query: the original treaty ports negotiated in 1842-44 were within which part of china

pos: Treaty ports Treaty ports The treaty ports refers to the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade by the "unequal treaties" with the Western powers, as well as cities in Korea opened up in similar fashion by the Japanese Empire. The British established the first treaty ports in China at the conclusion of the First Opium War by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. As well as ceding the island of Hong Kong to the United Kingdom in perpetuity, the treaty also established five treaty ports at Shanghai, Canton (Guangzhou), Ningpo (Ningbo), Fuchow (Fuzhou), and Amoy (Xiamen).

pos: Ma's Illustrated Catalogue Of The Stamps Of China occupying special concessions, known as 'Treaty Ports', which had been snatched from Imperial China by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The first Treaty Ports stamp was issued in 1865 by the Shanghai Municipal Post, with additional Local Posts followed in sixteen other Treaty Ports. The postal services were taken over by the Qing government in November 1897 after it established the Imperial Chinese Post. After the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, central authority was broken apart. During the period of the Republic of China (1912 - 1949), ongoing conflict between the Beiyang government, the Nationalist's Guomindang government,

pos: Treaty ports Treaty ports The treaty ports refers to the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade by the "unequal treaties" with the Western powers, as well as cities in Korea opened up in similar fashion by the Japanese Empire. The British established the first treaty ports in China at the conclusion of the First Opium War by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. As well as ceding the island of Hong Kong to the United Kingdom in perpetuity, the treaty also established five treaty ports at Shanghai, Canton (Guangzhou), Ningpo (Ningbo), Fuchow (Fuzhou), and Amoy (Xiamen).

pos: Western imperialism in Asia China vulnerable to Western, Meiji period Japanese, and Russian imperialism. In 1839, China found itself fighting the First Opium War with Britain. China was defeated, and in 1842, signed the provisions of the Treaty of Nanjing which were first of the unequal treaties signed during the Qing Dynasty. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the Second Opium War broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin. The treaty opened new ports to

pos: Old China Trade for the actions of individuals. The chief concern of foreign traders was preventing the Chinese from closing trade, as they could threaten to do over legal disputes. At the end of the First Opium War in 1842, Britain and China signed the Treaty of Nanking, which effectively overthrew the original mercantilist system and forced open the ports of Guangzhou, Xiamen ("Amoy"), Fuzhou ("Foochow"), Ningbo ("Ningpo"), and Shanghai to British trading. Seeing that Britain could easily eliminate foreign competition in China with its new privileges and considerable trading prowess, Americans found the need to reestablish their diplomatic relations and commercial equality

pos: Foreign relations of China Western militaries and military technology like steamboats and Congreve rockets forced China to open trade with the West on Western terms. A series of perceived "unequal treaties", including the Treaty of Nanking (1842), the treaties of Tianjin (1858), and the Beijing Conventions (1860), forced China to open new treaty ports, including Canton (Guangzhou), Amoy (Xiamen), and Shanghai. The treaties also allowed the British to set up Hong Kong as a colony and established international settlements in the treaty ports under the control of international peoples. China was required to accept permanent diplomats at the capital in Peking, provided for the

pos: Shanghai International Settlement Settlement was "de jure" returned to the Chinese as part of the British–Chinese Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China and American–Chinese Treaty for Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China with the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek. However, because Shanghai was under Japanese control, this was unenforceable. In reply, in July 1943, the Japanese retroceded the SMC to the City Government of Shanghai, which was then in the hands of the pro-Japanese Wang Jingwei Government. Although the original treaty between Britain and China (the Treaty of Nanking) was signed in 1842 on behalf

pos: Apostolic Vicariate of Kiang-nan consecrated titular Bishop of Canopus. He arrived at Jiangnan in 1842, and obtained some French Jesuits from Propaganda Fide, and from Father Roothan, then General of the Society of Jesus. Fathers Gotteland, Benjamin Brueye and François left Europe on 28 April 1840. In 1842 a treaty between England and China resulted in the opening of five Chinese ports, among them Shanghai. Five new fathers and one brother left France for China in 1842. They made the voyage with M. de Lagrené, ambassador of France to Beijing, who in 1844 obtained permission in the Treaty of Whampoa for the preaching of

pos: Shanghai International Settlement Cushing (1800–1879), who was dispatched with orders to "save the Chinese from the condition of being an exclusive monopoly in the hands of England" as a consequence of the 1842 Nanking treaty. Under the Treaty of Wanghia, Americans gained the same rights as those enjoyed by the British in China's treaty ports. It also contained a clause that effectively carved out Shanghai as an extraterritorial zone within Imperial China, though it did not actually give the American government a true legal concession. It was only in 1845 that Britain followed in America's footsteps and signed a land-deal to allow Britons

