query: the extraembryonic membrane that helps in the formation of the placenta is the

pos: Chorion Chorion The chorion is the outermost fetal membrane around the embryo in mammals, birds and reptiles. It develops from an outer fold on the surface of the yolk sac, which lies outside the zona pellucida (in mammals), known as the vitelline membrane in other animals. In insects it is developed by the follicle cells while the egg is in the ovary. In humans and other mammals (excluding monotremes), the chorion is one of the fetal membranes that exist during pregnancy between the developing fetus and mother. The chorion and the amnion together form the amniotic sac. It is formed by

pos: Bilaminar blastocyst yolk sac, and chorion follow its lead and also become double layered. The chorion and amnion are composed of extraembryonic ectoderm and mesoderm, where as the yolk sac is made of extraembryonic endoderm and mesoderm. When day 13 rolls around, the connecting stalk, a dense portion of extraembryonic mesoderm, restrains the embryonic disc in the chorionic cavity. Like the amnion, the yolk sac is simply an extraembryonic membrane that surrounds a cavity. Formation of the definitive yolk sac happens after the extraembryonic mesoderm splits, and it becomes a double layered structure with hypoblast-derived endoderm on the inside and mesoderm surrounding

pos: Extraembryonic membrane the resorption of calcium from the shell, and the chorion which surrounds all of these and in avians successively merges with the allantois in the later stages of egg development to form a combined respiratory and excretory organ called the chorioallantois. Extraembryonic membrane An extraembryonic membrane is one of the membranes which assist in the development of the embryo. Such membranes occur in a range of animals from humans to insects. They originate from the embryo, but are not considered part of it. They typically perform roles in nutrition, gas exchange, and waste removal. There are four standard extraembryonic membranes

pos: Choriogenesis Choriogenesis In developmental biology, choriogenesis is the formation of the chorion, an outer membrane of the placenta that eventually forms chorionic villi that allow the transfer of blood and nutrients from mother to fetus. Identical twins have identical genomes in the immediate aftermath of twinning. Two-thirds of monozygotic twins share the same placenta, arising by cleavage before the fourth day of development; the other third have separate placentas because cleavage has taken place after the fourth day after choriogenesis has begun. Placentas vary with respect to the transport of nutrients and hormones, a variance that may influence epigenesis. For example,

pos: Choriogenesis identical twins as they are once again implicating environmental intercession. Choriogenesis In developmental biology, choriogenesis is the formation of the chorion, an outer membrane of the placenta that eventually forms chorionic villi that allow the transfer of blood and nutrients from mother to fetus. Identical twins have identical genomes in the immediate aftermath of twinning. Two-thirds of monozygotic twins share the same placenta, arising by cleavage before the fourth day of development; the other third have separate placentas because cleavage has taken place after the fourth day after choriogenesis has begun. Placentas vary with respect to the transport of nutrients

pos: Chorioallantoic membrane Chorioallantoic membrane The chorioallantoic membrane — also called the chorioallantois or abbreviated to CAM — is a vascular membrane found in eggs of some amniotes, such as birds and reptiles. It is formed by the fusion of the mesodermal layers of two developmental structures: the allantois and the chorion. In mammals, this structure forms the placenta. Three different layers compose the chorioallantoic membrane; these are called the chorionic epithelium, the mesenchyme and the allantoic epithelium. Blood capillaries and sinuses are found between epithelial cells of the chorionic layer, allowing close contact (within 0.2 μm) with air found in pores of

pos: Allantois Allantois The allantois (plural "allantoides" or "allantoises") is a hollow sac-like structure filled with clear fluid that forms part of a developing amniote's conceptus (which consists of all embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues). It helps the embryo exchange gases and handle liquid waste. The allantois, along with the amnion and chorion (other extraembryonic membranes), identify humans and other mammals as well as reptiles, dinosaurs, and birds as amniotes. Of the vertebrates, only the anamniotes (fish and amphibians) lack this structure. This sac-like structure, whose name is the New Latin equivalent of "sausage" (in reference to its shape when first formed) is

pos: Bilaminar blastocyst been disestablished by a new batch of migrating hypoblast cells that now contribute to the definitive yolk sac. While the primary yolk sac is forming, extraembryonic mesoderm makes its way into the blastocyst cavity to fill it with loosely packed cells. When the extraembryonic mesoderm is separated into two portions, a new gap arises called the chorionic cavity, or the extra-embryonic coelom. This new cavity is responsible for detaching the embryo and its amnion and yolk sac from the far wall of the blastocyst, which is now named the chorion. When the extraembryonic mesoderm splits into two layers, the amnion,

pos: Amniote amphibians lack advanced traits like an amnion. The amniotic egg formed through a series of evolutionary steps. After internal fertilization and the habit of laying eggs in terrestrial environments became a reproduction strategy amongst the amniote ancestors, the next major breakthrough appears to have involved a gradual replacement of the gelatinous coating covering the amphibian egg with a fibrous shell membrane. This allowed the egg to increase both its size and in the rate of gas exchange, permitting a larger, metabolically more active embryo to reach full development before hatching. Further developments, like extraembryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, and allantois) and

neg: Gestational sac of gestational age, the amniotic sac has expanded to occupy the majority of the volume of the gestational sac, eventually expanding to reduce the extraembryonic coelom to a thin layer between the amnion membrane and the mesoderm. By then, the gestational sac is usually simply called the "amniotic sac". During embryogenesis, the "extraembryonic coelom" (or "chorionic cavity") that constitutes the gestational sac is a portion of the conceptus consisting of a cavity between Heuser's membrane and the Trophoblast. During formation of the primitive yolk sac, some of the migrating hypoblast cells differentiate into mesenchymal cells that fill the space between

neg: Amniotic sac primary yolk sac. Cells from the yolk sac endoderm form a layer of connective tissue, the extraembryonic mesoderm, which surrounds the amnion and yolk sac. If, after birth, the complete amniotic sac or big parts of the membrane remain coating the newborn, this is called a caul. When seen in the light, the amniotic sac is shiny and very smooth, but tough. Once the baby is pushed out of the mother's uterus, the umbilical cord, placenta, and amniotic sac are pushed out in the after birth. The amniotic sac and its filling provide a liquid that surrounds and cushions the

neg: Gestational sac Heuser's membrane and the Trophoblast, forming the extraembryonic mesoderm. As development progresses, small lacunae begin to form within the extraembryonic mesoderm which enlarge to become the extraembryonic coelom. The extraembryonic coelom divides the extraembryonic mesoderm into two layers: extraembryonic splanchnopleuric mesoderm, which lies adjacent to Heuser's membrane around the outside of the primitive yolk sac, and extraembryonic somatopleuric mesoderm, which lies adjacent to the cytotrophoblast layer of the embryo. The chorionic cavity is enclosed by the chorionic plate, which is composed of an inner layer of somatopleuric mesoderm and an outer layer of trophoblast cells. The mean sac diameter (MSD)

