query: after capturing constantinople in 1453 what did the ottomans rename it

pos: Fall of Constantinople of the war Venizelos lost the election of 1920 and went into exile and Greece was defeated in the war by Turkey. Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city's name "Kostantiniyye," (القسطنطينية), as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. "Islambol" (, "Full of Islam") or "Islambul" ("find Islam") or "Islam(b)ol" ("old Turkic: be Islam"), both in Turkish Language, were folk-etymological adaptations of "Istanbul" created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by

pos: Beyoğlu of Istanbul. Pera (Galata) remained under Genoese control until May 29, 1453, when it was conquered by the Ottomans along with the rest of the city, after the Siege of Constantinople. During the Byzantine period, the Genoese Podestà ruled over the Italian community of Galata (Pera), which was mostly made up of the Genoese, Venetians, Tuscans and Ragusans. Following the Turkish siege of Constantinople in 1453, during which the Genoese sided with the Byzantines and defended the city together with them, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the Genoese (who had fled to their colonies in the Aegean Sea such

pos: Panorama 1453 History Museum Panorama 1453 History Museum The Panorama 1453 Historical Museum is a historical museum in Istanbul that was opened on 31 January 2009. This museum shows the conquering of the city of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, by the troops of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror on 29 May 1453. (The city became known as Istanbul after the conquest). The museum is located close to the point where the Ottomans breached the walls. Its main exhibit is a 360° "panorama" painting of the battlefield at the time the walls were breached, giving the visitor the impression they are standing

pos: Odalar Mosque Odalar Mosque The Odalar Mosque (, meaning "the mosque of the barracks" after the nearby accommodations of the married Jannisaries established in this quarter in the 18th century. Also: "Kemankeş Mustafa Paşa Câmîi") was an Ottoman mosque in Istanbul. The building was originally a Byzantine-era Eastern Orthodox church of unknown dedication. In 1475, after the Fall of Constantinople (1453), it became a Roman Catholic church, dedicated to Saint Mary of Constantinople, until finally it was converted into a mosque by the Ottomans in 1640. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1919, and since then has fallen into ruin. As

pos: Constantinople Constantinople Constantinople (; ) was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire (330–1204 and 1261–1453), and also of the brief Crusader state known as the Latin Empire (1204–1261), until finally falling to the Ottoman (1453–1923) empire. It was reinaugurated in 324 from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330. The city was largely located in what is now the European side and the core of modern Istanbul. From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and

pos: Islam in Turkey of orthodox Sunni Muslims, they did not abandon their heterodox beliefs. In contrast, the Safavids eventually conquered Iran, shed their heterodox religious beliefs, and became proponents of orthodox Twelver Shi'a Islam. The conquest of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople—which the Turks called Istanbul—in 1453 enabled the Ottomans to consolidate their empire in Anatolia and Thrace. The Ottomans later revived the title of caliph during the reign of Sultan Selim. Despite the absence of a formal institutional structure, Sunni religious functionaries played an important political role. Justice was dispensed by religious courts; in theory, the codified system of şeriat regulated all

pos: Caliphate Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne. In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror's conquest of Constantinople, the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople, present-day Istanbul. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire. Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina, which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in

pos: Greek diaspora the Caliphate and helped translate ancient Greek works into Arabic, thus contributing to early Islamic philosophy and science (which, in turn, contributed to Byzantine science). After the Byzantine–Ottoman Wars, which resulted in the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the Ottoman conquest of Greek lands, many Greeks fled Constantinople (now Istanbul) and found refuge in Italy. They brought ancient Greek writings which had been lost in the West, contributing to the Renaissance. Most of these Greeks settled in Venice, Florence, and Rome. Between the fall of the Empire of Trebizond to the Ottomans in 1461 and the second Russo-Turkish War

pos: Bogdan Saray as a funerary chapel. After the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, in sixteenth century the chapel became part of the large land estate bought by the "hospodar" of Moldavia to host his envoys in Istanbul, and named accordingly "Boğdan Sarayi" ("Moldavian Palace"). In this respect, its usage as private chapel of a patrician house represents a rarity in the Ottoman city. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the complex - a coveted property because the high border wall protected it by fires - was leased by the Sultan as residence for several foreign envoys, among them

pos: Cistern of the Hebdomon race track is placed. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the empty reservoir was used by the Ottomans as a stable for the Sultan's elephants, whence its Turkish names "Filhane" or "Fildamı", meaning house or repair of the elephants. Afterwards, it was used as vegetable garden, becoming one of Istanbul's four "Çukurbostan" ("hollow garden") still extant, a use that ceased in 1996, when the cistern was acquired by the state and transformed into a concert arena for pop music with a capacity of 12,000 spectators. By 2003, it had become clear that the vibrations of the music were damaging

pos: Religion in Istanbul and designed by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, and the famous Sultan Ahmed Mosque (1616) which is also known as the "Blue Mosque" for the blue tiles which adorn its interior. Istanbul was the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, between 1517 and 1924. Some of the personal belongings of Muhammad and the earliest caliphs who followed him are today preserved in the Topkapı Palace, the Eyüp Sultan Mosque and in several other prominent mosques of Istanbul. The conquest of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453 enabled the Ottomans to consolidate their empire in Anatolia and Thrace. The Ottomans

neg: Constantinople Constantinople. In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people. Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by 22-year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven-week siege which had begun on 6 April 1453. The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control. When Mehmed II finally entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi Gate, he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia, where he ordered his soldiers to stop hacking at the marbles and 'be satisfied

neg: Classical antiquity Byzantine, though many classical books, sculptures, and technologies survived there along with classical Roman cuisine and scholarly traditions, well into the Middle Ages, when much of it was "rediscovered" by visiting Western crusaders. Indeed, the inhabitants of Constantinople continued to refer to themselves as Romans, as did their eventual conquerors in 1453, the Ottomans. (See Rûm and Romaioi.) The classical scholarship and culture that was still preserved in Constantinople was brought by refugees fleeing its conquest in 1453 and helped to spark the Renaissance, see Greek scholars in the Renaissance. Ultimately, it was a slow, complex, and graduated change in