pos: Qing dynasty using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmanoeuvred and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow to China. The Treaty of Nanjing, the first of the "unequal treaties", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the Treaty Ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo and Shanghai to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede Hong Kong Island to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in the Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime. In 1842, the Qing dynasty fought a war to the Sikh Empire (the last independent kingdom of India), resulting in

pos: Opium Wars another research paper published by Michael Cemblast of JP Morgan and updated by the World Economic Forum, similar conclusions were reached—i.e. China was the largest economy in the world for many centuries until the Opium Wars. The First Opium War, fought over opium trade, financial reparations, and diplomatic status, began in 1839 and was concluded by the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842. The treaty ceded the Hong Kong island to the United Kingdom in perpetuity, and it established five treaty ports at Shanghai, Canton, Ningpo (Ningbo), Foochow (Fuzhou), and Amoy. Another treaty the next year gave most favored nation

pos: Shanghai to the north, south and west, and is bounded to the east by the East China Sea. As a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War. The subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a centre

pos: Unequal treaty Great Britain, Guangzhouwan to France, Taiwan to Japan, the Jiaozhou Bay concession to the German Empire and concession territory in Tientsin, Shamian, Hankou, Shanghai etc.), and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign "spheres of influence", following military threats. The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War. The first treaty between China and Great Britain termed "unequal" was the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. Following Qing China's defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreign missionaries, at least in theory,

pos: Astor House Hotel (Shanghai) the consulates of Germany, the United States and Japan were also located in row up the row from the Hotel. On 29 August 1842, the Treaty of Nanjing declared Shanghai to be one of five open treaty ports in China, the others being Canton, Amoy, Foochow, and Ningpo. On 17 November 1843, Shanghai was declared open to foreign traders, and soon after the British concession in Shanghai was established and the boundaries gradually defined. Afterward, the resident foreign population of the British concession increased: "In 1844 [at years end] it was 50, in the following year 90, and after five

pos: Urban planning in Shanghai Urban planning in Shanghai Urban planning in Shanghai refers to various phases of planning and development of the city of Shanghai, one of the largest cities in China. Shanghai was traditionally a fishing and textiles town, and until the 1840s, despite the commercial importance as a major port, was considered a prefecture-level city, which is the lowest in China’s traditional hierarchy of urban settlements. After the First Opium War (18391842) the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, Shanghai opened as one of the five Chinese treaty ports. The British and Americans, followed by the French, built their own concessions, mainly along the

pos: Shanghai During the First Opium War (1839–1842), British forces occupied the city. The war ended with the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, which allowed the British to dictate opening the treaty ports, Shanghai included, for international trade. The Treaty of the Bogue signed in 1843, and the Sino-American Treaty of Wanghia signed in 1844 forced Chinese concession to European and American desires for visitation and trade on Chinese soil. Britain, France (under the 1844 Treaty of Whampoa), and the United States all carved out concessions outside the walled city of Shanghai, which was still ruled by the Chinese. The Chinese-held old city

pos: Treaty of the Bogue treaties", which China concluded against its wishes with Western powers. During the negotiations in Nanjing, China and Britain had agreed that a supplementary treaty be concluded, and on 22July 1843 the two parties promulgated the "General Regulations of Trade with Britain and China" in Guangzhou. These regulations were included in the "Treaty of the Bogue," which Qiying and Pottinger signed on 8October 1843 on the Bogue outside Guangzhou. The treaty laid down detailed regulations for Sino-British trade and specified terms under which Britons could reside in the newly opened ports of Shanghai, Ningbo, Xiamen, Fuzhou and Guangzhou. While Britons were

pos: Treaty of the Bogue allowed Britons to reside in parts of China, which had not been opened to foreigners before. In 1845, local Qing authorities and the British authorities promulgated the Shanghai Land regulations, which paved the way for the foundation of the Shanghai International Settlement. Similar agreements were concluded in other treaty ports, which created a social divide between the Europeans and Chinese citizens in the cities. Treaty of the Bogue The Treaty of the Bogue () was a treaty between China and the United Kingdom, concluded in October 1843 to supplement the previous Treaty of Nanking. The treaty's key provisions granted extraterritoriality

pos: Extraterritoriality reciprocal extraterritoriality rights for its own citizens in 19th century Korea. However, in 1895, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, China gave up its extraterritorial rights in Japan, without reciprocity. The most prominent of the treaty ports established after the Opium wars was Shanghai, where the vague extraterritoriality provisions of the various treaties were most sophisticatedly implemented. The two main courts judging extraterritorial cases were the Mixed Court in the International Settlement and the British Supreme Court for China. Similar courts were established for treaty countries, e.g. the United States Court for China. These had jurisdiction over the concession areas, which

