query: what came first the roman empire or republic

pos: Roman Republic Roman Republic The Roman Republic (, ; ) was the era of classical Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. It was during this period that Rome's control expanded from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. Roman society under the Republic was a cultural mix of Latin, Etruscan, and Greek elements, which is especially visible in the Roman Pantheon. Its political organisation was strongly influenced by the Greek city states of Magna Graecia, with collective

pos: Anatolia his kingdom to the Roman Republic, and western and central Anatolia came under Roman control, but Hellenistic culture remained predominant. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the eastern frontier with the Parthian Empire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of wars, culminating in the Roman-Parthian Wars. After the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Anatolia was one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century AD, western and

pos: History of the Roman Constitution in contemporary Greek city-states (such as Athens or Sparta). These Greek constitutional principles probably came to Rome through the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia in southern Italy. The Roman Kingdom was overthrown in 510 BC, according to legend, and in its place the Roman Republic was founded. The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC, and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history

pos: Rise of Rome Rise of Rome The rise of Rome covers the period in which the Roman Republic and Empire came to dominate Europe, North Africa and the Near East. The rise of the Roman Republic began with the overthrow of Lucius Tarquinius in 753 BC and ended with the formation of the Roman Empire in 27 BC. The rise of the Roman Empire continued growth started with the Republic. Roman imperialism peaked during the reign of Trajan, the last Roman emperor to add significant territory to the Empire. It is the subject of a great deal of analysis by historians, military strategists,

pos: Roman–Parthian Wars Roman–Parthian Wars The Roman–Parthian Wars (66 BC – 217 AD) were a series of conflicts between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was the first series of conflicts in what would be 719 years of Roman–Persian Wars. Early incursions by the Roman Republic against Parthia were repulsed, notably at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BC). During the Roman Liberators' civil war of the 1st Century BC, the Parthians actively supported Brutus and Cassius, invading Syria, and gaining territories in the Levant. However, the conclusion of the second Roman civil war brought a revival of Roman

pos: Roman–Parthian Wars and now lost. Their nationalistic zeal made them much more aggressive foes of the Romans than the Parthians ever were. For more information, see Byzantine-Sassanid Wars. </div> Roman–Parthian Wars The Roman–Parthian Wars (66 BC – 217 AD) were a series of conflicts between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was the first series of conflicts in what would be 719 years of Roman–Persian Wars. Early incursions by the Roman Republic against Parthia were repulsed, notably at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BC). During the Roman Liberators' civil war of the 1st Century BC, the Parthians

pos: Roman Africans were generally local Berbers or Punics, but also the descendants of the populations that came directly from Rome itself or the diverse regions of the Empire as legionaries and senators. The Roman-Africans first adopted the Roman pantheon under the rule of the Roman Republic, but then were one of the first provinces to convert to Christianity and among their most known figures we can mention Saint Felicita, Saint Perpetua, Saint Cyprian and Saint Augustine. Contrarily to the so-called Mauri that mostly inhabited the westernmost part of Northwest Africa and were barely romanised, Roman Africans (like Septimus Severus or the saint

pos: History of Europe nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, and its defeats in the three Punic Wars marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and

pos: Roman Republic as in public, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar" making him the first Roman Emperor. The constitutional history of the Roman Republic began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509, and ended with constitutional reforms that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27. The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a constantly-evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated. Throughout the history of the Republic, changes in the constitution were driven by conflicts of interest between the aristocracy and

pos: Latin was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men,

pos: Western world Roman civilization shifted from a small monarchy (753 – 509 BC), to a republic (509 – 27 BC), to an autocratic empire (27 BC – AD 476). It came to dominate Western, Central and Southeastern Europe and the entire area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through conquest using the Roman legions and then through cultural assimilation by eventually giving Roman citizenship privileges to the whole population. Nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline and fall of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire succeeded the approximately 500-year-old Roman Republic ( 510 BC – 30 BC),

pos: Religious persecution in the Roman Empire Religious persecution in the Roman Empire As the Roman Republic, and later the Roman Empire, expanded, it came to include people from a variety of cultures, and religions. The worship of an ever increasing number of deities was tolerated and accepted. The government, and the Romans in general, tended to be tolerant towards most religions and cults. Some religions were banned for political reasons rather than dogmatic zeal, and other rites which involved human sacrifice were banned. In the Christian era, when Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire, the Church came to accept it was the Emperor's

pos: Lusitania of the strait. Lusitania Lusitania (; ; ) or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province located where modern Portugal (south of the Douro river) and part of western Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a part of the province of Salamanca) lie. It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people). Its capital was "Emerita Augusta" (currently Mérida, Spain), and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a province of its own in the Roman Empire. Romans first came to the territory around the mid-2nd century

pos: Lusitania Lusitania Lusitania (; ; ) or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province located where modern Portugal (south of the Douro river) and part of western Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a part of the province of Salamanca) lie. It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people). Its capital was "Emerita Augusta" (currently Mérida, Spain), and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a province of its own in the Roman Empire. Romans first came to the territory around the mid-2nd century BC. A war

pos: Cappadocia (Roman province) Ariarathid dynasty from 331 BC until 95 BC. Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia first came into contact with the Roman Republic as a foe allied with Selecuid King Antiochus the Great during the Roman-Syrian War from 192-188 BC. Following Rome's victory over Antiochus, Ariarathes IV entered friendly relations with the Republic by betrothing his daughter to the king of Pergamum, a Roman ally. The Ariarathid kings would thereafter become a major ally of Rome in the East. The kingdom supported the Republic as a counterweight against the Seleucid Empire, which claimed dominion over the Cappadocian kingdom. Cappadocia would also support Rome

