query: name the psychologist who greatly contributed to our understanding of observational learning

pos: Observational learning known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, identified this basic form of learning in 1961. The importance of observational learning lies in helping individuals, especially children, acquire new responses by observing others' behavior. Albert Bandura states that people’s behavior could be determined by their environment. Observational learning occurs through observing negative and positive behaviors. Bandura believes in reciprocal determinism in which the environment can influence people’s behavior and vice versa. For instance, the Bobo doll experiment shows that model, in a determined environment, affects children’s behavior. In this experiment Bandura demonstrates that one group of children placed in an aggressive

pos: Self-efficacy person actually has to face challenges competently and the choices a person is most likely to make. These effects are particularly apparent, and compelling, with regard to behaviors affecting health. Psychologist Albert Bandura has defined self-efficacy as one's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. One's sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and challenges. The theory of self-efficacy lies at the center of Bandura's social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of observational learning and social experience in the development of personality. The main concept in

pos: Observational learning a process called "diffusion chain". This basically occurs when an individual first learns a behavior by observing another individual and that individual serves as a model through whom other individuals learn the behavior, and so on. Culture plays a role in whether observational learning is the dominant learning style in a person or community. Some cultures expect children to actively participate in their communities and are therefore exposed to different trades and roles on a daily basis. This exposure allows children to observe and learn the different skills and practices that are valued in their communities. Albert Bandura, who is

neg: Emulation (observational learning) copied in another study – as did dogs.. Recently it was shown that in human children, emulation learning enables children to copy in a constructive task solutions that they themselves were unable to produce on their own, an important stepping stone for cumulative culture. Emulation (observational learning) In emulation learning, subjects learn about parts of their environment and use this to achieve their own goals and is an observational learning mechanism (sometimes called social learning mechanisms). In this context, emulation was first coined by child psychologist David Wood in 1988. In 1990 "emulation" was taken up by Michael Tomasello to

neg: Emulation (observational learning) Emulation (observational learning) In emulation learning, subjects learn about parts of their environment and use this to achieve their own goals and is an observational learning mechanism (sometimes called social learning mechanisms). In this context, emulation was first coined by child psychologist David Wood in 1988. In 1990 "emulation" was taken up by Michael Tomasello to explain the findings of an earlier study on ape social learning. The meaning of the term emulation has changed gradually over time. Emulation is different from imitation - because emulation focuses on the action's environmental results instead of a model's action themselves. The fidelity

neg: Emulation (observational learning) of an observational learning mechanism is expected to have profound implications for its capacity for cultural transmission. Emulation is argued by some to produce only fleeting fidelity - though this is still being dicussed. In the original version, emulation referred to observers understanding objects in their potential to help them achieve desired results. They gained this understanding (or were triggered in their understanding) by seeing demonstrators achieving these very results with these objects. The actions performed by the demonstrators however were not copied, so it was concluded that observers learn "from the demonstration, that the tool may be used to

neg: Virtual Planetary Laboratory habitable environments and for exoplanet model confirmation. Specifically, observations of Europa, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the asteroid belt have helped researchers in Task A address their goals. Our only data point of a habitable planet today is Earth. However, our planet has not always been habitable. The Early Earth serves as an example of an exoplanet. The VPL research has contributed to the understanding of our early planet. Task B combines geological and biological data with ecosystem and photo-chemical models to showcase how planet Earth has changed throughout its history. This task uses observational data, models and orbital dynamics to

neg: Organoid 3D culturing techniques allowed for the creation of organoids that recapitulate the properties of various specific subregions of a multitude of organs. The use of these organoids has thus greatly contributed to expanding our understanding of the processes of organogenesis, and the field of developmental biology. In central nervous system development, for example, organoids have contributed to our understanding of the physical forces that underlie retinal cup formation, the species-specific dimensionality of the eye, and the factors underlying the control of progenitor cells in the cortex. Organoid An organoid is a miniaturized and simplified version of an organ produced in

neg: Observational learning understand their role in their community, and take initiative to accomplish the tasks they have observed others doing. The learner's intrinsic motivations play an important role in the child's understanding and construction of meaning in these educational experiences. The independence and responsibility associated with observational learning in many Indigenous American communities are significant reasons why this method of learning involves more than just watching and imitating. A learner must be actively engaged with their demonstrations and experiences in order to fully comprehend and apply the knowledge they obtain. Children from indigenous heritage communities of the Americas often learn through observation,

neg: Hilde Himmelweit Hilde Himmelweit Hildegard Therese Himmelweit (née Litthauer; 1918–1989) was a German social psychologist who had a major influence on the development of the discipline in Britain. Hilde Himmelweit received her PhD under Hans Eysenck at the Institute of Psychiatry. She taught at the London School of Economics from 1948-83. From 1964 she was the first Professor of Social Psychology in Britain, founding LSE's social psychology department (now named the Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science) and, in effect, establishing the discipline on the university curriculum. She greatly enhanced our understanding of the contemporary world through her research, in particular through

neg: Emulation (observational learning) problems". Here animals are described as learning some physics or causal relations of the environment. This does not necessarily involve a very complex understanding of abstract phenomena (as to what defines a "tool as a tool"). Emulation comprises a large span of cognitive complexity, from minimal cognitive complexity to complex levels. Emulation was originally invented as a "cognitivist's alternative" to associative learning (Tomasello, 1999), spanning learning about how things function and their "affordances" put to the use of achieving one's own goals: "Emulation learning in tool-use tasks seems to require the perception and understanding of some causal relations among objects".

