query: the vedic period in india is marked by the development of

pos: Vedic period the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The associated Vedic culture was tribal and pastoral until or 1100 BCE and centred in the Punjab. It then spread eastward to the western Ganges Plain, becoming more agricultural and settled, while the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture. The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes and the coalescence of peoples into Janapada (monarchical state-level polities). The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of Mahajanapada (large, urbanised states) as well as śramaṇa movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the

pos: History of Pakistan Vedic tribes began migrating to the Ganges Plain, present-day India, which was characterized by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of four social classes, and the emergence of monarchical, state-level polities. In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, urbanised states as well as of shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism)

neg: Monarchy in ancient India Monarchy in ancient India Monarchy in ancient India was sovereignty over a territory by a King who functioned as its protector, a role which involved both secular and religious power. The meaning and significance of kingship changed dramatically between the Vedic and Later Vedic period, and underwent further development under the influence of Buddhism. Although there is evidence that kingship was not always hereditary during the Vedic and into the Later Vedic period, by the time of composition of the literature, traces of elective kingship had already begun to disappear. Vedic ideas about the establishment of the office of king

neg: Monarchy in ancient India a general tax was levied on every member of a family. The second was a special tax that undesirable foreigners had to pay to enter a city. Monarchy in ancient India Monarchy in ancient India was sovereignty over a territory by a King who functioned as its protector, a role which involved both secular and religious power. The meaning and significance of kingship changed dramatically between the Vedic and Later Vedic period, and underwent further development under the influence of Buddhism. Although there is evidence that kingship was not always hereditary during the Vedic and into the Later Vedic period,

neg: Linguistic history of India large collection of hymns, incantations, and religio-philosophical discussions which form the earliest religious texts in India and the basis for much of the Hindu religion. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda to be the earliest. The hymns preserved in the Rigveda were preserved by oral tradition alone over several centuries before the introduction of writing, the oldest among them predating the introduction of Brahmi by as much as a millennium. The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the Upanishads, which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional compilations,

neg: Buddhism CE. Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. This was a period of great intellectual ferment and socio-cultural change known as the "Second urbanisation", marked by the composition of the Upanishads and the historical emergence of the Sramanic traditions. New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements. The term Śramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and

neg: Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan The Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan is part of a long history of settlement and civilization in Pakistan. The Indus Valley civilization collapsed in the middle of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Vedic Civilisation, which extended over much of northern India and Pakistan. The time period in the history of India known as the Vedic period or Vedic age is the period of the composition of the sacred texts called Vedas and other such texts in Vedic Sanskrit. The associated culture sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization

neg: Michael Witzel He studied at length the various Vedic recensions ("śākhā") and their importance for the geographical spread of Vedic culture across North India and beyond. This resulted in book-length investigations of Vedic dialects (1989), the development of the Vedic canon (1997), and of Old India as such (2003, reprint 2010). Shorter papers provide analyses of important religious (2004) and literary concepts of the period, and its Central Asian antecedents as well as such as the oldest frame story (1986, 1987), prosimetric texts (1997), the Mahabharata (2005), the concept of rebirth (1984), the 'line of progeny' (2000), splitting one's head in discussion

neg: War elephant but it is widely accepted that it began in ancient India. The early Vedic period did not extensively specify the use of elephants in war. However in the Rigveda the king of Gods and chief Vedic deity Indra is depicted as riding either Airavata, a mythological elephant, or on the horse Uchchaihshravas as his mounts. Elephants were widely utilized in warfare by the later Vedic period by the 6th century BC. The increased conscription of elephants in the military history of India coincides with the expansion of the Vedic Kingdoms into the Indo-Gangetic Plain suggesting its introduction during the intervening

neg: Vedic period namely the Gita of Mahabharat, are essential parts of these later developments. The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture. Vedic period The Vedic period, or Vedic age (), is the period in the history of the northwestern Indian subcontinent between the end of the

neg: Bihari culture indicates that this style of art was already highly developed before the advent of the Kushans. Mandar Hill features the unique image of Lord Vishnu, from the Gupta period, in his man-lion incarnation. The image is 34 inches high and made of black stone. Most of the Hindu and Buddhist sculptures in Bihar were destroyed by Muslim invaders, as in the other major centers of Hinduism and Buddhism in India. The first significant architectural pieces in Bihar date back to the Vedic period. While the Mauryan period marked a transition to the use of brick and stone, wood remained the

neg: History of Hinduism is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilisation and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism

neg: History of India distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period. Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. Most

neg: Puranic chronology derived. The Vedic Foundation, for example, gives the following chronology of ancient India: The historicity of the Mahabharata War is subject to scholarly discussion and dispute. The existing text of the "Mahabharata" went through many layers of development, and mostly belongs to the period between c. 500 BCE and 400 CE. Within the frame story of the "Mahabharata", the historical kings Parikshit and Janamejaya are featured significantly as scions of the Kuru clan, and Michael Witzel concludes that the general setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center

neg: Janamejaya Janamejaya Janamejaya () was a Kuru king who reigned during the Middle Vedic period (12th-9th centuries BCE). Along with his father and predecessor Parikshit, he played a decisive role in the consolidation of the Kuru state, the arrangement of Vedic hymns into collections, and the development of the orthodox srauta ritual, transforming the Kuru realm into the dominant political and cultural center of northern India. He also appears as a figure in later legends and traditions, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Janamejaya is mentioned as a great king and conqueror in a number of late Vedic texts. The "Aitareya Brahmana"