pos: Medical community of ancient Rome the population. Medical community of ancient Rome Medical community as used in this article refers to medical institutions and services offered to populations under the jurisdiction of the late Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. Medical services of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire were mainly imports from the civilization of Ancient Greece, at first through Greek-influenced Etruscan society and Greek colonies placed directly in Italy, and then through Greeks enslaved during the Roman conquest of Greece, Greeks invited to Rome, or Greek knowledge imparted to Roman citizens visiting or being educated in Greece. A perusal of the

pos: Medical community of ancient Rome Medical community of ancient Rome Medical community as used in this article refers to medical institutions and services offered to populations under the jurisdiction of the late Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. Medical services of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire were mainly imports from the civilization of Ancient Greece, at first through Greek-influenced Etruscan society and Greek colonies placed directly in Italy, and then through Greeks enslaved during the Roman conquest of Greece, Greeks invited to Rome, or Greek knowledge imparted to Roman citizens visiting or being educated in Greece. A perusal of the names of

pos: Final War of the Roman Republic the so-called Pax Romana (Roman Peace). The Empire that Augustus established would last in Western Europe until the fall of Rome in the 5th century AD. The Eastern part of the Roman Empire would also survive as the Byzantine Empire until the fall of Constantinople in AD 1453. Final War of the Roman Republic The Final War of the Roman Republic, also known as Antony's Civil War or The War between Antony and Octavian, was the last of the Roman civil wars of the Roman Republic, fought between Mark Antony (assisted by Cleopatra) and Octavian. After the Roman Senate declared

pos: History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic The history of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC until the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BC. The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 509 BC, and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire,

pos: Roman Empire Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, ending the Final War of the Roman Republic. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian "princeps" ("first citizen") with proconsular "imperium", thus beginning the Principate (the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284), and gave him the name "Augustus" ("the venerated"). Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it. Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in

pos: Furor Teutonicus Furor Teutonicus Furor Teutonicus ("Teutonic Fury") is a Latin phrase referring to the proverbial ferocity of the Teutones, or more generally the Germanic tribes of the Roman Empire period. The original expression is generally attributed to the Roman poet Lucan (d. AD 65). It occurs for the first time in his work "Bellum civile/Pharsalia". Lucan used the term to describe what he believed to be the outstanding characteristic of the Germanic tribe called the "Teutones": a mad, merciless, berserk rage in battle. The Teutons met with the armies of the Roman Republic in the Eastern Alps around 113 BC. The

pos: Ius the historians of the empire, such as Tacitus. The list below contains "iura" from different branches of Roman civilization. A "ius" of ancient Rome, marked by the imperial eagle, typically begins in the Roman Republic and continues through the Roman Empire. A "ius" of the Holy Roman Empire is marked with the double-headed eagle. The term is used in this article in the general sense to mean also the Carolingian Empire, named after Charlemagne, who had the title Holy Roman Emperor. His domain also included what is now France. Its "iura" reflect early Germanic laws. They are more likely to

pos: Chalmers Johnson consequences of what he called the "American Empire": "Blowback", "The Sorrows of Empire", and "Nemesis; The Last Days of the American Republic". A former cold warrior, he feared that, "A nation can be one or the other, a democracy or an imperialist, but it can't be both. If it sticks to imperialism, it will, like the old Roman Republic, on which so much of our system was modeled, lose its democracy to a domestic dictatorship." Johnson was born in 1931 in Phoenix, Arizona to David Frederick Johnson Jr. and Katherine Marjorie (Ashby) Johnson. He earned a BA in economics in

pos: Aufidius Lurco Aufidius Lurco Marcus Aufidius (or Alfidius) Lurco or known as Aufidius Lurco, was a Roman magistrate who lived in the 1st century BC. Lurco was a member of the gens Aufidia, a Roman family of plebeian status, who appeared in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. They became a family of consular rank. Lurco originally came from Fundi (modern Fondi, Italy). According to Suetonius, Lurco held a high office at Rome. In 61 BC, he was a Tribune of the Plebs. During his time as Tribune, he was the author of the "Lex Aufidia" or "Lex Aufidia de ambitu". The

pos: Roman infantry tactics Roman infantry tactics Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment, formation, and maneuvers of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The article first presents a short overview of Roman training. Roman performance against different types of enemies is then analyzed. Finally a summation of what made the Roman tactics and strategy militarily effective through their long history is given below, as is a discussion of how and why this effectiveness eventually disappeared. The focus below is primarily on Roman tactics - the "how" of their

pos: Fasces Empire (1804–1815). The fasces typically appeared in a context reminiscent of the Roman Republic and of the Roman Empire. The French Revolution used many references to the ancient Roman Republic in its imagery. During the First Republic, topped by the Phrygian cap, the fasces is a tribute to the Roman Republic and means that power belongs to the people. It also symbolizes the "unity and indivisibility of the Republic", as stated in the French Constitution. In 1848 and after 1870, it appears on the seal of the French Republic, held by the goddess, Liberty. There is the fasces in the

pos: Bithynia and Pontus were on the edge of the coastal province but were not part of it. Under king Prusias I, Bithynia first came into contact with the Roman Republic. Bithynia remained neutral during Rome's war against the Seleucid Empire and its King Antiochus the Great from 192-188 BC, despite the Seleucid Empire being the long-time enemy of the kingdom. Prusias I's son and successor, Prusias II of Bithynia, first opened relations with Rome. Following Prusias II's failed invasion of the Roman ally of the Kingdom of Pergamon in 154 BC, Bithynia was forced to pay heavy war reparations. Prusias II sent his