neg: Extraembryonic membrane Extraembryonic membrane An extraembryonic membrane is one of the membranes which assist in the development of the embryo. Such membranes occur in a range of animals from humans to insects. They originate from the embryo, but are not considered part of it. They typically perform roles in nutrition, gas exchange, and waste removal. There are four standard extraembryonic membranes in birds, reptiles, and mammals: the yolk sac which surrounds the yolk, the amnion which surrounds and cushions the embryo, the allantois which among avians stores embryonic waste and assists with the exchange of carbon dioxide with oxygen as well as

neg: Developmental biology as germ layers. This is the process of gastrulation. During cleavage and gastrulation the first regional specification events occur. In addition to the formation of the three germ layers themselves, these often generate extraembryonic structures, such as the mammalian placenta, needed for support and nutrition of the embryo, and also establish differences of commitment along the anteroposterior axis (head, trunk and tail). Regional specification is initiated by the presence of cytoplasmic determinants in one part of the zygote. The cells that contain the determinant become a signaling center and emit an inducing factor. Because the inducing factor is produced in

neg: Human embryogenesis the epiblast. The hypoblast is pushed down and forms the yolk sac (exocoelomic cavity) lining. Some hypoblast cells migrate along the inner cytotrophoblast lining of the blastocoel, secreting an extracellular matrix along the way. These hypoblast cells and extracellular matrix are called Heuser's membrane (or the exocoelomic membrane), and they cover the blastocoel to form the yolk sac (or exocoelomic cavity). Cells of the hypoblast migrate along the outer edges of this reticulum and form the extraembryonic mesoderm; this disrupts the extraembryonic reticulum. Soon pockets form in the reticulum, which ultimately coalesce to form the chorionic cavity or extraembryonic coelom.

neg: Retinol-binding protein and amnion at day 45 of pregnancy. Lastly, RBP mRNA was detected in the cotyledons, the fetal contribution to the placenta and the site of attachment to the uterine epithelium for fetal/maternal exchange. Expression of RBP in developing conceptuses, extraembryonic membranes, and at the fetal-maternal interface indicate that there may be some regulation of retinol transport and metabolism that occurs due to RBP by the extraembryonic membranes. Within the uterus of pregnant bovines, it has been found that RBP synthesis in the luminal and glandular epithelium is quite similar to that of a cyclic animal’s; however upon reaching day 17

neg: Bilaminar blastocyst an outer and inner group of cells: the peripheral outer cell layer, the trophoblast, and the central inner cell mass, the embryoblast. The trophoblast goes on to become the fetal portion of the placenta and related extraembryonic membranes. The epiblast and hypoblast arise from the embryoblast and later give rise to the embryo proper and its affiliated extraembryonic membranes. Once the zygote has differentiated into 30 cells, it starts to form a fluid-filled central cavity called the blastocyst cavity (blastocoele). This cavity is essential because as the embryo continues to divide, the outer layer of cells grows very crowded and

neg: Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling prepared with an anticoagulant, which helps to reduce the risk of clot formation. During the procedure, the first step is to locate a relatively stable segment of the umbilical cord. A typical sampling site would be where the segment of the umbilical cord is closest to the placenta. However, there is a risk of maternal blood contamination at this site. Blood sampling may be achieved with more ease if the placenta is in the anterior position. However, if the placenta is in the posterior position, the fetus might block direct access to the umbilical cord. Once the umbilical cord is

neg: Cord lining the corneal epithelium similar to that of a natural corneal surface. Such results were not seen when human amniotic membrane was used without the cells indicating the therapeutic value of the cord lining EpSC. Cord lining Cord lining, cord tissue, or umbilical cord lining membrane, is the outermost layer of the umbilical cord. As the umbilical cord itself is an extension of the placenta, the umbilical cord lining membrane is an extension of the amniotic membrane covering the placenta. The umbilical cord lining membrane comprises two layers: the amniotic (or epithelial) layer and the sub-amniotic (or mesenchymal) layer. The umbilical

neg: Developmental biology combination of genes that are active. Free-living embryos do not grow in mass as they have no external food supply. But embryos fed by a placenta or extraembryonic yolk supply can grow very fast, and changes to relative growth rate between parts in these organisms help to produce the final overall anatomy. The whole process needs to be coordinated in time and how this is controlled is not understood. There may be a master clock able to communicate with all parts of the embryo that controls the course of events, or timing may depend simply on local causal sequences of

neg: Cord lining Cord lining Cord lining, cord tissue, or umbilical cord lining membrane, is the outermost layer of the umbilical cord. As the umbilical cord itself is an extension of the placenta, the umbilical cord lining membrane is an extension of the amniotic membrane covering the placenta. The umbilical cord lining membrane comprises two layers: the amniotic (or epithelial) layer and the sub-amniotic (or mesenchymal) layer. The umbilical cord lining membrane is a rich source of two strains of stem cells: epithelial stem cells (from the amniotic layer) and mesenchymal stem cells (from the sub-amniotic layer). Discovered by Singapore based CellResearch Corp

neg: Gap junction the membrane to analyse membrane plaques without affecting their composition. By study of connexins still in membranes lipids associated with the connexins have been studied. It was found that specific connexins tended to associate preferentially with specific phospholipids. As formation plaques precede connexins these results still give no certainty as to what is unique about the composition of plaques themselves. Other findings show connexins associate with protein scaffolds used in another junction, the zonula occludens ZO1. While this helps us understand how connexins may be moved into a gap junction formation plaque the composition of the plaque itself is still

neg: Copidosoma floridanum embryo of the host, utilizing adherent junctions to host cells. This is an effective evolutionary strategy, as other approaches could leave obvious wounds on the host cells, alerting competitors to the presence of this wasp species. As a result, these embryos can invade a phylogenetically distant host embryo (the moth) by taking advantage of the compatibility of its cells with host tissues. During larval development, an extraembryonic membrane surrounds each organism during maturation with the caterpillar host. A series of experiments performed by Giron and Strand proved that this membrane serves as the cue for kin selection; they demonstrated that

neg: Placentation (as seen in mammals) and formation is likely facilitated by a plasma membrane transformation. Most reptiles exhibit strict epitheliochorial placentation (e.g. "Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii)" however at least two examples of endotheliochorial placentation have been identified ("Mabuya"" sp." and "Trachylepis ivensi"). Unlike eutherian mammals, epitheliochorial placentation is not maintained by maternal tissue as embryos do not readily invade tissues outside of the uterus. The placenta is an organ that has evolved multiple times independently, evolved relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in living species; for these reasons it is an outstanding model to study the evolution of complex

neg: Genomic imprinting nutrient transport. Studies in domestic livestock, such as dairy and beef cattle, have implicated imprinted genes (e.g. IGF2) in a range of economic traits, including dairy performance in Holstein-Friesian cattle. A similar imprinting phenomenon has also been described in flowering plants (angiosperms). During fertilisation of the egg cell, a second, separate fertilization event gives rise to the endosperm, an extraembryonic structure that nourishes the embryo in a manner analogous to the mammalian placenta. Unlike the embryo, the endosperm is often formed from the fusion of two maternal cells with a male gamete. This results in a triploid genome. The 2:1

