query: form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants

pos: Carbohydrate and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is CHO. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, "O"-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose is "O"-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses

pos: Vascular plant and transported throughout the plant by the xylem. Organic compounds such as sucrose produced by photosynthesis in leaves are distributed by the phloem sieve tube elements. The xylem consists of vessels in flowering plants and tracheids in other vascular plants, which are dead hard-walled hollow cells arranged to form files of tubes that function in water transport. A tracheid cell wall usually contains the polymer lignin. The phloem however consists of living cells called sieve-tube members. Between the sieve-tube members are sieve plates, which have pores to allow molecules to pass through. Sieve-tube members lack such organs as nuclei or

pos: Mycorrhiza factors. The mycorrhizal mutualistic association provides the fungus with relatively constant and direct access to carbohydrates, such as glucose and sucrose. The carbohydrates are translocated from their source (usually leaves) to root tissue and on to the plant's fungal partners. In return, the plant gains the benefits of the mycelium's higher absorptive capacity for water and mineral nutrients, partly because of the large surface area of fungal hyphae, which are much longer and finer than plant root hairs, and partly because some such fungi can mobilize soil minerals unavailable to the plants' roots. The effect is thus to improve the

pos: Nasuia deltocephalinicola Nasuia deltocephalinicola Nasuia deltocephalinicola was recently discovered to have the smallest genome of all bacteria, with 112,091 nucleotides. For comparison, the human genome has 3.2 billion nucleotides. The second smallest genome, from bacteria "Tremblaya princeps", has 139,000 nucleotides. While "Nasuia deltocephalinicola" has the smallest number of nucleotides it has more protein-coding genes than some bacteria, with 137 protein-coding genes. "Nasuia deltocephalinicola" was discovered when leafhoppers and other phloem and xylem-feeding insects were investigated for endosymbiotic bacteria. The phloem and xylem of plants are rich in carbohydrates, in the form of sucrose, but lack lipids and proteins. Lipids can be synthesized

pos: Cooking plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi. Cooks also use water and minerals such as salt. Cooks can also use wine or spirits. Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called "proteins", "carbohydrates" and "fats". They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules. Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism Carbohydrate metabolism Various biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from sunlight internally. When animals and fungi consume plants, they use cellular respiration to break down these stored carbohydrates to make energy available to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily store the released energy in the form of high energy molecules, such as ATP, for use in various cellular processes. Although humans consume a variety of carbohydrates, digestion

neg: Alpine plant ecology is wind in an area. Wind pruning is a common sight within northern alpine regions. Along with wind pruning, wind erosion of vegetation mats is a common sight throughout Alaska. Long-lived perennial herbs are the most common type of plant in alpine environments, with most having a large, well-developed root and/or rhizome system. These underground systems store carbohydrates through the winter which are then used in the spring for new shoot development. Some species of saxifrages have small root systems, but are evergreen. The leaves of these plants store energy in the form of carbohydrates and lipids. Alpine plants

neg: Fatty acid always bound to a transport protein, such as albumin. Fatty acids are usually produced industrially by the hydrolysis of triglycerides, with the removal of glycerol (see oleochemicals). Phospholipids represent another source. Some fatty acids are produced synthetically by hydrocarboxylation of alkenes. In animals, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver, adipose tissue, and the mammary glands during lactation. Carbohydrates are converted into pyruvate by glycolysis as the first important step in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids. Pyruvate is then decarboxylated to form acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into

neg: Lipid represents a key step in models of abiogenesis, the origin of life. Triglycerides, stored in adipose tissue, are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants. They are a major source of energy because carbohydrates are fully reduced structures. In comparison to glycogen which would contribute only half of the energy per its pure mass, triglyceride carbons are all bonded to hydrogens, unlike in carbohydrates. The adipocyte, or fat cell, is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals, with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone-sensitive enzyme lipase. The complete oxidation of fatty

neg: Storage organ generically called root vegetables, although this phrase should not be taken to imply that the class only includes true roots. Succulents are plants which are adapted to withstand periods of drought by their ability to store moisture in specialized storage organs. Storage organ A storage organ is a part of a plant specifically modified for storage of energy (generally in the form of carbohydrates) or water. Storage organs often grow underground, where they are better protected from attack by herbivores. Plants that have an underground storage organ are called geophytes in the Raunkiær plant life-form classification system. Storage organs often,

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol). In some animals (such as termites) and some microorganisms (such as protists and bacteria), cellulose can be disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose. Carbohydrate metabolism Various biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from

neg: Plant to plant communication via mycorrhizal networks help plants in mycorrhizal networks defend themselves against attack by pathogens or herbivores, and transferred nutrients can affect growth and nutrition. Results of studies which demonstrate these modes of communication have led the authors to hypothesize mechanisms by which the transfer of these nutrients can affect the fitness of the connected plants. Plants and fungi form mutualistic symbiotic relationships called mycorrhizae, which take several forms, such as arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) and ectomycorrhizae (ECM), and are widespread in nature. Host plants provide photosynthetically derived carbohydrates to the mycorrhizal fungi, which use them in metabolism, either for energy or to increase the

neg: Storage organ Storage organ A storage organ is a part of a plant specifically modified for storage of energy (generally in the form of carbohydrates) or water. Storage organs often grow underground, where they are better protected from attack by herbivores. Plants that have an underground storage organ are called geophytes in the Raunkiær plant life-form classification system. Storage organs often, but not always, act as perennating organs which enable plants to survive adverse conditions (such as cold, excessive heat, lack of light or drought). Storage organs may act as perennating organs ('perennating' as in perennial, meaning "through the year", used in

neg: Carbohydrate for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 9 kJ (4 kcal) of energy, while the oxidation of

neg: Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry Craig–Gordon model, it can be understood that leaf water in the growth chamber gasses is significantly D-enriched due to transpiration. The relative global abundance of D in plants is in the following order: phenylpropanoids > carbohydrates > bulk material > hydrolysable lipids > steroids. In plants, δD values of carbohydrates, which typically range around -70‰ to -140‰, are good indicators of the photosynthetic metabolism. Photosynthetically produced Hydrogens which are bound to carbon backbones are around 100-170‰ more D-depleted than the water found in plant tissues. The heterotrophic processing of carbohydrates involves isomerization of triose phosphates and interconversion between fructose-6-phosphate and