neg: Cannon Byzantine capital again in 1422. By 1453, the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian-made cannon for the 55-day bombardment of the walls of Constantinople, "hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby." The largest of their cannon was the Great Turkish Bombard, which required an operating crew of 200 men and 70 oxen, and 10,000 men to transport it. Gunpowder made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete, and with the final fall of Constantinople—which was protected by what were once the strongest walls in Europe—on 29 May 1453, "it was the end of an era in more ways

neg: Silivri Sultan Orhan I married Theodora, the daughter of John VI in Selymbria. In 1399, Selymbria fell to the Ottomans, marking their complete encirclement of Constantinople by land in Europe. Many contemporary observers believed from then on it was a mere matter of time before the Ottomans took the Byzantine capital. However, after their disastrous defeat at the hands of Timur the Ottomans returned Selymbria and several other possessions to the Byzantines in 1403. It was sometimes attacked by the Ottomans in later years, but was not captured. During the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Silivri, along with Epibatos, stood up

neg: Turkey Anatolia who had previously been Hellenized. Thus, alongside the Turkification of the territory, the culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia, which their eventual successors, the Ottomans, would take over. In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would evolve over the next 200 years into the Ottoman Empire. In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople. In

neg: History of Turkey 1453, the Ottomans nearly completed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople during the reign of Mehmed II. Constantinople was made the capital city of the Empire following Edirne. The Ottoman Empire would continue to expand into the Eastern Anatolia, Central Europe, the Caucasus, North and East Africa, the islands in the Mediterranean, Greater Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian peninsula in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The empire was often at odds with the

neg: Ottoman Greece of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Despotate of the Morea was the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans. However, it fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the conquest of mainland Greece. While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively. The only part of the Greek-speaking world that escaped Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian until 1797. Corfu withstood

neg: Byzantine Greece begun their conquest of the Balkans and Greece in the late 14th century and early 15th century. In 1445, Ottoman-occupied Thessaly was recaptured by future emperor Constantine XI, at the time despot of Mystras, but there was little he could do against most of the other Ottoman territories. Emperor Constantine was defeated and killed in 1453 when the Ottomans finally captured Constantinople. After the fall of Constantinople, the Ottomans also captured Athens and the Aegean islands by 1458, but left a Byzantine despotate in the Peloponnese until 1460. The Venetians still controlled Crete and some ports, but otherwise the Ottomans

neg: Byzantine–Seljuq wars of the Bulgarians who continued to press hard against the borders of Byzantium. In time, the Byzantines would be forced to call on the aid of the Ottomans to head to the European mainland and fight the Bulgarians, giving the Ottoman Turks a firm grip on Europe. The close proximity of Osman's Beylik ensured that confrontation between the Byzantines and the Ottomans would be inevitable. The Byzantines were a match for the Ottomans but events west of Constantinople coupled with civil war and incompetent leadership left the Byzantines reeling from one siege after another until Constantinople fell in 1453. Byzantine–Seljuq

neg: Kingdom of Greece by the Serbs and the subsequent Byzantine civil wars, the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and advanced southwards into Greece, capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, but by 1500 most of the plains and islands of Greece were in Ottoman hands. The mountains of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks to flee foreign rule and engage in guerrilla warfare. Cyprus fell in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670. The Ionian Islands were only briefly ruled by

neg: Ottoman Greece the last emperor from the Serbian Nemanjic dynasty. This was followed by another Ottoman draw in the 1389 Battle of Kosovo. With no further threat by the Serbs and the subsequent Byzantine civil wars, the Ottomans besieged and took Constantinople in 1453 and then advanced southwards into Greece, capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, but by the early 16th century all of mainland Greece and most of the Aegean islands were in Ottoman hands, excluding several port cities still held by the

neg: History of the Byzantine Empire On 2 April 1453, the Sultan's army of some 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city. Despite a desperate last-ditch defense of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign), Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken. By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the only remaining territory of the

neg: Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi Ottomans, but defended successfully by Moldavian Prince Alexander the Kind. In the 15th century, the port saw much commercial traffic as well as being frequently used for passenger traffic between central Europe and Constantinople. Among the travellers who passed through the town was John VIII Palaiologos. Following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II brought in colonists from Asprokastron to repopulate the city. In 1484, along with Kilia, it was the last of the Black Sea ports to be conquered by the Ottomans. The Moldavian prince Stephen the Great was unable to aid in its

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire of Varna. Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448. The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox

neg: Empire of Trebizond The last years of the fourteenth century were characterized by the increasing Turkish threat. This threat was not from the small Turkmen emirates that bordered Trebizond's borders, but from the dynasty of the Osmanli, a new Turkish power emerging from western Anatolia that would soon consolidate the Ottoman Empire. Although their expansion was temporarily checked by Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, by the 1430s the Ottomans had recovered their fortunes, seizing large segments of Greece and finally capturing Constantinople itself on 29 May 1453. Manuel III (1390–1417), the second son and successor of Alexios III, had allied

neg: Ottoman conquest of Adrianople Ottoman conquest of Adrianople Adrianople, a major Byzantine city in Thrace, was conquered by the Ottomans sometime in the 1360s, and eventually became the Ottoman capital, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Following the capture of Gallipoli by the Ottomans in 1354, Turkish expansion in the southern Balkans was rapid. Although they had to halt their advance during the Kidnapping of Şehzade Halil between 1357–59, after Halil's rescue they resumed their advance. Main target of the advance was Adrianople, which was the third most important Byzantine city (after Constantinople and Thessalonica). Whether under Ottoman control or as independent "ghazi"