neg: Vedic period by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Śrauta rituals. Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India. The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the "Ashvamedha" (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for

neg: History of India created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in India. The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much

neg: Vedic period these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. Anga, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the door step of modern-day West Bengal), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions. The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic,

neg: Vedic period mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states ("rajya"), oligarchical states ("gana" or "sangha"), and tribal principalities had emerged in India. According to Michael Witzel's analysis of the Kuru Kingdom, it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However, Robert Bellah observes that it is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a complex chiefdom, as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles

neg: Women in India of women. , the President of India, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (Lower House of the parliament) have been women. However, women in India continue to face numerous problems such as sexual assault, gender inequality and dowry. Women during the early Vedic period enjoyed equal status with men in all aspects of life. Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period. Rig Vedic verses suggest that women married at a mature age and were probably free to

neg: Salva (India) Salva (India) The Salva or Salvi tribe is mentioned in Late Vedic texts (such as the Jaiminiya Brahmana) as a non-Vedic tribe that invaded Kurukshetra and defeated the Kuru Kingdom, probably 900 BCE. Their prior history is obscure, although they appear to have been associated with the Trigarta Kingdom and the Punjab region. After invading the Kuru kingdom, the Salvas settled along the Yamuna river and the Alwar region of Rajasthan (near the Matsya Kingdom), and by the end of the Vedic period they had eventually adopted Vedic culture as they coalesced with the remaining Kurus and the Surasena mahajanapada.

neg: Upanayana Upanayana Upanayana ( ) is one of the traditional saṃskāras (rites of passage) that marked the acceptance of a student by a "guru" (teacher) and an individual's entrance to a school in Hinduism. The tradition is widely discussed in ancient Sanskrit texts of India and varies regionally. The sacred thread (yagyopavita or janeu) is received by the boy during this ceremony, that he continues wearing across his chest thereafter. The upanayana was restricted in many medieval Indian texts to the upper three of the four varnas (castes) of society — brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas. However, Vedic period texts such as

neg: Janamejaya successors, the dynasty came to an end. Janamejaya Janamejaya () was a Kuru king who reigned during the Middle Vedic period (12th-9th centuries BCE). Along with his father and predecessor Parikshit, he played a decisive role in the consolidation of the Kuru state, the arrangement of Vedic hymns into collections, and the development of the orthodox srauta ritual, transforming the Kuru realm into the dominant political and cultural center of northern India. He also appears as a figure in later legends and traditions, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Janamejaya is mentioned as a great king and conqueror in a number

neg: Maitreyi is also mentioned in a number of Puranas, "is regarded as one of the most learned and virtuous women of ancient India" and symbolizes intellectual women in India. A college in New Delhi is named after her, as is the Matreyi Vedic Village, a retreat location in Tamil Nadu. Maitreyi Maitreyi ("friendly one") was a Hindu philosopher who lived during the later Vedic period in ancient India. She is mentioned in the "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad" as one of two wives of the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya; he is estimated to have lived around the 8th century BCE. In the Hindu epic "Mahabharata"

neg: 1st millennium BC Central Asia. In China, the Spring and Autumn period sees the rise of Confucianism. Towards the close of the millennium, the Han Dynasty extends Chinese power towards Central Asia, where it borders on Indo-Greek and Iranian states. Japan is in the Yayoi period. The Maya civilization rises in Mesoamerica. The first millennium BC is the formative period of the classical world religions, with the development of early Judaism Zoroastrianism in the Near East, and Vedic religion and Vedanta, Jainism and Buddhism in India. Early literature develops in Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit and Chinese. The term Axial Age, coined by Karl

neg: Hinduism in South India of the city Puhar in Kumari Kandam is attributed to the neglect of the worship to Indra. According to the Puranas, the Dravidians are descendants of the Vedic Turvasha people. According to the Matsya Purana, Manu is considered as a south Indian king. In Hindu tradition the creation of the Tamil language is credited to the Rig Vedic sage Rishi Agastya. Hinduism in South India Hinduism in South India refers to the Hindu culture of the people of South India. The Hinduism in South India is characterized by Dravidian customs and traditions. The Dravidians made great contributions to development of

neg: History of Indian law History of Indian law Law in India primarily evolved from customary practices and religious prescription to the modern well codified acts and laws based on a constitution. Though the recorded history of law starts only in the Vedic period, it is widely believed that ancient India had some sort of legal system in place even during the Bronze Age and the Indus Valley civilization. The various stages of evolution of Indian law is classified as that during the Vedic period, the Islamic period, the British period and post independence. In comparison with modern law, the classical Hindu law was a

neg: History of India is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state in India); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gargi Vachaknavi. The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called "mahajanapadas", all across Northern India. In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core

neg: Slavery in India on the Konkan coast between about 1530 and 1740. Slavery was abolished in the possessions of the East India Company by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843. According to Scott Levi, slavery was an established institution in ancient India by the start of the common era based on texts such as the "Arthashastra", the "Manusmriti" and the "Mahabharata". Slavery was "likely widespread by the lifetime of the Buddha" and it "likely existed in the Vedic period" if the term "dasas" is interpreted as slaves, but states Levi, this association is problematic. The term "dāsa" and "dāsyu" in Vedic and other ancient

neg: History of Hinduism Vedic religion and is prominent in Southern India, with communities in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, but also in some pockets of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and other states; the best known of these groups are the Nambudiri of Kerala, whose traditions were notably documented by Frits Staal. The Mauryan period saw an early flowering of classical Sanskrit Sutra and Shastra literature and the scholarly exposition of the "circum-Vedic" fields of the Vedanga. However, during this time Buddhism was patronised by Ashoka, who ruled large parts of India, and Buddhism was also the mainstream religion until the Gupta empire period.