pos: New Imperialism France annexed all of Vietnam and Cambodia in the 1880s; in the following decade, France completed its Indochinese empire with the annexation of Laos, leaving the kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) with an uneasy independence as a neutral buffer between British and French-ruled lands. In 1839, China found itself fighting the First Opium War with Great Britain after the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei, Lin Zexu, banned the foreign trade of opium. China was defeated, and in 1842 agreed to the provisions of the Treaty of Nanking. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including Shanghai and

pos: American Presbyterian Medical Mission at Weixian, Shandong its mission in Singapore and eventually opened a mission at Xiamen, one of the five treaty ports established by the Treaty of Nanking. Plans were also made and missions opened in Ningbo, Canton, and Shanghai. Prior to the Second Opium War of 1856, and the resulting Treaty of Tientsin of 1858, missionaries had been confined to the coast of China. With the signing of the Treaty of Tientisn, however, more treaty ports were opened and missionaries were finally allowed to enter the interior. Furthermore, American missionaries were protected from harassment by the terms of their nation’s treaty. As such, missions

pos: Treaty of Canton that Sweden-Norway would have the same privileges in China as other treaty powers, so-called most-favored-nation status. Like the United States and British Empire before it, commercial access was granted to the five treaty ports of Canton (Kwangchow), Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai. This was in stark contrast to previous Western relations with China, when only Canton was open for foreign trade. Like other Western countries, extraterritorial rights was given to Sweden-Norway; jurisdiction over citizens of Sweden and Norway in the treaty ports was transferred from China to Sweden-Norway. The treaty furthermore allowed Sweden-Norway to send consuls to China, and to

pos: Chinglish reached Hong Kong, Macau and Guangzhou (Canton). In the 17th century, Chinese Pidgin English originated as a lingua franca for trade between British people and mostly Cantonese-speaking Chinese people. This proto-Chinglish term "" originated as a Chinese mispronunciation of the English word "". Following the First and Second Opium War between 1839–1842, Pidgin English spread north to Shanghai and other treaty ports. Pidgin usage began to decline in the late 19th century when Chinese and missionary schools began teaching Standard English. In 1982, the People's Republic of China made English the main foreign language in education. Current estimates for the

neg: Concessions in China Concessions in China Concessions in China were a group of concessions within China, governed and occupied by foreign powers, that are frequently associated with colonialism. Most had extraterritoriality and were enclaves inside key cities that became treaty ports. Other than other minor extraterritorial regions, these concessions no longer exist. Imperial China granted the concessions during the latter Qing Dynasty period (16441911), as a result of the series of "Unequal Treaties". They began in 1842's Treaty of Nanjing with the United Kingdom. Under each treaty, China was usually obligated to open more treaty ports for trade and lease out more territory

neg: Yangtze as it slashed the revenue of the imperial court in Beijing to just a small fraction of what it had been. In 1842, the Qing authorities sued for peace, which concluded with the Treaty of Nanjing signed on a gunboat in the river, negotiated in August of that year and ratified in 1843. In the treaty, China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain, open five ports to Britain, and cede Hong Kong to Queen Victoria. In the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, the Qing empire also recognized Britain as an equal to China and gave British subjects extraterritorial

neg: Opium Wars to the name of a vessel at the starting point of the conflict. The war resulted in the second group of treaty ports being set up; eventually, more than 80 treaty ports were established in China, involving many foreign powers. All foreign traders gained rights to travel within China. Opium Wars The Opium Wars were two wars in the mid-19th century involving China and the British Empire over the British trade of opium and China's sovereignty. The clashes included the First Opium War (1839–1842) and the Second Opium War (1856–1860). The wars and events between them weakened the Qing dynasty

neg: Steamboats on the Yangtze River a devastating blow to the Empire as it slashed the revenue of the imperial court in Beijing to just a small fraction of what it had been. In 1842 the Qing authorities sued for peace, which concluded with the Treaty of Nanjing signed on a gunboat in the river, negotiated in August of that year and ratified in 1843. In the treaty, China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain, open five ports to Britain, and cede Hong Kong to Queen Victoria. In the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, the Qing empire also recognized Britain as an equal to