neg: Constantinople began to lose territories and the city began to lose population. By the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, making it an enclave inside the Ottoman Empire; after a 53-day siege the city eventually fell to the Ottomans, led by Sultan Mehmed II, on 29 May 1453, whereafter it replaced Edirne (Adrianople) as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. According to Pliny the Elder in his "Natural History", the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was "Lygos", a settlement likely of

neg: Imperial Arsenal In the course of their expansion, the Ottomans captured a number of ports and shipyards on both the Aegean and the Black Sea shores, such as those of Iznikmid (Nicomedia, modern İzmit), Gemlik (Cius), and Aydincik (Kyzikos). The main naval base and arsenal of the Ottoman navy during the early period, however, was at Gallipoli, which was definitively occupied by the Ottomans in 1377. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II () established an imperial shipyard across the Golden Horn from Constantinople proper, in the formerly Genoese suburb of Galata, probably on the same site as the

neg: Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople of the Western Crusader established Latin Empire. In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who subsequently ordered the building converted into a mosque. The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels were removed and many of the mosaics were plastered over. Islamic features – such as the mihrab, minbar, and four minarets – were added while in the possession of the Ottomans. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931, when it was

neg: Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) power remained in Constantinople. The relationship between the Ottomans and the Mamluks had been adversarial since the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453; both states vied for control of the spice trade, and the Ottomans aspired to eventually taking control of the Holy Cities of Islam. An earlier conflict, which lasted from 1485 to 1491, had led to a stalemate. By 1516, the Ottomans were free from other concerns—Sultan Selim I had just vanquished the Safavid Persians at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514—and turned their full might against the Mamluks, who ruled in Syria and Egypt, to

neg: Battle of Kosovo (1448) the Janissaries attacked and killed everyone left in the stockade. The battle ended any hopes of saving Constantinople from the Ottoman Empire. The Hungarian kingdom no longer had the military and financial resources to mount an offensive against the Ottomans. With the end of the half-century-long Crusader threat to their European frontier, Murad's son Mehmed II was free to lay siege to Constantinople in 1453. In 1448, John Hunyadi saw the right moment to lead a campaign against the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat at the Battle of Varna (1444), he raised another army to attack the Ottomans. His strategy

neg: Gunpowder Empires and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in the manufacturing and handling of firearms." But it was their use of artillery that shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic empires to accelerate their weapons program. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of Bayazid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successful siege of Salonica in 1430. The Ottomans employed European foundries to cast their cannons, and by the siege of Constantinople in 1453, they had

neg: Mangana (Constantinople) and statesman Demetrios Kydones retired to an apartment at the monastery of Saint George after having obtained an "adelphaton" (or the right, granted on payment of a sum of money, to live in a monastery without becoming a monk). The monastery was particularly famous during the 14th century when it contained relics of the Passion of Christ and became a place of pilgrimage for Orthodox faithful from as far away as Russia. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the monastery complex was occupied for a short time by dervishes, before being demolished by the Ottomans to make way for

neg: Byzantine–Ottoman wars met by the Sultan regarding the status quo. Mehmed responded to these threats by building fortifications in the Bosporus and thus closed Constantinople from outside naval assistance. The Ottomans already controlled the land around Constantinople and so they began an assault on the city on 6 April 1453. Despite a union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Byzantines received no official aid from the Pope or Western Europe, with the exception of a few soldiers from Venice and Genoa. England and France were in the concluding stages of the Hundred Years War. The French did not wish to lose

neg: St. Ivan Island may have been buried there after being sent into exile. Sozopol was conquered by the Ottomans together with Constantinople, in 1453, and the monastery was completely destroyed, but later reconstructed in 1467-1471. In the 1620s it was a refuge for Cossack pirates raiding the western Black Sea coast. Archaeologists have even discovered the remains of a Cossack feast in the church. The Ottomans destroyed the remaining buildings on St. Ivan Island in July 1629 in order not to be used by the pirates. It also played a part in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829, when it was used as a

neg: Venice invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag. His "Aldine Editions" included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era. Venice's long decline started in the 15th century, when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans (1423–1430). It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks (1453). After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II, he declared the first of a series of Ottoman-Venetian wars that cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Next, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492. Then Vasco da Gama of

neg: History of Western civilization would later become a saint, Joan of Arc. Although she was captured and executed by the English, the French fought on and won the war in 1453. After the war, France gained all of Normandy excluding the city of Calais, which it gained in 1558. Following the Mongols from Central Asia came the Ottoman Turks. By 1400 they had captured most of modern-day Turkey and extended their rule into Europe through the Balkans and as far as the Danube, surrounding even the fabled city of Constantinople. Finally, in 1453, one of Europe's greatest cities fell to the Turks. The Ottomans

neg: Vettore Cappello one of the "savii di Terraferma" (commissioners on the Terraferma). In August and December 1453, he was re-elected to the post, but both times refused it, and served instead from August 1453 to February 1454 as "provveditore" of the Venetian Arsenal; in the troubled atmosphere following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans, Cappello busied himself with rearming the Venetian fleet. A "savio" "recuperandi pecunias" of the same name is attested in November 1453 – May 1454 and a "provveditore" of the army with the same name was appointed to Brescia in February 1454, but is doubtful whether they are

neg: Middle Ages 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis. Constantinople was finally captured by the Ottomans in 1453. During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1309–76, also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the

neg: Historically significant lunar eclipses crews and captured 18 beached ships, but a force of Athenians and Etruscans forced Gylippus back. Plutarch described this eclipse and the superstitious response: This partial lunar eclipse was seen during the Fall of Constantinople (the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire), during the siege that lasted from Thursday, 5 April 1453 until Tuesday, 29 May 1453), after which the city fell to the Ottomans. The lunar eclipse was considered to be fulfilling a prophecy for the city's demise. It is said a blood moon took place during the eclipse. On 30 June 1503, Christopher Columbus beached his

neg: Byzantine Empire by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453, Sultan Mehmed's army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city. Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign), Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was last seen casting off his imperial

