methods are discussed in Combettes and Pesquet. For the theory of proximal gradient methods from the perspective of and with applications to statistical learning theory, see proximal gradient methods for learning. Let formula_6, the formula_7-dimensional euclidean space, be the domain of the function formula_8. Suppose formula_9 is a non-empty convex subset of formula_6. Then, the indicator function of formula_9 is

neg: Alexander Repenning across genders and ethnicities, are not only highly motivated to learn computer science through game design but they also learn essential computational thinking skills. They acquire skills through game design, which later they can leverage in STEM simulation creation. Repenning's theoretical contributions include a pedagogical framework called the Zones of Proximal Flow combining Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development with Csikszentmihalyi’s state of Flow. The AgentSheets work has received numerous awards including the Gold Medal from the mayor of Paris for “most innovative application in education of the World Wide Web” at WWW5, and an invitation by the Association for Computing

neg: Bioecological model life space, containing arrows leading to and from possible life goals, both positive and negative. In sum, Lewin's ecological systems model emphasized situational and proximal causes. Additionally, Lewin's theory demonstrates that behavior is a function of the current person by their environment, which are all affected by past experience. Bronfenbrenner was also influenced by his colleague, Stephen J. Ceci, with whom he co-authored the article “Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological theory” in 1994. Ceci is a developmental psychologist who redefined modern developmental psychology's approach to intellectual development. He focused on predicting a pattern of associations among ecological, genetic,

neg: Limb development of time that the cells were in the progress zone but this has yet to be proved (as of 2001). Proximal structures were proposed to be formed by the first cells to leave the zone and distal ones, by cells that left later. The Progress Zone model was proposed 30 years ago but recent evidence has conflicted with this model. "Experimental evidence:" Cells are specified for each segment in the early limb bud and this population of cells expand out as the limb bud grows. This model is consistent with the following observations. Cell division is seen throughout the limb

neg: Lev Vygotsky such as internalization of knowledge. Vygotsky introduced the notion of zone of proximal development, a metaphor capable of describing the potential of human cognitive development. His work covered topics such as the origin and the psychology of art, development of higher mental functions, philosophy of science and the methodology of psychological research, the relation between learning and human development, concept formation, interrelation between language and thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, learning disabilities, and abnormal human development (aka "defectology"). His scientific thinking underwent several major transformations throughout his career, but generally Vygotsky's legacy may be divided into two fairly

neg: Zone of polarizing activity Zone of polarizing activity The zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) is an area of mesenchyme that contains signals which instruct the developing limb bud to form along the anterior/posterior axis. Limb bud is undifferentiated mesenchyme enclosed by an ectoderm covering. Eventually, the limb bud develops into bones, tendons, muscles and joints. Limb bud development relies not only on the ZPA, but also many different genes, signals, and a unique region of ectoderm called the apical ectodermal ridge (AER). Research by Saunders and Gasseling in 1948 identified the AER and its subsequent involvement in proximal distal outgrowth. Twenty years later, the

neg: Proximal gradient methods for learning Proximal gradient methods for learning Proximal gradient (forward backward splitting) methods for learning is an area of research in optimization and statistical learning theory which studies algorithms for a general class of convex regularization problems where the regularization penalty may not be differentiable. One such example is formula_1 regularization (also known as Lasso) of the form Proximal gradient methods offer a general framework for solving regularization problems from statistical learning theory with penalties that are tailored to a specific problem application. Such customized penalties can help to induce certain structure in problem solutions, such as "sparsity" (in the case of

neg: Proximal gradient methods for learning account for overlap. Nested group structures are studied in "hierarchical structure prediction" and with directed acyclic graphs. Proximal gradient methods for learning Proximal gradient (forward backward splitting) methods for learning is an area of research in optimization and statistical learning theory which studies algorithms for a general class of convex regularization problems where the regularization penalty may not be differentiable. One such example is formula_1 regularization (also known as Lasso) of the form Proximal gradient methods offer a general framework for solving regularization problems from statistical learning theory with penalties that are tailored to a specific problem application. Such customized

neg: Zone of proximal development there was a clear distinction between development and teaching. He said that development is a spontaneous process that is initiated and completed by the children, stemming from their own efforts. Piaget was a proponent of independent thinking and critical of the standard teacher-led instruction that was common practice in schools. Alternatively, Vygotsky saw natural, spontaneous development as important, but not all-important. He believed that children would not advance very far if they were left to discover everything on their own. It's crucial for a child's development that they are able to interact with more knowledgeable others. They would not be