neg: Martyr Saints of China sign in 1842 the first international treaty of modern times, followed quickly by others with the United States and France. Taking advantage of this opportunity, France replaced Portugal as the power protecting the Christian missions. Following on from this, a twofold decree was issued: one part in 1844 which permitted the Chinese to follow the Catholic religion; the other, in 1846, with which the old penalties against Catholics were abolished, and restored the property taken in 1724. The 1844 treaty also allowed for missionaries to come to China, but they were only permitted to come to the treaty ports opened

neg: China–United States relations 16, 1844 as the countries engaged in the negotiations which led to the Treaty of Wangxia. Coins, ginseng, and furs, and more prominently tea, cotton, silk, lacquerware, porcelain, and furniture were once traded as commodities between the two countries. After the Treaty of Nanking at the end of the First Opium War in 1842, many Chinese ports were forced to open to foreign trade, which threatened American trade in the region. President John Tyler, however, secured the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia, which gave Americans the right of extraterritoriality, and placed American trade on par with British trade. This treaty effectively

neg: Burlingame Treaty Seward. While in Washington, Burlingame negotiated a treaty with Secretary of State William H. Seward, his former superior to revise and expand upon the points established in the Treaty of Tianjin of 1858. The first few articles of the new treaty protected commerce conducted in Chinese ports and cities, and established the right of China to appoint consuls to American port cities. The more groundbreaking articles included measures that promised the Chinese the right to free immigration and travel within the United States, and allowed for the protection of Chinese citizens in the United States in accordance with the most-favored-nation

neg: British post offices in China British post offices in China The British post offices in China were a system of post offices set up by the United Kingdom in various treaty ports of China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As a consequence of the Treaty of Nanking of 29 August 1842, Great Britain opened five consular postal agencies on 16 April 1844. Another five were opened later. Initially letters were simply bagged in these cities and carried to Hong Kong, where they were cancelled "B62"; later (1860s/70s) each office received its own postmarking devices. Postage stamps of Hong Kong were used from

neg: Unequal treaty the treaty ports. In China, the term "unequal treaty" first came into use in the early 1920s. Dong Wang, a professor of contemporary and modern Chinese history, noted that "while the phrase has long been widely used, it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed between China and foreign countries that should be counted as 'unequal'." Historian Immanuel Hsu explained that the Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with Western powers as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were

neg: Treaty of Nanking themselves, and most favoured nation treatment appeared to set the foreigners one against the others. Although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished until 1943. Treaty of Nanking The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) was a peace treaty which ended the First Opium War (1839–42) between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. It was the first of what the Chinese later called the "unequal treaties". In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack Nanking, British and Chinese officials negotiated on board HMS "Cornwallis" anchored

neg: Treaty of Nanking Treaty of Nanking The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) was a peace treaty which ended the First Opium War (1839–42) between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. It was the first of what the Chinese later called the "unequal treaties". In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack Nanking, British and Chinese officials negotiated on board HMS "Cornwallis" anchored at the city. On 29 August, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Qiying, Yilibu, and Niu Jian signed the treaty, which consisted of thirteen articles. The treaty was

neg: British post offices in China was in use for only 30 days and it was used for the collection of the 5c late letter fee. The late fee was abolished on 20 May 1901 and the stamp withdrawn. These stamps exist both with black overprinted characters and green overprinted characters. British post offices in China The British post offices in China were a system of post offices set up by the United Kingdom in various treaty ports of China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As a consequence of the Treaty of Nanking of 29 August 1842, Great Britain opened five consular postal

neg: USS Minnesota (1855) Minnesota River. Her sister ships were also named for rivers: the (first in class), , (salvaged and renamed "Virginia" by the Confederate Navy), and the (later converted to a monitor-type). "Minnesota", carrying William B. Reed, U.S. Minister to China, departed from Norfolk, Virginia, on 1 July 1857 for East Asia. During her service with the East India Squadron, she visited many of the principal ports of China and Japan before departing Hong Kong to bring Reed home with a newly-negotiated commerce treaty, the Treaty of Tianjin, with China. Upon arrival in Boston, Massachusetts, on 2 June 1859, "Minnesota" was decommissioned

neg: Presidency of John Tyler trade. At Webster's urging, Tyler announced in 1842 that the U.S. would oppose colonization of the Hawaiian islands by any European power. This policy, which effectively extended the Monroe Doctrine to Hawaii, became known as the Tyler Doctrine. Eager to compete with Great Britain in international markets, Tyler sent lawyer Caleb Cushing to China, where Cushing negotiated the terms of the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia. The treaty, which was the first bilateral accord between the United States and China, contributed to greatly expanded trade between the two countries in subsequent years. Unlike most other states, by the early 1840s Rhode

neg: China with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the Unequal Treaties. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan

neg: China War Medal (1842) had belonged to units that had "served with distinction" in China between 5 July 1840 and 29 August 1842. The award covered the following actions: This campaign became known as the First Opium War, ending in the seizure of Nanking. The resultant treaty opened five ports to trade, and ceded Hong Kong to Great Britain. Obverse: the diademed head of Queen Victoria with the legend "VICTORIA REGINA". <br>Reverse: a shield bearing the Royal coat of arms with a palm tree and trophy of arms behind, with the inscription "ARMIS EXPOSCERE PACIM" above and "CHINA 1842" in the exergue below. This

neg: John Tyler compete with Great Britain in international markets, he sent lawyer Caleb Cushing to China, where he negotiated the terms of the Treaty of Wanghia (1844). The same year, he sent Henry Wheaton as a minister to Berlin, where he negotiated and signed a trade agreement with the "Zollverein", a coalition of German states that managed tariffs. This treaty was rejected by the Whigs, mainly as a show of hostility toward the Tyler administration. In an 1842 special message to Congress, the president also applied the Monroe Doctrine to Hawaii (dubbed the "Tyler Doctrine"), told Britain not to interfere there, and

neg: Shanghai International Settlement the control of the Consular Council, the area is still Chinese territory, over which China's sovereignty remains unsurrendered". In the 19th century, Europeans possessed treaty ports in Japan in the same way they held those in China. However, Japan rapidly developed into a modern nation, and by the turn of the 20th century the Japanese had successfully negotiated with all powers to abrogate all unequal treaties with it. Japan stood alongside the other European powers as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance during the infamous fifty five-day siege of the foreign embassy compound in Peking. Japan entered the 20th century as

neg: China–Kazakhstan border Zhalanashkol in August 1969. After Kazakhstan became an independent country, it negotiated a border treaty with China, which was signed in Almaty on April 26, 1994, and ratified by the President of Kazakhstan on June 15, 1995. According to the treaty, a narrow strip of hilly terrain east of Zhalanashkol which the USSR and China had contested in 1969 has become recognized as part of China. To delineate certain small sections of the border more precisely, additional agreements were signed on 24 September 1997 and 4 July 1998. Over the next several years, the border was demarcated on the ground

neg: China–Kazakhstan relations became the PRC-USSR border. However, the Chinese and Soviet authorities were not always in agreement where the border line run on the ground, which led, in particular to a border conflict east of lake Zhalanashkol in August 1969. After Kazakhstan became an independent country, it negotiated a border treaty with China, which was signed in Almaty on April 26, 1994, and ratified by the Kazakh president on June 15, 1995. According to the treaty, a narrow strip of hills east of Zhalanashkol which the USSR and China had contested in 1969 have become recognized as part of China. To delineate

neg: Cohong the opium and preparing it to enter Qing Territory. While the "Cohong" did not participate directly in the opium trade within China (this was accomplished through other merchants, and the distribution handled by criminals and social outcasts, such as migrants), they were the first part of the process through which the substance entered China. After the British victory in the First Opium War, the Treaty of Nanjing, signed in 1842, extracted several British demands from the Qing government, in particular the end of the Canton system and the dissolution of the "Cohong" merchants' guilds. In the wake of this decision,

neg: Buffalo Creek Reservation all their reservation lands and move west of the Mississippi River, specifically to Wisconsin and Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), within five years. After the land sale that required the treaty fell through, the US negotiated a new treaty, which the Senate ratified in 1842. The Senecas began selling portions of the reservation in the 1840s to members of the Ebenezer Society. The Buffalo Creek reservation was the only reservation to be dissolved: the Seneca were allowed to keep Cattaraugus, Oil Springs, Allegany and Tonawanda reservations after legal battles in the 1850s fought by Onondaga chief Samuel George and other leaders.

neg: Second Opium War vessel which became the starting point of the conflict. The war followed on from the First Opium War. In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to Britain, the opening of five treaty ports, and the cession of Hong Kong Island. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War (1856–60). In China, the First Opium War is considered to be the beginning of modern Chinese history. Between the two wars, repeated acts of aggression against

neg: First Opium War to starving them into submission or death. They dispatched a military force to China and in the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its naval and gunnery power to inflict a series of decisive defeats on the Chinese Empire, a tactic later referred to as gunboat diplomacy. In 1842, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—which granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to Britain, opened five treaty ports to foreign merchants, and ceded Hong Kong Island to the British Empire. The failure of the treaty to satisfy