neg: Phanariotes into a mosque). After the 1453 fall of Constantinople, when the Sultan replaced "de jure" the Byzantine emperor for subjugated Christians, he recognized the Ecumenical Patriarch as the religious and national leader ("ethnarch") of the Greeks and other ethnic groups in the Greek Orthodox "Millet". The Patriarchate had primary importance, occupying this key role for Christians of the Empire because the Ottomans did not legally distinguish between nationality and religion and considered the empire's Orthodox Christians a single entity. The position of the Patriarchate in the Ottoman state encouraged Greek renaissance projects centering on the resurrection and revitalization of the

neg: Patapios the Monastery of Saint John at Petrion, which during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire was under the protection of the royal family of Constantinople, the Palaiologoi, and especially the "Augusta" Helena Dragaš, the mother of the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, who became a nun and a saint under the monastic name of Saint Hypomone ("patience"). After the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, a relative of the Palailogos emperors and nephew of the "Augusta" Helena, Aggelis Notaras, in order to protect the relic of Saint Patapios from the Ottomans, transferred it to Mount

neg: Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople Ecumenical Patriarchate, declared its independence in 1448, shortly before Constantinople fell, owing to its protest over the Council of Florence, in which representatives of the patriarchate had signed onto union with Rome, trading doctrinal concessions for military aid against the encroaching Ottomans. The military aid never came, and those concessions were subsequently repudiated by the patriarchate, but from 1448, the Russian church came to function independently. Within decades after the Fall of Constantinople to Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453, some were nominating Moscow as the "Third Rome", or the "New Rome".[2] 141 years later, in

neg: Occupation of Constantinople the first time the city had changed hands since the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Along with the Occupation of Smyrna it mobilized the establishment of the Turkish National Movement and the Turkish War of Independence. The Ottomans estimated that the population of Constantinople in 1920 was between 800,000 and 1,200,000 inhabitants, having collected population statistics from the various religious bodies. The uncertainty in the figure reflects the uncounted population of war refugees and disagreements as to the boundaries of the city. Half or less were Muslim, the rest being largely Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Jewish; there had been

neg: Dionysius I of Constantinople Dionysius I of Constantinople Dionysius I (), (? – 1492) was Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople two times, from 1466 to 1471 and from 1488 to 1490. He is honoured as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church and his feast day is November 23. Dionysius was born in Dimitsana, in the Peloponnese. He became a monk and entered in a monastery in Constantinople where he was a pupil of Mark, Archbishop of Ephesus, who ordained him as priest. During the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 he was enslaved by the Ottomans, but he was bought and freed some time later

neg: Greece as the "Emperor of the Hellenes". Similarly, in several international treaties of that time the Byzantine emperor is styled as "Imperator Graecorum". In the 14th century, much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans. By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea). After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was one of the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire

neg: Chora Church Constantinople in 1453, the Icon of the Theotokos Hodegetria, considered the protector of the City, was brought to Chora in order to assist the defenders against the assault of the Ottomans. Around fifty years after the fall of the city to the Ottomans, Atık Ali Paşa, the Grand Vizier of Sultan Bayezid II, ordered the Chora Church to be converted into a mosque — "Kariye Camii". Due to the prohibition against iconic images in Islam, the mosaics and frescoes were covered behind a layer of plaster. This and frequent earthquakes in the region have taken their toll on the artwork.

neg: Thomas Palaiologos Thomas changed his religion to Roman Catholicism from Greek Orthodoxy during his last years of life. After his death in 1465, the position of rightful Byzantine emperor was inherited by his older son Andreas Palaiologos, born in Mistra around 1453. Mehmed II conquered the Empire of Trebizond, "de facto" the last free territory of the ancient Roman state, during the year 1461. Nevertheless, Mehmed had already proclaimed himself "Roman Emperor" upon capturing Constantinople (1453). In an effort to reunite the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, Pope Paul II arranged during 1472 a marriage between the Catholic daughter of Thomas,

neg: Night Attack at Târgovişte horses and cattle. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Mehmed set his sights on other campaigns. In Anatolia, the Greek Empire of Trebizond was still resisting the Ottomans, and to the East the White Sheep Turkomans of Uzun Hasan, together with other smaller states, threatened the Ottomans. In the West, Skanderbeg in Albania continued to trouble the Sultan, while Bosnia was sometimes reluctant in paying the jizya. Wallachia controlled the left bank of the Danube, and Mehmed wanted to have control over the river, as naval attacks could be launched against his empire all the

neg: Ottoman conquest of Adrianople one of the contenders for the Ottoman throne during the Ottoman Interregnum of 1402–13, moved the state treasury. Ottoman conquest of Adrianople Adrianople, a major Byzantine city in Thrace, was conquered by the Ottomans sometime in the 1360s, and eventually became the Ottoman capital, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Following the capture of Gallipoli by the Ottomans in 1354, Turkish expansion in the southern Balkans was rapid. Although they had to halt their advance during the Kidnapping of Şehzade Halil between 1357–59, after Halil's rescue they resumed their advance. Main target of the advance was Adrianople, which was

neg: Byzantine–Ottoman wars come. An all-out assault captured the city on May 29, 1453. As the Ottomans fanned out to sack the city, their naval discipline began to collapse and many Genoans and Venetians escaped in vessels from the city, including Niccolò Barbaro, a Venetian surgeon present at the siege who wrote: After the siege, the Ottomans went on to take Morea in 1460, and Trebizond in 1461. With the fall of Trebizond came the end of the Roman Empire; the Palaeologan dynasty continued to be recognized as the rightful emperors of Constantinople by the crowned heads of Europe until the 16th century

neg: History of Islam campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413. Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444–1446; 1451–1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated. The