neg: Root mucilage as their linkages, scientists have determined the presence of pectin, arabinogalactan proteins, xyloglucan, arabinan, and xylan, which are plant-specific polysaccharides within the root mucilage of plants. Plants use up to 60% of their energy secreting root mucilage, which they generate from photosynthesis that takes place in the leaves. Root mucilage plays a role in developing a symbiotic relationship with the soil-dwelling fungi. This important relationship is known to affect 94% of land plants, and benefits plants by increasing water and nutrient uptake from the soil, particularly phosphorus. In return, the fungi receive food in the form of carbohydrates from the

neg: Spawn (biology) sunset time, and possibly chemical signalling. Synchronous spawning may form hybrids and is perhaps involved in coral speciation. In some places the spawn can be visually dramatic, clouding the usually clear water with gametes, typically at night. Corals use two methods for sexual reproduction, which differ in whether the female gametes are released: Fungi are not plants, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium,

neg: Metabolism in the sphingolipids, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids. Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways. The two nucleic

neg: Photoautotropic tissue culture Photoautotropic tissue culture Photoautotrophic tissue culture is defined as "micropropagation without sugar in the culture medium, in which the growth or accumulation of carbohydrates of cultures is dependent fully upon photosynthesis and inorganic nutrient uptake". There are multiple advantages to using this form of propagation, because this system actively encourages plant growth. Namely, there are lower contamination rates due to the lack of sugar in the growing medium, and more catering to plants that aren't able to be successfully multiplied by conventional means. Many plants have trouble being propagated to due physiological or morphological inhibitions that make root formation difficult

neg: Phytoremediation process occurs within the rhizosphere, which is the layer of soil that surrounds the roots. Plants release carbohydrates and acids that stimulate microorganism activity which results in the biodegradation of the organic contaminants. This means that the microorganisms are able to digest and break down the toxic substances into harmless form. Phytostimulation has been shown to be effective in degrading petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, and PAHs. Phytostimulation can also involve aquatic plants supporting active populations of microbial degraders, as in the stimulation of atrazine degradation by hornwort. Phytovolatilization is the removal of substances from soil or water with release into the

neg: Malate synthase cycle. The glyoxylate cycle, facilitated by malate synthase and isocitrate lyase, allows plants and bacteria to subsist on acetyl-CoA or other two carbon compounds. For example, "Euglena gracilis", a single-celled eukaryotic alga, consumes ethanol to form acetyl-CoA and subsequently, carbohydrates. Within germinating plants, the glyoxylate cycle allows the conversion of reserve lipids into carbohydrates within glyoxysomes. Malate synthase is found as an octamer of identical subunits (each roughly 60kDa) in some plants, including maize. It is found as a homotetramer in the fungus "Candida" and as a homodimer in eubacteria. Malate synthase is fused to the C-terminus of isocitrate lyase

neg: Biogeochemical cycle organisms are a part of a "closed system"; therefore, these chemicals are recycled instead of being lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is an "open system"; the sun constantly gives the planet energy in the form of light while it is eventually used and lost in the form of heat throughout the trophic levels of a food web. Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, the major sources of food energy. These compounds are oxidized to release carbon dioxide, which can be captured by plants to make

neg: Vascular plant a source to a sink for each separate nutrient. Sugars are produced in the leaves (a source) by photosynthesis and transported to the growing shoots and roots (sinks) for use in growth, cellular respiration or storage. Minerals are absorbed in the roots (a source) and transported to the shoots to allow cell division and growth. Vascular plant Vascular plants (from Latin "vasculum": duct), also known as tracheophytes (from the equivalent Greek term "trachea") and also as higher plants, form a large group of plants ( 308,312 accepted known species) that are defined as those land plants that have lignified tissues

neg: Glyoxylate cycle gluconeogenesis. The net result of the glyoxylate cycle is therefore the production of glucose from fatty acids. Succinate generated in the first step can enter into the citric acid cycle to eventually form oxaloacetate. In plants the glyoxylate cycle occurs in special peroxisomes which are called glyoxysomes. This cycle allows seeds to use lipids as a source of energy to form the shoot during germination. The seed cannot produce biomass using photosynthesis because of lack of an organ to perform this function. The lipid stores of germinating seeds are used for the formation of the carbohydrates that fuel the growth

neg: Rhizosphere compounds was found to be influenced by soils and environmental conditions, resulting in variation amongst nitrogen compounds, lignins, phenols, carbohydrates, and amines. Chemicals connected to allelopathy: flavinols carbohydrates and application by root hairs phenols Positive allelopathic pathways and definitions of interactions between plant-plant and plant-microbe, positive plant-microbe in the form of systematic resistance Although it goes beyond the rhizosphere area, it is notable that some plants secrete allelochemicals from their roots which inhibit the growth of other organisms. For example, garlic mustard produces a chemical which is believed to prevent mutualisms forming between the surrounding trees and mycorrhiza in mesic

neg: Mutualism (biology) one another) or the biological intimacy of the relationship in relation to physical closeness ("e.g.", one species living within the tissues of the other species). The term "mutualism" was introduced by Pierre-Joseph van Beneden in his 1876 book "Animal Parasites and Messmates". Mutualistic relationships can be thought of as a form of "biological barter" in mycorrhizal associations between plant roots and fungi, with the plant providing carbohydrates to the fungus in return for primarily phosphate but also nitrogenous compounds. Other examples include rhizobia bacteria that fix nitrogen for leguminous plants (family Fabaceae) in return for energy-containing carbohydrates. Service-resource relationships are

neg: Metabolic waste excreta. Some mammals including humans excrete uric acid as a component of their urine but it is only a small amount. These compounds form during the catabolism of carbohydrates and lipids in condensation reactions, and in some other metabolic reactions of the amino acids. Oxygen is produced by plants and some bacteria in photosynthesis, while CO is a waste product of all animals and plants. Nitrogen gases are produced by denitrifying bacteria and as a waste product, and bacteria for decaying yield ammonia, as do most invertebrates and vertebrates. Water is the only liquid waste from animals and photosynthesizing plants.

