query: who combined the electric and magnetic phenomena into one unified theory

pos: Unified field theory formula_7 manifold. In mathematics, if f(z) is a holomorphic function restricted to the Real Numbers, it has the complex conjugate properties of f (z) = f *(z*), which leads to the above equation when formula_21 is satisfied. All four of the known fundamental forces are mediated by fields, which in the Standard Model of particle physics result from exchange of gauge bosons. Specifically the four fundamental interactions to be unified are: Modern unified field theory attempts to bring these four interactions together into a single framework. The first successful classical unified field theory was developed by James Clerk Maxwell. In

pos: Maxwell (unit) Maxwell (unit) The maxwell (symbol: Mx) is the CGS (centimetre-gram-second) unit of magnetic flux (). The unit name honours James Clerk Maxwell, who presented a unified theory of electromagnetism. The "maxwell" was recommended as a CGS unit at the International Electrical Congress held in 1900 at Paris. This practical unit was previously called a "line", reflecting Faraday's conception of the magnetic field as curved lines of magnetic force, which he designated as "line of magnetic induction". "Kiloline" (10 line) and "megaline" (10 line) were sometimes used because 1 line was very small relative to the phenomena that it was used

pos: Wireless power transfer magnetic field. Michael Faraday described in 1831 with his law of induction the electromotive force driving a current in a conductor loop by a time-varying magnetic flux. Transmission of electrical energy without wires was observed by many inventors and experimenters, but lack of a coherent theory attributed these phenomena vaguely to electromagnetic induction. A concise explanation of these phenomena would come from the 1860s Maxwell's equations by James Clerk Maxwell, establishing a theory that unified electricity and magnetism to electromagnetism, predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves as the "wireless" carrier of electromagnetic energy. Around 1884 John Henry Poynting defined the

pos: Michael Faraday magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations, and which have in turn evolved into the generalization known today as field theory. Faraday would later use the principles he had discovered to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators and the electric motor. In 1832, he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of

pos: Montonen–Olive duality of the magnetic monopole. The idea of a close similarity between electricity and magnetism, going back to the time of André-Marie Ampère and Michael Faraday, was first made more precise with James Clerk Maxwell's formulation of his famous equations for a unified theory of electric and magnetic fields: The symmetry between formula_2 and formula_3 in these equations is striking. If one ignores the sources, or adds magnetic sources, the equations are invariant under formula_4 and formula_5. Why should there be such symmetry between formula_2 and formula_3? In 1931 Paul Dirac was studying the quantum mechanics of an electric charge moving

pos: Electromagnetic field was realized that the electric and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater whole — the electromagnetic field. Until 1820, when the Danish physicist H. C. Ørsted discovered the effect of electricity through a wire on a compass needle, electricity and magnetism had been viewed as unrelated phenomena . In 1831, Michael Faraday, one of the great thinkers of his time, made the seminal observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents and then, in 1864, James Clerk Maxwell published his famous paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". Once this electromagnetic field

pos: Fundamental interaction large bodies gravity dominates. Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, Maxwell's equations had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. Maxwell's theory, restated using vector calculus, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes. The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with a lowercase letter "c") can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. Einstein's 1905 theory of special

pos: Force magnetic force (due to the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law: where formula_51 is the electromagnetic force, formula_46 is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, formula_53 is the electric field, formula_54 is the velocity of the particle that is crossed with the magnetic field (formula_55). The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Oliver Heaviside and Josiah Willard Gibbs. These "Maxwell Equations" fully described

pos: Fundamental interaction distance". Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a "field" filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one. In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in a vacuum. The electromagnetic field theory contradicted predictions of Newton's theory of motion, unless physical states of the luminiferous aether—presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in a vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field—aligned all phenomena and thereby held valid the Newtonian principle relativity

pos: Force principle acting together to return an object to its equilibrium position. Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces that arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference. The fundamental theories for forces developed from the unification of different ideas. For example, Sir. Isaac Newton unified, with his universal theory of gravitation, the force responsible for objects falling near the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the falling of celestial bodies about the Earth (the Moon) and around the Sun (the planets). Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through a

pos: Maxwell (unit) non-SI unit. That is, one maxwell is the total flux across a surface of one square centimetre perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength one gauss. The weber is the related SI unit of magnetic flux, which was defined in 1946. Maxwell (unit) The maxwell (symbol: Mx) is the CGS (centimetre-gram-second) unit of magnetic flux (). The unit name honours James Clerk Maxwell, who presented a unified theory of electromagnetism. The "maxwell" was recommended as a CGS unit at the International Electrical Congress held in 1900 at Paris. This practical unit was previously called a "line", reflecting Faraday's conception of

pos: Electromagnetic induction "transformer EMF" this is generated by an electric force due to a changing magnetic field (due to the differential form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation). James Clerk Maxwell drew attention to the separate physical phenomena in 1861. This is believed to be a unique example in physics of where such a fundamental law is invoked to explain two such different phenomena. Einstein noticed that the two situations both corresponded to a relative movement between a conductor and a magnet, and the outcome was unaffected by which one was moving. This was one of the principal paths that led him to develop

pos: Culture of the United Kingdom of cooling. Figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science. John Napier introduced logarithms in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell unified the electric and magnetic forces in what are now known as Maxwell's equations. Following his publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" in 1865, Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves in 1867. James Joule worked on thermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy. Naturalist Charles Darwin wrote "On the Origin

neg: Unified field theory 1820 Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents exerted forces on magnets, while in 1831, Michael Faraday made the observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents. Until then, electricity and magnetism had been thought of as unrelated phenomena. In 1864, Maxwell published his famous paper on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. This was the first example of a theory that was able to encompass previously separate field theories (namely electricity and magnetism) to provide a unifying theory of electromagnetism. By 1905, Albert Einstein had used the constancy of the speed of light in Maxwell's theory to