neg: Paliya their lives or commit self-immolation. The tradition originated in Vedic period when the dead bodies were not cremated but either buried or floated in the river. The spot of burial were initially marked with single stone and later stone circle which are found during excavations. Later the practice evolved into "Lashti" or a stone column with inscriptions which had names of persons, place and dates. Four such "Lashti"s of Kshatrapa period (1st century) found in Kutch are now at Kutch Museum. The practice evolved in various types of memorials across India such as stupa, cenotaphs, memorial temples. The types of

neg: Vedic period higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early state formation in ancient Hawai'i and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic." Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for

neg: Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology The history of Indian astronomy begins with the Vedic period, "Lagadha" and composition of Vedanga Jyotisha (1400 BCE - 1200 BCE). Astronomical knowledge in India reached an early peak in the 5th century CE, with the "Āryabhaṭīya". Its author, Aryabhata, uses astronomical calculations to determine the date of the Battle of Kurukshetra as 18 February 3102 BCE. This date has become traditional and is still widely cited in Hindu literature. Modern authors attempted to date the Vedic period based on archaeoastronomical calculations. Thus, William Jones who tried to show, based on information gathered from Varaha Mihira,

neg: History of religious pluralism History of religious pluralism The history of religious pluralism is the fruit of a long development that reaches from antiquity to contemporary trends in postmodernity. India has been a place of fertile religious endeavour since the latter part of the Vedic period. Jainism and Buddhism, which were part of the "sramana" movement have been from their inception religions motivated by compassion for all creatures as well as believers in the inherent rationality and reasonableness of true religion. They have thus sought and advocated rational debate concerning matters of truth. India is, in fact, as far as we can tell the

neg: History of India tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities). In the 14th century BCE, the Battle of the Ten Kings, between the Puru Vedic Aryan tribal kingdoms of the Bharatas, allied with other tribes of the Northwest India, guided by the royal sage Vishvamitra, and the Trtsu-Bharata (Puru) king Sudas, who defeats other Vedic tribes—leading to the emergence of the Kuru Kingdom, first state level society during the Vedic period. Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the Indian subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes

neg: History of Hinduism the sacrificial funeral rites of the "Rig Veda". During the Early Vedic period (c. 1500 - 1100 BCE) Vedic tribes were pastoralists in north-west India. After 1100 BCE, with the introduction of iron, the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adapting an agrarian lifestyle. Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the Kuru-tribe and realm was the most influential. It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state-level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE. It decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and developing new rituals which

neg: Hinduism early Vedic period (c. 1500–1100 BCE) Vedic tribes were pastoralists, wandering around in north-west India. After 1100 BCE the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adapting an agrarical lifestyle. Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the Kuru-Pañcāla union was the most influential. It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state-level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE. This, according to Witzel, decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and shifting ritual exchange within a tribe to social exchange within the larger Kuru realm through complicated Srauta

neg: History of measurement systems in India (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.' The Indus civilisation constructed pan balances made of copper, bronze, and ceramics. One excavated pan balance from Mohenjo-daro (2600–1900 BCE) was constructed using a cord-pivot type fulcrum, a bronze beam, and two pans. A number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded evidence of early cartographic activity. Weights and measures are mentioned throughout the religious and secular works of the Vedic period in India. Some sources that

neg: Parikshit Parikshit Pariksit (Sanskrit: परिक्षित्, ) was a Kuru king who reigned during the Middle Vedic period (12th-9th centuries BCE). Along with his son and successor Janamejaya, he played a decisive role in the consolidation of the Kuru state, the arrangement of Vedic hymns into collections, and the development of the orthodox srauta ritual, transforming the Kuru realm into the dominant political and cultural center of northern Iron Age India. He also appears as a figure in later legends and traditions. According to the "Mahabharata" and the Puranas, he succeeded his greatuncle Yudhishthira to the throne of Hastinapur. "Listen to the

neg: Kuru Kingdom Kuru Kingdom Kuru () was the name of a Vedic Indo-Aryan tribal union in northern Iron Age India, encompassing the modern-day states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand and the western part of Uttar Pradesh (the region of Doab, till Prayag), which appeared in the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200 – c. 900 BCE) and developed into the first recorded state-level society in the Indian subcontinent. The Kuru kingdom decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, arranging the Vedic hymns into collections, and developing new rituals which gained their position in Indian civilization as the srauta rituals, which