pos: Ancient history the Median and the Achaemenid dynasties). Parthia had many wars with the Roman Republic (and subsequently the Roman Empire), which marked the start of what would be over 700 years of frequent Roman-Persian Wars. The Sassanid Empire, lasting the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of Iran's most important and influential historical periods. In many ways the Sassanid period witnessed the highest achievements of Persian civilization and constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the Muslim conquest and the adoption of Islam. During Sassanid times, Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably, and the Romans reserved for

pos: Roman law Roman constitution. The constitution of the Roman Republic was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, and was constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic. Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution was progressively eroding. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator Cicero, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the republic. When the Roman Republic ultimately fell in the years following the Battle of Actium and Mark Antony's suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first Roman

pos: Republic time, the classical republics were either conquered by empires or became ones themselves. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empire of Alexander. The Roman Republic expanded dramatically conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that could be considered republics, such as Carthage. The Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire. The term "republic" is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence. However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics. In the ancient Near

pos: Legio IX Hispana Legio IX Hispana Legio IX Hispana ("9th Legion – Spanish"), also written "Legio nona Hispana" or "Legio VIIII Hispana", was a legion of the Imperial Roman army that existed from the 1st century BC until at least AD 120. The legion fought in various provinces of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was stationed in Britain following the Roman invasion in 43 AD. The legion disappears from surviving Roman records after c. AD 120 and there is no extant account of what happened to it. The unknown fate of the legion has been the subject of considerable

pos: Religious persecution in the Roman Empire the persecution. Under Ambrose's zealous pressure, Theodosius issued the infamous 391 "Theodosian decrees," a declaration of war on paganism, the Altar of Victory was removed again by Gratian, Vestal Virgins disbanded, access to pagan temples prohibited. The Scripture reference in the citation/reference #18 should be Psalm 96:5, not Psalm 95:5. Religious persecution in the Roman Empire As the Roman Republic, and later the Roman Empire, expanded, it came to include people from a variety of cultures, and religions. The worship of an ever increasing number of deities was tolerated and accepted. The government, and the Romans in general, tended to

pos: Aufidia marry him. Later, in "De Patre Vostro", Alfidia lightly questions Octavian's sister Octavia's loyalty to her family at dinner, and is present when Octavian's mother Atia of the Julii has an altercation with daughter-in-law Livia. Aufidia Aufidia or Alfidia (flourished 1st century BC) was a woman of Ancient Rome. She was a daughter to Roman Magistrate Marcus Aufidius Lurco and an unknown mother. She was a member of the gens Aufidia, a Roman family of Plebs status which appeared in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, and became a family of consular rank. Her father originally came from Fundi (modern

pos: Aufidia Aufidia Aufidia or Alfidia (flourished 1st century BC) was a woman of Ancient Rome. She was a daughter to Roman Magistrate Marcus Aufidius Lurco and an unknown mother. She was a member of the gens Aufidia, a Roman family of Plebs status which appeared in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, and became a family of consular rank. Her father originally came from Fundi (modern Fondi, Italy). She married the future praetor, Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus. They had at least one child: a daughter Livia Drusilla (58 BC-29). Her husband also adopted Marcus Livius Drusus Libo, who served as a

pos: Quintus Pompeius Quintus Pompeius Quintus Pompeius was the name of various Romans from the gens Pompeia, who were of plebeian status. They lived during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. Quintus Pompeius A. f. (flourished 2nd century BC) was the son of an Aulus Pompeius by an unnamed Roman woman, who was a flute player of humble origins. Little is known of his early life and political career. The Roman Senator and Historian Cicero states that Pompeius first came to notice for his distinctive oratory. He was consul in 141 BC, during which, he was sent to Hispania as the successor of

pos: History of the Roman Empire History of the Roman Empire The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of ancient Rome from the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of the last Western emperor in 476 AD. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside of the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Civil war engulfed the Roman state in the mid 1st century BC, first between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and finally between Octavian and Mark Antony. Antony was defeated at the Battle

pos: Phoenice (Roman province) Phoenice (Roman province) Phoenice was a province of the Roman Empire (called in latin "Provincia Syria Phoenice"), encompassing the historical region of Phoenicia. It was officially created in 194 AD and after c. 400 it was divided into Phoenice proper or Phoenice Paralia, and Phoenice Libanensis, a division that persisted until the region was conquered by the Muslim Arabs in the 630s. Phoenicia came under the rule of the Roman Republic in 64 BC, when Pompey created the province of Syria. With the exception of a brief period in 36–30 BC, when Mark Antony gave the region to Ptolemaic Egypt,

pos: Senatus consultum Senatus consultum A senatus consultum (Latin – decree of the senate; plural "senatus consulta") is a text emanating from the senate in Ancient Rome. It is used in the modern phrase "senatus consultum ultimum". Translated into French as "sénatus-consulte", the term was also used during the French Consulate, First French Empire and Second French Empire. In the case of the ancient Roman Senate under the Roman Republic, it was simply an opinion expressed by the senate, such as the "Senatus consultum Macedonianum" or the "Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus". Under the Republic, it referred to a text promulgated by the senate

pos: The Roman Revolution The Roman Revolution The Roman Revolution (1939) is a scholarly study of the final years of the ancient Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire by Caesar Augustus. The book was the work of Sir Ronald Syme (1903–1989), a noted Tacitean scholar, and was published by the Oxford University Press. It was immediately controversial. Its main conclusion was that the structure of the Republic and its Senate were inadequate to the needs of Roman rule, and that Augustus was merely doing what was necessary to restore order in public life. This was a situation and reasoning uncomfortably reminiscent

pos: Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic, or Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic, is a popular history book written by Tom Holland, published in 2003. The book tells the story of the end of the Roman Republic and the consequent establishment of the Roman Empire. The book takes its title from the river Rubicon in the northern Italian peninsula. In 49 B.C., Julius Caesar crossed this river with his army and marched on Rome, breaking a sacred law of the Roman Republic and throwing the nation into