neg: Egalitarian dialogue the equality of differences principle is shown, among other practices, in the interactive groups (Aubert et al., 2004), where students and adults who have different levels of instruction and are from different backgrounds, teach and learn from each other. Those interactions create Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978), this showing that meaning-making and learning do not depend solely on the intervention of professionals, but on all the knowledge brought by anyone related to the students (Flecha, 2000). Habermas (2004a, 2004b) has stressed the need to recover the lifeworld from its systemic colonization by the “steering media” of power, law and

neg: Leading activity can be seen long before it becomes the "leading" activity in a child's life (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99). Adults and more capable peers who instruct or assist children in engaging in the leading activity are said to be providing "mediation" of the activity, and creating a "zone of proximal development," which allows children to perform activities at a higher level than they could perform independently. Mediation of leading activities is theorized to help children develop by acquiring the use of cultural or psychological "tools," which transform children's mental processes. The activity considered leading for any given age or period

neg: Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development the other neo-Piagetian theories in a number of respects. One of them is in the way it explains cognitive change. Although Fischer does not deny the operation of information processing constrains on development, he emphasizes the environmental and social rather than individual factors as causes of development. To explain developmental change he borrowed two classic notions from Lev Vygotsky: internalization and the zone of proximal development. "Internalization" refers to the processes that enable children to reconstruct and absorb the products of their observations and interactions in a way that makes them their own. That is, it is a process which

neg: Child development the edge of learning a new task (called the zone of proximal development) could help children learn new tasks. This technique is called "scaffolding," because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. An example of this might be when a parent "helps" an infant clap or roll her hands to the pat-a-cake rhyme, until she can clap and roll her hands herself. Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development. He argued that "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice:

neg: Intelligence quotient average IQ scores of blacks and whites, saying: The APA journal that published the statement, "American Psychologist," subsequently published eleven critical responses in January 1997, several of them arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly genetic explanations. An alternative to standard IQ tests originated in the writings of psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) from his last two years of work. The notion of the zone of proximal development that he introduced in 1933, roughly a year before his death, served as the banner for his proposal to diagnose development as the level of actual development that

neg: Causes of schizophrenia involvement in schizophrenia. There is some evidence for the role of autoimmunity in the development of some cases of schizophrenia. A statistical correlation has been reported with various autoimmune diseases and direct studies have linked dysfunctional immune status to some of the clinical features of schizophrenia. This is known as the pathogenic theory of schizophrenia or germ theory of schizophrenia. It is a pathogenic theory of disease in which it is thought that a proximal cause of certain cases of schizophrenia is the interaction of the developing fetus with pathogens such as viruses, or with antibodies from the mother created

neg: Neil Mercer Proximal Development, Mercer proposes we consider the 'Intermental Development Zone' – the space that language creates which allows peers to interact and develop their reasoning together, in the absence of a guiding teacher. This work is cited as important in development of understanding of language for learning. Mercer's key interest is in the quality of talk and its impact on educational outcomes, including talk in the home for example, arguing that "'social interaction and collaborative activity' in class can provide 'valuable opportunities' for learning" and that classroom talk should be oriented around co-operation rather than competitiveness, to encourage exploratory talk

neg: Imaginary friend mediate psychological functioning and cognitive development. Imaginary companions, perceived as real beings, could teach children how to interact with others along with many other social skills. Vygotsky’s sociocultural view of child development includes the notion of children’s “zone of proximal development,” which is the difference between what children can do with and without help. Imaginary companions can aid children in learning things about the world that they could not learn without help, such as appropriate social behavior, and thus can act as a scaffold for children to achieve slightly above their social capability. In addition, imaginary companions also serve as

neg: Developmental psychology the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood. Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of his/her culture. Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal

neg: Peer-led team learning understanding with guidance from a more capable peer. They can be said to be learning within the zone of proximal development. Evaluation of successful implementations of suggest that PLTL has six critical components: Peer-led team learning Peer-led team learning (PLTL) is a model of teaching undergraduate science, math, and engineering courses that introduces peer-led workshops as an integral part of a course. Students who have done well in a course (for instance, General Chemistry) are recruited to become "peer-leaders". The peer-leaders meet with small groups of six to ten students each week, for one to two hours, to discuss, debate,