neg: Liver function tests levels of ALP is found in hypothyroidism, pernicious anemia, zinc deficiency, and hypophosphatasia. ALP activity is significantly increased in the third trimester due to increased synthesis from the placenta. In pregnancy conditions such as hyperemesis gravdirum, ALP levels can reach 215 IU/L, meanwhile, in pre-eclampsia, ALP can reach 14 IU/L, and HELLP syndromme, ALP levels can reach 15 IU/L. GGT is a microsomal enzyme found in hepatocytes, biliary epithelial cells, renal tubules, pancreas, and intestines. It helps in glutathione metabolism by transporting peptides across the cell membrane. Much like ALP, GGT measurements are usually elevated if cholestasis is present. In

neg: Gestational pemphigoid and hence to dermis) of the dermoepidermal junction (DEJ) , leading to blister formation as loss of hemidesmosomes causes the epidermis to separate from dermis. The immune response is even more highly restricted to the NC16A domain. The primary site of autoimmunity seems not to be the skin, but the placenta, as antibodies bind not only to the basement membrane zone of the epidermis, but also to that of chorionic and amniotic epitheli. Aberrant expression of MHC class II molecules on the chorionic villi suggests an allogenic immune reaction to a placental matrix antigen, thought to be of paternal origin

neg: Gastrulation tissues, which give rise to structures like the placenta, at the proximal end and the epiblast at the distal end. Many signaling pathways contribute to this reorganization, including BMP, FGF, nodal, and Wnt. Visceral endoderm surrounds the epiblast. The distal visceral endoderm (DVE) migrates to the anterior portion of the embryo, forming the “anterior visceral endoderm” (AVE). This breaks anterior-posterior symmetry and is regulated by nodal signaling. The primitive streak is formed at the beginning of gastrulation and is found at the junction between the extraembryonic tissue and the epiblast on the posterior side of the embryo and the site

neg: X-inactivation of the activation cycle of the X chromosome throughout the female life. The egg and the fertilized zygote initially use maternal transcripts, and the whole embryonic genome is silenced until zygotic genome activation. Thereafter, all mouse cells undergo an early, imprinted inactivation of the paternally-derived X chromosome in 4-8 cell stage embryos. The extraembryonic tissues (which give rise to the placenta and other tissues supporting the embryo) retain this early imprinted inactivation, and thus only the maternal X chromosome is active in these tissues. In the early blastocyst, this initial, imprinted X-inactivation is reversed in the cells of the inner

neg: Antepartum bleeding dilation or placenta previa. Vessel rupture is very likely in the event of a membranous rupture as foetal blood vessels aren’t protected by the umbilical cord of the placenta. In the event of foetal vessel rupture, antepartum haemorrhaging occurs however blood is lost from the foetal blood supply. If the foetus is developed enough caesarean sections are often recommended. A circumvallate placenta refers to when the foetal membrane wraps twice around, over the foetal side around the edge of the placenta. This is to compensate for an undersized chorionic plate resulting in a decreased nutritional supply to the foetus. Thickening

neg: Realdo Colombo action of the heart was contraction, rather than dilation as had previously been thought. Both of these discoveries were later confirmed by William Harvey. In addition, Colombo is credited with coining the term "placenta" and in his work describes the placenta as a place where pure and perfect blood is stored for the baby before birth. He believes Galen misinterpreted the placenta when it comes to humans and challenges Galen’s views on the placenta because Galen only performed dissections on animals. Colombo argues that performing vivisections helps one to understand how the system works as a whole. At the time

neg: Placentation the expression of genes expressed elsewhere in the organism to perform new functions in placental tissues, and the evolution of new molecular processes following the formation of new placenta specific genes. In mammals, maternal-fetal communication occurs via the production of a range of signalling molecules and their receptors in the chorioallantoic membrane of the embryo and the endometrium of the mother. Examination of these tissues in egg-laying and other independently evolved live bearing vertebrates has shown us that many of these signalling molecules are expressed widely in vertebrate species and were probably expressed in the ancestral amniote vertebrate. This suggests

neg: Pregnancy specific biological substances Pregnancy specific biological substances Pregnancy-specific biological substances, which include the placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic fluid, and amniotic membrane are being studied for a number of health uses. For example, Placental-derived stem cells are being studied so they can serve as a potential treatment method for cell therapy. Hepatocyte-like cells (HLC) are generated from differentiated human amniotic epithelial cells (hAEC) that are abundant in the placenta. HLC may replace hepatocytes for hepatocyte transplantation to treat acute or chronic liver damage. Recent research has shown that the placenta and placenta derivatives are being regenerative cell therapies and also includes immunological features.Placenta structures

neg: Plasma membrane transformation are changes in the apical plasma membrane which have features in common with those seen in rats and mice and in many of these other species, closure of the uterine lumen does not occur. A common process is especially suggested by observations in animals with an epitheliochorial placenta like pigs and camels: here, the epithelium is not breached and the mature placenta consists of extensive interdigitation of very long trophoblastic and uterine epithelial microvilli throughout pregnancy. Nonetheless, before and during initial contact between uterine epithelial cells and the blastocyst, the regular microvilli of the uterine epithelium flatten out, much as

neg: Placenta cord traction to assist in delivering the placenta. Alternatively, it can be managed expectantly, allowing the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance. Blood loss and the risk of postpartum bleeding may be reduced in women offered active management of the third stage of labour, however there may be adverse effects and more research is necessary. The habit is to cut the cord immediately after birth, but it is theorised that there is no medical reason to do this; on the contrary, it is theorized that not cutting the cord helps the baby in its adaptation to extrauterine life, especially

neg: Inner cell mass interior of the blastocyst, causing the formation of a polarized blastocyst with the ICM attached to the trophectoderm at one end (see figure). This difference in cellular localization causes the ICM cells exposed to the fluid cavity to adopt a primitive endoderm (or hypoblast) fate, while the remaining cells adopt a primitive ectoderm (or epiblast) fate. The hypoblast contributes to extraembryonic membranes and the epiblast will give rise to the ultimate embryo proper as well as some extraembryonic tissues. Since segregation of pluripotent cells of the inner cell mass from the remainder of the blastocyst is integral to mammalian development,

neg: Choline synapse formation. Acetylcholine is even present in the placenta and may help control cell proliferation/differentiation (increases in cell number and changes of multiuse cells into dedicated cellular functions) and parturition. Choline uptake into the brain is controlled by a low-affinity transporter located at the blood-brain barrier. Transport occurs when arterial plasma choline concentrations increase above 14 μmol/l, which can occur during a spike in choline concentration after consuming choline-rich foods. Neurons, conversely, acquire choline by both high- and low-affinity transporters. Choline is stored as membrane-bound phosphatidylcholine, which can then be used for acetylcholine neurotransmitter synthesis later. Acetylcholine is formed as

neg: Proton-coupled folate transporter the choroid plexus into the CSF; however, the underlying mechanism for this has not been established. PCFT is expressed at the sinusoidal (basolateral) membrane of the hepatocyte, the apical brush-border membrane of the proximal tubule of the kidney, the basolateral membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium and the placenta. There is a prominent low-pH folate transport activity in the cells and/or membrane vesicles derived from these tissues which, in some cases, has been shown to be indicative of a proton-coupled folate transport process. However, it is unclear as to the extent that PCFT contributes to folate transport across these epithelia.