pos: Sestertius Roman Empire, depicts the Empire at its height, and included the first representation on a coin of the figure of Britannia; centuries later it was revived by English king Charles II, and continues to feature on the United Kingdom coinage. As a result of ceasing production and withdrawals from circulation in the 4th century, sestertii are less common as a whole compared to other Roman bronze coins. Fully struck examples with sharp detail often command high premiums at auction. Sestertius The sestertius (plural sestertii), or sesterce (plural sesterces), was an ancient Roman coin. During the Roman Republic it was a

pos: Librarian scrolls in the library's collection. Most notably, Callimachus created what is considered to be the first subject catalogue of the library holdings, called the pinakes. The pinakes contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes; each class was then subdivided, listing authors alphabetically by titles. The librarians at Alexandria were considered the "custodians of learning". Near the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire, it was common for Roman aristocrats to hold private libraries in their home. Many of these aristocrats, such as Cicero, kept the contents of their private libraries to themselves, only boasting

pos: Africa (Roman province) in the 8th century until its conquest by the Roman Republic. It was one of the wealthiest provinces in the western part of the Roman empire, second only to Italia. Apart from the city of Carthage, other large settlements in the province were Hadrumetum (modern Sousse, Tunisia), capital of Byzacena, and Hippo Regius (modern Annaba, Algeria). Rome's first province in northwest Africa was established by the Roman Republic in 146 BC, following its defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War. "Africa Proconsularis" or "Africa Vetus" (Old Africa), was governed by a proconsul. It is possible that the name "Africa"

pos: Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus Lucius Quinctius or Quintius Cincinnatus (; – BC) was a Roman patrician, statesman, and military leader of the early Roman Republic who became a legendary figure of Roman virtue—particularly civic virtue—by the time of the Empire. Cincinnatus was a conservative opponent of the rights of the plebeians (the common citizens) who fell into poverty because of his son's violent opposition to their desire for a written code of equitably-enforced laws. Despite his old age, he worked his own small farm until an invasion prompted his fellow citizens to call for his leadership. He came from his plow

pos: Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic still an asset for bringing a whole era back to life in a sovereign and coherent manner. "Rubicon" has received favorable reviews from The "Houston Chronicle", The "Seattle Times", The "Los Angeles Times", and others. Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic, or Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic, is a popular history book written by Tom Holland, published in 2003. The book tells the story of the end of the Roman Republic and the consequent establishment of the Roman Empire. The book takes its title from the

pos: Forum venalium Forum venalium A ( ) was a food market in Ancient Rome during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. These mercantile fora were extensions of the Roman Forum and contained numerous buildings and monuments erected under the Republic and the Empire. In "Politics", Aristotle proposed that a city should have both a "free" square in which "no mechanic or farmer or anyone else like that may be admitted unless summoned by the authorities" and a marketplace "where buying and selling are done... in a separate place, conveniently situated for all goods sent up from the sea and brought in from

pos: Vangiones Under the Roman Republic they were not among the Belgae, an alliance of Celticised Germanic tribes in northeastern France. In the early empire this name was extended by the Romans to all the Celticised Germans in northern France (the forerunners of the Franks), among whom were now the Vangiones. In the late empire what was left of Germania Superior was divided into "First Germany" and "Second Germany", the first comprising the Vangiones, Worms and Mainz. The identity disappeared nearly altogether when the region was overrun by the Alemanni and became Alisatia. The Vangiones then merged into the Alemanni. Only names

pos: Senate of the Roman Empire Senate of the Roman Empire The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the "Roman Senate" to the "Roman Emperor." Beginning with the first emperor, Augustus, the Emperor and the Senate were technically two co-equal branches of government. In practice, however the actual authority of the imperial Senate was negligible, as the Emperor held the true power of the state. As such, membership in the Senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual

pos: Roman villa Roman villa A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, similar in form to the hacienda estates in the colonies of the Spanish Empire. Pliny the Elder (23-79CE) distinguished two kinds of villas: the "villa urbana", a country seat that could easily be reached from Rome (or another city) for a night or two; and the "villa rustica", the farm-house estate permanently occupied by the servants who generally had charge of the estate. The "villa rustica" centered on the villa itself, perhaps only seasonally occupied. Under the Empire

pos: Coluccio Salutati to the Roman Empire but to the Roman Republic. He promoted the work of younger humanists such as Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini, Niccolò de' Niccoli, Leonardo Bruni and Pier Paolo Vergerio. He also brought the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras to Florence in 1397 to teach one of the first courses in Greek since the end of the Roman Empire. After Boethius, few Westerners spoke or read Greek. Many ancient Greek works of science and philosophy were not available in Latin translation. By Salutati's time, a few Latin texts of Aristotle had arrived in Europe via Muslim Spain and Sicily. These

pos: Colonia (Roman) the Roman army. Roman colonies played a major role in the spread of the Latin language within the central and southern Italian peninsula during the early empire. The colonies showed surrounding native populations an example of Roman life. Colonia (Roman) A Roman colonia (plural "coloniae") was originally a Roman outpost established in conquered territory to secure it. Eventually, however, the term came to denote the highest status of a Roman city. It is also the origin of the modern term "colony". The Roman Republic, having no standing army, used to plant bodies of their own citizens in conquered towns as