neg: Vedic accent it is written as a grave mark . Such "svarita" may follow an "anudātta". For example, in RV 1.10.8c, became Independent svarita is caused by sandhi of adjacent vowels. There are four variants of it: Independent svarita occurs about 1300 times in the Rigveda, or in about 5% of padas. In Latin script transcription, udātta is marked with an acute accent, independent svarita is marked with a grave accent, and other syllables are unaccented, and not marked. In Devanagari editions of the Rigveda samhita: Vedic accent The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit, or Vedic accent for brevity, is traditionally divided

neg: Bronze Age India Bronze Age India The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent begins around 3000 BCE, and in the end gives rise to the Indus Valley Civilization, which had its (mature) period between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. It continues into the Rigvedic period, the early part of the Vedic period. It is succeeded by the Iron Age in India, beginning in around 1000 BCE. South India, by contrast, remains in the Mesolithic stage until about 2500 BCE. In the 2nd millennium BCE, there may have been cultural contact between North and South India, even though South India skips a Bronze Age

neg: Cradle of civilization then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. However trade with the old cities did not flourish. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. The Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into the Indus River Valley during this period and began the Vedic age of India. The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilization continued in later Indian subcontinent and Vedic cultures. Drawing on archaeology, geology and anthropology, modern scholars do not see the origins of

neg: Historical Vedic religion given to Absolute reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked. The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520-1596) in the 16th century. The Vedic religion was probably the religion of the Vedic Indo-Aryans, and existed in northern India from c. 1750–500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-European language family, which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd

neg: Kingdom of the Videhas Kingdom of the Videhas The Kingdom of the Videhas (also known as Mithila and Tirabhukti) was an ancient kingdom in Late Vedic India which rose to prominence under King Janaka ( 8th-7th centuries BCE). The ancient kingdom's territory is presently located in Mithila region of Northern and eastern Bihar of India and the eastern Terai of Nepal. During the late Vedic period (c. 900 – c. 500 BCE), Videha became one of the major political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru and Pañcāla. Late Vedic literature such as the "Brahmanas" and the "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad" both mention Janaka,

neg: Indigenous Aryans dynasties are dated more than a millennium earlier, Gautama Buddha is dated at 1894-1814 BCE, and Jagadguru Shankaracharya at 509-477 BCE. These ideas provide a continues chronology of India, in contrast to the discontinuity between the Harappan end Vedic period: The idea of "Indigenous Aryanism" fits into traditional Hindu ideas about their religion, namely that it has timeless origins, with the Vedic Aryans inhabiting India since ancient times. The Vedic Foundation states: Michael Witzel identifies three major types of "Indigenous Aryans" scenarios: Kazanas adds a fourth scenario: The idea of "Indigenous Aryans" is supported with specific interpretations of archaeological, genetic,

neg: Kosambi of Kaushambi district Kosambi Kosambi (Pali) or Kaushambi (Sanskrit) was an important city in ancient India. It was the capital of the Vatsa kingdom, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It was located on the Yamuna River about southwest of its confluence with the Ganges at Prayaga (modern Allahabad). Kosambi was one of the greatest cities in India from the late Vedic period until the end of Maurya Empire with occupation continuing until the Gupta Empire. As a small town, it was established in the late Vedic period, by the rulers of Kuru Kingdom as their new capital. The initial Kuru

neg: Kosambi Kosambi Kosambi (Pali) or Kaushambi (Sanskrit) was an important city in ancient India. It was the capital of the Vatsa kingdom, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It was located on the Yamuna River about southwest of its confluence with the Ganges at Prayaga (modern Allahabad). Kosambi was one of the greatest cities in India from the late Vedic period until the end of Maurya Empire with occupation continuing until the Gupta Empire. As a small town, it was established in the late Vedic period, by the rulers of Kuru Kingdom as their new capital. The initial Kuru capital Hastinapur was

neg: Vedic period semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extent their settlements into the western area

neg: Female education like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women’s education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Saheb Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. Women of the Vedic period (circa 1500-1200 BCE), were epitomes of intellectual and spiritual attainments. The Vedas have volumes to say about these women, who both complemented and supplemented their male partners. When it comes to talking about significant female figures of the Vedic period, four names - Ghosha, Lopamudra, Sulabha Maitreyi, and Gargi - come to

neg: Ramayana part of north India and Nepal, while Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vashista, Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature. However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to the modern academic view,

neg: History of clothing in India styles prominent in neighbouring regions of the indian subcontinent. The Vedic age or the Vedic period was the time duration between 1500 and 500 BC The garments worn in Vedic period mainly included a single cloth wrapped around the whole body and draped over the shoulder. People used to wear the lower garment called paridhana which was pleated in front and used to tie with a belt called mekhala and an upper garment called uttariya (covered like a shawl) which they used to remove during summers. "Orthodox males and females usually wore the uttariya by throwing it over the left

neg: Wave power in India enhancement. Wave power in India India has a long coastline of 7517 km marked along by numerous estuaries and gulfs which makes it attractive for the development of marine energy projects. India's wave power potential is around 40-60GW. However, compared to the developments in other renewable energy technologies, ocean energy technologies like wave and tidal are in their nascent stages of development in India. Wave power depends upon the height of the wave and it's period. Primary estimates of wave energy potential along Indian coast is around 5-15 MW/m, so the theoretical estimated potential comes out to be around 40-60

neg: Wave power in India Wave power in India India has a long coastline of 7517 km marked along by numerous estuaries and gulfs which makes it attractive for the development of marine energy projects. India's wave power potential is around 40-60GW. However, compared to the developments in other renewable energy technologies, ocean energy technologies like wave and tidal are in their nascent stages of development in India. Wave power depends upon the height of the wave and it's period. Primary estimates of wave energy potential along Indian coast is around 5-15 MW/m, so the theoretical estimated potential comes out to be around 40-60 GW.