neg: Pterygium (conjunctiva) also removed. Auto-grafting covers the bare sclera with conjunctival tissue that is surgically removed from an area of healthy conjunctiva. That “self-tissue” is then transplanted to the bare sclera and is fixated using sutures or tissue adhesive. Amniotic membrane transplantation is an effective and safe procedure for pterygium removal. Amniotic membrane transplantation offers practical alternative to conjunctival auto graft transplantation for extensive pterygium removal. Amniotic membrane transplantation is tissue that is acquired from the innermost layer of the human placenta and has been used to replace and heal damaged mucosal surfaces including successful reconstruction of the ocular surface. It has

neg: Disseminated intravascular coagulation tumor necrosis factor, and endotoxin. This plays a major role in the development of DIC in septic conditions. TF is also abundant in tissues of the lungs, brain, and placenta. This helps to explain why DIC readily develops in patients with extensive trauma. Upon exposure to blood and platelets, TF binds with activated factor VIIa (normally present in trace amounts in the blood), forming the extrinsic tenase complex. This complex further activates factor IX and X to IXa and Xa, respectively, leading to the common coagulation pathway and the subsequent formation of thrombin and fibrin. The release of endotoxin is

neg: Microvesicles nm) and shed microvesicles (100-1000 nm), which are similar but have distinct mechanisms of formation. Through these mechanisms, microvesicles are released into the extracellular space and interact with specific target cells, delivering bioactive molecules. Changes in microvesicle levels are implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer. These changes can be used as biomarkers in a variety of diagnostic assays. Different cells can release microvesicles from the plasma membrane. Sources of microvesicles include megakaryocytes, blood platelets, monocytes, neutrophils, tumor cells and placenta. Platelets play an important role in maintaining hemostasis: they promote thrombus growth, and thus they prevent loss of

neg: Cytokinesis cell) at the cell cortex (adjacent to the cell membrane). Rho protein family (RhoA protein in mammalian cells) is a key regulator of contractile ring formation and contraction in animal cells. The RhoA pathway promotes assembly of the actin-myosin ring by two main effectors. First, RhoA stimulates nucleation of unbranched actin filaments by activation of Diaphanous-related formins. This local generation of new actin filaments is important for the contractile ring formation. This actin filament formation process also requires a protein called profilin, which binds to actin monomers and helps load them onto the filament end. Second, RhoA promotes myosin II

neg: Placentation of these regions being a new specialised uterine structure. In the southern grass skink three distinct regions of the placenta form which likely perform different functions; the placentome supports nutrient transfer via membrane bound transport proteins, the paraplacentome supports the exchange of respiratory gasses, and the yolk sac placenta supports lipid transport via apocrine secretion. Evolution of placental functions Placental functions include nutrient transport, gas exchange, maternal-fetal communication, and waste removal from the embryo. These functions have evolved by a series of general processes such as re-purposing processes found in the ancestral tissues from which a placenta is derived, recruiting

neg: Antimineralocorticoid Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid which is synthesized in the adrenal glands. When aldosterone is secreted from the adrenal glands, it binds to the mineralocorticoid receptor in the renal tubule cell and forms a complex. This complex enhances transcription of specific DNA segments in the nucleus, leading to the formation of two protein transporters, Na+/K+ ATPase pump at the basolateral membrane and Na+ channel called ENaC, located at the apical membrane of the renal tubule cell. These protein transporters increase sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the distal tubule and the collecting duct of the kidneys. This helps the body to

neg: Plasma membrane transformation they do in rats and mice, after which they return (within the next 48 h) to form the interface of the mature placenta. Moreover, as we have also seen, there are molecular alterations in the plasma membrane during early pregnancy which have common aspects across species and here some of the large mucin molecules (such as MUC-1) are particularly instructive. Changes in the basal and lateral plasma membrane regions have also been documented in many species during early pregnancy in preparation for attachment, and these too show common aspects across species—especially some membrane junctional structures. Therefore, to highlight that membrane

neg: Hypoblast origin and formation have been provided in different species including rat and mouse, rhesus monkey, baboon et al. Hypoblast The hypoblast is a tissue type that forms from the inner cell mass. It lies beneath the epiblast and consists of small cuboidal cells. Extraembryonic endoderm (including Yolk sac) is derived from hypoblast cells. The absence of hypoblast results in multiple primitive streaks in chicken embryos. The formation of the primitive streak, through which gastrulation occurs, is induced by Koller's sickle. In mouse embryo, the visceral endoderm develop from the primitive endoderm of the blastocyst during the implantation stage covering the

neg: Gastrulation of ingression. Formation of the primitive streak is reliant upon nodal signaling in the Koller's sickle within the cells contributing to the primitive streak and BMP4 signaling from the extraembryonic tissue. Furthermore, Cer1 and Lefty1 restrict the primitive streak to the appropriate location by antagonizing nodal signaling. The region defined as the primitive streak continues to grow towards the distal tip. During the early stages of development, the primitive streak is the structure that will establish bilateral symmetry, determine the site of gastrulation and initiate germ layer formation. To form the streak, reptiles, birds and mammals arrange mesenchymal cells along

neg: ABCC1 are found between Caucasian and Asian populations. There are multiple examples of single nucleotide polymorphisms that are shared among Asian populations but not found in Caucasian populations and vice versa. The "ABCC1" Predator gene, the gene that encodes the ABCC1 protein, is found on chromosome 16 within the nucleus. The protein resides intracellularly on the basolateral side of the plasma membrane which differs from other ATP-binding cassette transporters that are found on the apical side of the membrane. While ABCC1 is generally found throughout most tissues in humans, it is particularly prevalent in the lungs, spleen, testes, kidneys, placenta, thyroid,

neg: YadA bacterial adhesin protein domain is to help cell adhesion and to increase virulence. YadA is a collagen-binding outer membrane protein. It forms the fibrillar matrix on the bacterial cell surface. This aids cell attachment and helps the bacteria invade eukaryotic cells. Additionally, by forming the fibrillar matrix, the YadA domain protects the bacteria by facilitating agglutination resistance, serum resistance, complement inactivation and phagocytosis resistance. The importance of adhesins to YadA function and "Yersinia" survival is huge. Attachment further allows more interactions and increase of biofilm formation to aid bacterial colonization. In "Yersinia", it helps initiate the infectious process in host cells and are critical

neg: Phosmet table below shows the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) and lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) of short and long-term exposure in rats. Research on phosmet’s (and other organophosphate/chlorine insecticides) effect on the placenta indicate that phosmet has been found to enter the placenta and carryover to the fetus. In addition, the compound has been shown to decrease PI 4-kinase activity in the nucleus, but has no effect on membrane PI 4-kinase. Affecting PI 4-kinase activity suggests detrimental effects on different processes regulated by 4-phosphoinositides. However, more research is needed on the consequences of phosmet and other organophosphates on