pos: Demography of the Roman Empire There are few recorded population numbers for the whole of antiquity, and those that exist are often rhetorical or symbolic. Unlike the contemporaneous Han Dynasty, no general census survives for the Roman Empire. The late period of the Roman Republic provides a small exception to this general rule: serial statistics for Roman citizen numbers, taken from census returns, survive for the early Republic through the 1st century CE. Only the figures for periods after the mid-3rd century BCE are reliable, however. Fourteen figures are available for the 2nd century BCE (from 258,318 to 394,736). Only four figures are available for

pos: Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis from the tribunes of the people. The passing of the "lex Gabinia", followed by the "lex Manilia", proved that Sulla's intended new constitution, designed to stop any one man from gaining immense power, was not working, and was thus a milestone in the collapse of the Roman Republic. Before the law, commands were assigned over individual provinces. Unlike those assignments, this law took the unprecedented act of granting command over what was almost the entire empire to one man. During the Roman Empire, the law served as precedent for Augustus' receipt of greater proconsular authority over the entire empire in

pos: History of Carthage destroyed; or war. Roman armies landed in Africa and began to lay siege to the magnificent city of Carthage, which rejected further negotiations. The end came: Carthage was destroyed; its surviving citizens enslaved. In the aftermath, the region (much of modern Tunisia) was annexed by the Roman Republic as the new Province of Africa. The city of Carthage was eventually rebuilt by the Romans under Julius Caesar, beginning in 46 BCE. It later became capital of Africa Province and a leading city of the Empire. The entire province, Berber and Punic with a large Latin and multinational influx, then experienced

pos: History of agriculture what is now Bulgaria) and the Greek colonies of southern Russia. During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic Empire controlled Egypt, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cyrenaica, major grain-producing regions that mainland Greeks depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic grain market also played a critical role in the rise of the Roman Republic. In the Seleucid Empire, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while nomadic animal husbandry was also practiced in other parts. In the Greco-Roman world of Classical antiquity, Roman agriculture was built on techniques originally pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with

pos: History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and committed suicide in 30 BC. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome, as the unchallenged master of the state. In 27 BC, Octavian offered to give up the Dictatorial powers which he had held since 42 BC, but the senate refused, and thus ratified his status as master of the state. He became the first Roman Emperor, Augustus, and the transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire was complete. History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic The history of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a

pos: History of democracy Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic régime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war. The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. Most of the procedures used by modern democracies are very old. Almost all cultures have at some time had

pos: Cura Annonae did -- have serious political consequences, including riots of the populace which impacted the stability of the Roman government. A dole of grain was given monthly to the poorer people of Rome. Grain was sold to those not qualifying for the dole, or to those who needed grain in addition to what they received in the dole. The precise details of how grain was marketed in Rome, however, are a "major puzzle." In the early centuries of the Roman republic and Empire, the individuals receiving the grain took it to one of many small flour mills in the city to

pos: Roman Empire (TV series) Roman Empire (TV series) Roman Empire is an American/Canadian docuseries based on historical events of the Roman Empire. The series comprises two miniseries: Season One: "Reign of Blood" is a six-part story of Commodus. Jeremiah Murphy and Peter Sherman collaborated on writing the first season, with Richard Lopez directing. It premiered on Netflix on November 11, 2016. Season Two: "Master of Rome" is a five-part story of the rise of Julius Caesar and the fall of the Roman Republic. It premiered on July 27, 2018. The series was produced by Netflix as a "Netflix Original" series. "Reign of Blood" "Master

pos: Romanization (cultural) Romanization (cultural) Romanization or Latinization (or Romanisation or Latinisation), in the historical and cultural meanings of both terms, indicate different historical processes, such as acculturation, integration and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations by the Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire. Ancient Roman historiography and Italian historiography until the fascist period used to call the various processes the "civilizing of barbarians". Acculturation proceeded from the top down, with the upper classes adopting Roman culture first and the old ways lingering for the longest among peasants in outlying districts. Hostages played an important part in this process, as elite

pos: Religion in Rome ever-expanding boundaries during the Roman Republic and Empire periods, including Judaism, whose presence in the city dates back from the Roman Republic and was sometimes forcibly confined to the Roman Ghetto, as well as Mithraism which was the official religion of the Roman Empire for about two centuries, until being superseded by Christianity, following the death of Emperor Constantine in the 4th century. Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire in 380 by Emperor Theodosius I, allowing it to spread further and eventually wholly replace Mithraism in the Roman Empire. Rome became the pre-eminent Christian city (vis-a-vis

pos: Denarius and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian. ('Denarius', in "A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins", by John R. Melville-Jones (1990)). It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. Classical historians often say that in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (~27 BC) the daily wage for an unskilled laborer and common soldier was 1 denarius (with no tax deductions) or about US$2.80 in bread. During the republic (509–27 BC), legionary pay was 112.5 denarii

pos: Marcus Plancius Varus Marcus Plancius Varus Marcus Plancius Varus was an Anatolian Roman noble who lived in the 1st century in the Roman Empire. His paternal ancestors were originally from Latium in Central Italy. They had immigrated to Anatolia in the time of the late Roman Republic. Varus came from a local, wealthy family who were prominent and they came from an unknown town in Galatia. His family owned large estates in Galatia. Apart from this, not much is known on the family and early life of Varus. Between the years of 56-69, Varus served as a Praetor during the reign of the

neg: Final War of the Roman Republic was named Augustus by the Senate and given unprecedented powers. Octavian, now Augustus, transformed the Republic into the Roman Empire, ruling it as the first Roman emperor. In the ensuing months and years, Augustus passed a series of laws that, while outwardly preserving the appearance of the Republic, made his position within it of paramount power and authority. He laid the foundations for what is now called the Roman Empire. From then on, the Roman state would be ruled by a Princeps (first citizen); in modern terms, Rome would from now on be ruled by Emperors. The Senate ostensibly still