neg: Rumen digestion in the reticulorumen are non-structural carbohydrates (starch, sugar, and pectin), structural carbohydrates (hemicellulose and cellulose), and nitrogen-containing compounds (proteins, peptides, and amino acids). Both non-structural and structural carbohydrates are hydrolysed to monosaccharides or disaccharides by microbial enzymes. The resulting mono- and disaccharides are transported into the microbes. Once within microbial cell walls, the mono- and disaccharides may be assimilated into microbial biomass or fermented to volatile fatty acids (VFAs) acetate, propionate, butyrate, lactate, valerate and other branched-chain VFAs via glycolysis and other biochemical pathways to yield energy for the microbial cell. Most VFAs are absorbed across the reticulorumen wall,

neg: Oxalate in energy between the planar and staggered forms) may be attributed to electrostatic interactions as unfavorable O−O repulsion is maximized in the planar form. Importantly, oxalate is often encountered as a bidentate, chelating ligand, such as in potassium ferrioxalate. When the oxalate chelates to a single metal center, it always adopts the planar conformation. Oxalate occurs in many plants, where it is synthesized by the incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates. Oxalate-rich plants include fat hen ("lamb's quarters"), sorrel, and several "Oxalis" species. The root and/or leaves of rhubarb and buckwheat are high in oxalic acid. Other edible plants that contain significant

neg: Root mucilage plant in the form of broken-down root mucilage. Without this relationship, many plants would struggle to gain sufficient water or nutrients. In many forests, mycorrhizae fungi form relationships with most of the plants, and even form connections with other mycorrhizae fungi. This interconnection links small plants to shrubs and trees. This network of plant roots and fungi forms a web of hyphae or root-like branching filaments, and is referred to as the Wood Wide Web. This network of fungi hyphae can shuttle water and nutrients from one part of the forest to another when needed. It can also shuttle carbohydrates

neg: Energy energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel" for the use of a given amount of energy. Sunlight's radiant energy is also captured by plants as "chemical potential energy" in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low-energy compounds) are converted into the high-energy compounds carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Plants also release oxygen during photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor, to release the energy of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by

neg: Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism are inborn error of metabolism that affect the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates. An example is lactose intolerance. Carbohydrates account for a major portion of the human diet. These carbohydrates are composed of three principal monosaccharides: glucose, fructose and galactose; in addition glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in humans. The failure to effectively use these molecules accounts for the majority of the inborn errors of human carbohydrates metabolism. Glycogen storage diseases are enzyme deficiencies which impair glycogen synthesis, glycogen degradation or glycolysis. The two organs most commonly affected

neg: Glyoxylate cycle thus allows cells to obtain energy from fat. To utilize acetate from fat for biosynthesis of carbohydrates, the glyoxylate cycle, whose initial reactions are identical to the TCA cycle, is used. Cell-wall containing organisms, such as plants, fungi, and bacteria, require very large amounts of carbohydrates during growth for the biosynthesis of complex structural polysaccharides, such as cellulose, glucans, and chitin. In these organisms, in the absence of available carbohydrates (for example, in certain microbial environments or during seed germination in plants), the glyoxylate cycle permits the synthesis of glucose from lipids via acetate generated in fatty acid β-oxidation. The

neg: Energy a spark, in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action. Any living organism relies on an external source of energy – radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals – to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which

neg: Bacteria form of nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms. For example, the presence of over 1,000 bacterial species in the normal human gut flora of the intestines can contribute to gut immunity, synthesise vitamins, such as folic acid, vitamin K and biotin, convert sugars to lactic acid (see "Lactobacillus"), as well as fermenting complex undigestible carbohydrates. The presence of this gut flora also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria (usually through competitive exclusion) and these beneficial bacteria are consequently sold as probiotic dietary supplements. If

neg: Nitrogen assimilation and oxalate. Other plants like the soybean balance most of their NO intake with the excretion of OH or HCO. Plants that reduce nitrates in the shoots and excrete alkali from their roots need to transport the alkali in an inert form from the shoots to the roots. To achieve this they synthesize malic acid in the leaves from neutral precursors like carbohydrates. The potassium ions brought to the leaves along with the nitrate in the xylem are then sent along with the malate to the roots via the phloem. In the roots, the malate is consumed. When malate is

neg: Titanium of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppm. As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard. Water and carbon dioxide are ineffective for extinguishing a titanium fire; Class D dry powder agents must be used instead. When used in the production or handling of chlorine, titanium should not be exposed to dry chlorine gas because it

neg: Mucor mucedo The species are highly efficient in biodegrading residual PAH in the soil, significantly decreasing it in within 12 days of introduction. Exopolymeric substances (EPS) produced by the fungus, mainly composed of proteins, carbohydrates, and humic-like substances, are responsible for the degradation. "Mucor mucedo" produces oxalate, or oxalic acid, a simple dicarboxylic acid that is one of the terminal metabolic products of many fungi and plants. It is well known to be toxic to higher animals, including humans, due to its local corrosive effect and affinity for calcium ions, which oxalate reacts with to form water-insoluble calcium crystals. "Mucor mucedo" also

neg: Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates (MACs) are carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion by a host's metabolism, and are made available for gut microbes, as prebiotics, to ferment or metabolize into beneficial compounds, such as short chain fatty acids. The term, ‘‘microbiota-accessible carbohydrate’’ contributes to a conceptual framework for investigating and discussing the amount of metabolic activity that a specific food or carbohydrate can contribute to a host's microbiota. MACs may come from plants, fungi, animal tissues, or food-borne microbes, and must be metabolized by the microbiome. A significant quantity of the cellulose humans consume is not metabolized by gut microbes