neg: Zone for Employment and Economic Development (Honduras) gained considerable attention and support from free market advocates, especially from libertarians and supporters of crypto-currencies, who see this as an opportunity to test their ideas in practice. Zone for Employment and Economic Development (Honduras) Zone for Employment and Economic Development (Spanish: "Zonas de empleo y desarrollo económico", or ZEDE) is the name of a new type of administrative division in Honduras (colloquially called a model city) that is subject under the national government and provides a high level of autonomy with its own political system, at a judicial, economic and administrative level, and is in theory based on free

neg: Lev Vygotsky primarily associated with German-American Gestalt psychology movement Vygotsky adopted their views on "psychological systems" and—inspired by Kurt Lewin's "Topological (and vector) psychology"—introduced the vague notion of the "zone of proximal development". It was during this period that he identified play of young children as their "leading activity", that he understood as the main source of preschoolers psychological development, which he viewed as the inseparable unity of emotional, volitional, and cognitive development. As early as in mid-1920s, Vygotsky's ideas were introduced in the West, but he remained virtually unknown until the early 1980s when the popularity among educators of the developmental

neg: Zone of proximal development must find library resources or a tutor when presented with challenges beyond the zone. Another example of scaffolding is learning to drive. Parents and driving instructors guide driving students along the way by showing them the mechanics of how the car operates, the correct hand positions on the steering wheel, the technique of scanning the roadway, etc. As the student progresses, less and less instruction is needed, until they are ready to drive on their own. The concept of scaffolding can be observed in various life situations and arguably in the basis of how everyone learns. One does not (normally)

neg: Anal stage Anal stage The anal stage is the second stage in Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, lasting from age 18 months to three years. According to Freud, the anus is the primary erogenous zone and pleasure is derived from controlling bladder and bowel movement. The major conflict issue during this stage is toilet training. A fixation at this stage can result in a personality that is too rigid or one that is too disordered. According to Freud's theory, personality developed through a series of stages throughout childhood. These stages are focused on erogenous areas. Freud believed in the libido, which

neg: Zhengzhou Technological Development Zone was approved as state-level development zone on February 13, 2000. The zone has a developed area of Industries encouraged include Electronics Assembly & Manufacturing, Telecommunications Equipment, Trading and Distribution, Biotechnology/Pharmaceuticals, Instruments & Industrial Equipment Production, Medical Equipment and Supplies, Shipping/Warehousing/Logistics and Heavy Industry. Zhengzhou (Henan) Export Processing Zone was established on June 21, 2002 with approval by the state council. Its planned area is . Zone A is located in Zhengzhou National Economic & technological Development Area and began to operate on June 1, 2004. The area of land developed is at present. Zone B is located

neg: Reciprocal teaching instructional method was influenced primarily by the work of Vygotsky and his notion of a “zone of proximal development,” which he characterized as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). The assistance provided the learner is a good example of scaffolding in that both temporary and adjusted support is provided, according to the needs of the participants. The assistance is withdrawn when it is no longer needed. The sequence

neg: Personalized learning talk about learning progress, process, and/or products." Conferring, more simply, is a way to provide more personalized feedback. Learning, in any context, requires some form of feedback. In schools, this feedback is almost entirely thought of as the teacher providing feedback to the student. The idea of providing feedback to advance student learning is best understood in the framework of the "zone of proximal development" or ZPD. Psychologist Lev Vygotski has defined the ZPD as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under

neg: Dynamic assessment and John D. Bransford and in theories of multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg. Vygotsky's term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) relates to the gap between what the child can learn unaided, and what he or she can learn with the help of an adult or a more capable peer. According to Vygotsky, it is impossible to understand a child's potential intellectual development using a one-way assessment. Dynamic assessment is an interactive approach to psychological or psychoeducational assessment that embeds intervention within the assessment procedure. Most typically, there is a pretest then an intervention and then a posttest.

neg: Instructional scaffolding a child could be taught any subject efficiently using scaffolding practices by implementing the scaffolds at the Zone of proximal development. Students are escorted and monitored through learning activities that function as interactive conduits to get them to the next stage. Thus the learner obtains or raises new understandings by presenting on their prior knowledge through the support delivered by more capable individuals (Raymond, 2000). Several peer reviewed studies have shown that when there is a deficiency in guided learning experiences and social interaction, learning and development are obstructed (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000). In writing instruction, typically support is

neg: Modernization theory proximal interventions to target rural communities and focus on prevention strategies rather than curative solutions. That has been successfully exhibited by the Christian Medical Commission and in China through 'barefoot doctors'. Additionally, a strong advocate of the DE-emphasis of medical institutions was Halfdan T. Mahler, the WHO General Director from 1973 to 1988. Related ideas have been proposed at international conferences such as Alma-Ats and the "Health and Population in Development" conference, sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation in Italy in 1979, and selective primary healthcare and GOBI were discussed (although they have both been strongly criticized by supporters of comprehensive