neg: Ferlins with the plasma membrane. At this point, spermatids extend their pseudopod and become mobile. This process is calcium-dependent and a normal progression of this step requires ferlin's involvement. Dysferlin is highly expressed in skeletal muscles, but is also found in heart, placenta, liver, lung, kidney and pancreas. Dysferlin is essential for membrane repair mechanism in muscle cells. Dysferlin in sea stars is 46.9% identical to human dysferlin, and is critical for normal endocytosis during oogenesis and embryogenesis. In humans, dysferlin's primary function is believed to be involvement in muscle membrane repair mechanism. Skeletal muscles experience micro-damages during exercising and daily

neg: Myelin protein zero Currently, myelin protein zero expression is postulated to be produced by signals from the axon. However, more details about the regulation of myelin protein zero are unknown. It is postulated that myelin protein zero is a structural element in the formation and stabilization of peripheral nerve myelin. Myelin protein zero is also hypothesized to serve as a cell adhesion molecule, holding multiple layers of myelin together. When a myelinating cell wraps its membrane around an axon multiple times, generating multiple layers of myelin, myelin protein zero helps keep these sheets compact by serving as a "glue" that keeps the layers

neg: Body cavity body cavity is the "hemocoel" or "haeomocoel" of an open circulatory system, often derived from the blastocoel. Mammalian embryos develop two cavities: the intraembryonic coelom and the extraembryonic coelom (or chorionic cavity). The intraembryonic coelom is lined by somatic and splanchnic lateral plate mesoderm, while the extraembryonic coelom is lined by extraembryonic mesoderm. The intraembryonic coelom is the only cavity that persists in the mammal at term, which is why its name is often contracted to simply "coelomic cavity". Subdividing the coelomic cavity into compartments, for example, the pericardial cavity / pericardium, where the heart develops, simplifies discussion of the

neg: Breastfeeding has a laxative effect that helps the infant to pass early stools, aiding in the excretion of excess bilirubin, which helps to prevent jaundice. It also helps to seal the infants gastrointestional tract from foreign substances, which may sensitize the baby to foods that the mother has eaten. Although the baby has received some antibodies through the placenta, colostrum contains a substance which is new to the newborn, secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA). IgA works to attack germs in the mucous membranes of the throat, lungs, and intestines, which are most likely to come under attack from germs. Breasts begin producing

neg: E1 (HCV) the E2 protein worked together to enter the cell. Also cleavage at the core-E1 junction is a prerequisite for SPP-catalyzed cleavage. This helps the virus relocate to the surface of lipid droplets. Once the virus gets to the surface of the lipid droplets it recruits the virus no-structural proteins and replication complex. The SP-catalyzed cleavage at the core-E1 junction is required for the formation of infectious particles and for the release of any HCV particles. Also E1 has no function with budding at the ER membrane. It also had no effect on the intracellular formation of capsid-containing particles. Instead when

neg: Steroid hormone pathways are mediated by some type of steroid hormone receptor found at the plasma membrane. Ion channels, transporters, G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR), and membrane fluidity have all been shown to be affected by steroid hormones. Of these, GPCR linked proteins are the most common. For more information on these proteins and pathways, visit the steroid hormone receptor page. Steroid hormone A steroid hormone is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two classes: corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence "cortico-") and sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta). Within those

neg: Epiretinal membrane eyes with retinal breaks or retinal detachments and subsequent ERM formation. PVD can lead to retinal breaks that may liberate RPE cells that initiate membrane formation. Small breaks in the internal limiting membrane (ILM) after PVD also may provide retinal astrocytes access to the vitreous cavity, where they may subsequently proliferate. Many ERM also have ILM fragments that may be peeled separately. Finally, vitreous hemorrhage, inflammation, or both associated with a PVD also may stimulate ERM formation. Both sexes appear to be affected equally frequently. Epiretinal membrane is typically diagnosed by appearance with optical coherence tomography of the macula. Features

neg: Limbal stem cell or chemical damage to the limbus, control inflammation, and help achieve a healthy corneal epithelium. Initial treatment after trauma/injury includes preservative-free artificial tears; topical steroids; ‘bandage’ contact lenses; and autologous eye drops. Once the corneal surface has stabilized, surgery is the main approach to treatment. In the case of a partial LSCD, a sequential sector conjunctival epitheliectomy (SSCE) can be performed to remove any tissue (pannus) that has grown over the cornea. This procedure is sometimes used as a temporary measure until further surgical interventions are possible. Transplantation of amniotic membrane from a placenta may also help. Although amniotic membrane

neg: Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 produced by the placenta during pregnancy (the condition called pregnancy-associated malaria, PAM, or placental malaria). The majority of PAM is therefore due to VAR2SCA. Unlike other PfEMP1, VAR2CSA binds to chondroitin sulphate A present on the vascular endothelium of placenta. Although its individual domains can bind to CSA, its entire structure is used for complete binding. The major complication in PAM is low-birth-weight babies. However, women who survived the first infection generally develop an effective immune response. In "P. falciparum"-prevalent regions in Africa, pregnant women are found to contain high levels of antibody (immunoglobulin G, or IgG) against VAR2CSA, which

neg: Pregnancy specific biological substances consist of unique physiognomies. Placenta's structure not only regulates its function but also gives the probability of efficient use in clinics and in biotechnology. Pregnancy specific biological substances Pregnancy-specific biological substances, which include the placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic fluid, and amniotic membrane are being studied for a number of health uses. For example, Placental-derived stem cells are being studied so they can serve as a potential treatment method for cell therapy. Hepatocyte-like cells (HLC) are generated from differentiated human amniotic epithelial cells (hAEC) that are abundant in the placenta. HLC may replace hepatocytes for hepatocyte transplantation to treat acute or

neg: Hypoblast Hypoblast The hypoblast is a tissue type that forms from the inner cell mass. It lies beneath the epiblast and consists of small cuboidal cells. Extraembryonic endoderm (including Yolk sac) is derived from hypoblast cells. The absence of hypoblast results in multiple primitive streaks in chicken embryos. The formation of the primitive streak, through which gastrulation occurs, is induced by Koller's sickle. In mouse embryo, the visceral endoderm develop from the primitive endoderm of the blastocyst during the implantation stage covering the epiblast cells and elongates to become an egg cylinder. A distinct morphological domain has been identified by Martin

neg: Decapentaplegic cells in the imaginal wing disc proliferate heavily, causing tissue growth. Although gradient formation in the early embryo is well understood, how the Dpp morphogen gradient forms in the wing imaginal disc remains controversial. At the early blastoderm stage, Dpp signaling is uniform and low along the dorsal side. A sharp signaling profile emerges at the dorsal midline of the embryo during cellularization, with high levels of Dpp specifying the extraembryonic amnioserosa and low levels specifying the dorsal ectoderm. Dpp signaling also incorporates a positive feedback mechanism that promotes future Dpp binding. The morphogen gradient in embryos is established via