neg: Silica cycle is transported by rivers and can be deposited in soils in the form of various siliceous polymorphs. Plants can readily uptake silicate in the form of HSiO for the formation of phytoliths. Phytoliths are tiny rigid structures found within plant cells that aid in the structural integrity of the plant. Phytoliths also serve to protect the plants from consumption by herbivores who are unable to consume and digest silica-rich plants efficiently. Silica release from phytolith degradation or dissolution is estimated to occur at a rate double that of global silicate mineral weathering. Considering biogeochemical cycling within ecosystems, the import and

neg: Ketogenic diet Ketogenic diet The ketogenic diet is a high-fat, adequate-protein, low-carbohydrate diet that in medicine is used primarily to treat difficult-to-control (refractory) epilepsy in children. The diet forces the body to burn fats rather than carbohydrates. Normally, the carbohydrates contained in food are converted into glucose, which is then transported around the body and is particularly important in fueling brain function. However, if there is little carbohydrate in the diet, the liver converts fat into fatty acids and ketone bodies. The ketone bodies pass into the brain and replace glucose as an energy source. An elevated level of ketone bodies in

neg: Intestinal epithelium surface of the enterocytes is the glycocalyx, which is a loose network composed of the oligosaccharide side chains of integral membrane hydrolases and other enzymes essential for the digestion of proteins and carbohydrates. These glycoproteins, glycolipids, and enzymes catalyze the final digestive stages of luminal carbohydrates and proteins. The monosaccharides and amino acids thus produced are subsequently transported across the intestinal epithelium and eventually into the bloodstream. The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. Water absorption is passive and isotonic - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow.

neg: Bradyrhizobium Bradyrhizobium Bradyrhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria, many of which fix nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation is an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen (N); they must use nitrogen compounds such as nitrates. "Bradyrhizobium" species are Gram-negative bacilli (rod-shaped) with a single subpolar or polar flagellum. They are common soil-dwelling micro-organisms that can form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plant species where they fix nitrogen in exchange for carbohydrates from the plant. Like other rhizobia, many members of this genus have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into forms readily available for other organisms to use.

neg: Natural product for. General structural classes of secondary metabolites include alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids, which are described in more detail in the biosynthesis section below. The biosynthetic pathways leading to the major classes of natural products are described below. Carbohydrates are an essential energy source for most life forms. In addition, polysaccharides formed from simpler carbohydrates are important structural components of many organisms such the cell walls of bacteria and plants. Carbohydrate are the products of plant photosynthesis and animal gluconeogenesis. Photosynthesis produces initially 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde, a three carbon atom containing sugar (a triose). This triose in turn may be converted into

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism from muscle cells. Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a

neg: Protein–carbohydrate interaction method. Protein–carbohydrate interaction Carbohydrate–protein interactions are the intermolecular and intramolecular interactions between protein and carbohydrate moieties. These interactions form the basis of specific recognition of carbohydrates by lectins. Carbohydrates are important biopolymers and have a variety of functions. Often carbohydrates serve a function as a recognition element. That is, they are specifically recognized by other biomolecules. Proteins which bind carbohydrate structures are known as lectins. Compared to the study of protein–protein and protein–DNA interaction, it is relatively recent that scientists get to know the protein–carbohydrate binding. Many of these interactions involved carbohydrates found at the cell surface, as part of

neg: Protein–carbohydrate interaction Protein–carbohydrate interaction Carbohydrate–protein interactions are the intermolecular and intramolecular interactions between protein and carbohydrate moieties. These interactions form the basis of specific recognition of carbohydrates by lectins. Carbohydrates are important biopolymers and have a variety of functions. Often carbohydrates serve a function as a recognition element. That is, they are specifically recognized by other biomolecules. Proteins which bind carbohydrate structures are known as lectins. Compared to the study of protein–protein and protein–DNA interaction, it is relatively recent that scientists get to know the protein–carbohydrate binding. Many of these interactions involved carbohydrates found at the cell surface, as part of a

neg: Biogeochemical cycle they are being held in "exchange pools". Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals. Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy. Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium. Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place

neg: Agaricales location for several years. Fungi cannot make their own food, namely carbohydrates, as can green plants. Some species are saprobic, obtaining nutrients from dead organic material, whereas others are parasitic on living plants or animals or even on other fungi. Many fungi, especially gilled mushroomes and boletes, have an extensive mycelium that lives in association with the roots of woody plants. This association, which is beneficial to both the fungus and host plant, is termed a mycorrhiza. When the environmental conditions are favorable and the mycelium is at the proper stage of development, one or more fruit bodies are produced

neg: Rhubarb Triangle in the fields without being harvested. While in the fields the plants store energy from the sun in their roots as carbohydrates. The roots are subjected to frost before being moved into sheds in November where they are kept in complete darkness. In the sheds the plants begin to grow in the warmth and the stored carbohydrate in the roots is transformed into glucose resulting in forced rhubarb's sour-sweet flavour. The sheds are long low buildings which are heated; originally with coal, which was plentiful and relatively cheap in the area, but this has been replaced by diesel. Forced rhubarb

neg: Barbican (drink) and contains low alcohol content which is not intoxicating." The ruling declared Barbican to be "halaal" for consumption by Muslims. Barbican is manufactured at ACCBC's manufacturing plants in Dammam and Dubai. It is brewed using a three-stage process involving mashing, lautering and wort boiling. During mashing, the coarsely ground barley malt is subjected to hydration with water at different temperature-time regimes, which helps in a slow break down of starch molecules into simple carbohydrates, bringing in the balanced combination of carbohydrates and proteins. In the lautering stage, all the soluble solids from the barley malt are extracted avoiding harsh and

neg: Nitrogen cycle "Azotobacter". Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as "Rhizobium" usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process, which uses high temperatures and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into ammonia. Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium

neg: Equine nutrition the risk of developing diarrhea. Carbohydrates, the main energy source in most rations, are usually fed in the form of hay, grass, and grain. Soluble carbohydrates such as starches and sugars are readily broken down to glucose in the small intestine and absorbed. Insoluble carbohydrates, such as fiber (cellulose), are not digested by the horse's own enzymes, but are fermented by microbes in the cecum and large colon to break down and release their energy sources, volatile fatty acids. Soluble carbohydrates are found in nearly every feed source; corn has the highest amount, then barley and oats. Forages normally have