neg: Augmented learning Google Glasses can provide video tutorials and interactive click-throughs, . Foreign language educators are also beginning to incorporate augmented learning techniques to traditional paper-and-pen-based exercises. For example, augmented information is presented near the primary subject matter, allowing the learner to learn how to write glyphs while understanding the meaning of the underlying characters. See Understanding language, below. Augmentation tools can help learners understand issues, acquire relevant information and solve complex issues by presenting supplementary information at the time of need or "on demand." This contrasts with traditional methods of associative learning, including rote learning, classical conditioning and observational learning, where

neg: Manual labour pursuit of understanding, knowledge, or skill that occurs without an imposed curriculum and explicit assessment. It typically manifests itself as practical engagement in the pursuit of knowledge. There are several ways which informal learning is conducted, that range from self-directed learning, observational learning, where there is intention to seek specific information outside of formal environments, to the coincidental learning that comes out of experiences. Informal training differs from informal training in that it focuses on the acquisition of a skill, understanding, or job-specific knowledge. The cognitive skills acquired outside of formal learning environment also help to define the mastery of

neg: Albert de la Chapelle gene was found by others. These extensive findings were published between approximately 1987 (Choroideremia, a “Finnish” disorder), and 2011 (MOPD1 disease in the Ohio Amish). Each of these discoveries has contributed or will contribute to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Moreover, the results have diagnostic applications. Dr. Henry Lynch's name is attached to a condition, Lynch Syndrome (formerly Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer, HNPCC), characterized by a greatly increased risk of colorectal and endometrial cancer, plus a moderately increased risk of ~7 other cancers. In 1992 collaborations between Finnish, US, New Zealand and Canadian researchers had led to the study

neg: Domain-general learning domains is cumulative, and builds under these domains over time to contribute to our greater knowledge structure. Psychologists whose theories align with domain-general framework include developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, who theorized that people develop a global knowledge structure which contains cohesive, whole knowledge internalized from experience, and psychologist Charles Spearman, whose work led to a theory on the existence of a single factor accounting for all general cognitive ability. Domain-general learning theories are in direct opposition to domain-specific learning theories, also sometimes called theories of Modularity. Domain-specific learning theories posit that humans learn different types of information differently, and have

neg: Donald O. Hebb Donald O. Hebb Donald Olding Hebb FRS (July 22, 1904 – August 20, 1985) was a Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He is best known for his theory of Hebbian learning, which he introduced in his classic 1949 work "The Organization of Behavior". He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and neural networks. A "Review of General Psychology" survey, published in 2002, ranked Hebb as the 19th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. His views

neg: Albert Bandura Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the concept of observational learning. A 2002 survey ranked Bandura as the fourth most-frequently cited psychologist of all time, behind B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget, and as the most cited living one. Bandura is widely described as the greatest living psychologist, and as one of the most influential psychologists of all time. Bandura was born in Mundare, in Alberta, an open town of roughly four hundred inhabitants, as the youngest child, and only son, in a family of six. The limitations of education in a remote town such as this caused Bandura to

neg: Word recognition association of the visual text with word recall. Improvements in technology have greatly contributed to advances in the understanding and research in word recognition. New word recognition capabilities have made computer-based learning programs more effective and reliable. Improved technology has enabled eye-tracking, which monitors individuals' saccadic eye movements while they read. This has furthered understanding of how certain patterns of eye movement increases word recognition and processing. Furthermore, changes can be simultaneously made to text just outside the reader's area of focus without the reader being made aware. This has provided more information on where the eye focuses when an

neg: Andrew N. Meltzoff Andrew N. Meltzoff Andrew N. Meltzoff (born February 9, 1950) is an American psychologist and an internationally recognized expert on infant and child development. His discoveries about infant imitation greatly advanced the scientific understanding of early cognition, personality and brain development. Meltzoff received a B.A. from Harvard University in 1972 and a D.Phil. (Ph.D.) from Oxford University in 1976 with Jerome Bruner as his thesis advisor. A professor of psychology at the University of Washington since 1988, he is currently co-director of the University of Washington Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences. The Institute is an interdisciplinary scientific research center

neg: Astrophysics The information obtained from these different timescales is very different. The study of our very own Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics. Due to the tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail unparalleled by any other star. Our understanding of our own Sun serves as a guide to our understanding of other stars. The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modeled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, which can be viewed as representing the state of

neg: Michael Behe old that physicists say it is. Further, I find the idea of common descent (that all organisms share a common ancestor) fairly convincing, and have no particular reason to doubt it. I greatly respect the work of my colleagues who study the development and behavior of organisms within an evolutionary framework, and I think that evolutionary biologists have contributed enormously to our understanding of the world. Although Darwin's mechanism – natural selection working on variation – might explain many things, however, I do not believe it explains molecular life. I also do not think it surprising that the new science

neg: Yadin Dudai the interrelationships among the two. He is also interested in collective memory, and in the evolution of 'cultural organs', such as the cinema. He has contributed to our understanding of brain and behavioral mechanisms of learning and memory, particularly those related to the consolidation and persistence of the memory trace, and of the evolution and role of concepts of memory in science and culture at large. Among the contributions made by Yadin Dudai and his coworkers: identification of the first learning mutant, using Drosophila, which was a critical proof of concept for the neurogenetic analysis of memory; discovery of consolidation

neg: Observational learning Observational learning Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings. Particularly in childhood, a model is someone of authority or higher status in an environment. In animals, observational learning is often based on classical conditioning, in which an instinctive behavior is elicited by observing the behavior of another (e.g. mobbing in birds),

neg: Edwin Locke Edwin Locke Edwin A. Locke (born January 5, 1938) is an American psychologist and a pioneer in goal-setting theory. He is a retired Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park. He was also affiliated with the Department of Psychology. As stated by the Association for Psychological Science, "Locke is the most published organizational psychologist in the history of the field. His pioneering research has advanced and enriched our understanding of work motivation and job satisfaction. The theory that is synonymous with his name—goal-setting theory—is perhaps the

neg: Emulation (observational learning) which is looking more closely at the learning on the object level. He distinguishes three forms: 1) learning physical properties of objects 2) learning the relationships among objects 3) understanding cause-and-effect relationships and changes of state of objects (e.g. "that a stick can be used as a rake"). Emulation has been researched in a diverse range of species, including humans. The methodology most often applied is the so-called ghost-condition – put forward by Cecilia Heyes and colleagues in 1994. Ghost condition demonstrations do not involve any information on body movements. Instead, the parts of the apparatus move as if a

neg: Observational learning aged 11 to 14 performed better on a motor performance task when they thought it was demonstrated by a high-status cheerleader than by a low-status model. Some have even added a step between attention and retention involving encoding a behavior. Observational learning leads to a change in an individual's behavior along three dimensions: According to Bandura's social cognitive learning theory, observational learning can affect behavior in many ways, with both positive and negative consequences. It can teach completely new behaviors, for one. It can also increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors that have previously been learned. Observational learning can

neg: Social learning theory socially and culturally have led to our success as a species. Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiology basis for social learning, observational learning, motor cognition and social cognition. Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans. Mirror neurons were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching the monkey motor activity tasks. One such study, focused on teaching primates to crack nuts with a hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nuts with a hammer, the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the hammer to