neg: Henry Pottinger in the neighbourhood of Canton, better adapted for the purposes in view; equally defensible; and affording sufficient shelter for Ships of War and Commerce". On 4 November 1841, Palmerston's successor Lord Aberdeen wrote to Pottinger that he had doubts over Hong Kong's acquisition since it would incur administrative expenses, and complicate relations with China and other nations. After Pottinger joined the British expeditionary force in northern China, he negotiated the terms of the Treaty of Nanking (1842), which ended the First Opium War and ceded Hong Kong Island to the United Kingdom. Pottinger became the second Administrator of Hong Kong

neg: The Emergency (Ireland) the two countries' economic differences, and negotiated the return of the Treaty Ports—Berehaven, Cobh and Lough Swilly—which had remained under British jurisdiction under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. The major remaining disagreement between the countries was the status of Northern Ireland. The Irish saw it as rightfully Irish territory while the UK saw it as rightfully British territory. Within Ireland itself, armed opposition to the treaty settlement took the name of the anti-treaty IRA, seeing itself as the "true" government of Ireland. This IRA mounted armed attacks both in Great Britain (most notably the S-Plan in 1939) and Ireland. On

neg: History of Ningbo plundered in the vicinity of Ningbo before escaping in stolen ships, defeating a Ming pursuing flotilla on the way. As a result of the incident, the port of Ningbo was closed to the Japanese - only two more Japanese missions were received (in 1540 and 1549) until the end of the Ming dynasty. Ningbo was one of the places where the Portuguese first encountered the Japanese. Ningbo was one of the five Chinese "treaty ports" opened by the Treaty of Nanjing (signed in 1842) at the end of the First Opium War between Britain and China. During the war, British

neg: Ningbo 1522. By 1542, the Portuguese had a sizable community in Ningbo (or, more likely, on nearby small islands like Shuangyu). Portuguese activities from their Ningbo base included pillaging and attacking multiple Chinese port cities around Ningbo for plunder and spoil. They also enslaved people during their raids. The Portuguese were ousted from the Ningbo area in 1548. Ningbo was one of the five Chinese "treaty ports" opened by the Treaty of Nanjing (signed in 1842) at the end of the First Opium War between Britain and China. During the war, British forces took possession of the walled city of Ningbo

neg: Treaty ports The following year the Chinese and British signed the Treaty of the Bogue, which added provisions for extraterritoriality and most favoured nation status for the latter country. Subsequent negotiations with the Americans (1843 Treaty of Wanghia) and the French (1844 Treaty of Whampoa) led to further concessions for these nations on the same terms as the British. The second group of treaty ports was set up following the end of the "Arrow" War in 1860 and eventually more than 80 treaty ports were established in China alone, involving many foreign powers. Foreigners, who were centered in sections newly built for

neg: Synarchism in his 1953 book "Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854", and in later writings, to describe the mechanisms of government under the Qing dynasty in China. Fairbank's synarchy is a form of joint rule by co-opting existing Manchu and Han Chinese elites and bringing the foreign powers into the system and legitimizing them through a schedule of rituals and tributes that gave them a stake in the Qing dynasty rule. He believed that the Qing, who were considered outside rulers because of their Manchu origins, developed this strategy out of necessity because

neg: St. Michael's Cathedral, Qingdao missionaries, including the Bishop of Qingdao, were either imprisoned or expelled from China, and during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) the cathedral was defaced and abandoned. In 1981, it was repaired by the government and reopened for services, and in 1992 it was listed as a Provincial Historic Building by the government of Shandong Province. After China's defeat in the First Opium War, the country was forcibly opened to foreign trade by a number of treaties collectively referred to as the Unequal Treaties. Following the Treaty of Nanjing (1842), the British established the first treaty ports. Following China's concession to the

neg: Suzerainty a multi-ethnic empire and justified their rule through different theories of rulership. While not contradicting traditional Han Chinese theories of the emperor as universal ruler, the Qing made a distinction between areas of the world that they ruled and areas that they did not. Second, the system further broke down as China was confronted by European powers whose theories of sovereignty were based on international law and relations between separate states. A series of "unequal treaties" (including, among others, the Treaty of Nanjing, 1842; the treaties of Tianjin, 1858; and the Beijing Conventions, 1860) forced China to open new ports,

neg: Christian Brethren of Malaysia New Testament Church. Based on their own description, their practices resembled those of the early Brethren, which emerged at precisely the same time in Britain. The conclusion of the First Opium War and the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 opened the possibility of new missionary work and the LMS started to wind down their mission stations in the Straits Settlements to focus on the newly opened treaty ports in China. In 1843, the LMS school and chapel was administered by Maria Dyer, the widow of Samuel Dyer, an LMS missionary known as a typographer for creating a