neg: Unit operation and chemical engineering unit processing form the main principles of all kinds of chemical industries and are the foundation of designs of chemical plants, factories, and equipment used. In general, unit operations are designed by writing down the balances for the transported quantity for each elementary component (which may be infinitesimal) in the form of equations, and solving the equations for the design parameters, then selecting an optimal solution out of the several possible and then designing the physical equipment. For instance, distillation in a plate column is analyzed by writing down the mass balances for each plate, wherein the

neg: Food chain exist in the absence of sunlight. Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea use hydrogen sulfide and methane from hydrothermal vents and cold seeps as an energy source (just as plants use sunlight) to produce carbohydrates; they form the base of the food chain. Consumers are organisms that eat other organisms. All organisms in a food chain, except the first organism, are consumers. In a food chain, there is also reliable energy transfer through each stage. However, all the energy at one stage of the chain is not absorbed by the organism at the next stage. The amount of energy from one stage

neg: Meat analogue protein, before being washed and dried. The removal of fats and carbohydrates, results in a product that has a relatively neutral flavor. Soy protein is also considered a “complete protein” as it contains all of the essential amino acids that are crucial for proper human growth and development. Lipids are added to the meat analog in the form of liquid or semi-liquid glyceride shortening from synthesis, or other sources such as plants or animals. The glycerides could potentially contain unsaturated or saturated long chain acyl radicals ranging from 12 to around 22 carbon atoms. Due to the target audience of

neg: Ascia include the: nitrogen content, carbohydrates and water content, as well as physical characteristics such as: hardness, size, form, texture, temporal and spatial distribution and abundance. Nitrogen is required for the production of protein during the early instars. Newly hatched larvae will remain on a single plant, as they are not very mobile. After the 5th instar, they are more mobile and can move to another plant. Larvae dispersion appears to occur in a random fashion, so in order for the larvae to be successful, the plants need to be close together for them to find another plant. Intraspecific competition between

neg: Arceuthobium pusillum Viscaceae families, the dwarf mistletoes have very reduced photosynthetic capability and draw heavily on the host for carbohydrates and diminish the amounts of carbohydrates and energy available to the host. The dwarf mistletoe also has a girdling effect on the stem which is infected, meaning that there is an accumulation of sugars distal to the infection which limits the flow of sugars and other chemicals, including hormones, needed by the roots, resulting in die back of the tree. Due to cytokinins not being transported properly, witches broom my result on the infected trees. The combined effects of dwarf mistletoe distort

neg: Congenital dyserythropoietic anemia type II mutations in the SEC23B gene lead to the signs and symptoms of CDA type II. Analyses of CDA II erythrocyte membranes showed that the band 3 glycoprotein is underglycosylated. An aberrant glycosylation pattern is seen in the polylactosamine carbohydrates which are normally attached to the band 3 and band 4.5 glycoproteins. The polylactosamines are, however, accumulated in the form of glycolipids. Therefore a genetic factor in CDA II appears to block the glycosylation of protein acceptors and shift these carbohydrates to the lipid acceptors. Structural analysis of CDA II band 3 carbohydrates identified truncated hybrid-type oligosaccharides and suggests that the

neg: Plant to plant communication via mycorrhizal networks can transfer various infochemicals is that they have been show to transfer molecules such as lipids, carbohydrates and amino acids. Thus, transfer of infochemicals via mycorrhizal networks can act to influence plant behavior. There are three main types of infochemicals shown to act as response inducing signals or cues by plants in mycorrhizal networks, as evidenced by increased effects on plant behavior: allelochemicals, defensive chemicals and nutrients. Allelopathy is the process by which plants produce secondary metabolites known as allelochemicals, which can interfere with the development of other plants or organisms. Allelochemicals can affect nutrient uptake, photosynthesis and growth; furthermore,

neg: Palisade cell carbohydrates. Beneath the palisade mesophyll are the spongy mesophyll cells, which also perform photosynthesis,they are irregularly shaped cells that have many intercellular spaces that allow the passage of gases. Holt Science & Technology "Microorganisms, Fungi, and Plants", Holt, Rinehart and Winston Palisade cell Palisade cells are plant cells located in leaves, right below the epidermis and cuticle. They are vertically elongated, a different shape from the spongy mesophyll cells beneath them in the leaf. Their chloroplasts absorb a major portion of the light energy used by the leaf. Palisade cells occur in dicotyledonous plants, and also in the net-veined monocots,

neg: Beta oxidation until the entire chain is cleaved into acetyl CoA units. The final cycle produces two separate acetyl CoAs, instead of one acyl CoA and one acetyl CoA. For every cycle, the Acyl CoA unit is shortened by two carbon atoms. Concomitantly, one molecule of FADH, NADH and acetyl CoA are formed. In general, fatty acids with an odd number of carbons are found in the lipids of plants and some marine organisms. Many ruminant animals form a large amount of 3-carbon propionate during the fermentation of carbohydrates in the rumen. Long-chain fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms

neg: Megabat the remaining fibrous matter is discarded. The teeth are adapted to bite through hard fruit rinds, and ridges on the soft palate help to squeeze out the juices within. Frugivorous bats aid the distribution of plants (and therefore forests) by carrying the fruits with them and spitting the seeds or eliminating them elsewhere. Nectarivores actually pollinate visited plants. They bear long tongues that are inserted deep into the flower; pollen passed to the bat is then transported to the next blossom visited, thereby pollinating it. This relationship between plants and bats is a form of mutualism known as "chiropterophily". Examples

neg: Plant genetics Plants are unique in that they are able to produce energy-dense carbohydrates via photosynthesis, a process which is achieved by use of a structure mostly exclusive to plants: chloroplasts. Chloroplasts, like the superficially similar mitochondria, possess their own DNA. Chloroplasts thus provide an additional reservoir for genes and genetic diversity, and an extra layer of genetic complexity not found in animals. The study of plant genetics has major economic impacts: many staple crops are genetically modified to increase yields, confer pest and disease resistance, provide resistance to herbicides, or to increase their nutritional value. The earliest evidence of plant domestication