neg: Bell Labs Theory of Secrecy Systems". In 1952, William Gardner Pfann revealed the method of zone melting which enabled semiconductor purification and level doping. The 1950s also saw developmental activity based upon information theory. The central development was binary code systems. Efforts concentrated more precisely on the Laboratories' prime mission of supporting the Bell System with engineering advances including N-carrier, TD Microwave radio relay, Direct Distance Dialing, E-repeaters, Wire spring relays, and improved switching systems. Maurice Karnaugh, in 1953, developed the Karnaugh map as a tool to facilitate management of Boolean algebraic expressions. In 1954, the first modern solar cell was invented

neg: Bioecological model at once. Instead, his ideas evolved and adapted to the research and ideas of the times. For example, the role of proximal processes, which is now recognized as a key feature of bioecological systems theory, did not emerge until the 1990s. This theory went through a series of transformations and elaborations until 2005 when Bronfenbrenner died. Bronfenbrenner further developed the model by adding the chronosystem, which refers to how the person and environments change over time. He also placed a greater emphasis on processes and the role of the biological person. The Process–Person–Context–Time Model (PPCT) has since become the bedrock

neg: Lev Vygotsky psychology of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) started to decline and, in contrast, Vygotsky's notion of the "zone of proximal development" became a central component of the development of the so-called "social constructivist" turn in developmental and, primarily, educational psychology and practice. A "Review of General Psychology" study, published in 2002, ranked Vygotsky as the 83rd top psychologist of the twentieth century and the third (and the last) Russian on the top-100 list after Ivan Pavlov and Vygotsky's longtime collaborator Alexander Luria. The early twenty-first century has seen scholarly reevaluations of the popular version of Vygotsky's legacy (sometimes termed "Vygotsky cult", "the

neg: John James Ketterer House Program at Jacksonville State University (JSU) and served as director of International Programs at JSU. His research interests include cognitive studies particularly linguistics and learning, diversity and tolerance, and transformative models of school management and design. He recently authored the entry Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky) for the Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology (Sage, 2007) and writes a regular column as the Executive Editor for Inter-Ed, the flagship publication of The Association for Advancement of International Education. He is also a member of the curriculum development committee for The 100 People Foundation. Dr. Ketterer is the Associate Editor of The

neg: Gradual release of responsibility distance between the actual developmental level of a learner as determined by their independent problem solving abilities and the level of potential development through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. That is, the distance between what the children can do without assistance and what they can accomplish with the assistance of more capable peers. The zone of proximal development can be applied as an umbrella over the entire GRR model. Students are given support in the form of scaffolding and differentiate instruction throughout all four phases of the process. Teachers may offer more challenging material

neg: Hox genes in amphibians and reptiles are accountable for a wide array of developmental disorders. Changes in certain homeobox genes often result in eye disorders, cause abnormal head, face, and tooth development. Additionally, increased or decreased activity of certain homeobox genes has been associated with several forms of cancer later in life. Essentially, Hox genes contribute to the specification of three main components of limb development, including the stylopod, zeugopod and autopod. Certain mutations in Hox genes can potentially lead to the proximal and/or distal losses along with different abnormalities. Three different models have been created for outlining the patterning of these regions. The Zone of

neg: Constructivism (philosophy of education) cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, Anchored Instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others. Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field. Some social constructivist models also stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined

neg: Dialogue journal writing development. Research on dialogue journal use at all age levels—with native speakers of the language of the writing, first and second language learners, deaf students, and teachers—has identified key features of dialogue journal communication that set it apart from most writing in educational settings: authentic communication, collaborative learning and knowledge building, critical thinking, personal voice, critical pedagogy, reciprocal discourse, zone of proximal development, literacy as an interactive process, relationship building, and counseling. A dialogue journal allows students and a teacher to together use authentic communication (including questioning, complaining, complimenting, apologizing, and requesting) to communicate honestly and openly and “get

neg: Co-construction (learning) based on the ideology that “...cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.” Vygotsky believed in the ideology that we know as co-construction, or building an environment where children interact with one another on a variety of levels and learning through these interactions. In order to create an atmosphere for quality interaction, students need to be prepared for situations such as collaborative learning and a culture of dialogue. Co-construction is important for developing creative partnerships within the classroom. In a classroom, cooperation and collaboration is very