neg: Foot Emancipation Society to work) or a mark of male ownership (the woman's mobility was limited and she was intensely dependent on the males in her household). After the First Opium War, China signed the 1842 "Treaty of Nanking" with Britain, which forced the Qing government to open the five ports. More Christians came to China and began to oppose foot binding, because they thought it was discriminatory against females. In 1875, 60-70 Christian women in Xiamen attended a meeting presided by a missionary John MacGowan formed the Natural Foot ("tianzu", literally Heavenly Foot) Society, and it was championed by the Woman's Christian

neg: John K. Fairbank foreign, what to preserve and what to borrow..." In 1936, Oxford awarded him a D.Phil. for his thesis, which he revised and eventually published as "Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854" in 1953. Fairbank returned to Harvard in 1936 to take up a position teaching Chinese history and was its first full-time specialist at Harvard. He and Edwin O. Reischauer worked out a year-long introductory survey covering China and Japan and later Korea and Southeast Asia. The course was known as "Rice Paddies," and it became the basis for two influential texts:

neg: Treaty ports agreed to the opening of three strategic ports and the extension of legal extraterritoriality to merchants from Meiji Japan. The first port opened in this manner was Busan, while Incheon and Wonsan followed shortly thereafter. These cities became important centers of mercantile activity for traders from China and Japan until Korea's colonization by Japan in 1910. Treaty ports The treaty ports refers to the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade by the "unequal treaties" with the Western powers, as well as cities in Korea opened up in similar fashion by the Japanese Empire. The

neg: Second Opium War demanded the Qing authorities renegotiate the Treaty of Nanking (signed in 1842), citing their most favoured nation status. The British demands included opening all of China to British merchant companies, legalising the opium trade, exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties, suppression of piracy, regulation of the coolie trade, permission for a British ambassador to reside in Beijing and for the English-language version of all treaties to take precedence over the Chinese language. To give Chinese merchant vessels operating around treaty ports the same privileges accorded to British ships by the Treaty of Nanking, British authorities granted these vessels British

neg: Treaty of the Bogue allowed to buy property in the treaty ports and reside there with their families, they were not allowed to travel to the interior of China or trade there. The treaty also granted extraterritorial privileges to British subjects and most Favored Nation status to Great Britain, which meant that the latter would enjoy any privilege granted to other powers. In China, the treaty is widely regarded as an imperialist one, which paved the way for the subjugation of China to Western imperialism. The treaty consolidated the "opening" of China to foreign trade in the wake of the First Opium War and

neg: Thirteen Factories Thirteen Factories The Thirteen Factories, also known as the , was a neighbourhood along the Pearl River in southwestern Guangzhou (Canton) in the Qing Empire from to 1856 around modern day Xiguan, in Guanzhou's Liwan District. These warehouses and stores were the principal and sole legal site of most Western trade with China from 1757 to 1842. The factories were destroyed by fire in 1822 by accident, in 1841 amid the First Opium War, and in 1856 at the onset of the Second Opium War. The factories' importance diminished after the opening of the treaty ports and the end of

neg: Outer Manchuria Sakhalin. Currently, the People's Republic of China has no claim to the territory. The Treaty of Nerchinsk signed in 1689 after a series of conflicts, defined the China–Russia border as the Stanovoy Mountains and the Argun River, making Outer Manchuria a part of Qing dynasty China. After losing the Opium Wars, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign a series of treaties that gave away land and ports to the European powers; these were known as the Unequal Treaties. Starting with the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and the Treaty of Peking in 1860, the Sino–Russian border was realigned in

neg: Foreign relations of Tibet treaty was negotiated in India, the Simla Convention, representatives of China, Tibet and Britain participated. Again, Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was recognized and a boundary negotiated between British India and Tibet which was very generous to Britain. The treaty was never signed by the Chinese and thus never came into force. The Chinese raised a number of objections, especially their refusal to recognize any treaty between Tibet and Britain. The subsequent outbreak of the world wars and civil war in China caused distractions for the major powers and China, and the Tibetan government continued to exercise effective control over much

neg: United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883 instead were tried or had civil cases brought against them in British consular courts or the British Supreme Court for China and Japan which was called the Supreme Court for China and Korea between 1900 and 1910. United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883 The United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883 was negotiated between representatives of the United Kingdom and Korea. In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado and threatened to fire on the Korean capital city. Treaty negotiations with several Western countries were made possible by the completion of this initial Japanese overture. In 1882,

neg: Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China special rights it had in China. This was done as a conciliatory step towards the Chinese government in order to boost up its cooperation with the Allied Powers in the Second World War. The United States and China concluded a similar treaty on the same day. Ratifications were exchanged in Chongqing on 20 May 1943, and the treaty became effective on the same day. It was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on 30 September 1944. Since the Treaty of Nanjing, concluded in 1842, the British government enjoyed extra-territorial rights in China, which included mainly commercial rights for