neg: Microorganism minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse set of soil microbes results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield. Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, microbial symbiosis plays a crucial role in the immune system. The microorganisms that make up the gut flora in the gastrointestinal tract contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates. Some microorganisms that are seen to be beneficial to

neg: Jelly Belly "Vomit", "Earwax", "Skunk Spray", and "Rotten Egg". A similar product dubbed "BeanBoozled" pairs lookalike "normal" flavors with weird flavors, such as "Peach" and "Barf". "Sport Beans" are jelly beans designed to provide physical energy and enhance athletic performance. They contain carbohydrates, electrolytes (in the form of sodium and potassium), and vitamins B1, B2, B3 and C. "Extreme Sport Beans" include the additional boost of caffeine. The company makes over 100 different confections, including chocolates, licorice, gummis, and candy corn. The company operates three manufacturing plants in Fairfield, California; North Chicago, Illinois; and Rayong, Thailand. A fourth facility in Pleasant Prairie,

neg: Hypnodendron comosum Australia, "Hypnodendron comosum var. siberi" is taller in form and the branches are much more loosely arranged. Like all bryophyte species, "Hypnodendron" species are non-vascular, meaning the vasculature or ducts within the tissues in which water, nutrients and sugars are transported around the plant are non existent. Bryophytes also lack true roots but are anchored to the substrate by rhizoids. Unlike vascular plants that use their roots to exchange gas and extract nutrients and water from the soil, bryophytes are able to do this over the leaf surface, depositing nutrients and water where they are required. The plant is commonly

neg: Plant ecology that is beneficial to both". Probably the most widespread example in plants is the mutual beneficial relationship between plants and fungi, known as mycorrhizae. The plant is assisted with nutrient uptake, while the fungus receives carbohydrates. Some the earliest known fossil plants even have fossil mycorrhizae on their rhizomes. The flowering plants are a group that have evolved by using two major mutualisms. First, flowers are pollinated by insects. This relationship seems to have its origins in beetles feeding on primitive flowers, eating pollen and also acting (unwittingly) as pollinators. Second, fruits are eaten by animals, and the animals then

neg: Phytophthora plurivora moist soils. Mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing carbohydrates and nutrients, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients, in some cases, leading the plants to death. Since it is a hemibiotrophic organism it parasitizes living tissues for a period and can continues its life cycle on dead tissues. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the infected root, and the cycle of infection continues to the next plant. "Phytophthora" species have been responsible for damaging several ecosystems. Recent studies are showing "P. plurivora" as the main organism

neg: Animal process, but the adults primarily consume nectar from flowers. Other animals may have very specific feeding behaviours, such as hawksbill sea turtles that primarily eat sponges. Most animals rely on the energy produced by plants through photosynthesis. Herbivores eat plant material directly, while carnivores, and other animals on higher trophic levels, typically acquire energy (in the form of reduced carbon) by eating other animals. The carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other biomolecules are broken down to allow the animal to grow and to sustain biological processes such as locomotion. Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the dark

neg: Stolon species, with plants that produce stolons or rhizomes and plants that produce both stolons and rhizomes, morphological and physiological differences were noticed. Stolons have longer internodes and function as means of seeking out light and are used for propagation of the plant, while rhizomes are used as storage organs for carbohydrates and the maintenance of meristem tissue to keep the parent plant alive from one year to the next. In mycology, a stolon is defined as an occasionally septate hypha, which connects sporangiophores together. Root-like structures called rhizoids may appear on the stolon as well, anchoring the hyphae to the

neg: Tequila cut away the leaves from the "piña" (the succulent core of the plant). If harvested too late or too early, the "piñas", which can average around in the lowlands to in the highlands, will not have the right amount of carbohydrates for fermentation. After harvesting, the "piñas" are transported to ovens where they are slowly baked to break down their complex fructans into simple fructoses. Then, the baked "piñas" are either shredded or mashed under a large stone wheel called a "tahona" . The pulp fiber, or "bagazo" , left behind is often reused as compost or animal feed, but

neg: Oxalic acid as are sorrel and umbellifers like parsley. Rhubarb leaves contain about 0.5% oxalic acid, and jack-in-the-pulpit ("Arisaema triphyllum") contains calcium oxalate crystals. Similarly, the Virginia creeper, a common decorative vine, produces oxalic acid in its berries as well as oxalate crystals in the sap, in the form of raphides. Bacteria produce oxalates from oxidation of carbohydrates. Plants of the genus "Fenestraria" produce optical fibers made from crystalline oxalic acid to transmit light to subterranean photosynthetic sites. Carambola, also known as starfruit, also contains oxalic acid along with caramboxin. The formation of naturally occurring calcium oxalate patinas on certain limestone and

neg: Human nutrition instance, is used as table sugar. Polysaccharides, which include starch and glycogen, are often referred to as 'complex' carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases, which have become more common in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than in the past, perhaps leading

neg: Philodendron thermogenesis. The part of the spadix that heats up is the sterile zone. As it heats up, carbohydrates are used, but once the spadix has reached its maximum temperature, lipids are oxidized. The lipids are not first converted to carbohydrates, but rather are directly oxidized. The thermogenic reaction is triggered when concentrations of acetosalicytic acid form in the sterile zone. The acid sets off the mitochondria in the cells that make up the sterile zone to switch to an electron transport chain called the cyanide-resistant pathway, which results in the production of heat. Philodendrons consume oxygen during thermogenesis. The rate

neg: Korean natural farming returned to the soil and is absorbed by the plant. Four types of bacteria common in KNF include lactic acid bacteria, purple bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and yeast. Mycorrhizae are “fungus roots”, a mutualistic association between a fungus (Myco) such as Aspergillus oryzae and plant roots (rhiza). This provides an interface between plants and soil. The fungus grows into the roots of crops and out into the soil, increasing the root system many thousand-fold. The fungus use their enzymes to convert soil nutrients into a form that crops can use and turn plant carbohydrates into soil amendments, “sequestering” carbon. Miles of