neg: Zone of proximal development able to expand on what they know if this wasn't possible. He noted cultural experiences where children are greatly helped by knowledge and tools handed down from previous generations. Vygotsky noted that good teachers shouldn't present material that is too difficult and “pull the students along.” Vygotsky argued that, rather than examining what a student knows to determine intelligence, it is better to examine their ability to solve problems independently and ability to solve problems with an adult's help. He proposed a question: "if two children perform the same on a test, are their levels of development the same?" He

neg: Dual process theory Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, the dual process model, in relation to terror management theory, identifies two systems by which the brain manages fear of death: distal and proximal. Distal defenses fall under the system 1 category because it is unconscious whereas proximal defenses fall under the system 2 category because it operates with conscious thought. Habituation can be described as decreased response to a repeated stimulus. According to Groves and Thompson, the process of habituation also mimics a dual process. The dual process theory of behavioral habituation relies on two underlying (non-behavioral) processes; depression and facilitation with the relative strength

neg: Human development (economics) Karl Marx were concerned with human capabilities. The theory grew in importance in the 1980s with the work of Amartya Sen and his Human Capabilities perspective, which played a role in his receiving the 1998 Nobel Prize in Economics. Notable early economists active who formulated the modern concept of human development theory were Mahbub ul Haq, Üner Kirdar, and Amartya Sen. The Human Development Index developed for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) stems from this early research. In 2000, Sen and Sudhir Anand published a notable development of the theory to address issues in sustainability. Martha Nussbaum's publications in

neg: Hadley cell many decades for the correct theory to become accepted, and even today Hadley's theory can still be encountered occasionally, particularly in popular books and websites. Hadley's theory was the generally accepted theory long enough to make his name become universally attached to the circulation pattern in the tropical atmosphere. In 1980 Isaac Held and Arthur Hou developed the Held-Hou Model to describe the Hadley circulation. The region in which the equatorward moving air masses converge and rise, is known as the intertropical convergence zone, or ITCZ. Within that zone develops a band of thunderstorms that produce high-precipitation. Having lost most

neg: Recapitulation theory species. The misinformation was propagated through many biology textbooks, and popular knowledge, even today. Modern biology rejects the literal and universal form of Haeckel's theory, such as its possible application to behavioural ontogeny, i.e. the psychomotor development of young animals and human children. Haeckel's drawings were such a misrepresentation of observed human embryonic development that he attracted the opposition of several members of the scientific community, including the anatomist Wilhelm His, who had developed a rival "causal-mechanical theory" of human embryonic development. His specifically criticised Haeckel's methodology. His argued that the shapes of embryos were caused most immediately by mechanical

neg: Mimetic theory of speech origins way of feeding larger groups. Mimetic theory of speech origins In evolutionary anthropology and evolutionary linguistics, the mimetic theory of speech origins is an analysis of the factors leading to the evolution of language in human ancestors, typically during the "Homo Erectus" era. This theory is most commonly associated with the cognitive neuroscientist and neuroanthropologist Merlin Donald, who developed the idea in his 1991 book "Origins of the Modern Mind" as the fundamental pillar in his three-part model of the development of symbolic culture and symbolic cognition. The mimetic theory of development was the central pillar in Donald's three-part model

neg: Mimetic theory of speech origins Mimetic theory of speech origins In evolutionary anthropology and evolutionary linguistics, the mimetic theory of speech origins is an analysis of the factors leading to the evolution of language in human ancestors, typically during the "Homo Erectus" era. This theory is most commonly associated with the cognitive neuroscientist and neuroanthropologist Merlin Donald, who developed the idea in his 1991 book "Origins of the Modern Mind" as the fundamental pillar in his three-part model of the development of symbolic culture and symbolic cognition. The mimetic theory of development was the central pillar in Donald's three-part model of symbolic cognition proposed in

neg: Sheltered instruction students have a foundation of English education. A variety of instruction is used including the theories of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. Instead of providing watered down curriculum for LEP student, sheltered instruction allows for the content to be equal to that of native English speakers while improving their grasp of the language. The teacher provides varied methods of instruction that allow students to create meaning of multifaceted content in classroom discussion, activities, reading and writing. Teachers call on a number of different instruction methods such as the use of socialization practices to allow the content to be more accessible.