neg: Asia (Roman province) Asia (Roman province) The Roman province of Asia or Asiana (), in Byzantine times called Phrygia, was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. It was a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul. The arrangement was unchanged in the reorganization of the Roman Empire in 211. The word "Asia" comes from the Greek word, , originally only applied to the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea, known to the Lydians who occupied it as Assuwa. It came to be used by the Greeks for all of Lydia (the northwestern part of what is today Turkey), that shore being the

neg: Res publica as a more accurate and neutral translation of the term, while neither implying "republican" nor "imperial" connotations, just a reference to the state as a whole. But even translating "res publica" as 'republic' when it clearly refers to the Roman Empire "under Imperial reign" occurs (see quotes below). Roman authors would also use the phrase "res publica" in the sense of the era when Rome was governed as a republic, that is the era between the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Empire. So in this case "res publica" does distinctly "not" refer to the Roman "Empire", but to what is

neg: German nobility permitted as part of the surname (e.g., the aristocratic particles "von" and "zu"). Later developments distinguished the Austrian nobility, which came to be associated with the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. The nobility system of the German Empire was similar to nobility in the Austrian Empire, both having risen from the Holy Roman Empire and both ending in 1919. Contrary to Germany, Austrian nobility was completely abolished under the new First Austrian Republic and the subsequent use of hereditary titles in any form was banned, even of their legal recognition as aristocratic particles, and use as part of an individual's or

neg: Albona Republic by themselves with the support of a part of farmers. On April 8, 1921, Italian administration in Istria decided to suppress the republic using the military force, and eventually succeeded after suppressing the strong resistance of the miners. The Albona Republic also existed as part of the Roman Empire. As a Republic, Albona had two government officials nominated in Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire. Albona Republic The Albona Republic () was a short-lived self-governing republic that was proclaimed by miners from Istrian city of Albona on March 2, 1921 during a mining strike. It was created in what

neg: Jajce Mithraeum Jajce Mithraeum The Jajce Mithraeum, or Jajački Mithraeum () is a temple (mithraeum) dedicated to the Persian invisible sun god, Mithra. It was rediscovered in an archaeological dig in 1931 in Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mithra was worshipped throughout the Roman era, from the late Republic to the later Imperial era. The cult of Mithraism spread from the Middle East to other parts of the Roman Empire throughout the Mediterranean basin, at first by military-political adventurers, travelers, slaves and merchants from the Orient. Later, Mithraism was spread by soldiers whose legions came into contact with the followers of the cult

neg: History of the world enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations. The gradual break-up of the Roman Empire, spanning several centuries after the 2nd century CE, coincided with the spread of Christianity outward from the Middle East. The Western Roman Empire fell under the domination of Germanic tribes in the 5th century, and these polities gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the Catholic Church. The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the

neg: First Republic of Armenia First Republic of Armenia The First Republic of Armenia, officially known at the time of its existence as the Democratic Republic of Armenia (classical ), was the first modern Armenian state since the loss of Armenian statehood in the Middle Ages. The republic was established in the Armenian-populated territories of the disintegrated Russian Empire, known as Eastern Armenia or Russian Armenia. The leaders of the government came mostly from the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun). The First Republic of Armenia bordered the Democratic Republic of Georgia to the north, the Ottoman Empire to the west, Persia to the south,

neg: Church of the East Empire). Therefore, In 424, the bishops of the Sasanian Empire met in council under the leadership of Catholicos Dadishoʿ (421–456) and determined that they would not, henceforth, refer disciplinary or theological problems to any external power, and especially not to any bishop or Church Council in the Roman Empire. Thus, the Mesopotamian churches did not send representatives to the various Church Councils attended by representatives of the "Western Church". Accordingly, the leaders of the Church of the East did not feel bound by any decisions of what came to be regarded as Roman Imperial Councils. Despite this, the Creed and

neg: Coats of arms of the Holy Roman Empire Coats of arms of the Holy Roman Empire Over its long history, the Holy Roman Empire used many different heraldic forms, representing its numerous internal divisions. The "Reichsadler" ("Imperial Eagle") was the heraldic eagle, derived from the Roman eagle standard, used by the Holy Roman Emperors and in modern coats of arms of Germany, including those of the Second German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the "Third Reich" (Nazi Germany, 1933–1945). The same design has remained in use by the Federal Republic of Germany since 1945, but under a different name, now called "Bundesadler" ("Union Eagle" or "Federal

neg: The Old Swiss Confederacy The Old Swiss Confederacy The Old Swiss Confederacy (Modern German: ; historically , after the Reformation also , "Republic of the Swiss") was a loose confederation of independent small states (, German or ) within the Holy Roman Empire. It is the precursor of the modern state of Switzerland. It formed during the 14th century, from a nucleus in what is now Central Switzerland, expanding to include the cities of Zürich and Berne by the middle of the century. This formed a rare union of rural and urban communes, all of which enjoyed imperial immediacy in the Holy Roman Empire.