neg: Karrikin the karrikin compound is a 6-membered pyran ring. Karrikins are formed by the heating or combustion of carbohydrates including sugars and cellulose. When plant material burns, these carbohydrates convert to karrikins. Plant cell walls are made of polysaccharides including cellulose, and a convenient way to prepare karrikins is to burn paper or dried grass. The pyran part of karrikins is probably directly derived from a pyranose sugar. There is no evidence that karrikins occur naturally in plants, but it has been postulated that karrikin-like molecules do. The first karrikin discovered, KAR, was initially named gavinone in reference to its discovery

neg: Crassulacean acid metabolism cycle, a coupled and self-recovering enzyme system, which is used to build branched carbohydrates. The by-product pyruvate can be further degraded in the mitochondrial citric acid cycle, thereby providing additional molecules for the Calvin Cycle. Pyruvate can also be used to recover PEP via pyruvate phosphate dikinase, a high-energy step, which requires ATP and an additional phosphate. During the following cool night, PEP is finally exported into the cytoplasm, where it is involved in fixing carbon dioxide via malate. Plants use CAM to different degrees. Some are "obligate CAM plants", i.e. they use only CAM in photosynthesis, although they vary

neg: Detritus living state. In both land and aquatic ecosystems, the role played by detritus is too large to ignore. In contrast to land ecosystems, dead materials and excreta in aquatic ecosystems are typically transported by water flow; finer particles tend to be transported farther or suspended longer. In freshwater bodies organic material from plants can form a silt known as "mulm" or humus on the bottom. This material, some called "undissolved organic carbon" breaks down into dissolved organic carbon and can bond to heavy metal ions via chelation. It can also break down into colored dissolved organic matter such as tannin,

neg: Perideridia seeds of yampah were used as a seasoning and resemble caraway seeds in flavor. Yampah roots contain rapidly assimilatable carbohydrates, and were used by hunters and runners as a high energy food to enhance physical endurance. Uncooked yampah roots are a gentle laxative if consumed in excess and were used medicinally for this purpose. It resembles the highly toxic poison hemlock and water hemlock. Perideridia Perideridia is a small genus of plants in the parsley family. Plants in this genus are known generally as yampah or yampa. They are native to western North America. Similar in appearance to other plants

neg: Food energy a small percentage of the weight. (Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of foods.) Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as from organic acids, polyols, and ethanol present in the diet. Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol and insoluble fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down (they are used by the body in the form in which they are absorbed) and so cannot be used for

neg: Low-carbohydrate diet Some critics imply or explicitly argue that vegetables and fruits are inherently all heavily concentrated sources of carbohydrates (so much so that some sources treat the words 'vegetable' and 'carbohydrate' as synonymous). While some fruits may contain relatively high concentrations of sugar, most are largely water and not particularly calorie-dense. Thus, in absolute terms, even sweet fruits and berries do not represent a significant source of carbohydrates in their natural form, and also typically contain a good deal of fiber which attenuates the absorption of sugar in the gut. Lastly, most of the sugar in fruit is fructose, which has

neg: Beer chemistry live. Yeast metabolize the carbohydrate source to form a number of compounds including ethanol. The process of brewing beer starts with malting and mashing, which breaks down the long carbohydrates in the barley grain into more simple sugars. This is important because yeast can only metabolize very short chains of sugars. Long-carbohydrates are polymers, large branching linkages of the same molecule over and over. In the case of barley, we mostly see polymers called amylopectin and amylose which are made of repeating linkages of glucose. On very large time-scales (thermodynamically) these polymers would break down on their own, and there

neg: Bitubale Bitubale A Bitubale is baled asphalt, in cold form, wrapped in white plastic or in asphalt-based film. Invented by Singapore-based Eastern Petroleum Group, Bitubale is a green technology innovation for the global bitumen (asphalt) transport supply chain. Bitubales are produced in specially designed plants for cooling, dispensing, encapsulation, and packing of bitumen at its supply source. The technologies support cold-form transport of bitumen with zero waste at the end of its supply chain. Primary benefits of the Bitubale, over hot-form transported asphalt, are halving of the CO2 emissions across the bitumen transport supply chain, large increases in workplace safety for

neg: Hemicellulose is a branched polymer, while cellulose is unbranched. Hemicelluloses are embedded in the cell walls of plants, sometimes in chains that form a 'ground' – they bind with pectin to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres. Hemicelluloses are synthesised from sugar nucleotides in the cell's Golgi apparatus. Two models explain their synthesis: 1) a '2 component model' where modification occurs at two transmembrane proteins, and 2) a '1 component model' where modification occurs only at one transmembrane protein. After synthesis, hemicelluloses are transported to the plasma membrane via Golgi vesicles. As percent content of hemicellulose increases in animal

neg: Feces dead organic matter or "detritus" are known as detritivores, and play an important role in ecosystems by recycling organic matter back into a simpler form that plants and other autotrophs may absorb once again. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle. To maintain nutrients in soil it is therefore important that feces return to the area from which they came, which is not always the case in human society where food may be transported from rural areas to urban populations and then feces disposed of into a river or sea. Depending on the individual and the circumstances,

neg: Cauliflower mosaic virus be transported by movement proteins into an adjacent, uninfected cell. The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural "Brassica" plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible. CaMV contains about 8 kb double-strand DNA genome and produces spherical particles. CaMV infections are systemic, and even its DNA is

neg: Autotroph such as animals, the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins contained in them become energy sources for the heterotrophs. Proteins can be made using nitrates, sulfates, and phosphates in the soil. Autotroph An autotroph or producer, is an organism that produces complex organic compounds (such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) from simple substances present in its surroundings, generally using energy from light (photosynthesis) or inorganic chemical reactions (chemosynthesis). They are the producers in a food chain, such as plants on land or algae in water (in contrast to heterotrophs as consumers of autotrophs). They do not need a living source of energy