neg: Military history of India The Vedas and other associated texts dating to the post-Rigvedic (Iron Age) Vedic period (ca. 1100–500 BC) contain the earliest written references to armies in India. The earliest known application of war elephants dates to this period; the animals are mentioned in several Vedic Sanskrit hymns. The two great epics of India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, center on conflicts between the emerging Mahajanapadas and refer to military formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. They discuss standing armies that used in war chariots, war elephants and even flying machines. The Ramayana describes in great detail the fortifications of Ayodhya.

neg: Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend also contains two maps of the Indian subcontinent, almost similar in geographical layout of undivided India. The first map indicates archeological sites; and the current national and state capitals, including and major towns. The second map indicates places of pilgrimage, and mountains. This section covers major events associated with India, Vedic mythology and Vedic civilization, and Hinduism, spanning a period of 5000 years. The chronology recounts the major events, beginning from 3000 BCE-1700 BCE (the period of the Indus Valley Civilization) until 2001 CE, when the celebration of Mahakumbha Mela took place in Allahabad, India, are briefly indicated in the

neg: Jognakhera during July 2010 caused damage to this archeological site. Jognakhera Jognakhera is a site belonging to late Harappan phase of Indus Valley Civilisation. Jogankhera is located in Kurukshetra District, Haryana, India. The find from this site belong to the mature Harappan phase as well as later-era PGW phase (Vedic period). The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) probably corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period, i.e., the Kuru-Panchala kingdom, the first large state in South Asia after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) chiefdoms in the region were succeeded by Northern Black Polished

neg: Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya means of subsistence". He also traced "the course of development this archaic outlook eventually underwent". It was an introductory book that examined Indian philosophy through an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on anthropological, economic and philological studies. The book traced the philosophical development in India from the Vedic period to later Buddhism. In this introductory study, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya targets another important myth that overshadows the study of Indian philosophy – that of the presupposed predominance of "shastrartha" or textual interpretation. He views the development of Indian philosophy as the consequence of real clashes of ideas – "contradiction constituted the moving force behind

neg: History of Hinduism are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age northern India itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations", but also the Sramana or renouncer traditions of northeast India, and mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation, Dravidian traditions, and the local traditions and tribal religions. After the Vedic period, between 500-200 BCE and c. 300 CE, at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period, the "Hindu synthesis" emerged, which incorporated śramaṇic and Buddhist influences and the emerging "bhakti" tradition into the Brahmanical

neg: Vedic period period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to the second millennium BCE. After the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c. 1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, which—according to the most widespread hypothesis—have originated in the Andronovo culture in the Bactria-Margiana area, in present northern Afghanistan. Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India. Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton used the term "Indo-Aryan Controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan

neg: Kuru Kingdom corroboration for the accuracy of the Mahabharata's account of his reign. This shows the line of both parentage and succession, according to the Mahabharata (but is not corroborated by sources contemporary with the Vedic-era Kuru Kingdom). See the notes below for detail. Key to Symbols Notes Kuru Kingdom Kuru () was the name of a Vedic Indo-Aryan tribal union in northern Iron Age India, encompassing the modern-day states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand and the western part of Uttar Pradesh (the region of Doab, till Prayag), which appeared in the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200 – c. 900 BCE) and

neg: Vedic Mathematics (book) early Modern period. The book was previously included in the school syllabus of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Some schools and organizations run by Hindu nationalist groups, including those outside India, have also included Tirthaji's techniques in their curriculum. The Hindu nationalists have also made several attempts to have Tirthaji's "Vedic mathematics" system included in the Indian school curriculum via the NCERT books. A number of academics and mathematicians have opposed these attempts on the basis that the techniques mentioned in the book are simply arithmetic tricks, and not mathematics. They also pointed out that the term "Vedic" mathematics is

neg: Indian religions the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century. There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the

neg: Vaishnavism ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent and scanty. According to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity "Bhaga", who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities "Nara" and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism. According to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the second urbanisation of northern India, in the 7th to 4th century BCE. Vasudeva and

neg: Music of India man with a dhol hanging from his neck and a woman holding a drum under her left arm. Vedas (c. 1500 – c. 800 BCE Vedic period) document rituals with performing arts and play. For example, Shatapatha Brahmana (~800–700 BCE) has verses in chapter 13.2 written in the form of a play between two actors. "Tala" or "taal" is an ancient music concept traceable to Vedic era texts of Hinduism, such as the "Samaveda" and methods for singing the Vedic hymns. Smriti (500 BCE to 100 BCE ) post-vedic Hindu texts include Valmiki's Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) which

neg: Ancient Greek accent language of India.) Very often these are the same, for example: There are also other accentual correspondences between Greek and Vedic, for example: One difference between Greek and Vedic, however, is that in Greek words the accent is always found in one of the last three syllables, whereas in Vedic (and presumably in Proto-Indo-European) it could come anywhere in the word. The distinction in Greek between circumflex and acute accent appears to be a Greek development, and does not go back to Proto-Indo-European. In all there are exactly five different possibilities for placing an accent. The terms used by the