neg: History of electromagnetic theory In the first half of the 19th century many very important additions were made to the world's knowledge concerning electricity and magnetism. For example, in 1819 Hans Christian Ørsted of Copenhagen discovered the deflecting effect of an electric current traversing a wire upon- a suspended magnetic needle. This discovery gave a clue to the subsequently proved intimate relationship between electricity and magnetism which was promptly followed up by Ampère who shortly thereafter (1821) announced his celebrated theory of electrodynamics, relating to the force that one current exerts upon another, by its electro-magnetic effects, namely Ampere brought a multitude of phenomena

neg: History of electromagnetic theory History of electromagnetic theory The history of electromagnetic theory begins with ancient measures to understand atmospheric electricity, in particular lightning. People then had little understanding of electricity, and were unable to explain the phenomena. Scientific understanding into the nature of electricity grew throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries through the work of researchers such as Ampère, Coulomb, Faraday and Maxwell. In the 19th century it had become clear that electricity and magnetism were related, and their theories were unified: wherever charges are in motion electric current results, and magnetism is due to electric current. The source for electric field is

neg: Giuseppe Arcidiacono and recently died in 1998, was one of the most brilliant Italian Physics Mathematics of the second postwar period. His most important contribution concerns a general method for the construction of unified field theories in physics... Since then, physicists have tried, without much success, to repeat the firm Maxwell, looking for a single unified theory and ultimately that was supposed to merge into a single entity, in addition to the electric field and magnetic field, all other fields Known in physics, from gravity to the nuclear industry. The great idea of Arcidiacono, in this respect has been to abandon a

neg: Magnetotellurics 0.0001 Hz (10,000 s). These fields are due to electric currents flowing in the Earth and the magnetic fields that induce these currents. The magnetic fields are produced mainly by the interaction between the solar wind and the magnetosphere. In addition, worldwide thunderstorm activity causes magnetic fields at frequencies above 1 Hz. Combined, these natural phenomena create strong MT source signals over the entire frequency spectrum. The ratio of the electric field to magnetic field provides simple information about subsurface conductivity. Because the skin effect phenomenon affects the electromagnetic fields, the ratio at higher frequency ranges gives information on the

neg: Electromagnetism replaced classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics compatible with classical electromagnetism. (For more information, see History of special relativity.) In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving electric field transforms to a nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the phenomena are two sides of the same coin. Hence the term "electromagnetism". (For more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.) The Maxwell equations are "linear," in that a change in the sources

neg: S-duality the most basic manifestation of S-duality in quantum field theory. In quantum field theory, the electric and magnetic fields are unified into a single entity called the electromagnetic field, and this field is described by a special type of quantum field theory called a gauge theory or Yang–Mills theory. In a gauge theory, the physical fields have a high degree of symmetry which can be understood mathematically using the notion of a Lie group. This Lie group is known as the gauge group. The electromagnetic field is described by a very simple gauge theory corresponding to the abelian gauge group

neg: Fluid theory of electricity north when placed near an electric current. This caused him to develop theories that electricity and magnetism were interrelated and could affect one another. Ørsted's work was the basis for a theory by French physicist André-Marie Ampère, which unified the relation between magnetism and electricity. Fluid theory of electricity Fluid theories of electricity are outdated theories that postulated one or more electrical fluids which were thought to be responsible for many electrical phenomena in the history of electromagnetism. The "two-fluid" theory of electricity, created by Charles François de Cisternay du Fay, postulated that electricity was the interaction between two electrical

neg: Electromagnetism Electromagnetism Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force usually exhibits electromagnetic fields such as electric fields, magnetic fields, and light, and is one of the four fundamental interactions (commonly called forces) in nature. The other three fundamental interactions are the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation. At high energy the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a single electroweak force. Electromagnetic phenomena are defined in terms of the electromagnetic force, sometimes called the Lorentz force, which includes

neg: Split-ring resonator signal from a point source, increasing the transmission distance for near field waves. Furthermore, another analysis showed SRRs with a negative index of refraction capable of high-frequency magnetic response, which created an artificial magnetic device composed of non-magnetic materials (dielectric circuit board). The resonance phenomena that occurs in this system is essential to achieving the desired effects. SRRs also exhibit resonant electric response in addition to their resonant magnetic response. The response, when combined with an array of identical wires is averaged over the whole composite structure which results in effective values, including the refractive index. The original logic behind

neg: Magnetic monopole the magnetic monopoles, but the two phenomena are only superficially related to one another. These condensed-matter systems remain an area of active research. (See below.) All matter ever isolated to date, including every atom on the periodic table and every particle in the standard model, has zero magnetic monopole charge. Therefore, the ordinary phenomena of magnetism and magnets have nothing to do with magnetic monopoles. Instead, magnetism in ordinary matter comes from two sources. First, electric currents create magnetic fields according to Ampère's law. Second, many elementary particles have an "intrinsic" magnetic moment, the most important of which is the

neg: James Clerk Maxwell Foundation Electromagnetic Field, Maxwell defined electromagnetics in terms of 20 equations, later summarised in his 1873 book Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Hendrik Lorentz subsequently reinterpreted these as the fundamental equations of electrodynamics and Oliver Heaviside developed the notation we use today. The theory behind Maxwell's equations was the first grand unification theory of the forces of Nature as this theory united the electric and magnetic fields. A person who is stationary may experience only an electric field but a person who is in relative motion may experience an electric current and a magnetic field. Thus the one field (called the

neg: History of electromagnetic theory calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light. He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, and commented ""We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena."" Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time,

neg: Multiferroics principle, could exist. One is piezomagnetism, which consists of linear coupling between a magnetic field in a solid and a deformation (analogous to piezoelectricity). The other is a linear coupling between magnetic and electric fields in a media, which would cause, for example, a magnetization proportional to an electric field. Both these phenomena could exist for certain classes of magnetocrystalline symmetry. We will not however discuss these phenomena in more detail because it seems that till present, presumably, they have not been observed in any substance.”" One year later, I. E. Dzyaloshinskii showed using symmetry arguments that the material CrO

neg: Maxwell's equations effect, Planck's law, the Duane–Hunt law, and single-photon light detectors. However, many such phenomena may be approximated using a halfway theory of quantum matter coupled to a classical electromagnetic field, either as external field or with the expected value of the charge current and density on the right hand side of Maxwell's equations. Popular variations on the Maxwell equations as a classical theory of electromagnetic fields are relatively scarce because the standard equations have stood the test of time remarkably well. Maxwell's equations posit that there is electric charge, but no magnetic charge (also called magnetic monopoles), in the universe.