neg: Quintus Curtius Rufus under empire, citing the Roman Empire with the implication of contemporaneity. In essence he reasserts the policy of Augustus, which casts the empire as the restoration of monarchy for the suppression of the civil wars fomented by the contention of powerful noblemen vying for control of the Republic. Curtius' glowing endorsement of the policy dates him to the Roman Empire. He also mentions the Parthian Empire. It was formed by the eastern satrapies recusing themselves from Macedonian overlordship and restoring a purely Iranian empire. It defended itself successfully against Rome, even though Rome absorbed what was left of the Macedonian

neg: Hadrian Roman political reformer, creator of an openly absolute monarchy to replace a sham senatorial republic. Robin Lane Fox credits Hadrian as creator of a unified Greco-Roman cultural tradition, and as the end of this same tradition; Hadrian's attempted "restoration" of Classical culture within a non-democratic Empire drained it of substantive meaning, or, in Fox's words, "kill[ed] it with kindness". In Hadrian's time, there was already a well established convention that one could not write a contemporary Roman imperial history for fear of contradicting what the emperors wanted to say, read or hear about themselves. Fronto's correspondence and works attest to

neg: Republican empire one example of a republican empire. Originally, Rome was a monarchy, ruled directly by an absolute ruler. The king was later overthrown and replaced with a Republican system that protected certain rights of the citizens. Over time, the republic broke down as the Roman senate started to cede more and more authority to the consul. When Augustus took power the senate gave him the title of "Imperator", or "emperor" in English. Republican empire A republican empire is a form of government in which a country governed as a republic transitions into an empire. Examples of this process include the First

neg: History of Western civilization before AD 500 as the 10th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea, and centered at the city of Rome, the Roman Empire became one of the largest empires in the ancient world. In its centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. It came to dominate South-Western Europe, South-Eastern Europe/the Balkans and the Mediterranean region through conquest and assimilation. Originally ruled by Kings who ruled the settlement and a small area of land nearby, the Romans established a republic in 509BC that would last for five centuries. Initially a small number of

neg: Republican empire Republican empire A republican empire is a form of government in which a country governed as a republic transitions into an empire. Examples of this process include the First French Republic, which became the First French Empire, as well as the Dutch Republic, which formed a Dutch Empire by seizing territory from Spain. The distinction between a republican empire and a more traditional monarchy is that the people are assumed to be the source of government power. In France, for example, voters were asked in an 1804 referendum whether they supported the creation of an empire. The Roman Empire is

neg: History of the Republic of Macedonia became the political and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Samuil; while the Byzantine emperor Basil II came to rule the eastern part of the empire (what is now Bulgaria), including the then capital Preslav, in 972. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. From then on, the Bulgarian model became an integral part of wider Slavic culture as a whole. After several decades of almost incessant fighting, Bulgaria came under Byzantine rule in 1018. The whole of Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as "Theme of

neg: Burgundians Constitutio". Burgundians The Burgundians (; ; ; ) were a large East Germanic (possibly Vandal) tribe or group of tribes that lived in the area of what is now Poland in the time of the Roman Empire. In the , as the empire came under pressure from many such "barbarian" peoples, a powerful group of Burgundians and other Vandalic tribes moved westwards towards the Roman frontiers along the Rhine Valley, making them neighbors of the Franks who formed their kingdoms to the north, and the Suebic Alemanni who were settling to their south, also near the Rhine. They established themselves

neg: Burgundians Burgundians The Burgundians (; ; ; ) were a large East Germanic (possibly Vandal) tribe or group of tribes that lived in the area of what is now Poland in the time of the Roman Empire. In the , as the empire came under pressure from many such "barbarian" peoples, a powerful group of Burgundians and other Vandalic tribes moved westwards towards the Roman frontiers along the Rhine Valley, making them neighbors of the Franks who formed their kingdoms to the north, and the Suebic Alemanni who were settling to their south, also near the Rhine. They established themselves in

neg: History of the Czech lands within the Holy Roman Empire. After that battle the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were incorporated into the Austrian Empire, and later into the aforementioned Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. They came to be known as the Czech lands after the fall of the Empire, and the rise of the First Czechoslovak Republic, when the term Bohemia (), which also refers to the core region of the former kingdom, was no longer deemed acceptable by those in Moravia and Czech Silesia (historically, other two core lands of the Bohemian Crown). These three integral Czech lands (Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia) now form the

neg: Javelin head of soft iron. Legionaries of the Late Republic and Early Empire often carried two pila, with one sometimes being lighter than the other. Standard tactics called for a Roman soldier to throw his pilum (both if there was time) at the enemy just before charging to engage with his gladius. Some pila had small hand-guards, to protect the wielder if he intended to use it as a melee weapon, but it does not appear that this was common. In the late Roman Empire, the Roman infantry came to use a differently-shaped javelin from the earlier pilum. This javelin was

neg: History of Europe Senate and People of Rome—SPQR. The Romans expanded from Arabia to Britannia. In 44 BC as it approached its height, its dictator Julius Caesar was murdered by senators in an attempt to restore the Republic. In the ensuing turmoil, Octavian (ruled as Augustus; and as "divi filius", or Son of God, as Julius had adopted him as an heir) usurped the reins of power and fought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, the Roman Empire, which lasted for more than

neg: Kingdom of Pontus Mithridates VI Pontus also fielded a corps of 120,000 troops armed "in the Roman fashion" and "drilled in the Roman phalanx formation". These units imitated Roman legions, although it is disputed to what degree they achieved this. The navy was kind of organized in the same way as the army. While the kingdom itself provided the main contingent of ships, a small portion represented the Greek cities. The crewmen either came from the various tribes of the kingdom, or were of Greek origin. Kingdom of Pontus The Kingdom of Pontus or Pontic Empire was a state founded by the Persian

neg: Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire The executive magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. During the transition from monarchy to republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the executive (the Roman King) to the Roman Senate. During the transition from republic to empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted back to the executive (the Roman Emperor). Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor, although in practice, it was the army which made the choice. The powers of an emperor, (his "imperium") existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing.