neg: Imbros war. After a failing alliance with France against Barbary pirates, Genoa became a satellite of Spain; a native son and heir to its vital maritime tradition, Christopher Columbus, sponsored the discovery of the Americas in 1492. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Byzantine forces in Imbros left the island. In the aftermath following the withdrawal, delegates from the island went to İstanbul for an audience with the Ottoman Emperor Mehmed II to discuss terms allowing them to live harmoniously within the Ottoman Empire. After the island became Ottoman soil in 1455 it was administered by Ottomans and Venetians

neg: Dejanović noble family built and reconstructed several churches and monasteries throughout their province. Some of these include the Zemen Monastery and Arhiljevica Church, built by Dejan, and the Poganovo Monastery and Osogovo Monastery, built by Konstantin. Konstantin had married his daughter Jelena to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391-1425), from which the last Byzantine Emperors John VIII (r. 1425-1448) and Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453) sprung. Constantine XI, who died defending Constantinople from the Ottomans in 1453, was known by his mother's surname, in Greek, Dragases (Δραγάσης, "Dragáses"). There are possible portraits of the family in their monasteries ("ktetor" frescoes), but it

neg: History of the Jews in Thessaloniki Thessaloniki. In the following centuries, the native Romaniote community was joined by some Italian and Ashkenazi Jews. A small Jewish population lived here during the Byzantine period, but it left virtually no trace in documents or archeological artifacts. In 1430, the start of Ottoman domination, the Jewish population was still small. The Ottomans used population transfers within the empire following military conquests to achieve goals of border security or repopulation; they called it "Sürgün". Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, an example of "sürgün" was the Ottomans' forcing Jews from the Balkans and Anatolia to relocate there, which they

neg: Serbian Empire result was indecisive, but it led to the subsequent fall of Serbia. Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, succeeded as ruler, but by 1394 he had become an Ottoman vassal. In 1402 he renounced Ottoman rule and became an Hungarian ally; the following years are characterized by a power struggle between the Ottomans and Hungary over the territory of Serbia. In 1453, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, and in 1458 Athens was taken. In 1459, Serbia was annexed, and then Greece a year later. With the fall of Serbia, migrations began to the north. Serbs became mercenaries in foreign armies and

neg: Franco-Ottoman alliance Jacob Burckhardt (1947) called it "the sacrilegious union of the lily and the crescent". Following the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmet II and the unification of swaths of the Middle East under Selim I, Suleiman, the son of Selim, managed to expand Ottoman rule to Serbia in 1522. The Habsburg Empire thus entered in direct conflict with the Ottomans. Some early contacts seem to have taken place between the Ottomans and the French. Philippe de Commines reports that Bayezid II sent an embassy to Louis XI in 1483, while Cem, his brother and rival pretender to the

neg: Stemnitsa 2011 Stemnitsa had a population of 191. Stemnitsa has been identified with the ancient Arcadian city Hypsous (). It was already ruined in the 2nd century AD, when it was visited by Pausanias. It was near Thyraion (present Pavlia), Zoetia and Paroria. Hypsous was founded by a son of Lycaon. In the 7th and 8th century Slavs settled in the Peloponnese. The name "Stemnitsa" has Slavic roots and means "woodland". After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Peloponnese was occupied by the Ottoman Empire. Due to its remote location Stemnitsa served as a relatively safe haven from the Ottomans,

neg: Fall of Constantinople However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent Counter-Reformation, the recapture of Constantinople became an ever-distant dream. Even France, once a fervent participant in the Crusades, became an ally of the Ottomans. Nonetheless, depictions of Christian coalitions taking the city and of the late Emperor's resurrection by Leo the Wise persisted. The migration waves of Byzantine scholars and émigrés in the period following the sacking of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered by many scholars key to the revival of Greek and Roman studies that led to

neg: Treaty of Ahmet Pasha a Russian-controlled Caucasus, the Ottomans decided to capture Tbilisi to balance the Russian advance. But this operation resulted in a long Ottoman Safavid war. Between 1723 and 1730, the Ottomans were able to control South Caucasus by capturing Yerevan and Ganja in addition to Tbilisi. In the southern fronts (i.e., Western Iran), Ottomans captured Tabriz, Urmia, Khorramabad, Kermanshah and Hamedan. In 1724, the Ottomans and Russians had agreed, by the Treaty of Constantinople (1724), to further divide the aforementioned Iranian territories between the two of them. But after Tahmasp II of Safavids began controlling Iran, the Ottoman advance was checked.

neg: Metropolis of Smyrna 1402 Smyrna was razed by the army of Timur. However, it appears that the Christian community survived the devastation of the city. After the Ottoman conquest of Smyrna, it appears that the local Christians enjoyed a special status, contrary to several adjacent metropolises that became inactive, while with the Fall of Constantinople (1453) to the Ottomans, a major reorganization occurred in the ecclesiastical administration following the incorporation of the Ecumenical Patriarchate into the social structures of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, although Christianity in Anatolia was in steady decline during that period, the diocese of Smyrna survived, even in a restricted

neg: Hagia Irene dome has been replaced by the conquering Ottomans with the symbol of Islam, the crescent moon. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, the church was enclosed inside the walls of the Topkapi palace. The Janissaries used the church as an arsenal until 1826. It was also used as a warehouse for military equipment and repository for trophies of arms and military regalia taken by the Turks. During the reign of Sultan Ahmet III (1703–1730) it was converted into the National Military Museum in 1726. In 1846, Marshal of the Imperial Arsenal, Ahmed Fethi Paşa, made

neg: Luca Cancellari in Greece, it is recorded that following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans (1453) the Cangelari family name (in Greek: "Καγγελάρης", "Καγκελάρης" or "Καγκελλάρης") is traced in the island of Corfu, where from its members migrated to Cephalonia (early 16th century), Santa Maura (late 17th century) (Ionian Islands) and other parts of mainland Greece and the diaspora. Luca Cancellari Luca Cancellari ("Luke Cangellaris"; Greek: Λουκάς Καγκελλάρης) is a Byzantine icon painter posited in some modern Greek encyclopaedias to have lived during the 12th century in Constantinople, where he painted some of the best icons of Virgin Mary. These works