neg: Fluid theory of electricity Franklin described the effects of magnetism in their theories, with both concerning themselves only with electrical effects. However, theories on magnetism followed a very similar pattern as those on electricity. Charles Coulomb described magnets as containing two magnetic fluids, aural and boreal, which could combine to describe magnetic attraction and repulsion. The related one-fluid theory for magnetism was proposed by Franz Aepinus, who described magnets as containing too much or too little magnetic fluid. These theories of electricity and magnetism were thought of as two separate phenomena, until Hans Christian Ørsted noticed that a compass needle would deflect from magnetic

neg: Magnetic monopole phenomena that are mathematically analogous to magnetic monopoles. Many early scientists attributed the magnetism of lodestones to two different "magnetic fluids" ("effluvia"), a north-pole fluid at one end and a south-pole fluid at the other, which attracted and repelled each other in analogy to positive and negative electric charge. However, an improved understanding of electromagnetism in the nineteenth century showed that the magnetism of lodestones was properly explained not by magnetic monopole fluids, but rather by a combination of electric currents, the electron magnetic moment, and the magnetic moments of other particles. Gauss's law for magnetism, one of Maxwell's equations,

neg: Hydrogen atom of hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields, which cannot be solved in the framework of the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory self-consistently), and their main shortcomings result from the absence of the electron spin in both theories. It was the complete failure of the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory to explain many-electron systems (such as helium atom or hydrogen molecule) which demonstrated its inadequacy in describing quantum phenomena. The Schrödinger equation allows one to calculate the development of quantum systems with time and can give exact, analytical answers for the non-relativistic hydrogen atom. The Hamiltonian of the hydrogen atom is the radial kinetic energy

neg: History of electromagnetic theory are attracted by the particles of all bodies with a force that decreases in proportion as the distance increases; the electric fluid exists in the pores of bodies; it moves unobstructedly through non-electric (conductors), but moves with difficulty in insulators; the manifestations of electricity are due to the unequal distribution of the fluid in a body, or to the approach of bodies unequally charged with the fluid." Aepinus formulated a corresponding theory of magnetism excepting that, in the case of magnetic phenomena, the fluids only acted on the particles of iron. He also made numerous electrical experiments apparently showing that,

neg: Jean Daujat of which were translated into several languages. In December 1946, he defended a thesis on the history of science on the theory of electric and magnetic phenomena before a jury that included Gaston Bachelard and Louis de Broglie. He published two books on the philosophy of science: "Modern Physics" and "Traditional Philosophy". Because of a Communist threat he received after publishing a booklet showing the perversion of communism, which sold hundreds of thousands of copies, Daujat was asked to speak at numerous conferences on this subject. He published his last book in 1996. Jean Daujat Jean Daujat (Paris, 27 October

neg: Displacement current the speed of sound ("Lines of Force", Part III, equation (132)), that “light consists of transverse undulations in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.” But although the above quotations point towards a magnetic explanation for displacement current, for example, based upon the divergence of the above "curl" equation, Maxwell's explanation ultimately stressed linear polarization of dielectrics: With some change of symbols (and units) combined with the results deduced in the section "Current in capacitors" : "r → J", "R → −E" and the material constant E → "4π εε" these equations take the familiar

neg: History of string theory as M-theory (for details, see Introduction to M-theory). These discoveries sparked the second superstring revolution that took place approximately between 1994 and 1995. The different versions of superstring theory were unified, as long hoped, by new equivalences. These are known as S-duality, T-duality, U-duality, mirror symmetry, and conifold transitions. The different theories of strings were also related to M-theory. In 1995, Joseph Polchinski discovered that the theory requires the inclusion of higher-dimensional objects, called D-branes: these are the sources of electric and magnetic Ramond–Ramond fields that are required by string duality. D-branes added additional rich mathematical structure to the theory,

neg: Solar phenomena pressure compresses the magnetosphere and the solar wind's magnetic field interacts with the Earth’s magnetic field to transfer increased energy into the magnetosphere. Both interactions increase plasma movement through the magnetosphere (driven by increased electric fields) and an increase in electric current in the magnetosphere and ionosphere. The disturbance in the interplanetary medium that drives a storm may be due to a CME or a high speed stream (co-rotating interaction region or CIR) of the solar wind originating from a region of weak magnetic field on the solar surface. The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the sunspot

neg: Standard Model the theory. This is natural in the left-right symmetric extension of the Standard Model and in certain grand unified theories. As long as new physics appears below or around 10 GeV, the neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude. Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a Unified field theory or a Theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of the Standard Model that motivate such research include: Currently, no proposed Theory of Everything has been widely accepted or verified. Standard Model The Standard Model of

neg: James Clerk Maxwell at the speed of light. Maxwell proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves. Maxwell helped develop the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the rigidity of rod-and-joint frameworks (trusses) like those in many bridges. His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern

neg: History of special relativity equations. He first proposed that light was in fact undulations (electromagnetic radiation) in the "same" aetherial medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. However, Maxwell's theory was unsatisfactory regarding the optics of moving bodies, and while he was able to present a complete mathematical model, he was not able to provide a coherent mechanical description of the aether. After Heinrich Hertz in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory was widely accepted. In addition, Oliver Heaviside and Hertz further developed the theory and introduced modernized versions of Maxwell's equations. The "Maxwell-Hertz" or "Heaviside-Hertz" equations subsequently