neg: Harvey Raymond Butcher Harvey Raymond Butcher Harvey Raymond Butcher III is an astronomer who has made significant contributions in observational astronomy and instrumentation which have advanced understanding of the formation of stars and of the universe. He received a B.Sc. in Astrophysics from the California Institute of Technology in 1969, where he contributed to the development of advanced infrared spectrometry applied in the first survey of the sky at infrared wavelengths (the Two Micron Sky Survey project). Butcher received his PhD from the Australian National University in 1974 for research involving the construction of one of the first high resolution echelle spectrographs in

neg: Harvey Raymond Butcher Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007. Harvey Raymond Butcher Harvey Raymond Butcher III is an astronomer who has made significant contributions in observational astronomy and instrumentation which have advanced understanding of the formation of stars and of the universe. He received a B.Sc. in Astrophysics from the California Institute of Technology in 1969, where he contributed to the development of advanced infrared spectrometry applied in the first survey of the sky at infrared wavelengths (the Two Micron Sky Survey project). Butcher received his PhD from the Australian National University in 1974 for research involving the construction of one

neg: Observational learning but other processes may be involved as well. Many behaviors that a learner observes, remembers, and imitates are actions that models display and display modeling, even though the model may not intentionally try to instill a particular behavior. A child may learn to swear, smack, smoke, and deem other inappropriate behavior acceptable through poor modeling. Bandura claims that children continually learn desirable and undesirable behavior through observational learning. Observational learning suggests that an individual's environment, cognition, and behavior all incorporate and ultimately determine how the individual functions and models. Through observational learning, individual behaviors can spread across a culture through

neg: Ur Early Dynastic IIIa period (approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC), contained immense amounts of luxury items made out of precious metals, and semi-precious stones, all of which would have required importation from long distances (Ancient Iran, Afghanistan, India, Asia Minor, the Levant and the Persian Gulf). This wealth, unparalleled up to then, is a testimony of Ur's economic importance during the Early Bronze Age. Archaeological research of the region has also contributed greatly to our understanding of the landscape and long-distance interactions that took place during these ancient times. Ur was a major port on the Persian Gulf,

neg: Charles Walters Jr. reveal that trace minerals and other elements present in sea water were optimum for growth and health of both land and sea life. Acres published Murray's "Sea Energy Agriculture" in 1976 and again in 2001. Largely ignored during his lifetime, Murray's lifelong quest contributed greatly to our understanding of the role of trace minerals in the healthy growth of all organisms on the planet. "Acres USA" was acquired by Swift Communications in 2016. In addition to writing and publishing hundreds of articles about Raw Material Economics in the pages of Acres USA, Walters authored three major works on the subject.

neg: Atmospheric chemistry observational databases Atmospheric chemistry observational databases Over the last two centuries many environmental chemical observations have been made from a variety of ground-based, airborne, and orbital platforms and deposited in databases. Many of these databases are publicly available. All of the instruments mentioned in this article give online public access to their data. These observations are critical in developing our understanding of the Earth's atmosphere and issues such as climate change, ozone depletion and air quality. Some of the external links provide repositories of many of these datasets in one place. For example, the Cambridge Atmospheric Chemical Database, is a large database

neg: Atmospheric chemistry observational databases in a uniform ASCII format. Each observation is augmented with the meteorological conditions such as the temperature, potential temperature, geopotential height, and equivalent PV latitude. Atmospheric chemistry observational databases Over the last two centuries many environmental chemical observations have been made from a variety of ground-based, airborne, and orbital platforms and deposited in databases. Many of these databases are publicly available. All of the instruments mentioned in this article give online public access to their data. These observations are critical in developing our understanding of the Earth's atmosphere and issues such as climate change, ozone depletion and air quality. Some

neg: Albert Bandura postulated a relationship of mutual influence between an agent and its environment, marked a radical departure from the dominant behaviorism of the time. Bandura's expanded array of conceptual tools allowed for more potent modeling of such phenomena as observational learning and self-regulation, and provided psychologists with a practical way in which to theorize about mental processes, in opposition to the mentalistic constructs of psychoanalysis and personology. When a psychologist such as Bandura invokes the self construct to explain human emotion, thought, and behavior, he or she is using exactly the same type of "mentalistic" constructs utilized by the psychodynamic theorists.

neg: Nicole Hahn Rafter in movies actually forms our understanding of everyday crime within society. She argues within this book that crime films produce social hierarchies within crime that are reproduced in everyday life. Depicting, for example, the sexualized female character and the villainous man. Therefore, Rafter greatly contributed to the literature on crime films and their reproduction in everyday crime. Northeastern University recognizes one of Rafter’s areas of expertise as biological theories of crime. Her historical account of eugenic family studies published in 1988 and, more recently, her book on the biological theories and writings of Earnest A. Hooton, have both been cited

neg: Henrietta Marie exposed and left the site. In 1983 through 1985 Henry Taylor, sub-contracting with Mel Fisher's company, excavated the wreck (known as the "English wreck") with the assistance of archaeologist David Moore. The wreck was identified when a bronze ship's bell carrying the inscription "The Henrietta Marie 1699" was found at the wreck site. Survey and excavation of the wreck site has continued at intervals. The "Henrietta Marie" wreck has yielded more than 7000 objects (and more than 30,000 glass beads), the largest collection of artifacts known from a slave ship. They have contributed greatly to our understanding of slave ships

neg: Donald O. Hebb (CSI) in Denver, Colorado in April 2011, Hebb was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism. Donald O. Hebb Donald Olding Hebb FRS (July 22, 1904 – August 20, 1985) was a Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He is best known for his theory of Hebbian learning, which he introduced in

neg: Observational learning of fish by staying near its mother. Observational learning is very beneficial when there are positive, reinforcing peer models involved. Although individuals go through four different stages for observational learning: attention; retention ; production; and motivation, this does not simply mean that when an individual's attention is captured that it automatically sets the process in that exact order. One of the most important ongoing stages for observational learning, especially among children, is motivation and positive reinforcement. Performance is enhanced when children are positively instructed on how they can improve a situation and where children actively participate alongside a more skilled

neg: Peter Marler 1996 to 2000. He died on July 5, 2014 of pneumonia while his family was evacuated from his Winters home because of the nearby Monticello wildfire. Marler was an internationally recognized researcher in the field of bird song. Through his work with songbirds, he helped gain fundamental insights into the acquisition of song. He also studied the development of communication skills in several primate species: chimpanzees and gorillas, along with Jane Goodall and Hugo van Lawick, and the southern green monkey, in collaboration with Tom Struhsaker, Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth. His work greatly informed our understanding of memory, learning,

neg: Observational learning person. Examples of this are scaffolding and guided participation. Scaffolding refers to an expert responding contingently to a novice so the novice gradually increases their understanding of a problem. Guided participation refers to an expert actively engaging in a situation with a novice so the novice participates with or observes the adult to understand how to resolve a problem. Cultural variation can be seen by the extent of information learned or absorbed by children in non-Western cultures through learning by observation. Cultural variation is not restricted only to ethnicity and nationality, but rather, extends to the specific practices within communities.