neg: Jognakhera Jognakhera Jognakhera is a site belonging to late Harappan phase of Indus Valley Civilisation. Jogankhera is located in Kurukshetra District, Haryana, India. The find from this site belong to the mature Harappan phase as well as later-era PGW phase (Vedic period). The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) probably corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period, i.e., the Kuru-Panchala kingdom, the first large state in South Asia after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) chiefdoms in the region were succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) from c. 700-500 BCE, associated with the

neg: India peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure, arose during this period. On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation. In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period, as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions. In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that

neg: History of India historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent from the north-west. The peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents. Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE, in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been

neg: Historical Vedic religion Mitanni kingdom. The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period was consolidated in the Kuru Kingdom, and co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults, and was itself the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilization. The religion of the Indo-Aryans was further developed when they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India. Texts dating to

neg: Indo-European migrations and was reduced to the status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type. The Indo-Aryan peoples started to migrate into northwestern India around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period, establishing the Vedic religion during the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE). The research on the Indo-Aryan migrations began with the study of the Rig Veda in the mid-19th century by Max Muller, and gradually evolved from a theory of a

neg: Sanskara (rite of passage) marked the actual start of the Veda study. Some texts describes two rituals each academic period (school year), one marking the start of Vedic studies each year, called Upakarma or "Upakarana". The other ceremony was held at the end of each academic period, called "Utasarjanam" or "Utsarga" or "Samapana", and marked the suspension of the Veda studies for a certain period of the year. The start of school ceremony, the Upakarma was observed in the month of Sravana (August) every year. It was held in the morning, and attended by the students, the teacher, people in the Grihastha stage (householders,

neg: Coinage of India Turkic and Mughal invaders in India. The East India Company introduced uniform coinage in the 19th century CE, and these coins were later imitated by the modern nation states of Republic of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Numismatics plays a valuable role in determining certain period of Indian history. There is evidence of countable units of precious metal being used for exchange from the Vedic period onwards. A term "Nishka" appears in this sense in the Rigveda. Later texts speak of cows given as gifts being adorned with "pādas" of gold. A "pāda", literally a quarter, would have been

neg: Bronze Age India proper and enters the Iron Age from the Chalcolithic stage directly. In February 2006, a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old. Bronze Age India The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent begins around 3000 BCE, and in the end gives rise to the Indus Valley Civilization, which had its (mature) period between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. It continues into the Rigvedic period, the early part of the Vedic period. It is succeeded by the Iron Age in India, beginning in

neg: History of religious pluralism went the way of gradually increasing the rights for minority denominations and religions, up to today the stress has been more on the freedom of belief of the individual, whereas the rights of religious organizations are often limited by the state to prevent them intruding upon the individual religious freedom. History of religious pluralism The history of religious pluralism is the fruit of a long development that reaches from antiquity to contemporary trends in postmodernity. India has been a place of fertile religious endeavour since the latter part of the Vedic period. Jainism and Buddhism, which were part of the

neg: 8th century BC is conventionally taken as the beginning of Classical Antiquity, with the first Olympiad set at 776 BC, and the epics of Homer dated to between 750 and 650 BC. Iron Age India enters the later Vedic period. Vedic ritual is annotated in many priestly schools in Brahmana commentaries, and the earliest Upanishads mark the beginning of Vedanta philosophy. See: List of sovereign states in the 8th century BC. 8th century BC The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The 8th century BC is a period of great change

neg: Literature orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BCE saw the

neg: Hinduism approximation of c. 1700–1100 BCE has also been given. The first half of the 1st millennium BCE was a period of great intellectual and social-cultural ferment in ancient India. New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements. For example, prior to the birth of the Buddha and the Mahavira, and related Sramana movements, the Brahmanical tradition had questioned the meaning and efficacy of Vedic rituals, then internalized and variously reinterpreted the Vedic fire rituals as ethical concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint.

neg: Beyond Boundaries: Religion, Region, Language and the State culture of early medieval India, specifically the period of the Gupta dynasty ("circa" 320-510 CE). Although characterised as a ‘golden age’ in modern scholarship — and marked by developments that shaped South Asia for more than a thousand years — research on this pivotal moment is fragmented and compartmentalised. The purpose of the project is to move beyond these limitations and to recover a more compelling picture of this influential period and its impact on India and her neighbours. The project achieves this aim through the development of online research tools, a series of workshops, and publications. The project is

neg: History of Hinduism Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom. Their religion was further developed when they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India. The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults, and was itself the product of "a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations. Its liturgy is preserved in the three

neg: Vedic Mathematics (book) incorrect, and there are other texts that can be used to teach a correct account of the Indian mathematics during the Vedic period. They also criticized the move as a saffronization attempt to promote religious majoritarianism. Dani points out that while Tirthaji's system could be used as a teaching aid, there was a need to prevent the use of "public money and energy on its propagation, beyond the limited extent". He pointed out that the authentic Vedic studies had been neglected in India even as Tirthaji's system received support from several Government and private agencies. Proponents of Vedic Mathematics however