neg: Skoutari, Laconia submerged. In Ancient Greece, the town used to be called Asine. The town was under Spartan control. In 218 BC, the inhabtitants of Asine defeated the army of Philip V of Macedon who was besieging the town. During the Roman period it belong to Sparta ever though most of the other towns in the area were part of the Union of Free Laconians. The modern town of Skoutari was founded in 1453 AD by refugees from the Skoutari district of Constantinople who fled from the Ottomans during the Fall of Constantinople. While the rest of Greece fell to the Ottoman

neg: Metropolis of Nicomedia remained under Byzantine control, until it finally fell in 1337. Only sporadic records survive about local ecclesiastical authorities during the first period of the Ottoman occupation of the city. However, in 1453, the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans led to the incorporation of the Patriarchate of Constantinople into the Ottoman "millet" system and to subsequent reforms in the ecclesiastical administration. As a result, the church of Nicomedia was restored to its former status. Although at that time most metropolises in Asia Minor had ceased to exist due to the dramatic decrease of the Orthodox population, the three metropolises of

neg: Empire of Trebizond the Nicaean reconquest and was briefly occupied by the restored Byzantine Empire , thereafter becoming a Serbian dependency later inherited by Italians, ultimately falling to the Ottoman Empire in 1479. Whilst the Empire of Nicaea had restored the Byzantine Empire through restoring control of the capital, it ended in 1453 with the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans. Trebizond would last until 1461 when the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II conquered it after a month-long siege and took its ruler and his family into captivity, marking the final end of the Roman imperial tradition initiated by Augustus 1,488 years previously. The

neg: Church of the Holy Apostles Church of the Holy Apostles The Church of the Holy Apostles (, "Agioi Apostoloi"; ), also known as the "Imperial Polyándreion" (imperial cemetery), was a Greek Eastern Orthodox church in Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The first structure dates to the 4th century, though future emperors would add to and improve on the space. It was second in size and importance only to the Hagia Sophia among the great churches of the capital. When Constantinople fell to the Ottomans in 1453, the Holy Apostles briefly became the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church. Three

neg: Blachernae in c. 500. During the Komnenian period, it became the favourite imperial residence, eclipsing the older Great Palace of Constantinople on the eastern end of the city. Although the Latin emperors returned to the Bucoleon Palace, the Palaiologos emperors of the restored Byzantine Empire again used the Blachernae Palace as their main residence. The Palace of the Porphyrogenitus () and the so-called Prison of Anemas are the main surviving structures of the Palace of Blachernae, which was a complex of multiple buildings. Following the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in May 1453, the Sultan's residence was moved to Topkapı

neg: Greek–Turkish relations wars and battles were fought between the Byzantine and the Seljuq armies. Also, in 1300 conflicts between Ottomans and Byzantines started too. In 1453, Ottomans conquered Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire. In 1460 they conquered the Despotate of the Morea and by 1500 most of the plains and islands were in Ottoman hands, but not all, for example Rhodes conquered in 1522, Cyprus in 1571, Venetians retained Crete until 1669, the Ionian islands were only briefly ruled by the Ottomans, and remained primarily under the rule of the Republic of Venice. During the Ottoman–Venetian Wars and the

neg: Albania under the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire until it declared independence in 1912, during the Balkan Wars. The Ottomans expanded their control from Anatolia to the Balkans in the middle of the 14th century. They entered European territory in 1352, and they defeated a Serbian army in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Ottoman pressure lessened in 1402 when the Mongol leader, Tamerlane, attacked Anatolia from the east, killed the Sultan, and sparked a civil war. When order was restored, the Ottomans renewed their westward progress. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II's forces overran Constantinople and killed the last Byzantine emperor. The division of the Albanian-populated

neg: Burji dynasty of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453; both states vied for control of the spice trade, and the Ottomans aspired to eventually taking control of the Holy Cities of Islam. An earlier conflict, which lasted from 1485 to 1491, had led to a stalemate. By 1516, the Ottomans were free from other concerns—Sultan Selim I had just vanquished the Safavid Persians at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514—and turned their full might against the Mamluks, who ruled in Syria and Egypt, to complete the Ottoman conquest of the Middle East. In 1517 the Ottoman Turks and their Sultan Selim I

neg: History of the Republic of Venice May 29, 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottomans, but Venice managed to maintain a colony in the city and some of the former trade privileges it had had under the Byzantines. Indeed, in 1454, the Ottomans granted the Venetians their ports and trading rights. Despite the recent Ottoman defeats by John Hunyadi of Hungary and by Skanderbeg in Albania, war was unavoidable. In 1463 the Venetian fortress of Argos was ravaged. Venice set up an alliance with Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and attacked the Greek islands by sea and Bulgaria by land. The allies were forced to retreat on both

neg: Alem (finial) an alem. One or more metal protective cases or boxes ("muhafazas")—often octagonal—containing a diminutive copy of the Qur'an were attached below the alem by a cord or chain. After the rise of Islam (and especially after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453) the word alem also came to be applied to the architectural device which caps a minaret, dome of a mosque or "minber" (pulpit). It may incorporate an Islamic emblem of the crescent (with star), a tulip or other shape. Miniatures from the Seljuk era show gilded finials on top of tentpoles. Alem (finial) An Alem

neg: Ottoman–Habsburg wars in Hungary (1526–1568) Habsburgs, and Transylvania, an Ottoman vassal state. Following Suleiman's unsuccessful Siege of Vienna in 1529, Ferdinand I launched a counter-attack in 1530 to regain the initiative and avenge the destruction brought by Suleiman's 120,000 strong army. Suleiman's response came in 1532 when he led a massive army of over 120,000 troops to besiege Vienna again. Ferdinand withdrew his army, leaving only 700 men with no cannons and a few guns to defend Güns (Kőszeg). In the Siege of Güns, the Grand Vizier of the Ottomans, Ibrahim Pasha, did not realize how poorly defended Koszeg was; in fact Constantinople in 1453