neg: Observational learning interested in the form of observational learning known as imitation and in how to distinguish imitation from other processes. To successfully make this distinction, one must separate the degree to which behavioral similarity results from (a) predisposed behavior, (b) increased motivation resulting from the presence of another animal, (c) attention drawn to a place or object, (d) learning about the way the environment works, as distinguished from what we think of as (e) imitation (the copying of the demonstrated behavior). Observational learning differs from imitative learning in that it does not require a duplication of the behavior exhibited by the

neg: Interlanguage knowledge of the target language sound system (interlanguage phonology), grammar (morphology and syntax), vocabulary (lexicon), and language-use norms found among learners (interlanguage pragmatics). By describing the ways in which learner language conforms to universal linguistic norms, interlanguage research has contributed greatly to our understanding of linguistic universals in second-language acquisition. Before the interlanguage hypothesis rose to prominence, the principal theory of second-language (L2) development was contrastive analysis. This theory assumed that learners' errors were caused by the difference between their L1 and L2. This approach was deficit-focused, in the sense that speech errors were thought to arise randomly and should

neg: Johannes Buchner off-pathway side reactions during protein maturation. Buchner’s work focuses on understanding mechanisms of molecular chaperones in a quantitative and mechanistic manner. His work has contributed to our understanding of the chaperone cycle of the bacterial chaperone GroEL and now lays a particular emphasis on small heat shock proteins (sHsps), the Hsp90 chaperone machinery and the role of molecular chaperones in antibody folding. Buchner’s work established sHsps as molecular chaperones and has significantly contributed to our understanding of their function and mode of activation. His work on antibody folding delivered important insight in the mechanisms of how antibodies fold and are

neg: Kelly McGonigal that choosing to view one's stress response as helpful creates the "biology of courage", while connecting with others under stress can create resilience. According to McGonigal, "[t]he old understanding of stress as an unhelpful relic of our animal instincts is being replaced by the understanding that stress actually makes us socially smart – it's what allows us to be fully human." Kelly McGonigal Kelly McGonigal (born October 21, 1977) is a health psychologist and lecturer at Stanford University who is known for her work in the field of 'science help' which focuses on translating insights from psychology and neuroscience into

neg: Alex (parrot) Alex (parrot) Alex (May 1976 – 6 September 2007) was a grey parrot and the subject of a thirty-year experiment by animal psychologist Irene Pepperberg, initially at the University of Arizona and later at Harvard University and Brandeis University. When Alex was about one year old, Pepperberg bought him at a pet shop. The name "Alex" was an acronym for "avian language experiment", or "avian learning experiment". Before Pepperberg's work with Alex, it was widely believed in the scientific community that a large primate brain was needed to handle complex problems related to language and understanding; birds were not considered

neg: Three degrees of influence affect our friends' friends, and so on. However, across a broad set of empirical settings, using both observational and experimental methods, they observed that the effect seems, in many cases, to no longer be meaningful at a social horizon of three degrees. Christakis and Fowler examined phenomena from various domains, such as obesity, happiness, cooperation, and voting. Investigations by other groups have subsequently explored many other phenomena in this way (including crime, social learning, etc.). Influence dissipates after three degrees (to and from friends’ friends’ friends) for three reasons, Christakis and Fowler propose: Initial studies using observational data by Christakis

neg: Oppositional defiant disorder will go through five stages before displaying behaviors: encoding, mental representations, response accessing, evaluation and enactment. However, children with ODD have cognitive distortions and impaired cognitive processes. This will therefore directly impact their interactions and relationship negatively. It has been shown that social and cognitive impairments result in negative peer relationships, loss of friendship and an interruption in socially engaging in activities. Children learn through observational learning and social learning. Therefore, observations of models have a direct impact and greatly influence children's behaviors and decision-making processes. Children often learn through modeling behavior. Modeling can act as a powerful tool to

neg: Observational learning involvement of the inexperienced, or the children in this matter, can either be furthered by the children’s learning or advancing into the activity performed by the assessment of observational learning. Indigenous communities rely on observational learning as a way for their children to be a part of ongoing activities in the community (Tharp, 2006). Although learning in the Indigenous American communities is not always the central focus when participating in an activity, studies have shown that attention in intentional observation differs from accidental observation. Intentional participation is “keen observation and listening in anticipation of, or in the process of engaging

neg: Language-based learning disability directions, understanding and retaining the details of a story's plot or a classroom lecture, nonword repetition, learning words to songs and rhymes, and identifying the sounds that correspond to letters, which makes learning to read difficult Difficulties associated with motor skills include difficulty telling left from right which is part of motor incoordination, visual perceptual problems, and memory problem 15–20% of the children in the United States have a language-based learning disability. Of the students with specific learning disabilities receiving special education services, 70–80% have a discrepancy in reading. A speech-language pathologist (SLP), psychologist, social worker, and sometimes neurologist work

neg: Andrew N. Meltzoff (desires, visual perception and basic emotions, for instance). This hypothesis suggests that it is imitation that is inborn, and the understanding of other's mental states is a consequence. Other researchers have suggested the opposite, that imitation is a consequence of an understanding of others. But Meltzoff's early imitation studies clearly favor the former possibility. Andrew N. Meltzoff Andrew N. Meltzoff (born February 9, 1950) is an American psychologist and an internationally recognized expert on infant and child development. His discoveries about infant imitation greatly advanced the scientific understanding of early cognition, personality and brain development. Meltzoff received a B.A. from