neg: David Frawley He is associated with a number of Vedic and yogic organizations in several countries. He is a Vedic teacher (Sanskrit: "Vedacharya"), "Vaidya" (Ayurvedic doctor), and a "Jyotishi" (Vedic astrologer). Frawley has been repeatedly recognized as a highly esteemed spiritual teacher, especially of Yoga. In 2015, he was honored by the President of India with the Padma Bhushan, the third highest civilian award granted by the Government of India for "distinguished service of a high order to the nation." In 1980, Frawley founded the Vedic Research Center, reestablished as the American Institute of Vedic Studies in 1988, which represents his work

neg: Hindu nationalism reform. The marked feature of these movements was that they countered the notion of western superiority and white supremacy propounded by the colonizers as a justification for British colonialism in India. This led to the upsurge of patriotic ideas that formed the cultural and an ideological basis for the independence movement in India. The Brahmo Samaj was started by a Bengali scholar, Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Ram Mohan Roy endeavoured to create from the ancient Upanishadic texts, a vision of rationalist 'modern' India. Socially, he criticized the ongoing superstitions, and believed in a monotheistic Vedic religion. His major emphasis

neg: Śramaṇa dharma of the Sramanas made an impression on the followers of Brahamanism and their law books and practices. Theories on who influenced whom, in ancient India, remains a matter of scholarly debate, and it is likely that the different philosophies contributed to each other's development. Doniger summarizes the historic interaction between scholars of Vedic Hinduism and Sramanic Buddhism: Randall Collins states that "the basic cultural framework for lay society which eventually became Hinduism" was laid down by Buddhism. Modern Hinduism can be regarded as a combination of Vedic and śramaṇa traditions as it is substantially influenced by both traditions. Among

neg: Klaus Klostermaier "Survey of Hinduism" is said to favour "Hindu voices" in its presentation and thereby offer views that have little currency in scholarship. For example, it states that the Indus Valley Civilization is Vedic, which pushes back the Vedic period by several thousand years beyond the accepted chronology. Similar criticism have also been voiced about the "Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism". Michael Witzel has called him a "recent convert to a Frawleyan view of the world which pictures India as the unique cradle of civilization at 10,000 BCE." Klaus Klostermaier Klaus K. Klostermaier (born 1933) is a prominent German-Canadian scholar on Hinduism

neg: Maharishi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved Vidya Pratishthan some people have advocated it to a voluntary registration because the uniformity of curriculum would deprive gurukuls of their individual way of teaching. The idea was originally mooted by Baba Ramdev, who offered to set up the private vedic education board under his organisation, which was rejected by the government. Maharishi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved Vidya Pratishthan Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved Vidya Pratishthan (MSRVVP), under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, for the preservation, conservation and development of Vedic Studies by establishing and supporting Ved Pathshalas. It has around 450 institutes across India where students spend seven years memorising the Vedas

neg: Mariamman posture and might be flanked some times by Ganesha and Subramaniya or Ganesha and Naaga on her sides. She is usually taken in procession in a decorated chariot. Mariamman is a Tamil folk goddess, whose worship probably originated in pre-vedic India. She is the main Tamil mother goddess, predominant in the rural areas of Tamil Nadu. In the post-vedic period, Māri was associated to Hindu goddesses like Parvati, Kali and Durga as well as with her North Indian counterpart Shitaladevi and Eastern Indian counterpart Manasa. The word Mari (pronunciation: /maari/) has a sangam Tamil origin meaning "Rain" and the Tamil

neg: Yoga male and particularly female deities, transgressive life stage related rituals, extensive use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques, all aimed to help one's health, long life and liberation. The origins of yoga are a matter of debate. There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India. Suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1900 BCE) and pre-Vedic Eastern states of India, the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), and the śramaṇa movement. According to Gavin Flood, continuities may exist between those various traditions: Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the

neg: Vedic Sanskrit from the Avestan language, an Eastern Iranian language. The exact century of separation is unknown, but this separation of Sanskrit and Avestan occurred certainly before 1800 BCE. The Avestan language developed in ancient Persia, was the language of Zoroastrianism, but was a dead language in the Sasanian period. Vedic Sanskrit developed independently in ancient India, evolved into classical Sanskrit after the grammar and linguistic treatise of Pāṇini, and later into many related Indian subcontinent languages in which are found the voluminous ancient and medieval literature of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. The separation of proto-Indo-Iranian language into Avestan and Vedic Sanskrit

neg: Battle of the Ten Kings Battle of the Ten Kings The Battle of the Ten Kings (दशराज्ञ युद्ध Daśarājñá yuddhá) is a battle alluded to in the Rigveda (Book 7, hymns 18, 33 and 83.4–8), the ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. The battle took place during the middle or main Rigvedic period, near the Ravi River in Punjab. It was a battle between the Puru Vedic Aryan tribal kingdoms of the Bharatas, allied with other tribes of the north west India, and the Trtsu-Bharata (Puru) king Sudas, who defeats other Vedic tribes. K. F. Geldner in his 1951 translation of the Rigveda

neg: Puranic chronology proposing older dates for the Vedic period. According to the "Indigenist position", the Aryans are indigenous to India, and the Indo-European languages radiated out from a homeland in India into their present locations. According to them, the Vedas are older than second millennium BCE, and scriptures like the Mahabaratha reflect historical events which took place before 1500 BCE. Some of them equate the Indus Saraswati Civilisation with the Vedic Civilization, state that the Indus script was the progenitor of the Brahmi, and state that there is no difference between the people living in (northern) Indo-European part and the (southern) Dravidian