neg: Endothelial stem cell in the beginning stages of mouse embryogenesis, commencing at embryonic day 7.5, HPCs are produced close to the emerging vascular system. In the yolk sac’s blood islands, HPCs and EC lineages emerge from the extraembryonic mesoderm in near unison. This creates a formation in which early erythrocytes are enveloped by angioblasts, and together they give rise to mature ECs. This observation gave rise to the hypothesis that the two lineages come from the same precursor, termed hemangioblast. Even though there is evidence that corroborates a hemangioblast, the isolation and exact location in the embryo has been difficult to pinpoint. Some

neg: Disulfide bond formation protein B Disulfide bond formation protein B Disulfide bond formation protein B (DsbB) is a protein component of the pathway that leads to disulfide bond formation in periplasmic proteins of "Escherichia coli" and other bacteria. The DsbB protein oxidizes the periplasmic protein DsbA which in turn oxidizes cysteines in other periplasmic proteins in order to make disulfide bonds. DsbB acts as a redox potential transducer across the cytoplasmic membrane. It is a membrane protein which spans the membrane four times with both the N- and C-termini of the protein are in the cytoplasm. Each of the periplasmic domains of the protein has

neg: Jikjisa that “transcripts of the entire Buddhist canon in gold ink” were enshrined there. During the Joseon era, an earthenware urn holding the placenta from the birth of Joseon’s second king, Jeongjong, was enshrined on a Hwangaksan peak north of Jikjisa which is auspicious “snake-head formation” from a geomantic perspective, making the temple the guardian of the royal placenta. Today Jikjisa is the head temple of the eighth religious district of the Jogye Order of Seon and supervises 54 branch temples scattered among the deep folds of the Baekdudaegan range in northwestern North Gyeongsang Province. It was at Jikjisa that Great

neg: Cavitation (biology) morula is the precursor structure to the blastula, which is an animal embryo in the early stages of development. The morula consists of a cluster of internal cells covered by a layer of external cells. The internal cells become the inner cellular mass, which becomes the entire embryo.The external cells are destined to become a structure called the trophoblast, a layer of tissue on the inside of the embryo that provides it with nourishment. The trophoblast cells become extraembryonic structures necessary for development. After the initial formation of the morula, it does not have an interior space or cavity. Cavitation

neg: Quijos-Quichua A medicinal plant applied in the placenta of cattle as a massage and helps to eliminate the bacteria inside the organism. Kiviyuyo: Helps injuries and lowers swelling when crushed. Ayahuasca: It is a famous medicinal plant, whose purpose is to allow visions towards the future. Chalipanga: Component of ayahuasca that allows clarity in visions. Manduro: Treats burns and prevents scars. Ajiringri: Used as a pepper inside the kitchen. It is also used as a wound disinfectant and its root when crushed is used for stomach pain. Yuquillas: Its root is used to relieve the (itching) sting of spiders, vipers and

neg: MFN2 mitochondria and facilitates the mixing of the membranes and the exchange of DNA between mitochondria. MFN1 and MFN2 mediate outer membrane fusion while OPA1 is involved in inner membrane fusion. Mitochondrial fusion is essential for embryonic development. knockout mice for either MFN1 or MFN2 have fusion deficits and die midgestation. MFN2 knockout mice die at embryonic day 11.5 due to a defect in the giant cell layer of the placenta. Fusion is also important for mitochondrial transport and localization in neuronal processes. Conditional MFN2 knockout mice show degeneration in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, as well as improperly localized

neg: SLC25A1 SLC25A1 The tricarboxylate transport protein, also referred to as citrate carrier (CIC), tricarboxylate carrier, or citrate transport protein, is part of the mitochondrial carrier gene family SLC25. It is a protein in humans encoded by the "SLC25A1" gene. High levels of the tricarboxylate transport protein are found in the liver, pancreas and kidney. Lower or no levels are present in the brain, heart, skeletal muscle, placenta and lung. The tricarboxylate transport protein is located within the inner mitochondria membrane. It provides a link between the mitochondrial matrix and cytosol by transporting citrate through the impermeable inner mitochondrial membrane in exchange

neg: Postpartum bleeding the placenta is delivered. This stage is when the mother is at risk of having a PPH. Active management involves giving a drug which helps the uterus contract before delivering the placenta by a gentle but sustained pull on the umbilical cord whilst exerting upward pressure on the lower abdomen to support the uterus. Another method of active management which is not recommended now is fundal pressure. A review into this method found no research and advises controlled cord traction because fundal pressure can cause the mother unnecessary pain. Allowing the cord to drain appears to shorten the third stage

neg: Uterus either the term "uterus" or "oviduct" is used to describe the same organ, but the egg does not develop a placenta within the mother and thus does not receive further nourishment after formation and fertilization. Marsupials have two uteri, each of which connect to a lateral vagina and which both use a third, middle "vagina" which functions as the birth canal. Marsupial embryos form a choriovitelline placenta (which can be thought of as something between a monotreme egg and a "true" placenta), in which the egg's yolk sac supplies a large part of the embryo's nutrition but also attaches to

neg: Interfemoral membrane Interfemoral membrane The interfemoral membrane, or uropatagium, is the membrane that stretches between the legs of bats, pterosaurs and other animals like flying squirrels and colugos. In bats, the uropatagium extends between the legs and tail, though in tail-less/short tailed species the uropatagium either connects both legs directly (such as in phyllostomids), or is reduced to a pair of membranes along each inner side of the leg (such as in flying foxes). The uropatagium is supported by the calcar, a rod of cartilage that helps expand this membrane. The uropatagium is primarily used in flight control, allowing the bat to

neg: Cytotrophoblastic shell spread out are called cytotrophoblastic columns. Once formation is complete, the cytotrophoblast layer from the anchoring villi disappears, leaving behind a mesoderm core surrounded by syncytial cells. Cytotrophoblastic shell The cytotrophoblastic shell is the external layer of cytotrophoblasts from the fetus that is found on the maternal surface of the placenta. The cytotrophoblastic shell firmly secures the placenta to the mother's endometrium called the decidua basalis. Gaps in the cytotrophoblastic shell allow endometrial arteries and veins to reach the intervillous space. A cytotrophoblast cap penetrates through the fetus' syncytiotrophoblasts and reaches the maternal decidua, forming the anchoring villus. The cytotrophoblast

neg: Placenta and further divide to form a network covered by a thin layer of cells. This results in the formation of villous tree structures. On the maternal side, these villous tree structures are grouped into lobules called cotyledons. In humans, the placenta usually has a disc shape, but size varies vastly between different mammalian species. The placenta occasionally takes a form in which it comprises several distinct parts connected by blood vessels. The parts, called lobes, may number two, three, four, or more. Such placentas are described as bilobed/bilobular/bipartite, trilobed/trilobular/tripartite, and so on. If there is a clearly discernible main lobe

neg: MYH9 II B (or NMHC IIC) that is under control of the NMHC IIA promoter. These “replacement” mice have a normal visceral endoderm and continue to proceed through gastrulation and undergo organogenesis. However, they die when they fail to develop a normal placenta. Absence of NM IIA results in a compact and underdeveloped labyrinthine layer in the placenta which lacks fetal blood vessel invasion. Moreover mutant p.R702C NM IIA mice show similar defects in placental formation and mice specifically ablated for NM IIA in the mouse trophoblast-lineage cells demonstrate placental defects similar to mice in which NMHC IIA is genetically replaced