neg: Dual photon decays into a pair of electron and positron with a combined energy of 17 MeV. In 2016, it was proposed that it is a X-boson with a mass of 16.7 MeV that explains m-2 muon anomaly. Dual photon In theoretical physics, the dual photon is a hypothetical elementary particle that is a dual of the photon under electric-magnetic duality which is predicted by some theoretical models and some results of M-theory in eleven dimensions. It has been shown that including magnetic monopole in Maxwell's equations introduces a singularity. The only way to avoid the singularity is including a second four-vector

neg: Quantum field theory effect, as well as the relation between frequency and voltage in the AC Josephson effect. For simplicity, natural units are used in the following sections, in which the reduced Planck constant and the speed of light are both set to one. A classical field is a function of spatial and time coordinates. Examples include the gravitational field in Newtonian gravity and the electric field and magnetic field in classical electromagnetism. A classical field can be thought of as a numerical quantity assigned to every point in space that changes in time. Hence, it has infinite degrees of freedom. Many phenomena

neg: Classical electromagnetism and special relativity see below. A famous example of the intermixing of electric and magnetic phenomena in different frames of reference is called the "moving magnet and conductor problem", cited by Einstein in his 1905 paper on Special Relativity. If a conductor moves with a constant velocity through the field of a stationary magnet, eddy currents will be produced due to a "magnetic" force on the electrons in the conductor. In the rest frame of the conductor, on the other hand, the magnet will be moving and the conductor stationary. Classical electromagnetic theory predicts that precisely the same microscopic eddy currents will be

neg: Four-tensor field and E and magnetic field B formula_8 The electromagnetic displacement tensor combines the electric displacement field D and magnetic field intensity H as follows The magnetization-polarization tensor combines the P and M fields The three field tensors are related by which is equivalent to the definitions of the D and H fields. The electric dipole moment d and magnetic dipole moment μ of a particle are unified into a single tensor The Ricci curvature tensor is another second order tensor. In general relativity, there are curvature tensors which tend to be higher order, such as the Riemann curvature tensor

neg: Physics experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire new experiments. Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory. Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way. Beyond the known universe, the field of

neg: Current density law (one of Maxwell's equations), which relates current density to magnetic field. In special relativity theory, charge and current are combined into a 4-vector. Charge carriers which are free to move constitute a free current density, which are given by expressions such as those in this section. Electric current is a coarse, average quantity that tells what is happening in an entire wire. At position r at time "t", the "distribution" of charge flowing is described by the current density: where J(r, "t") is the current density vector, v(r, "t") is the particles' average drift velocity (SI unit: m∙s), and

neg: Magnetic monopole zero, so that all particles have no magnetic charge. This choice underlies the "conventional" definitions of electricity and magnetism. One of the defining advances in quantum theory was Paul Dirac's work on developing a relativistic quantum electromagnetism. Before his formulation, the presence of electric charge was simply "inserted" into the equations of quantum mechanics (QM), but in 1931 Dirac showed that a discrete charge naturally "falls out" of QM. That is to say, we can maintain the form of Maxwell's equations and still have magnetic charges. Consider a system consisting of a single stationary electric monopole (an electron, say) and

neg: Electromagnetic induction several ways: In general, the relation between the EMF formula_5 in a wire loop encircling a surface Σ, and the electric field E in the wire is given by where "d"ℓ is an element of contour of the surface Σ, combining this with the definition of flux we can write the integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation It is one of the four Maxwell's equations, and therefore plays a fundamental role in the theory of classical electromagnetism. Faraday's law describes two different phenomena: the "motional EMF" generated by a magnetic force on a moving wire (see Lorentz force), and the

neg: Unified field theory Unified field theory In physics, a unified field theory (UFT) is a type of field theory that allows all that is usually thought of as fundamental forces and elementary particles to be written in terms of a pair of physical and virtual fields. According to the modern discoveries in physics, forces are not transmitted directly between interacting objects, but instead are described and interrupted by intermediary entities called fields. Classically, however, a duality of the fields is combined into a single physical field. For over a century, unified field theory remains an open line of research and the term was

neg: Critical phenomena happen. If formula_17, never mind how close they are, the system has chosen a global magnetization, and the phase space is divided into two regions. From one of them it is impossible to reach the other, unless a magnetic field is applied, or temperature is raised above formula_5. See also superselection sector The main mathematical tools to study critical points are renormalization group, which takes advantage of the Russian dolls picture or the self-similarity to explain universality and predict numerically the critical exponents, and Variational perturbation theory, which converts divergent perturbation expansions into convergent strong-coupling expansions relevant to critical phenomena.

neg: Magnetic circuit to resistivity. Longer, thinner geometries with low permeabilities lead to higher reluctance. Low reluctance, like low resistance in electric circuits, is generally preferred. The following table summarizes the mathematical analogy between electrical circuit theory and magnetic circuit theory. This is mathematical analogy and not a physical one. Objects in the same row have the same mathematical role; the physics of the two theories are very different. For example, current is the flow of electrical charge, while magnetic flux is not the flow of any quantity. When using the analogy between magnetic circuits and electric circuits, the limitations of this analogy

neg: Macroscopic quantum phenomena of magnetic flux penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the flow of electric current as long as the current is not too large. At a second critical field strength "H", superconductivity is destroyed. The mixed state is actually caused by vortices in the electronic superfluid, sometimes called fluxons because the flux carried by these vortices is quantized. Most pure elemental superconductors, except niobium and carbon nanotubes, are Type I, while almost all impure and compound superconductors are Type II. The most important finding from Ginzburg–Landau theory was made by Alexei Abrikosov in 1957. He used Ginzburg–Landau theory

neg: Grand Unified Theory larger simple symmetry group containing the Standard Model. This would automatically predict the quantized nature and values of all elementary particle charges. Since this also results in a prediction for the relative strengths of the fundamental interactions which we observe, in particular the weak mixing angle, Grand Unification ideally reduces the number of independent input parameters, but is also constrained by observations. Grand Unification is reminiscent of the unification of electric and magnetic forces by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism in the 19th century, but its physical implications and mathematical structure are qualitatively different. is the simplest GUT. The smallest simple