neg: Soma (drink) likely identity of the original plant. Traditional accounts with unbroken continuity in Southern India, from Ayurveda and Siddha medicine practitioners and Somayajna ritualists undoubtedly use "Somalata" (Sarcostemma acidum). Non-Indian researchers have proposed candidates including "Amanita muscaria", "Psilocybe cubensis", "Peganum harmala" and "Ephedra sinica". According to recent philological and archaeological studies, and in addition, direct preparation instructions confirm in The Rig Vedic Hymns (Vedic period) Ancient Soma most likely consisted of Poppy, Phaedra/Ephedra (plant) and Cannabis. Soma is a Vedic Sanskrit word that literally means "distill, extract, sprinkle", often connected in the context of rituals. Soma, and its cognate the Avestan

neg: Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology with the sun very close to the Krittika at the Vernal Equinox., would correspond to about 1370 BCE, although the text in its present form is from a later date, around 700 - 600 BCE. The Vedanga Jyotisha, in common with Mesopotamian texts, asserts a 3:2 ratio between the durations of daylight on the longest and shortest days of the year. This corresponds to a latitude of about 35 degrees. A latitude of 34 degrees would correspond to Northern India. Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology The history of Indian astronomy begins with the Vedic period, "Lagadha" and composition of Vedanga Jyotisha

neg: South Asia later-day South Asian traditions are subject to scholarly dispute. The Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans, lasted from c. 1900 to 500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, Linguistic and archaeological data show a cultural change after 1500 BCE, with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion. By about 1200 BCE, the Vedic culture and agrarian lifestyle was established in the northwest and northern Gangetic plain of South Asia. Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the Kuru-Pañcāla union was

neg: Swami Purnachaitanya India and Tibet) at Leiden University, with a specialization in Sanskrit, along with a course in Journalism and New Media. After graduation, in 2007, he went to India, where he joined the International Headquarters of the Art of Living Foundation in Bangalore, as a full-time volunteer. He managed various departments in the Ashram, and also started his Vedic studies in the Veda Agama Pathashala (Vedic studies school) in the Ashram. Purnachaitanya became a teacher for various self-development and yoga and meditation programs of the Art of Living in 2008. He is a QCI Certified Level-2 Yoga Teacher and Regional Director

neg: Matsya Kingdom Matsya Kingdom Matsya Kingdom (Sanskrit for "fish") was one of the "solasa" (sixteen) Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms). The kingdom was established by the Meena tribe of Vedic India. By the late Vedic period, they ruled a kingdom located south of the Kurus, and west of the Yamuna river which separated it from the kingdom of the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Hindaun, Alwar with portions of Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagari (present-day Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king, Virata. In

neg: Subhash Kak three-stage protocol has been proposed as a solution to get around the requirement of expensive single-photon sources and receivers in other quantum cryptography protocols. Kak's writings concerning the astronomy of the Vedic period in his book "The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda" support the "Indigenous Aryans" theory, questioning mainstream views on the Indo-Aryan migration theory and the nature of early Indian science. While Kak's interpretation has been included in recent overviews of astronomy in the Vedic period in India and the West, his chronology and astronomical calculations have been discredited by several Indologists, such as Michael Witzel, and Western historians,

neg: Arts and entertainment in India an active role. The Buddhist period is primarily represented by three important building types- the Chaitya Hall (place of worship), the Vihara (monastery) and the Stupa (hemispherical mound for worship/ memory) - exemplified by the extraordinary caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa. The Jaina temples are characterised by a richness of detail that can be seen in the Dilwara Temples in Mt.Abu. Early beginnings of Hindu temple architecture have been traced to the remains at Aihole and Pattadakal in present-day Karnataka, and have Vedic altars and late Vedic temples as described by Pāṇini as models. Later,

neg: Vedic period Vedic period The Vedic period, or Vedic age (), is the period in the history of the northwestern Indian subcontinent between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation in the central Gangetic Plain which began in BCE. It gets its name from the Vedas, which are liturgical texts containing details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into the northwestern regions of

neg: Alternative education system aimed to nurture students' creativity and personality development. Although mainstream education in India is based on the system introduced by Lord Macaulay, a few projects aim to rejuvenate the earlier method. Some students in these (and similar) projects conduct research in Sanskrit studies, Vedic studies, Vedic science, yoga and ayurveda. Others, after completing their education in a gurukula, enter mainstream higher education. Japanese education is a nationwide, standardized system under the Ministry of Education. The only alternative options have been accredited, private schools with more freedom of curricula (including textbook choice; public schools are limited to government-approved textbooks), teaching

neg: Pottery in the Indian subcontinent (OCP, Cemetery H) and gave rise to the Vedic Civilization. Black and red ware culture (BRW) is a late Bronze Age and early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, associated with the Vedic civilization. In the Western Ganges plain (western Uttar Pradesh) it is dated to c. 1450-1200 BCE, and is succeeded by the Painted Grey Ware culture; whereas in the Central and Eastern Ganges plain (eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal) and Central India (Madhya Pradesh) the BRW appears during the same period but continues for longer, until c. 700-500 BCE, when it is