neg: Mesoderm ectoderm. After that, the epiblast and the hypoblast establish contact with the extraembryonic mesoderm until they cover the yolk sac and amnion. They move onto either side of the prechordal plate. The prechordal cells migrate to the midline to form the notochordal plate. The chordamesoderm is the central region of trunk mesoderm. This forms the notochord which induces the formation of the neural tube and establishes the anterior-posterior body axis. The notochord extends beneath the neural tube from the head to the tail. The mesoderm moves to the midline until it covers the notochord, when the mesoderm cells proliferate they

neg: Clathrin of its feet to the membrane at a time. The skelion will bind to other ones attached to the membrane to form a polyhedral lattice, skelion, which pulls the membrane into a bud. The skelion does not bind directly to the membrane, but binds to the adaptor proteins that recognize the molecules on the membrane surface. Clathrin has another function aside from the coating of organelles. In non-dividing cells, the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles occurs continuously. Formation of clathrin-coated vesicles is shut down in cells undergoing mitosis. During mitosis, clathrin binds to the spindle apparatus, in complex with two other

neg: Thyroxine 5-deiodinase and is highly expressed throughout fetal development, peaking early and decreasing towards the end of gestation. Part of the Dlk1-Dio3 imprinting control region, this gene is one involved in the epigenetic process that causes a subset of genes to be regulated based on their parental origin (see Genomic Imprinting). Such imprinted genes are required for the formation of the placenta as well as the development of cellular lineages such as those derived from the mesoderm and ectoderm. D3 is found in the pregnant uterus, placenta, and mammalian fetal tissues where it is thought to be involved in the transfer of

neg: Reticulon and Golgi-body trafficking in and out of the cell through plasma membrane-associated proteins. Reticulons additionally aid in the formation of vesicles and membrane morphogenesis. When inhibiting RTNA in mammalian cells, it does not allow for proper formation of membrane tubules. In "C. elegans", removing RTNL RET and associated proteins interferes with the formation of the ER during mitosis. It also disrupts nuclear envelope reassembly. Reticulons have been found to interact with proteins that are involved with vesicular formation and morphogenesis of the ER. They are additionally involved in intracellular trafficking. In one example, it was shown that increasing expression of

neg: Cargile membrane Cargile membrane A Cargile membrane is a sterile membrane made from the peritoneum of the ox. It is used in abdominal surgery to interpose between raw surfaces and thus prevent the formation of adhesions. It was also used to envelop freshly sutured nerves or tendons, and to protect wounds. It was designed primarily to cover surfaces over which peritoneum has been removed, especially where a sterile membrane would lessen the formation of adhesion. The membrane is available in size of 4X6 inches and sometimes is used as packaging or protective sheath. The use of such material is currently limited. It

neg: Cargile membrane was named for American surgeon Charles H. Cargile (1853-1930), who first used it ca. 1900, according to Dorland's Medical Dictionary. Cargile membrane A Cargile membrane is a sterile membrane made from the peritoneum of the ox. It is used in abdominal surgery to interpose between raw surfaces and thus prevent the formation of adhesions. It was also used to envelop freshly sutured nerves or tendons, and to protect wounds. It was designed primarily to cover surfaces over which peritoneum has been removed, especially where a sterile membrane would lessen the formation of adhesion. The membrane is available in size of

neg: Fetal-maternal haemorrhage Fetal-maternal haemorrhage Fetal-maternal haemorrhage is the loss of fetal blood cells into the maternal circulation. It takes place in normal pregnancies as well as when there are obstetric or trauma related complications to pregnancy. Normally the maternal circulation and the fetal circulation are kept from direct contact with each other, with gas and nutrient exchange taking place across a membrane in the placenta made of two layers, the syncytiotrophoblast and the cytotrophoblast. Fetal-maternal haemorrhage occurs when this membrane ceases to function as a barrier and fetal cells may come in contact with and enter the maternal vessels in the decidua/endometrium.

neg: Type II secretion system it remains closely associated with GspD. It is thought that GspS plays an important role in the stabilization of the secretin GspD and helps prevent it breaking down in the presence of highly degradative periplasmic enzymes. The inner membrane complex is made up of several different Gsp proteins which are embedded in the inner membrane. Like the outer membrane secretin GspD these proteins are transported into the periplasm via the Sec translocation pathway before being inserted into the inner membrane. Four different proteins make up the inner membrane complex; these are GspC, GspF, GspL and GspM. Each of these individual

neg: Fluid mosaic model the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction. The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division. Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.

neg: Laminin 111 can no longer occur. The self-assembly and tight network formation by laminin-111 are essential for holding the basement membrane together. Although it is expressed abundantly during the early embryonic stage, laminin-111 is mostly absent in adults. The injection of laminin-111, however, helps with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a neuromuscular disease in which the connection between the extracellular matrix and cell cytoskeleton is lost. Increased levels of laminin-111 triggered an increase in the expression of α7-integrin receptor and this prevented onset of the disease. Additionally, the presence of laminin-111 increased muscle strength and protected it from injury. When injected with myoblast transplants,

neg: Chemical chaperone found in a number of CF patients. It is found that the mutant CFTR mostly fails to transport to the cell membrane and is degraded in the ER; however, ones that successfully make it to the cell membrane are fully functional. As a result, a number of chemical chaperones have been shown to promote the trafficking of ΔF508 CFTR to the plasma membrane. Partially denatured Transthyretin (TTR) can promote the formation of amyloid fibrils in cells, and this aggregation can lead to cellular toxicity and a variety of human disease pathologies. Many small molecule inhibitors of TTR amyloid formation have

neg: Fluid mosaic model described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function. There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by the formation of subdomains within the lipid bilayer. These subdomains arise by several processes "e.g." binding of membrane components to the extracellular matrix, nanometric membrane regions with a particular biochemical composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts and protein complexes mediated by protein-protein interactions. Furthermore, protein-cytoskeleton associations mediate the formation of “cytoskeletal fences”, corrals wherein

neg: Calcium concentration microdomains pumps Na and K across the cell membrane. Na-K-ATPase helps to keep the body at equilibrium by the movement of those ions through the plasma membrane. This ion pump helps to reset the movement of ions during an action potential by sending K into the cell and sending Na out of the cell. Since it opposes the normal flow of ions during an action potential, energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is used. Calcium is also regulated using this Na-K-ATPase due to the enzyme's interactions with protein and non-protein molecules. The main interaction that keeps calcium regulated is

neg: Lipid bilayer model bilayers have also been used clinically to deliver drugs. Biological membranes typically include several types of molecules other than phospholipids. A particularly important example in animal cells is cholesterol, which helps strengthen the bilayer and decrease its permeability. Cholesterol also helps regulate the activity of certain integral membrane proteins. Integral membrane proteins function when incorporated into a lipid bilayer, and they are held tightly to lipid bilayer with the help of an annular lipid shell. Because bilayers define the boundaries of the cell and its compartments, these membrane proteins are involved in many intra- and inter-cellular signaling processes. Certain