neg: Euglena without light on a diet of organic matter, such as beef extract, peptone, acetate, ethanol or carbohydrates. When there is sufficient sunlight for it to feed by phototrophy, it uses chloroplasts containing the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b to produce sugars by photosynthesis. "Euglena's" chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes, while those of plants and the green algae (among which earlier taxonomists often placed "Euglena") have only two membranes. This fact has been taken as morphological evidence that "Euglena's" chloroplasts evolved from a eukaryotic green alga. Thus, the intriguing similarities between "Euglena" and the plants would have arisen not

neg: Biomass partitioning Biomass partitioning Biomass partitioning is the process by which plants divide their energy amongst their parts. For example, there may be a tradeoff in proteins and carbohydrates allocated towards leaves for photosynthesis or to roots for the process of nutrient uptake.The study of biomass partitioning is important to crop growth. The percentages of partitioning can be determined with the equation formula_1 with "dW/dt" is the growth rate "(dW/dt)" and "P" are the rates of biomass partitioned and the respective partitioning factor for each plant organ "i". Overall, nitrogen availability has a strong effect on partitioning, with plants growing in low-nitrogen

neg: Dietary fiber benefits (i.e., resistant starch increases bulking, increases colonic fermentation, positively modulates colonic microflora and increases satiety and insulin sensitivity). The beneficial effects of high fiber diets are the summation of the effects of the different types of fiber present in the diet and also other components of such diets. Defining fiber physiologically allows recognition of indigestible carbohydrates with structures and physiological properties similar to those of naturally occurring dietary fibers. The American Association of Cereal Chemists has defined soluble fiber this way: ""the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine

neg: Resistant starch added. Although the U.S. Institute of Medicine has defined total fiber as equal to functional fiber plus dietary fiber, U.S. food labeling does not distinguish between them. The Institute of Medicine Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber proposed two definitions: functional fiber as "isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates that have beneficial physiological effects in humans", and dietary fiber as "nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants." They also proposed that the prior classifications of soluble versus insoluble be phased out and replaced with viscous versus fermentable for each specific fiber. Starch has been consumed by people and

neg: Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (dietary supplement) Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (dietary supplement) Like other cyanobacteria and plants, AFA uses photosynthesis to produce the food material (glycogen) that is stored and utilized by the cell. While plants' cell walls are mainly cellulose, AFA's" "cell walls are composed of peptidoglycan (carbohydrates and peptides), the typical cell wall material of bacteria. Therefore, the designation "cyanobacteria" (Latin, cyano = blue-green) refers to the blue-green coloration of this bacterial subdivision, including AFA. The cellular structure of AFA is that of a simple prokaryote. Most cyanobacteria are highly efficient photosynthesizers, even more so than plants. Algae utilize light energy from the sun, carbon dioxide

neg: Ostrinia furnacalis make their way into the plant by feeding on stalks. This allows them to be able to form pupae within the stems of the plant. Additionally, if the food supply of the current plant is limited, the larvae create silk that serves as a connection between plants so that they can travel from plant to plant. They are then transported by the wind through a process known as ballooning, where the strands catch the wind in order to transport the larvae. They also use existing silk strand connections to other plants as trails where they can hope to find a

neg: Organic chemistry Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by biochemists. Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers, and these include peptides, DNA, RNA and the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. The other main classes are amino acids (monomer building blocks of peptides and proteins), carbohydrates (which includes the polysaccharides), the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the lipids. In addition, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the Krebs cycle, and produces isoprene,

neg: Insect physiology has a role in osmoregulation, temperature control, immunity, storage (water, carbohydrates and fats) and skeletal function. It also plays an essential part in the moulting process. An additional role of the hemolymph in some orders, can be that of predatory defence. It can contain unpalatable and malodourous chemicals that will act as a deterrent to predators. Hemolymph contains molecules, ions and cells. Regulating chemical exchanges between tissues, hemolymph is encased in the insect body cavity or haemocoel. It is transported around the body by combined heart (posterior) and aorta (anterior) pulsations which are located dorsally just under the surface of

neg: Insect morphology osmoregulation, temperature control, immunity, storage (water, carbohydrates and fats) and skeletal function. It also plays an essential part in the moulting process. An additional role of the haemolymph in some orders, can be that of predatory defence. It can contain unpalatable and malodourous chemicals that will act as a deterrent to predators. Haemolymph contains molecules, ions and cells; regulating chemical exchanges between tissues, haemolymph is encased in the insect body cavity or haemocoel. It is transported around the body by combined heart (posterior) and aorta (anterior) pulsations, which are located dorsally just under the surface of the body. It differs

neg: Biosequestration for the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia for three periods in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Biosequestration may be enhanced by improving photosynthetic efficiency by modifying RuBisCO genes in plants to increase the catalytic and/or oxygenation activity of that enzyme. One such research area involves increasing the Earth's proportion of C4 carbon fixation photosynthetic plants. C4 plants represent about 5% of Earth's plant biomass and 1% of its known plant species, but account for around 30% of terrestrial carbon fixation. In leaves of C3 plants, captured photons of solar energy undergo photosynthesis which assimilates carbon into carbohydrates (triosephosphates)

neg: Lemnoideae mammals, transported inadvertently on their feet and bodies, as well as by moving water. In water bodies with constant currents or overflow, the plants are carried down the water channels and do not proliferate greatly. In some locations, a cyclical pattern driven by weather patterns exists in which the plants proliferate greatly during low water-flow periods, then are carried away as rainy periods ensue. Duckweed is an important high-protein food source for waterfowl.The tiny plants provide cover for fry of many aquatic species. The plants are used as shelter by pondwater species such as bullfrogs and fish such as bluegills.

neg: Salvinia minima as well as some northern states, including New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Maryland. It is also present in Puerto Rico. "S. minima" is listed as a noxious plant in Texas, where it is prohibited from being owned and transported. When introduced to a new environment, "Salvinia minima" can quickly reproduce and form expansive mats on the top of waterways. Its presence and speedy reproduction can out-compete and inhibit the growth of native water plants. Mats of "S. minima" can block sunlight from entering the water, which suppresses the growth of underwater plants that photosynthesize, resulting in less dissolved oxygen