neg: Leon Kamin Leon Kamin Leon J. Kamin (December 29, 1927 – December 22, 2017) was an American psychologist known for his contributions to learning theory and his critique of estimates of the heritability of IQ. He studied under Richard Solomon at Harvard and contributed several important ideas about conditioning, including the "blocking effect". Born in Taunton, Massachusetts, Kamin studied psychology at Harvard. While a Harvard undergraduate, he had been a member of the Communist Party, but he had dropped out of the party by 1950. Later, while a graduate student, Kamin was subpoenaed by the McCarthy Committee, where he refused to name

neg: Neurogenomics temporally and spatially distinct sets of differentially expressed genes. Pathway analysis of these genes has indicated possible roles in neurogenesis and anxiety-related behavioural responses, alongside other functional and phenotypic observations. Mice models for brain research have contributed significantly to drug development and increased our understanding of the genomic underpinnings of several neurological diseases in the last generation. Chlorpromazine, the first antipsychotic drug (discovered in 1951), was identified as a viable treatment option after it was shown to suppress response to aversive stimuli in rats in a behavioural screen. The modelling and assessment of latent symptoms (thoughts, verbal learning, social interactions,

neg: Sleep spindle sleep and online learning periods. Studies have shown that the influence of sleep spindles during the declarative memory process may be affected by modulatory menstrual cycle effects in females. These findings have contributed to a proposed waxing and waning effect of estrogen on the memory performance of women due to fluctuating estrogen levels, which could potentially predict a decrease in memory performance during menses. Because of the novelty of these studies, the waxing and waning effect has been overlooked in every prior study. Because sleep spindle production is synonymous with declarative memory consolidation, our understanding of declarative memory has potentially

neg: Observational learning and used in another situation or the same. Apprenticeship can involve both observational learning and modelling. Apprentices gain their skills in part through working with masters in their profession and through observing and evaluating the work of their fellow apprentices.Examples include renaissance inventor/painter Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, before succeeding in their profession they were apprentices. Michael Tomasello described various ways of observational learning without the process of imitation in animals (ethology): Exposure- Individuals learn about their environment with a close proximity to other individuals that have more experience. For example, a young dolphin learning the location of a plethora

neg: Observational learning acquire important personal and social skills by imitating a social model. Deferred imitation is an important developmental milestone in a two-year-old, in which children not only construct symbolic representations, but can also remember information. Unlike toddlers, children of elementary school age are less likely to rely on imagination to represent an experience. Instead, they can verbally describe the model's behavior. Since this form of learning does not need reinforcement, it is more likely to occur regularly. As age increases, age-related observational learning motor skills may decrease in athletes and golfers. Younger and skilled golfers have higher observational learning compared to

neg: Émile Prisse d'Avennes by the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, as a civil engineer. He spent many years living as an Egyptian, adopting the name Idriss-effendi, learning to speak Arabic and practicing Islam. He stated that adopting Egyptian culture resulted in a greater understanding of Egyptian society and people. In 1848, he contributed 30 lithograph images depicting the people living on the Nile Valley to a costume book titled "Oriental Album" written by James Augustus St. John who was a British author and traveler. Émile Prisse d'Avennes Achille-Constant-Théodore-Émile Prisse d'Avennes (27 January 1807, Avesnes-sur-Helpe – 16 February 1879, Paris) was a French archaeologist,

neg: Observational learning task and also fire when an individual passively observes another individual performing the same motor task. In observational motor learning, the process begins with a visual presentation of another individual performing a motor task, this acts as a model. The learner then needs to transform the observed visual information into internal motor commands that will allow them to perform the motor task, this is known as visuomotor transformation. Mirror neuron networks provide a mechanism for visuo-motor and motor-visual transformation and interaction. Similar networks of mirror neurons have also been implicated in social learning, motor cognition and social cognition. Observational learning

neg: Reading education in the United States experience, and we can adjust and change those plans as we go along." Some authors specify two types of prior knowledge necessary for successful comprehension. World knowledge aids in understanding fiction and domain-specific knowledge facilitates comprehension of nonfiction. Students who lack this, request background information, so as to make connections with and within the text. Another learning principle that greatly influences reading comprehension is the use of metacognition. The 'metacognitive' approach to instruction can help students learn to take control of their own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving them." A great deal of research

neg: Arifin Bey foreigners. Part of the citation is as follows: "… during your more than twenty years’ stay in Japan, you have shown a deep understanding of this country and its people …As an international political scientist who understands our culture and our way of thinking, you are uniquely positioned among Indonesian intellectuals. …You have served as a kind of moral compass for Japanese diplomacy towards Asia, and for Japanese comprehension of fellow Asian peoples. You have contributed to the promotion of mutual understanding between Japan and Indonesia and to the spread of international political studies in Japan." At the age of

neg: Vladimir Bekhterev short, dry hand’. The day after, Bekhterev suddenly died, causing speculation that he was poisoned by Stalin as revenge for the diagnosis. Moreover, after Bekhterev's death, Stalin had Bekhterev's name and all of his works removed from Soviet textbooks. Vladimir Bekhterev contributions to science and specifically psychology were impressive. Bekhterev was a huge force in the science of neurology; greatly enhancing our knowledge on how the brain works as well as the parts of the brain. For instance, his research on the hippocampus allowed for the understanding of one of the most central portions of the brain vital to our

neg: Vesna Milosevic-Zdjelar as one of their experts, specializing in astrobiology. Milosevic-Zdjelar co-authored Canada's first textbook on introductory astronomy, as part of the Astro learning series. In 2017, she spoke at the University of Winnipeg's TedX conference about overcoming our physical limitations in understanding the universe. According to the University of Winnipeg, Milosevic-Zdjelar has contributed significantly in areas of science education, when applied to non-science students, as well as building community awareness through outreach programs. She is a coordinator of the local chapter of Let's Talk Science, a national award-winning organization which helps children and teens learn about science, technology, engineering and mathematics

neg: Ellen Bialystok years. Among her extensive list of publications in the form of books, scientific research articles, and book chapters, Bialystok has made a name for herself as an esteemed researcher and received much recognition in doing so, including: On June 30, 2016, Bialystok was named an Officer of the Order of Canada by Governor General David Johnston for "her contributions to our understanding of the cognitive benefits of bilingualism and for opening up new avenues of research in her field". Ellen Bialystok Ellen Bialystok, OC, FRSC (born 1948) is a Canadian psychologist and professor. She carries the rank of Distinguished Research