neg: T-tubule produced and maintained by a variety of proteins. The protein Amphyphysin-2 is encoded by the gene BIN1 and is responsible for forming the structure of the T-tubule and ensuring that the appropriate proteins (in particular L-type calcium channels) are located within the T-tubule membrane. Junctophilin-2 is encoded by the gene JPH2 and helps to form a junction between the T-tubule membrane and the sarcoplasmic reticulum, vital for excitation-contraction coupling. Titin capping protein or Telethonin is encoded by the gene TCAP and helps with T-tubule development and is potentially responsible for the increasing number of T-tubules seen as muscles grow. T-tubules

neg: Targeted temperature management the necessary ATP to regulate ion levels and thus cannot prevent the intracellular environment from approaching the ion concentration of the outside environment. It is not oxygen deprivation itself that precipitates cell death, but rather without oxygen the cell can not make the ATP it needs to regulate ion concentrations and maintain homeostasis. Notably, even a small drop in temperature encourages cell membrane stability during periods of oxygen deprivation. For this reason, a drop in body temperature helps prevent an influx of unwanted ions during an ischemic insult. By making the cell membrane more impermeable, hypothermia helps prevent the cascade

neg: Avian paramyxovirus 2 It is believed that the F and Hn proteins present on the outer envelope of the virus assist in entry of the virus into the host cell. The fusion protein (F) is an integral membrane protein, sharing many features similar to other viral fusion proteins and is directly involved in virus fusion. It is believed that two heptad repeat regions (HR1) and (HR2) form a six-helix bundle structure that helps to induce fusion of the viral membrane with the host cell membrane. The Hn protein is made up of a stalk and a globular head that contains receptor-binding capabilities that

neg: Lipopolysaccharide proteins secreted by "Bacillus thuringiensis". LPS is the major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, contributing greatly to the structural integrity of the bacteria, and protecting the membrane from certain kinds of chemical attack. LPS also increases the negative charge of the cell membrane and helps stabilize the overall membrane structure. It is of crucial importance to many Gram-negative bacteria, which die if it is mutated or removed; however, it appears that LPS is nonessential in at least some Gram-negative bacteria, such as "Neisseria meningitidis", "Moraxella catarrhalis", and "Acinetobacter baumannii". LPS induces a strong response from normal animal

neg: Descemet's membrane membrane survive to dramatically and emphatically reverse the corneal deterioration (see DMEK surgery). Descemet's membrane is also a site of copper deposition in patients with Wilson's disease or other liver diseases, leading to formation of Kayser-Fleischer rings. It is also known as the Posterior limiting lamina, posterior elastic lamina, lamina elastica posterior, and membrane of Demours. It was named after French physician Jean Descemet (1732–1810). Histology A text and atlas. Michael H.Ross and Wojciech Pawlina 5th Edition 2006 Descemet's membrane Descemet's membrane (or the Descemet membrane) is the basement membrane that lies between the corneal proper substance, also called stroma,

neg: Alternative uses for placenta placenta extract formulation, is prescribed to treat chronic hepatitis. There are a number of foods, many with touted health benefits, that use placenta as a ingredient. This is in addition to ritual consumption by mothers and families in many cultures. Plantec Co. in Japan makes a drink called "Placenta Drink" which contains placenta. The company claims that "It is a drink that used the placenta raw material" and "The expectation that makes the body metabolism active can be done" and "It is a drink of the apple taste" . Alternative uses for placenta The placenta is an organ which links

neg: CD133 by extracellular loops. While the precise function of CD133 remains unknown, it has been proposed that it acts as an organizer of cell membrane topology. CD133 is expressed in hematopoietic stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells, glioblastoma, neuronal and glial stem cells, various pediatric brain tumors, as well as adult kidney, mammary glands, trachea, salivary glands, uterus, placenta, digestive tract, testes, and some other cell types. Today CD133 is the most commonly used marker for isolation of cancer stem cell (CSC) population from different tumors, mainly from various gliomas and carcinomas. Initial studies that showed ability of CD133-positive population to efficiently

neg: Organic anion transporter 1 toxicity of OAT1 substrates: Organic anion transporter 1 The organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1) also known as solute carrier family 22 member 6 (SLC22A6) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SLC22A6" gene. It is a member of the organic anion transporter (OAT) family of proteins. OAT1 is a transmembrane protein that is expressed in the brain, the placenta, the eyes, smooth muscles, and the basolateral membrane of proximal tubular cells of the kidneys. It plays a central role in renal organic anion transport. Along with OAT3, OAT1 mediates the uptake of a wide range of relatively

neg: Organic anion transporter 1 Organic anion transporter 1 The organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1) also known as solute carrier family 22 member 6 (SLC22A6) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SLC22A6" gene. It is a member of the organic anion transporter (OAT) family of proteins. OAT1 is a transmembrane protein that is expressed in the brain, the placenta, the eyes, smooth muscles, and the basolateral membrane of proximal tubular cells of the kidneys. It plays a central role in renal organic anion transport. Along with OAT3, OAT1 mediates the uptake of a wide range of relatively small and hydrophilic organic

neg: Decay-accelerating factor factor D, thereby preventing formation of the C3bBb C3 convertase of the alternative pathway. Thus, by limiting the amplification convertases of the complement cascade, DAF indirectly blocks the formation of the membrane attack complex. This glycoprotein is broadly distributed among hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells. It is a determinant for the Cromer blood group system. DAF is a 70 kDa membrane protein that attaches to cell membrane via a glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. DAF contains four complement control protein (CCP) repeats with a single N-linked glycan positioned between CCP1 and CCP2. CCP2, CCP3, CCP4 and three consecutive lysine residues in a positively

neg: MPV17 MPV17 Protein MPV17 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "MPV17" gene. It is a mitochondrial inner membrane protein, which has a so far largely unknown role in mtDNA maintenance. Protein MPV17 is expressed in human pancreas, kidney, muscle, liver, lung, placenta, brain and heart. Human MPV17 is the orthologue of the mouse kidney disease gene, Mpv17. Loss of function has been shown to cause hepatocerebral mtDNA depletion syndromes (MDS) with oxidative phosphorylation failure and mtDNA depletion both in affected individuals and in Mpv17−/− mice. This protein was first thought to be a peroxisomal protein, but in

neg: Eclampsia pre-eclampsia/eclampsia in a later pregnancy. The presence of a placenta is required, and eclampsia resolves if it is removed. Reduced blood flow to the placenta (placental hypoperfusion) is a key feature of the process. It is accompanied by increased sensitivity of the maternal vasculature to agents which cause constriction of the small arteries, leading to reduced blood flow to multiple organs. Also, an activation of the coagulation cascade may lead to microthrombi formation, which can further impair blood flow. Thirdly, increased vascular permeability results in the shift of extracellular fluid from the blood to the interstitial space, with further reduction