neg: Eugene Galanter enables them to deliver targeted instruction, tailored to each student’s zone of proximal development (ZPD). As part of the NWEA (Northwest Evaluation Association) acquisition of Children's Progress in mid-2012, Dr. Galanter worked with NWEA to further its mission : Helping all Kids Learn. Eugene Galanter Eugene Galanter was one of the modern founders of cognitive psychology. He was an academic in the field of experimental psychology and an author. Dr. Galanter was Professor Emeritus of Psychology end Quondam Director of the Psychophysics Laboratory at Columbia University. He was also the co-founder, Chairman of the Board of Directors and Chief Scientific

neg: Lev Vygotsky the 1930s. During this period Vygotsky was under particularly strong influence of holistic theories of German-American group of proponents of Gestalt psychology, most notably, the peripheral participants of the Gestalt movement Kurt Goldstein and Kurt Lewin. However, Vygotsky's work of this period remained largely fragmentary and unfinished and, therefore, unpublished. "Zone of proximal development" (ZPD) is Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks that a child is in the process of learning to complete. In the original Vygotsky's writings this phrase is used in three different meanings. Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between

neg: Circumstellar habitable zone to refer to the area around a star where liquid water could exist on a sufficiently large body, and was the first to introduce it in the context of planetary habitability and extraterrestrial life. A major early contributor to habitable zone theory, Huang argued in 1960 that circumstellar habitable zones, and by extension extraterrestrial life, would be uncommon in multiple star systems, given the gravitational instabilities of those systems. The theory of habitable zones was further developed in 1964 by Stephen H. Dole in his book "Habitable Planets for Man", in which he discussed the concept of circumstellar habitable zone

neg: Exercise (mathematics) An artificially produced word problem is a genre of exercise intended to keep mathematics relevant. Stephen Leacock described this type: A distinction between an exercise and a mathematical problem was made by Alan H. Schoenfeld: He advocated setting challenges: A similar sentiment was expressed by Marvin Bittinger when he prepared the second edition of his textbook: The zone of proximal development for each student, or cohort of students, sets exercises at a level of difficulty that challenges but does not frustrate them. Some comments in the preface of a calculus textbook show the central place of exercises in the book:

neg: Outwash plain a significant impact on the development of the fluvial succession in the proximal zone. However, in order to have sustained active accretion across the entire sandur there needs to be a diffuse, multipoint distribution system. The system of accumulation on Skeiðarársandur, which is a product of glacier retreat, can be seen as multiple regions of differing channel patterns that distribute sediment across the plain in dynamic configurations. Outwash plain An outwash plain, also called a sandur (plural: "sandurs"), sandr or sandar, is a plain formed of glacial sediments deposited by meltwater outwash at the terminus of a glacier. As it

neg: Dialogue journal focus on the role of interactional dialogues in expanding students’ awareness of and engagement with books and authors, with the goal of taking readers deeper into written texts. Atwell points out that dialogue journal interactions create the zone of proximal development, in which “mediated learning” can occur, as an expert reader cooperates with a less experienced one to construct meaning from a text. Atwell found that the dialogue journal conversations (1) encouraged students to connect fiction to their own lives; (2) encouraged reflection on themselves as readers, making them conscious of how they learned to read, which included process and

neg: Dialogue journal conscious beings. The dialogue journal's reciprocal discourse structure is often cited as the motivation for both teacher and student to continue their engagement with each other over time without external coercion. The reciprocal nature of the discourse provides multiple opportunities to develop an understanding of the other person's world, culture, and experiences, and thus learning occurs for both. The power to question, challenge, and complain becomes equally shared by both writers. Dialogue journals visibly record how learning occurs in the zone of proximal development, a key concept in the psychology of Lev Vygotsky. According to Vygotsky, learning takes place in

neg: Minority stress stress processes. Distal stress processes are external to the minority individual, including experiences with rejection, prejudice, and discrimination. Proximal stress processes are internal, and are often the byproduct of distal stressors; they include concealment of one’s minority identity, vigilance and anxiety about prejudice, and negative feelings about one’s own minority group. Together, distal and proximal stressors accrue over time, leading to chronically high levels of stress that cause poor health outcomes. Thus, minority stress theory has three primary tenets: These three tenets of the minority stress theory have been tested in over 134 empirical studies, most of which examined racial

neg: Instructional scaffolding removed as students develop learning strategies, thus promoting their own cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning skills and knowledge. Teachers help the students master a task or a concept by providing support. The support can take many forms such as outlines, recommended documents, storyboards, or key questions. There are three essential features of scaffolding that facilitate learning. The first feature has to do with the interaction between the learner and the expert. This interaction should be collaborative for it to be effective. The second, learning should take place in the learner's zone of proximal development. To do that the expert needs