neg: Gorazd (Pavlík) celebrated on 22 August (OC) or 4 September (NC). Matěj Pavlík was born on 26 May 1879, in the Moravian village of Hrubá Vrbka in what would later be the Czech Republic. Born into the Roman Catholic society of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Matthias entered the Faculty of Theology in Olomouc after finishing his earlier education. He was subsequently ordained a priest. During his studies, he was interested in the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius and of Eastern Orthodoxy. Establishment of Czechoslovakia in the aftermath of the First World War brought complete religious freedom. In this environment, many people left

neg: Portico of Pompey these colonnades, shaded from the sun and rain. The first and most popular of these gardens was located in the quadriporticus that Pompey built to adjoin the theatre that also bore his name. Pompey, impressed or inspired by what he saw during his years of travel and campaigning for Rome, returned with a desire to build a monument to himself larger than any other before. A theatre, porticus and curia were built in a huge complex that became a symbol of Roman culture for centuries and was imulated across the Republic and empire. The entrance to the theatre complex was

neg: Palingenesis the Greek Revolution. British political theorist Roger Griffin has coined the term "palingenetic ultranationalism" as a core tenet of fascism, stressing the notion of fascism as an ideology of rebirth of a state or empire in the image of that which came before it – its ancestral political underpinnings. Examples of this are Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Under Benito Mussolini, Italy purported to establish an empire as the second incarnation of the Roman Empire, while Adolf Hitler's regime was seen as being the third palingenetic incarnation of the German "Reich" - beginning first with the Holy Roman Empire ("First

neg: Roman Constitution republic, and the creation of the Roman Empire. The Senate of the very early Roman Empire was as weak as it had been during the late republic. However, after the transition from republic to empire was complete, the Senate arguably held more power than it had held at any previous point. All constitutional powers (legislative, executive and judicial) had been transferred to the Senate. However, unlike the Senate of the republic, the Senate of the empire was dominated by the emperor. It was through the Senate that the emperor exercised his autocratic powers, and by the late principate, the Senate's

neg: First Republic of Armenia and the capital was Erivan. For the first time in thousands of years Armenia was Armenia." First Republic of Armenia The First Republic of Armenia, officially known at the time of its existence as the Democratic Republic of Armenia (classical ), was the first modern Armenian state since the loss of Armenian statehood in the Middle Ages. The republic was established in the Armenian-populated territories of the disintegrated Russian Empire, known as Eastern Armenia or Russian Armenia. The leaders of the government came mostly from the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun). The First Republic of Armenia bordered the Democratic

neg: History of the world Byzantine Empire. Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to western Europe through the establishment in 962 of a revived "Roman Empire", later called the Holy Roman Empire, comprising a number of states in what is now Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Belgium, Italy, and parts of France. In China, dynasties would rise and fall, but, by sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, dynastic unity would be restored. After the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, nomadic tribes from the north began to invade in the 4th century, eventually conquering areas of

neg: Majesty existence of a specific crime, called "laesa maiestas" (in later French and English law, "lèse-majesté"), consisting of the violation of this supreme status. Various acts such as celebrating a party on a day of public mourning, contempt of the various rites of the state and disloyalty in word or act were punished as crimes against the majesty of the republic. However, later, under the Empire, it came to mean an offence against the dignity of the Emperor. The term was first assumed by Charles V, who believed that—following his election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519—he deserved a style greater

neg: Middle Ages large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the "Corpus Juris Civilis" or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered

neg: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire The causes and mechanisms of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire are a historical theme that was introduced by historian Edward Gibbon in his 1776 book "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". He started an ongoing historiographical discussion about what caused the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the reduced power of the remaining Eastern Empire, in the 4th–5th centuries. Gibbon was not the first to speculate on why the Empire collapsed, but he was the first to give a well-researched and well-referenced account.

neg: Lest Darkness Fall though torture is the normal method of interrogation by what passes for law-enforcement agencies. In the real timeline, the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire temporarily expanded westwards, embarking on what came to be known as the Gothic War (535–554). They overthrew the Ostrogoths and the Vandals in North Africa, but this war devastated the Italian urbanized society that required the support of intensive agriculture and by the end of the conflict Italy was severely depopulated: its population is estimated to have decreased from 7 million to 2.5 million people. The great cities of Roman times were abandoned and the Byzantines

neg: Christianity in the 4th century European pagans. Until the decline of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes who had migrated there (with the exceptions of the Saxons, Franks, and Lombards) had converted to Christianity. Many of them, notably the Goths and Vandals, adopted Arianism instead of the Trinitarian beliefs that came to dominate the Roman Imperial Church. The gradual rise of Germanic Christianity was voluntary, particularly amongst groups associated with the Roman Empire. Wulfila or Ulfilas was the son or grandson of Christian captives from Sadagolthina in Cappadocia. In 337 or 341, Wulfila became the first bishop of the (Christian) Goths. By 348, one of

neg: Greece the American rate of 27.7%. In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good health in the OECD, at 98.5%. Infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9. The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic,

neg: History of the Bosniaks by the Slavic wave that was to follow. Slavs settled in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and the surrounding lands, which were then part of the Eastern Roman Empire, in the seventh century. The Slavic Serbs and Croats settled sometime after the first wave of Slavs. The Croats established a kingdom in what is northwestern Croatia. The Serbs settled in what is now southcentral Serbia, and later expanding into the upper Drina valley of eastern Bosnia and into Eastern Herzegovina, known in the later Middle Ages as Zahumlje. The Croats to the west came under the influence of the Germanic Carolingian Empire and

neg: Legacy of the Roman Empire civic, governmental, military and engineering development. That said, the Romans also developed a huge array of new technologies and innovations. Many came from common themes but were vastly superior to what had come before, whilst others were totally new inventions developed by and for the needs of Empire and the Roman way of life. Some of the more famous examples are the Roman aqueducts (some of which are still in use today), Roman roads, water powered milling machines, thermal heating systems (as employed in Roman baths, and also used in palaces and wealthy homes) sewage and pipe systems and the