neg: History of electromagnetic theory intermediate steps towards a "Theory of Everything" (TOE), a putative theory of theoretical physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena, and, ideally, has predictive power for the outcome of any experiment that could be carried out in principle. No such theory has yet been accepted by the physics community. The magnetic monopole in the "quantum" theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A.M. Dirac in 1931. The detection of magnetic monopoles is an open problem in experimental physics. In some theoretical models, magnetic monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they

neg: Dyon restricted by the Dirac quantization condition. This states in particular that their magnetic charge must be integral, and that their electric charges must all be equal modulo 1. The Witten effect, demonstrated by Edward Witten in his 1979 paper, states that the electric charges of dyons must all be equal, modulo one, to the product of their magnetic charge and the theta angle of the theory. In particular, if a theory does not preserve CP symmetry then the electric charges of all dyons are integers. Dyon In physics, a dyon is a hypothetical particle in 4-dimensional theories with both electric

neg: Terahertz metamaterial of electromagnetic, artificial-lattice structured materials, termed metamaterials, has led to the realization of phenomena that cannot be obtained with natural materials. This is observed, for example, with a natural glass lens, which interacts with light (the electromagnetic wave) in a way that appears to be one-handed, while light is delivered in a two-handed manner. In other words, light consists of an electric field and magnetic field. The interaction of a conventional lens, or other natural materials, with light is heavily dominated by the interaction with the electric field (one-handed). The magnetic interaction in lens material is essentially nil. This results

neg: Néel relaxation theory Néel relaxation theory Néel relaxation theory is a theory developed by Louis Néel in 1949 to explain time-dependent magnetic phenomena known as "magnetic viscosity". It is also called "Néel-Arrhenius theory", after the Arrhenius equation, and "Néel-Brown theory" after a more rigorous derivation by William Fuller Brown, Jr. Néel used his theory to develop a model of thermoremanent magnetization in single-domain ferromagnetic minerals that explained how these minerals could reliably record the geomagnetic field. He also modeled frequency-dependent susceptibility and alternating field demagnetization. Superparamagnetism occurs in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic nanoparticles which are single-domain, i.e. composed of a single magnetic domain. This

neg: Nanoflares further from the solar corona. More probably, the Alfvén waves are responsible for the acceleration of the solar wind in coronal holes. The theory initially developed by Parker of micro-nanoflares is one of those explaining the heating of the corona as the dissipation of electric currents generated by a spontaneous relaxation of the magnetic field towards a configuration of lower energy. The magnetic energy is thus transformed into Joule heating. The braiding of the field lines of the coronal magnetic flux tubes provokes events of magnetic reconnection with a consequent change of the magnetic field at small length-scales without a

neg: Magnetic monopole of magnetic monopoles. During the early 1970s, the successes of quantum field theory and gauge theory in the development of electroweak theory and the mathematics of the strong nuclear force led many theorists to move on to attempt to combine them in a single theory known as a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Several GUTs were proposed, most of which implied the presence of a real magnetic monopole particle. More accurately, GUTs predicted a range of particles known as dyons, of which the most basic state was a monopole. The charge on magnetic monopoles predicted by GUTs is either 1 or

neg: Magnetism Despite systematic searches since 1931, , they have never been observed, and could very well not exist. Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are

neg: Alexey Ivakhnenko devices for the automatic control of speed in electric motors and the calculation of systems with magnetic amplifiers. Well known are his achievements in the theory of invariance and theory of combined automatic control systems, that operates on the principle of measured disturbances compensation. He is the author of the first Ukrainian monograph on technical cybernetics, which was published worldwide in seven languages. In his study, a further development of the principles of combined control was connected with the implementation of methods and devices of self-tuning and self-organisation, pattern recognition and forecasting in control systems. In recent years, his main

neg: Luminiferous aether magnetic permeability in terms of the transverse elasticity and the density of this elastic medium. He then equated the ratio of the dielectric constant to the magnetic permeability with a suitably adapted version of Weber and Kohlrausch's result of 1856, and he substituted this result into Newton's equation for the speed of sound. On obtaining a value that was close to the speed of light as measured by Hippolyte Fizeau, Maxwell concluded that light consists in undulations of the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. Maxwell had, however, expressed some uncertainties surrounding the precise nature

neg: Astrophysical plasma and in intergalactic space. Similarly, electric fields are observed in some stellar astrophysical phenomena, but they are inconsequential in very low-density gaseous mediums. Astrophysical plasma is often differentiated from space plasma, which typically refers to the plasma of the Sun, the solar wind, and the ionospheres and magnetospheres of the Earth and other planets. Plasmas in stars can both generate and interact with magnetic fields, resulting in a variety of dynamic astrophysical phenomena. These phenomena are sometimes observed in spectra due to the Zeeman effect. Other forms of astrophysical plasmas can be influenced by preexisting weak magnetic fields, whose interactions

neg: Dual superconductor model Dual superconductor model In the theory of quantum chromodynamics, dual superconductor models attempt to explain confinement of quarks in terms of an electromagnetic dual theory of superconductivity. In an electromagnetic dual theory the roles of electric and magnetic fields are interchanged. The BCS theory of superconductivity explains superconductivity as the result of the condensation of electric charges to Cooper pairs. In a dual superconductor an analogous effect occurs through the condensation of magnetic charges (also called magnetic monopoles). In ordinary electromagnetic theory, no monopoles have been shown to exist. However, in quantum chromodynamics — the theory of colour charge which

neg: Dual superconductor model confine colour of some gluons, allowing coloured bound states at energies observable in particle colliders. Dual superconductor model In the theory of quantum chromodynamics, dual superconductor models attempt to explain confinement of quarks in terms of an electromagnetic dual theory of superconductivity. In an electromagnetic dual theory the roles of electric and magnetic fields are interchanged. The BCS theory of superconductivity explains superconductivity as the result of the condensation of electric charges to Cooper pairs. In a dual superconductor an analogous effect occurs through the condensation of magnetic charges (also called magnetic monopoles). In ordinary electromagnetic theory, no monopoles have