neg: Bursa a considerable amount of urban growth throughout the 14th century. After conquering Edirne (Adrianople) in East Thrace, the Ottomans turned it into the new capital city in 1363, but Bursa retained its spiritual and commercial importance in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan Bayezid I built the Bayezid Külliyesi (Bayezid I theological complex) in Bursa between 1390 and 1395 and the Ulu Cami (Grand Mosque) between 1396 and 1400. Bursa remained to be the most important administrative and commercial centre in the empire until Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. The population of Bursa was 45,000 in 1487. During the

neg: Hadım Şehabeddin dismissed from the position of beylerbey of Rumelia. In 1444 Şehabeddin appeared as commander of the forces that fought against Orhan, the challenger of the sultan's throne and again as beylerbey of Rumelia, in Varna. His advocacy of the aggressive expansionist policy made him the main rival of Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger. He died in 1453 in Bursa after he had witnessed the success of the expansionist policy he has always been advocating when Ottomans captured Constantinople and executed his main rival Çandarlı Halil Pasha. Şehabeddin built a mosque in 1436 in Adrianople. It is known as Hacı Şahabettin

neg: Turkey at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 symbolizes the start and foundation of Turkey. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish principalities. Beginning in the late 13th-century, the Ottomans started uniting these Turkish principalities. After Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman expansion continued under Selim I. During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent the Ottoman Empire encompassed much of Southeast Europe, West Asia and North Africa and became a world power. In the following centuries the state entered a period of decline with a gradual loss of

neg: Juan Carvajal (cardinal) conquerors of Constantinople (1453). Aided by the Observant Franciscan preacher, John Capistran, he gathered an army of about 40,000 men, effected a union with the troops of John Hunyadi, and on 22 July 1456, the siege of Belgrade, the key of the Danube, was raised by a victory that inaugurated the century-long resistance of Hungary to the Ottomans. In 1457, Carvajal baptized King Thomas of Bosnia into the Roman Catholic Church. Calixtus III died on 6 August 1458, but Cardinal Carvajal was not in Rome, and therefore did not participate in the Conclave that elected Cardinal Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini as

neg: Mediterranean Sea the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued. Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th

neg: Dryinopolis to the Ottomans (1453). During the prelacy of bishop Dositheos (1760–1799) a total of 70 churches were erected and extensively repaired. The bishopric of Dryinopolis was part of the metropolis of Ioannina under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1832 it was merged with the nearby Diocese of Cheimarra and in 1835 it was promoted to a metropolitan bishopric. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) the metropolitan bishop of Dryinopolis, Vasileios, presided at the Pan-Epirotic conference that organized the defense of Northern Epirus against possible attacks by Albanian units. Later in

neg: Enrico Dandolo of the doge. The real tomb was destroyed by the Ottomans after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and subsequent conversion of Hagia Sophia into a mosque. It is not known for certain when and how Dandolo became blind. According to the Chronicle of Novgorod he had been blinded by the Byzantines during the 1171 expedition to Byzantium. Supposedly, Emperor Manuel Comnenus "ordered his eyes to be blinded with glass; and his eyes were uninjured, but he saw nothing". According to Thomas F. Madden's study, Dandolo suffered from cortical blindness as a result of a severe blow to the back

neg: Niccolò Barbaro Niccolò Barbaro Niccolò Barbaro was a Venetian physician, and author of an eyewitness account of the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. The historian Steven Runciman called him 'the most useful of the Western sources' on the fall of the city in 1453, primarily because of the compelling narrative that follows the events of the siege on a daily basis. However, as a Venetian, Barbaro held strong anti-Genoese beliefs - especially against the Genoese of Pera (modern day Galata), whom he suggests were colluding with the Ottomans during the siege. He also suggests that Giovanni Giustiniani, the Genoese commander stationed at

neg: Kuwae occurred just before the Fall of Constantinople, the last bastion of the once-mighty Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman Turks, led by Sultan Mehmed II, laid siege to the city on 5 April 1453 and conquered it on 29 May 1453. Pang found mention of the volcano's after-effects in chronicles of the city's last days. Historians noted that the city's gardens, that spring, produced very little. On the night of 22 May 1453, the moon, the symbol of Constantinople, rose in dark eclipse, fulfilling a prophecy of the city's demise. On 25 May 1453, a thunderstorm burst on the city: "It was

neg: History of the Balkans the Adriatic and Aegean coasts. Venice's long decline started in the 15th century, when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans (1423–1430). She also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks (1453). After the city fell to Sultan Mehmet II, he declared war on Venice. The war lasted thirty years and cost Venice many of the eastern Mediterranean possessions. Slowly the Republic of Venice lost nearly all possessions in the Balkans, maintaining in the 18th century only the Adriatic areas of Istria, Dalmatia and Albania Veneta. The Venetian island of Corfu was

neg: Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire the "Pax Ottomana". The process of centralization undergone by the empire prior to 1453 was brought to completion in the reign of Mehmed II. The Ottoman Empire of the Classical Age experienced dramatic territorial growth. The period opened with the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed II (r. 1451-1481) in 1453. Mehmed II went on to consolidate the empire's position in the Balkans and Anatolia, conquering Serbia in 1454-5, the Peloponnese in 1458-9, Trebizond in 1461, and Bosnia in 1463. Many Venetian territories in Greece were conquered during the 1463-79 Ottoman-Venetian War. By 1474 the Ottomans had conquered their Anatolian rival

neg: Spice trade 1453, barring Europeans from important combined land-sea routes. The Republic of Venice had become a formidable power, and a key player in the Eastern spice trade. Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build up maritime capability. Until the mid-15th century, trade with the east was achieved through the Silk Road, with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa acting as a middle man. In 1453, however, the Ottomans took Constantinople and so the Byzantine Empire was no more. Now in control of the sole spice trade route