neg: Wolfgang Wagner (social psychologist) directly compared in statistical terms, e.g. by calculating the mean. Before doing the statistics it is necessary to show that an items that are supposed to measure the same issue across cultures take a similar position within the structure of all assessed questionnaire items in each of the cultural samples. This test can usually be done with non-parametric structural statistics. In the field of public understanding of science, Wolfgang Wagner and Nicole Kronberger contributed to the understanding of media and representation interactions. Much of his empirical research is on people’s understanding of biotechnology, genetic engineering and synthetic biology. The data

neg: Larissa Samuelson names of the substances. Their results support the view that toddlers' learning of words is contextually bound; that is, toddlers benefit from learning new words for substances in a context that they already associate with food. Larissa Samuelson Larissa Samuelson is an American psychologist known for her exploration in the fields of word learning, cognitive development, and the use of dynamic systems as a framework for understanding the developmental process. She is Professor at the School of Psychology of the University of East Anglia. Samuelson was the recipient of the 2010 Award for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions to Psychology

neg: Observational learning a community. Observational learning can be seen taking place in many domains of Indigenous communities. The classroom setting is one significant example, and it functions differently for Indigenous communities compared to what is commonly present in Western schooling. The emphasis of keen observation in favor of supporting participation in ongoing activities strives to aid children to learn the important tools and ways of their community. Engaging in shared endeavors – with both the experienced and inexperienced – allows for the experienced to understand what the inexperienced need in order to grow in regards to the assessment of observational learning. The

neg: George C. Homans behavioral psychology applied to specific situations. Homans looked to Émile Durkheim's work for guidance as well, but often disagreed in the end with particular components of Durkheim's theories. For example, Durkheim believed that although individuals are clearly the component parts of society, society is more than the individuals who constitute it. He believed that society could be studied without reducing it to individuals and their motivations. Homans, through his Exchange Theory, believed that individual beings and behavior are relevant to understanding society. Although George Homans contributed greatly to the Exchange Theory and his work on it is greatly admired, he

neg: Dorothea Jameson perceptual processes and so recruited researches to work on visual perception. In 1957, Jameson together with her husband Hurvich provided quantitative data for Hering's opponent process color theory. It was called the "hue cancellation method". Hue cancellation experiments start with a color (e.g. yellow) and attempt to determine how much of the opponent color (e.g. blue) of one of the starting color's components must be added to eliminate any hint of that component from the starting color. Dorothea Jameson Dorothea Jameson (November 16, 1920 – April 12, 1998) was a cognitive psychologist who greatly contributed to the field of color

neg: Dorothea Jameson Dorothea Jameson Dorothea Jameson (November 16, 1920 – April 12, 1998) was a cognitive psychologist who greatly contributed to the field of color and vision. Jameson was born in Newton, Massachusetts. She went to Wellesley College. She elected psychology as her major in her first year because she was "intrigued that freshmen required special permission to enroll". She graduated in 1942. While at Welleseley she volunteered as a research assistant at Harvard, where she met her future husband, Leo Hurvich. They married in 1948. She was later appointed as a full professor of the University of Pennsylvania in 1972. She

neg: Glucose abandoned in favor of the D- and L-notation, which refers to the absolute configuration of the asymmetric center farthest from the carbonyl group, and in concordance with the configuration of D- or L-glyceraldehyde. Since glucose is a basic necessity of many organisms, a correct understanding of its chemical makeup and structure contributed greatly to a general advancement in organic chemistry. This understanding occurred largely as a result of the investigations of Emil Fischer, a German chemist who received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his findings. The synthesis of glucose established the structure of organic material and consequently formed

neg: Intercultural learning mentioned above. Examples: Of particular importance to intercultural learning is understanding cultural differences in learning processes. Intercultural learning programs could benefit greatly from the analysis of cultural trends in these processes. By doing so, educators can see how indigenous people of America are affected by classroom norms. In indigenous American ways of learning, children are included in the community and have lots of experience collaborating with each other and adults in productive ways. Analysis of cultural differences in learning can provide new and useful insight that can be applied to intercultural learning practice. In other words, learning trends in students'

neg: Learning commons learning commons reflects a marked shift in our conception of the library, a shift that is driven by our evolving understanding of the library’s role in supporting student learning. The emergence of the learning commons as a central element in contemporary library design offers an opportunity to transform the library’s role on campus from a provider of information to a facilitator of learning. Often, libraries and learning commons share responsibility for delivering college-wide outcomes: developing effective research strategies, finding and evaluating the appropriateness of resource materials for a particular topic, honing effective oral and written communication skills, and promoting good

neg: M. L. J. Abercrombie M. L. J. Abercrombie M. L. J. "Jane" Abercrombie was a British psychologist who contributed to the theory and practice of education through her teaching, research, lecturing and writing. In particular, she carried out pioneer research into the use of groups in learning with medical, architectural and education students, and she shared with diverse audiences in many countries her extensive knowledge and expertise as a teacher who used the methods and principles of group analytic psychotherapy. Abercrombie investigated why medical students who were able to solve problems, when presented in a familiar format, were unable to do so when the

neg: M. L. J. Abercrombie own work with students. M. L. J. Abercrombie M. L. J. "Jane" Abercrombie was a British psychologist who contributed to the theory and practice of education through her teaching, research, lecturing and writing. In particular, she carried out pioneer research into the use of groups in learning with medical, architectural and education students, and she shared with diverse audiences in many countries her extensive knowledge and expertise as a teacher who used the methods and principles of group analytic psychotherapy. Abercrombie investigated why medical students who were able to solve problems, when presented in a familiar format, were unable to

neg: Alchemy he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the "hieros gamos" or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes) that influence all of life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology

neg: Observational learning older golfers and less skilled golfers. Humans use observational Moleen causal learning to watch other people’s actions and use the information gained to find out how something works and how we can do it ourselves. A study of 25-month-old infants found that they can learn causal relations from observing human interventions. They also learn by observing normal actions not created by intentional human action. Observational learning is presumed to have occurred when an organism copies an improbable action or action outcome that it has observed and the matching behavior cannot be explained by an alternative mechanism. Psychologists have been particularly