neg: Unified neutral theory of biodiversity similar resources. Under the Unified Theory, complex ecological interactions are permitted among individuals of an ecological community (such as competition and cooperation), provided that all individuals obey the same rules. Asymmetric phenomena such as parasitism and predation are ruled out by the terms of reference; but cooperative strategies such as swarming, and negative interaction such as competing for limited food or light are allowed (so long as all individuals behave in the same way). The Unified Theory also makes predictions that have profound implications for the management of biodiversity, especially the management of rare species. The theory predicts the existence

neg: Cavity perturbation theory the material to be measured is introduced into the cavity at the position of maximum electric or magnetic field. When the material is introduced at the position of maximum electric field, then the contribution of magnetic field to perturbed frequency shift is very small and can be ignored. In this case, we can use perturbation theory to derive expressions for real and imaginary components of complex material permittivity formula_16 as: where formula_17 and formula_18 represent resonant frequencies of original cavity and perturbed cavity respectively, formula_19 and formula_20 represent volumes of original cavity and material sample respectively, formula_21 and formula_22 represent

neg: Heliospheric current sheet and the resulting electric current forms part of the heliospheric current circuit. The heliospheric current sheet is also sometimes called the "interplanetary current sheet". As the Sun rotates, its magnetic field twists into a Parker spiral, a form of an Archimedean spiral, as it extends through the solar system. This phenomenon is named after Eugene Parker's work: he predicted the solar wind and many of its associated phenomena in the 1950s. The spiral nature of the heliospheric magnetic field had been noted earlier by Hannes Alfvén, based on the structure of comet tails. The influence of this spiral-shaped magnetic field

neg: Lie group decomposition groups and p-adic number analogues, making it harder to summarise the facts into a unified theory. Lie group decomposition In mathematics, Lie group decompositions are used to analyse the structure of Lie groups and associated objects, by showing how they are built up out of subgroups. They are essential technical tools in the representation theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras; they can also be used to study the algebraic topology of such groups and associated homogeneous spaces. Since the use of Lie group methods became one of the standard techniques in twentieth century mathematics, many phenomena can now be

neg: Bahram Askerov A.I.Anselm) a quantum theory of thermomagnetic phenomena in semiconductors and metals. They proposed a method for calculating dissipative thermomagnetic currents in quantized magnetic fields, when the usual transport equation is not applicable. B.M.Askerov generalized the W.W.Adams and L.J.Goldstein`s density matrix method, underlying the quantum theory of transverse thermomagnetic phenomena in semiconductors, to the case of the indium-antimonide-type conduction band. He elaborated a theory of electron transport phenomena in quantum wells, classical and size-quantized films, and superlattices. Bahram Askerov Askerov Bahram Mehrali oglu (5 October 1933 - 12 March 2014) was a physicist. He was born in the village of Ahmedabad,

neg: Displacement current Clerk Maxwell in his 1861 paper "On Physical Lines of Force, Part III" in connection with the displacement of electric particles in a dielectric medium. Maxwell added displacement current to the electric current term in Ampère's Circuital Law. In his 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field Maxwell used this amended version of Ampère's Circuital Law to derive the electromagnetic wave equation. This derivation is now generally accepted as a historical landmark in physics by virtue of uniting electricity, magnetism and optics into one single unified theory. The displacement current term is now seen as a crucial addition

neg: Magnetic monopole 2 "gD", depending on the theory. The majority of particles appearing in any quantum field theory are unstable, and they decay into other particles in a variety of reactions that must satisfy various conservation laws. Stable particles are stable because there are no lighter particles into which they can decay and still satisfy the conservation laws. For instance, the electron has a lepton number of one and an electric charge of one, and there are no lighter particles that conserve these values. On the other hand, the muon, essentially a heavy electron, can decay into the electron plus two quanta

neg: Néel relaxation theory logarithm in the previous equation is in the order of 20–25. Néel relaxation theory Néel relaxation theory is a theory developed by Louis Néel in 1949 to explain time-dependent magnetic phenomena known as "magnetic viscosity". It is also called "Néel-Arrhenius theory", after the Arrhenius equation, and "Néel-Brown theory" after a more rigorous derivation by William Fuller Brown, Jr. Néel used his theory to develop a model of thermoremanent magnetization in single-domain ferromagnetic minerals that explained how these minerals could reliably record the geomagnetic field. He also modeled frequency-dependent susceptibility and alternating field demagnetization. Superparamagnetism occurs in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic nanoparticles

neg: Tensor field even though it is not a tensor field, it still qualifies as a geometric object with a component-free interpretation. The curvature tensor is discussed in differential geometry and the stress–energy tensor is important in physics and mathematics of these are related by Einstein's theory of general relativity. In electromagnetism, the electric and magnetic fields are combined into an electromagnetic tensor field. It is worth noting that differential forms, used in defining integration on manifolds, are a type of tensor field. In theoretical physics and other fields, differential equations posed in terms of tensor fields provide a very general way to

neg: Composite fermion of composite fermion theory is that the strongly correlated electrons at a magnetic field formula_15 (or filling factor formula_16) turn into weakly interacting composite fermions at a magnetic field formula_17 (or composite fermion filling factor formula_18). This allows an effectively single-particle explanation of the otherwise complex many-body behavior, with the interaction between electrons manifesting as an effective kinetic energy of composite fermions. Here are some of the phenomena arising from composite fermions: The effective magnetic field for composite fermions vanishes for formula_19, where the filling factor for electrons is formula_20. Here, composite fermions make a Fermi sea. This Fermi sea

neg: On Physical Lines of Force cause of electric and magnetic phenomena" It was also in this 1861 paper that Maxwell first introduced the displacement current term which is now included in Ampère's circuital law. But it wasn't until his next paper in 1865, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" that Maxwell used this displacement current term to derive the electromagnetic wave equation. The four modern Maxwell's equations, as laid down in a publication by Oliver Heaviside in 1884, had all appeared in Maxwell's 1861 paper. Heaviside however presented these equations in modern vector format using the nabla operator (∇) devised by William Rowan Hamilton

neg: Branches of physics this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes. The study of the behaviors of electrons, electric media, magnets, magnetic fields, and general interactions of light. The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with electromagnetism and mechanics; that is, the principle of relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can be used

neg: Hannes Alfvén He died at the age of 86. In 1937, Alfvén argued that if plasma pervaded the universe, it could then carry electric currents capable of generating a galactic magnetic field. After winning the Nobel Prize for his works in magnetohydrodynamics, he emphasized that: In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region, it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents. Space is filled with a network of currents which transfer energy and momentum over large or very large distances. The currents often pinch to filamentary or surface currents.