neg: South Slavs army at the Battle of Kosovo. By now, Serbian and Bulgarian rulers became Ottoman vassals, the southern Serbian provinces and Bulgaria holding out until annexation in the 1390s. The Ottomans conquered Constantinople (1453), Greece (1453–60), Serbian Despotate (1459) and Bosnia (1463). Much of the Balkans was under Ottoman rule throughout the Early modern period. Ottoman rule lasted from the 14th century up until the early 20th in some territories. Ottoman society was multi-ethnic and multi-religious, and confessional groups were divided according to the Millet system, in which Orthodox Christians (Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs, etc.) constituted the Rum Millet. In Islamic jurisprudence,

neg: Dejanović noble family Brdo to Vranje and Niš. The road ended its use with the Ottoman conquest of Serbia. They had vast mines in Kratovo (until 1390) and Zletovo. Konstantin married, but his spouse's name is unknown, and from this marriage Konstantin had a daughter, Jelena, who in 1392 married Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391-1425). Manuel II and Jelena had several children, among whom were the last Byzantine Emperors John VIII (r. 1425-1448) and Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453). Constantine XI, the last Byzantine Emperor, who died defending Constantinople from the Ottomans in 1453, was known by his mother's surname, in Greek,

neg: History of Serbia marks a turning point and is considered as a beginning of the fall of the medieval Serbian state. The magnate families Lazarević and Branković ruled the suzerain Serbian Despotate afterwards (in the 15th and 16th centuries). After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and the Siege of Belgrade, the Serbian Despotate fell in 1459 following the siege of the provisional capital of Smederevo. By 1455, central Serbia was completely conquered by the Ottoman Empire. After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521, opening the way for Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. Vojvodina,

neg: Ahidnâme was imperative to remain to in good standing with the Ottoman Empire. By the 16th Century, Venice aimed its policy towards the preservation of peaceful relations with the Ottomans. After the 1453 Conquest of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire had become Europe's most powerful force. As a result, Venice had to tread carefully in order not to instigate any conflicts. Ahdnames became a useful tool in communication between the two competing forces. The majority of the Ahdnames that the Ottoman Empire and Venice drafted always occurred after a war between the two, such as the two wars they were embroiled in

neg: Genoese Navy to Genoese merchants. The gradual loss of Imperial territory, coupled with the destruction of smaller Christian states such as Trebizond, Cyprus, and Amasra chipped away at Genoese mercantile interests in the Black Sea. The Ottomans constructed a massive fleet, and in doing so became the domiant naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1453 Constantinople fell, and the Ottomans closed the Dardanelles and Hellespont to Christian shipping. This act cut the Genoese navy off from its bases in the Black Sea, and Genoa found itself isolated from the colonies that had for centuries provided the republic access to Russia and

neg: Byzantine Empire Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 14th and 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire. The last of the imperial Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Trebizond, would be conquered by the Ottomans eight years later in the 1461 Siege of Trebizond. The first use of the term "Byzantine" to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557, when the German historian

neg: Durusu 1421, when his father Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425) assigned various portions of the empire to his sons. The town was taken by the Ottomans during their preparations for their final siege of Constantinople, in early 1453 or perhaps even in 1452. The moats and earthworks erected by the Ottomans during this operation were allegedly still visible in the 1660s, when the traveller Evliya Celebi visited the city. In the late 19th century, the town had a Christian population of 400, many of whom were Bulgarians. A church dedicated to St. George still existed until the early 20th century, but

neg: Saint Laura of Constantinople Saint Laura of Constantinople Saint Laura of Constantinople (died 1453) was a Christian who lived in Constantinople during the 15th century. She was born in Greece into a noble family: her father was a Latin knight named Michael and her mother was Albanian. Her name was Theodolinde Trasci. After she became a nun in Constantinople, she changed it into Laura, eventually rising to become an abbess. She was martyred by the Ottoman Turks who took Constantinople on 29 May 1453. They scalded her to death with the other 52 sisters of her convent. Her feast day is on May 29.

neg: Saint Laura of Constantinople Saint Laura of Constantinople Saint Laura of Constantinople (died 1453) was a Christian who lived in Constantinople during the 15th century. She was born in Greece into a noble family: her father was a Latin knight named Michael and her mother was Albanian. Her name was Theodolinde Trasci. After she became a nun in Constantinople, she changed it into Laura, eventually rising to become an abbess. She was martyred by the Ottoman Turks who took Constantinople on 29 May 1453. They scalded her to death with the other 52 sisters of her convent. Her feast day is on May 29.

neg: Byzantine–Ottoman wars assault on Constantinople, Murad II was forced to turn back his army and defeat Kucuk. With these defeats, the Byzantines were forced once more into vassalage — 300,000 coins of silver were to be delivered to the Sultan as tribute on an annual basis. The Ottomans faced numerous opponents between 1424 and 1453. Tied down by the siege of Thessalonika, the Ottomans had to contend with the Serbs under George Brankovic, the Hungarians under John Hunyadi and the Albanians under George Kastrioti Skanderbeg. This resistance culminated into the Crusade of Varna of 1444, which, despite much local support and deception

neg: Bibliotheca (Photius) single sentence to several pages". The works he notes are mainly Christian and pagan authors from the 5th century BC to his own time in the 9th century AD. Almost half the books mentioned no longer survive. These would have disappeared in the Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, in the final Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, or in the following centuries of Ottoman rule, during which wealth and literacy contracted dramatically in the subordinate Greek community. Some older scholarship had speculated that "Bibliotheca" might have been composed in Baghdad at the time of

neg: Roman emperor to style themselves as Emperor of the Romans (later βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων in Greek), but are often referred to in modern scholarship as Byzantine emperors. Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. The "Byzantine" emperors from Heraclius in 629 and onwards adopted the title of "basileus" (), which had originally meant "king" in Greek but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Other kings were then referred to as "rēgas". In addition to their pontifical office, some emperors