neg: Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues Policy Work grants. Gordon Allport (1897 – 1967) was an American psychologist and past president of SPSSI. Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology. He emphasized the uniqueness of each individual, and the importance of the present context, as opposed to past history, for understanding the personality. Jerome Bruner (born 1915) is an American psychologist and past president of SPSSI. He has made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Kenneth Clark

neg: Observational learning low confidence statements to high task performances and high confidence statements. The day following the exposures to each condition, the children were reassessed. Finally, the children were also assessed a few days later for a follow up assessment. Upon reassessment, it was shown that the two model groups who watched videos of children similar in age had successful rates on the skills assessed because they perceived the models as informational and motivational. Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiological basis for observational learning. These specialized visuomotor neurons fire action potentials when an individual performs a motor

neg: Peter O'Connor (psychologist) "Good Weekend" magazine. O'Connor is the author of a number of books, including "Mirror on Marriage" (1973), "Understanding Jung" (1985), "Dreams and the Search for Meaning" (1986), "The Inner Man" (1993), "Looking Inwards" (2003) and "Understanding the Mid-Life Crisis" (1981) which is his best-known and most influential work. "Understanding the Mid-Life Crisis" is in its eighth printing. Peter O'Connor (psychologist) Peter A. O’Connor is a retired psychologist who had a private psychotherapy practice in Melbourne, Australia. O'Connor was born in Melbourne in 1942. A graduate of Melbourne University, he was Director of Counselling at the Marriage Guidance Council of Victoria

neg: Burton's yellow-shouldered bat Burton's yellow-shouldered bat Burton's yellow-shouldered bat ("Sturnira burtonlimi") is a species of leaf-nosed bat found in Panama and Costa Rica. It was described as a new species in 2014. The holotype had been collected in March 1995 by Burton K. Lim, who is the eponym for the species name ""burtonlimi"." Of Lim, Velazco and Patterson wrote that he "is a tireless fieldworker whose research has contributed much to our understanding of the diversity, relationships, and biogeography of tropical mammals." Burton's yellow-shouldered bat is considered medium-sized for its genus, with a forearm length of approximately . Individuals weigh approximately . The

neg: Michael Owren representational messages, as occurs in human language. These arguments have been widely discussed and debated in volumes devoted to the study of animal behavior and communication. Michael Owren Michael J. Owren (July 9, 1955 – January 15, 2014) was a Norwegian born American psychologist who contributed to the understanding of animal communication, the evolution of language, emotional communication, and vocal acoustics. His work focused on vocal phenomena in animals and humans. He pioneered digital spectral analysis techniques, first developed in speech science, for use in studies of animal communication. He studied primate vocalizations in terms of acoustics and communicative functions.

neg: Buddhism and psychology the inadequacy of Psychologist attempts to comprehend "satori" through the lens of intellectualism, Jung nonetheless contends that due to their shared goal of self transformation: "The only movement within our culture which partly has, and partly should have, some understanding of these aspirations [for such enlightenment] is psychotherapy." Referencing Jung and Suzuki's collaboration as well as the efforts of others, humanistic philosopher and psychoanalyst Erich Fromm noted that: "There is an unmistakable and increasing interest in Zen Buddhism among psychoanalysts". One influential psychoanalyst who explored Zen was Karen Horney, who traveled to Japan in 1952 to meet with Suzuki and

neg: Eleanor J. Gibson Eleanor J. Gibson Eleanor Jack Gibson (7 December 1910 – 30 December 2002) was an American psychologist who focused on reading development and perceptual learning in infants and toddlers. In the 1960s and 1970s Gibson, with her husband James J. Gibson, created the Gibsonian ecological theory of development which emphasized how important perception was because it allows humans to adapt to their environments. Perhaps her most well-known contribution to psychology was the "visual cliff", which studied depth perception and visual or motor impairments in both human and animal species. This led to a new understanding of perceptual development in infants.

neg: Michael Owren Michael Owren Michael J. Owren (July 9, 1955 – January 15, 2014) was a Norwegian born American psychologist who contributed to the understanding of animal communication, the evolution of language, emotional communication, and vocal acoustics. His work focused on vocal phenomena in animals and humans. He pioneered digital spectral analysis techniques, first developed in speech science, for use in studies of animal communication. He studied primate vocalizations in terms of acoustics and communicative functions. Owren studied and worked in the United States and New Zealand. He received a B.A. in psychology from Reed College in 1977 and a Ph.D. in

neg: Robert L. Linn Robert L. Linn Robert L. Linn (June 29, 1938 – December 8, 2015) was an American educational psychologist who has made notable contributions to the understanding of educational assessments. He has studied technical and policy issues relating to the application of test data, and the effects of high-stakes testing on teaching and learning. He is a professor emeritus at the University of Colorado, past president of the American Educational Research Association and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), and former editor of the "Journal of Educational Measurement". He completed his PhD and MA in educational psychology at the

neg: John Bowlby in return, psychoanalysts rejected his theory. At about the same time, Bowlby's former colleague Mary Ainsworth was completing extensive observational studies on the nature of infant attachments in Uganda with Bowlby's ethological theories in mind. Her results in this and other studies contributed greatly to the subsequent evidence base of attachment theory as presented in 1969 in "Attachment", the first volume of the "Attachment and Loss" trilogy. The second and third volumes, "Separation: Anxiety and Anger" and "Loss: Sadness and Depression", followed in 1972 and 1980 respectively. "Attachment" was revised in 1982 to incorporate recent research. According to attachment theory,

neg: Dog training observational learning in that the dog actively participates in the behavior in the presence of the other dog and/or other environmental cues. Four necessary conditions for observational learning are: attention, retention, motivation, and production. That is, the dog must pay attention to the dog or person performing the modelled behavior; retain the information gathered about the behavior during the observation; be motivated to reproduce the behavior in a time and place removed from the original; and finally, produce the behavior, or some reasonable facsimile thereof. Pups between the ages of 9–12 weeks who were permitted to observe their narcotics-detecting mothers

neg: James Olds the Bing Professor of Behavioral Biology at the California Institute of Technology where he continued his research and led a large lab until his death in a swimming accident in August 1976. His last work was aimed at understanding the mechanisms of learning and memory. James Olds James Olds (May 30, 1922 – August 21, 1976) was an American psychologist who co-discovered the pleasure center of the brain with Peter Milner while he was a postdoctoral fellow at McGill University in 1954. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern neuroscience and received numerous distinctions ranging from