neg: Quantum chaos to the scaled action of closed orbits and whose heights correspond to formula_34. Closed-orbit theory has found broad agreement with a number of chaotic systems, including diamagnetic hydrogen, hydrogen in parallel electric and magnetic fields, diamagnetic lithium, lithium in an electric field, the formula_39 ion in crossed and parallel electric and magnetic fields, barium in an electric field, and helium in an electric field. For the case of one-dimensional system with the boundary condition formula_40 the density of states obtained from the Gutzwiller formula is related to the inverse of the potential of the classical system by formula_41 here formula_42

neg: Hannes Alfvén At the end of the nineteenth century, Birkeland proposed (backed by extensive data) that electric currents flowing down along the Earth's magnetic fields into the atmosphere caused the aurora and polar magnetic disturbances. Areas of technology benefiting from Alfvén's contributions include: Contributions to astrophysics: Alfvén waves (low frequency hydromagnetic plasma oscillations) are named in his honor. Many of his theories about the solar system were verified as late as the 1980s through external measurements of cometary and planetary magnetospheres. But Alfvén himself noted that astrophysical textbooks poorly represented known plasma phenomena: A study of how a number of the most

neg: Classical unified field theories places where the equations break down, and Einstein believed that in an ultimate theory the laws should apply "everywhere", with particles being soliton-like solutions to the (highly nonlinear) field equations. Further, the large-scale topology of the universe should impose restrictions on the solutions, such as quantization or discrete symmetries. The degree of abstraction, combined with a relative lack of good mathematical tools for analyzing nonlinear equation systems, make it hard to connect such theories with the physical phenomena that they might describe. For example, it has been suggested that the torsion (antisymmetric part of the affine connection) might be related

neg: Magnetic nozzle resonance plasma thruster, the VASIMR, and the applied-field magnetoplasmadynamic thruster. Magnetic nozzles also find another field of application in advanced plasma manufacturing processes, and their physics are related to those of several magnetic confinement plasma fusion devices. The expansion of a plasma in a magnetic nozzle is inherently more complex than the expansion of a gas in a solid nozzle, and is the result of several intertwined phenomena, which ultimately rely on the large mass difference between electrons and ions and the electric and magnetic interactions between them and the applied field. If the strength of the applied magnetic field

neg: Magnetism by an organism are known as biomagnetism. Magnetism Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys. The prefix "" refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first

neg: Magnetism Magnetism Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys. The prefix "" refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural

neg: Introduction to quantum mechanics the electron, proton, and even [[quark]]s, among others. As a force is exerted, electric charges move, a current flows and a magnetic field is produced. The changing magnetic field, in turn causes [[electric current]] (often moving electrons). The physical description of interacting [[charged particle]]s, electrical currents, electrical fields, and magnetic fields is called [[electromagnetism]]. In 1928 [[Paul Dirac]] produced a relativistic quantum theory of electromagnetism. This was the progenitor to modern quantum electrodynamics, in that it had essential ingredients of the modern theory. However, the problem of unsolvable infinities developed in this [[relativistic quantum theory]]. Years later, [[renormalization]] largely solved

neg: Microwave cavity VHF or microwave regions, a capacitor may appear to be an inductor and an inductor may appear to be a capacitor. These phenomena are better known as parasitic inductance and parasitic capacitance. Dielectric loss of air is extremely low for high-frequency electric or magnetic fields. Air-filled microwave cavities confine electric and magnetic fields to the air spaces between their walls. Electric losses in such cavities are almost exclusively due to currents flowing in cavity walls. While losses from wall currents are small, cavities are frequently plated with silver to increase their electrical conductivity and reduce these losses even further. Copper

neg: Dyon Dyon In physics, a dyon is a hypothetical particle in 4-dimensional theories with both electric and magnetic charges. A dyon with a zero electric charge is usually referred to as a magnetic monopole. Many grand unified theories predict the existence of both magnetic monopoles and dyons. Dyons were first proposed by Julian Schwinger in 1969 as a phenomenological alternative to quarks. He extended the Dirac quantization condition to the dyon and used the model to predict the existence of a particle with the properties of the J/ψ meson prior to its discovery in 1974. The allowed charges of dyons are

neg: Wind (spacecraft) MFI experiments were designed to measure the electric and magnetic fields observed in the solar wind. All together, the "Wind" spacecraft's suite of instruments allows for a complete description of plasma phenomena in the solar wind plane of the ecliptic. The electric field detectors of the "Wind" WAVES instrument are composed of three orthogonal electric field dipole antennas, two in the spin plane (roughly the plane of the ecliptic) of the spacecraft and one along the spin axis. The complete WAVES suite of instruments includes five total receivers including: Low Frequency FFT receiver called FFT (0.3 Hz to 11 kHz),

neg: Abdus Salam two could inter-convert. Salam provided a theory that shows the unification of two fundamental forces of nature, weak nuclear forces and the electromagnetic forces, one into another. Glashow had also formulated the same work, and the theory was combined in 1966. In 1967, Salam proved the electroweak unification theory mathematically, and finally published the papers. For this achievement, Salam, Glashow, and Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. The Nobel Prize Foundation paid tribute to the scientists and issued a statement saying: "For their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary

neg: Theory of solar cells Theory of solar cells The theory of solar cells explains the process by which light energy in photons is converted into electric current when the photons strike a suitable semiconductor device. The theoretical studies are of practical use because they predict the fundamental limits of a solar cell, and give guidance on the phenomena that contribute to losses and solar cell efficiency. When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen: When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band.

neg: Crookes tube magnetic field between them. The beam was bent down, perpendicular to the magnetic field. This effect (now called the Lorentz force) was similar to the behaviour of electric currents in an electric motor and showed that the cathode rays obeyed Faraday's law of induction like currents in wires. Both electric and magnetic deflection were evidence for the particle theory, because electric and magnetic fields have no effect on a beam of light waves. Crookes put a tiny vaned turbine or paddlewheel in the path of the cathode rays, and found that it rotated when the rays hit it. The paddlewheel

neg: Electroacoustic phenomena takes into consideration the double layer overlap that inevitably occurs for concentrated systems with thick double layer. This allows introduction of so-called "quasi-homogeneous" approach, when overlapped diffuse layers of particles cover the complete interparticle space. The theory becomes much simplified in this extreme case, as shown by Shilov and others. Their derivation predicts that surface charge density σ is a better parameter than ζ-potential for characterizing electroacoustic phenomena in such systems. An expression for CVI simplified for small particles follows: Electroacoustic phenomena Electroacoustic phenomena arise when ultrasound propagates through a fluid containing ions. The associated particle motion generates electric signals

neg: Grand Unified Theory by GUT models will be unable to be observed directly and instead the effects of grand unification might be detected through indirect observations such as proton decay, electric dipole moments of elementary particles, or the properties of neutrinos. Some GUTs, such as the Pati-Salam model, predict the existence of magnetic monopoles. GUT models which aim to be completely realistic are quite complicated, even compared to the Standard Model, because they need to introduce additional fields and interactions, or even additional dimensions of space. The main reason for this complexity lies in the difficulty of reproducing the observed fermion masses and

neg: Quantum field theory the relationship between the electric field, the magnetic field, electric current, and electric charge. Maxwell's equations implied the existence of electromagnetic waves, a phenomenon whereby electric and magnetic fields propagate from one spatial point to another at a finite speed, which turns out to be the speed of light. Action-at-a-distance was thus conclusively refuted. Despite the enormous success of classical electromagnetism, it was unable to account for the discrete lines in atomic spectra, nor for the distribution of blackbody radiation in different wavelengths. Max Planck's study of blackbody radiation marked the beginning of quantum mechanics. He treated atoms, which absorb

neg: Criticism of science time and space, as noted by Steven Jay Gould. "We have to realize that a unified theory of the physical world simply does not exist" says Feyerabend, "We have theories that work in restricted regions, we have purely formal attempts to condense them into a single formula, we have lots of unfounded claims (such as the claim that all of chemistry can be reduced to physics), phenomena that do not fit into the accepted framework are suppressed; in physics, which many scientists regard as the one really basic science, we have now at least three different points of view...without a

neg: Axion as well. Assuming the existence of both magnetic charges and axions, Maxwell's equations read If magnetic monopoles do not exist, then the same equations hold with the density formula_1 and current formula_2 replaced by zero. Incorporating the axion has the effect of rotating the electric and magnetic fields into each other. where the mixing angle formula_3 depends on the coupling constant formula_4 and the axion field strength formula_5 By plugging the new values for electromagnetic field formula_6 and formula_7 into Maxwell's equations we obtain the axion-modified Maxwell equations above. Incorporating the axion into the electromagnetic theory also gives a new

neg: Force field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's axis causes compass magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle. Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified "electromagnetic force" that acts on a charge. This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the

neg: Negative-index metamaterial decreases the resonant frequency while concentrating the electric field. The individual SRR depicted on the right had a resonant frequency of 4.845 GHz, and the resonance curve, inset in the graph, is also shown. The radiative losses from absorption and reflection are noted to be small, because the unit dimensions are much smaller than the free space, radiated wavelength. When these units or cells are combined into a periodic arrangement, the magnetic coupling between the resonators is strengthened, and a "strong magnetic coupling occurs". Properties unique in comparison to ordinary or conventional materials begin to emerge. For one thing, this

neg: Unifying theories in mathematics Unifying theories in mathematics There have been several attempts in history to reach a unified theory of mathematics. Some of the greatest mathematicians have expressed views that the whole subject should be fitted into one theory. The process of unification might be seen as helping to define what constitutes mathematics as a discipline. For example, mechanics and mathematical analysis were commonly combined into one subject during the 18th century, united by the differential equation concept; while algebra and geometry were considered largely distinct. Now we consider analysis, algebra, and geometry, but not mechanics, as parts of mathematics because they are

neg: Magnetic-core memory toroids. An electric current in a wire that passes through a core creates a magnetic field. Only a magnetic field greater than a certain intensity ("select") can cause the core to change its magnetic polarity. To select a memory location, one of the X and one of the Y lines are driven with half the current ("half-select") required to cause this change. Only the combined magnetic field generated where the X and Y lines cross (a logical AND function) is sufficient to change the state; other cores will see only half the needed field ("half-selected"), or none at all. By

neg: Systems theory in anthropology in understanding the meaning of an action in relation to its environment delineated a contextualized social framework for cultural relativism. Since we exist in webs of significance and the objective analysis would detach us from a concrete reality which we are all part of it, Weber suggested ideal-types; an analytical and conceptual construct "formed by the accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present, and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct." Although they

neg: Relaxation (NMR) and the electric field gradient that exists at the nuclear site due to surrounding charges. Thermal motion of a nucleus can result in fluctuating electrostatic interaction energies. These fluctuations produce transitions between the nuclear spin states in a similar manner to the magnetic dipole-dipole interaction. In 1948, Nicolaas Bloembergen, Edward Mills Purcell, and Robert Pound proposed the so-called Bloembergen-Purcell-Pound theory (BPP theory) to explain the relaxation constant of a pure substance in correspondence with its state, taking into account the effect of tumbling motion of molecules on the local magnetic field disturbance. The theory was in good agreement with experiments