neg: A Child of Our Time summarises the work's continuing appeal: "[I]t deals with issues as timeless as civilization itself—man's inhumanity to man, the place of the individual who confronts ruthless power ... the need for learning the lessons of history and for compassion and understanding and honesty and equality in our dealings with each other, whatever our differences may be. Tippett's Child still speaks profoundly to us in our own deeply troubled time". Kemp describes Tippett's central problem in composing "A Child of Our Time" as integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style. Tippett was, in Kemp's view, entirely successful in

neg: Perceptual learning in a state of dormancy due to a shift in focus to perceptual and cognitive development in infancy. Much of the scientific community tended to underestimate the impact of learning compared with innate mechanisms. Thus, most of this research focused on characterizing basic perceptual capacities of young infants rather than on perceptual learning processes. Since the mid-1980s, there has been a new wave of interest in perceptual learning due to findings of cortical plasticity at the lowest sensory levels of sensory systems. Our increased understanding of the physiology and anatomy of our cortical systems has been used to connect the

neg: Achievement gap in the United States access to information on the web gives students an advantage to learning. “Students at all levels show more interest in their work and their ability to locate and reflect upon their work is greatly enhanced as are the opportunities for collaborative learning” (Richardson, p. 28). Weblogs are different from posts or comments; they require students to analyze and synthesize the content and communicate their understanding with the audience responses in mind. Technology has been incorporated into the Standards. Even though the NCLB Act holds school districts accountable for student achievement, there are still many students who do not have the

neg: Motivation in second-language learning successes or failures plays a critical role in our motivation in future endeavors in that area. Consistent with this theory, Ushioda identified two attributional patterns associated with positive motivational outcomes in language learning. The first involves attributing one’s successes in learning the language to personal factors, while the second involves attributing one’s failures to temporary forces which may be overcome. This cognitive perspective arose from a supposed “constructivist movement” that stemmed mostly from the work of Jean Piaget and that also encompassed personal construct psychology (developed by George Kelly (psychologist)). This model suggests a constructive nature of the learning process

neg: Con Sciacca the community. Many will remember Con for the small gestures and gifts that he gave of his time, knowledge, experience and perception, as much as for his greater contribution to our community. An iconic Queenslander who contributed much to the Queensland we live in today, particularly to our veterans in his role as Minister for Veterans’ Affairs, Con’s legacy will live on. Con will be greatly missed by his family, friends and colleagues. Our love and thoughts go to his wife his daughter Zina and granddaughter Grace. We thank them for sharing Con with us with such generosity" Sciacca was

neg: Roger Brown (psychologist) may be the key to understanding how parts of speech affect cognition. He hypothesized that nouns “tend to have” semantic characteristics contrary to verbs and that speakers pick up these semantic inconsistencies when learning English. To test the hypothesis, an evaluation of nouns and verbs used by children learning English and English speaking adults was completed to identify whether or not the nouns and verbs used had clear semantic differences. The examination showed that child use of nouns and verbs had clear semantic distinctions as opposed to adults. With this result, Brown also questioned if children were conscious of their

neg: Reuven Feuerstein of mediated learning experience (MLE) in their native culture and who face the challenges of adapting to a new culture. These children are expected to have good learning potential. On the contrary, culturally "deprived" are those children who were deprived on MLE in their native culture or children who show a reduction in learning potential. Comparisons have also been made between Feuerstein's theories and those of the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky viewed a child's interaction with the world as mediated by symbolic tools provided by the given culture. Like the social psychologist, Feuerstein gave further insight on cognitive functioning

neg: Choor Singh (1991), "Understanding Sikhism" (1994; later edition, 2001) and "Who is a Sikh?" (2004). Associate Professor Dr. Kirpal Singh, a writer and literary editor with the Singapore Management University, penned in the foreword to the 2001 edition of "Understanding Sikhism" that Singh had managed "to 'engage' the reader through the strategy of writing simply, honestly and without any pretense". Placing great importance on learning, Singh contributed to Sikh educational charities and other educational causes. He was a trustee of the Singapore Sikh Education Foundation that was inaugurated in 1990 to teach Punjabi to children, and a life member of the Singapore

neg: Claire V. Broome the country are now implementing one or more NEDSS functions. She also served as CDC's participant in national public private consortia to accelerate standards based Electronic Health Records. At the CDC, Broome contributed to the understanding of several diseases of high public interest including Legionnaires' Disease, pneumococcal vaccine evaluation, meningococcal disease and Toxic Shock Syndrome. Notable accomplishments included development of a new method for observational measurement of the effectiveness of the pneumoccal polysaccharide vaccine (the "indirect cohort" or "Broome" method), which has been used since then to assess serotype specific effectiveness, duration of effectiveness, and effectiveness in groups with underlying

neg: Gypsy Blood Gypsy Blood Gypsy Blood is a British feature-length observational documentary which examines the fighting culture that Romani fathers hand on to their sons. It was filmed over two years by the photographer Leo Maguire and produced by the production company ClearStory. Its main subjects are Hughie Doherty, who becomes embroiled in a fight to defend his family’s name, and his young son Francie, who is portrayed living between two worlds, shown learning to read at primary school while sparring and hunting at the travellers’ campsite. The film also follows the story of Fred Butcher, a Romany who nearly dies during

neg: Psychology of learning the "Law of Effect" in 1898. According to this theory, humans and other animals learn behaviors through trial-and-error methods. Once a functioning solution is found, these behaviors are likely to be repeated during the same or similar task. It was his work on learning theory that resulted in operant conditioning within behaviorism. His theory of operant conditioning is learning from the consequences of our actions and behavior. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) was a Russian physiologist, who contributed to research on learning. Knowing that a hungry dog salivates when food is present, he performed a series of experiments and trained dogs

neg: Robert L. Linn University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Linn died in LaGrange Park, Illinois in December 2015 at the age of 77. Robert L. Linn Robert L. Linn (June 29, 1938 – December 8, 2015) was an American educational psychologist who has made notable contributions to the understanding of educational assessments. He has studied technical and policy issues relating to the application of test data, and the effects of high-stakes testing on teaching and learning. He is a professor emeritus at the University of Colorado, past president of the American Educational Research Association and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), and