neg: Global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries An upright official, Commissioner Lin Zexu led the campaign against opium as a kind of "drug czar." The British, offended by the seizure of their property in opium, sent a large naval expedition to China to end the restrictive conditions under which they had long traded with that country. Thus began the first Opium War, in which Britain's industrialized military might was proven in China's rout. The Treaty of Nanking, which ended the war in 1842 largely on British terms, imposed numerous restrictions on Chinese sovereignty and opened five ports to European traders. Global silver trade from the 16th to

neg: Nine-Power Treaty had issued the "Open Door Notes" of September–November 1899, followed by a diplomatic circular in July 1900, asking that all of the major world powers with vested interests in China declare formally that they would maintain an 'open door' to allow all nations equal rights and equal access to the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China. Fearing that the European powers and Japan were preparing to carve China up into colonies, Hay also added provisions that Chinese territorial and administrative integrity should be maintained. Although no nation specifically affirmed Hay’s proposal, Hay announced that each of the

neg: Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship In December 1777, the Moroccan Sultan Muhammad III included the United States in a list of countries to which Morocco’s ports were open. Morocco thus became the first country whose head of state publicly recognized the newly independent United States. Relations were formalized with the Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship negotiated by Thomas Barclay in Marrakesh, and signed by American diplomats in Europe, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams with Sultan Muhammad III in 1786. Muhammad III, or Sidi Muhammad ibn Abdallah, came to power in 1757 and ruled until his death in 1790. Prior to his reign, Morocco

neg: China–Korea Treaty of 1882 to mitigate the effects of increased diplomatic intercourse and expanded commercial relations with Western powers. The negotiated agreement caused unintended consequences. China–Korea Treaty of 1882 The China–Korea Treaty of 1882 (中朝商民水陸貿易章程, 조청상민수륙무역장정) was negotiated between representatives of the Qing Dynasty and the Joseon Dynasty in October 1882. This agreement has been described as the "Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules"; and it has been called the "Sino-Korean Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade." The treaty remained in effect until 1895. After 1895, China lost its influence over Korea because of the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty

neg: Carstairs Douglas 1851, gaining an MA degree, and was later awarded the LL.D. by his alma mater in recognition of his scholarly achievements. Going on to study Divinity at the University of Edinburgh, Douglas professed a keen interest in missionary work. He was ordained in February 1855 and set sail for China a month later. As one of the treaty ports opened to Westerners in 1842, Xiamen (then known in the West as "Amoy") was one of the few places in China where missionaries could go about their work relatively unmolested. During his tenure Douglas was responsible for increasing the single church

neg: Treaty ports them on the edges of existing port cities, enjoyed legal extraterritoriality as stipulated in Unequal Treaties. Foreign clubs, racecourses, and churches were established in major treaty ports. Some of these port areas were directly leased by foreign powers such as in the concessions in China, effectively removing them from the control of local governments. The treaty port system in China lasted approximately one hundred years. It began with the 1841 Opium War and ended with the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. The major powers involved were the British, the French, and the Americans, although by the end of the 19th

neg: Divie Bethune McCartee family, he agreed to go. McCartee sailed for China in 1843 and arrived in Ningbo, Zhejiang, China in 1844. He began working primarily in medicine and evangelism. He was likely the first Protestant missionary, and certainly the first physician, to reside on Chinese soil following the First Opium War. He soon mastered the Chinese language, and his linguistic skills would be put to a variety of future uses. He opened a mission at Ningbo, one of the five ports opened to foreign trade and intercourse by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. In 1845 he organized the first Protestant church

neg: Steel industry in Luxembourg their manufactured products which were exported from Dutch ports. In 1841/1842, there were 11 blast furnaces in Luxembourg, which all used wood and whose total annual production amounted to 7,300 tons. The blast furnaces were in the following villages: In the mid-19th century, Luxembourg's steel industry changed radically: in 1842, Luxembourg joined the "Zollverein" (the German customs union), gaining access to a large market in the East. The treaty to join the "Zollverein" was regularly renewed over the next 60 years, and facilitated the country's industrial development. Profiting from the economic dynamism of its German neighbours, Luxembourg started exporting its

neg: Treaty ports with Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist (Kuomintang) government. Whatever residues of the treaty port era were left in the late 1940s were ended when the communists took over China in 1949. In these territories the foreign powers obtained, under a lease treaty, not only the right to trade and exemptions for their subjects, but a truly colonial control over each concession territory, de facto annexation: Japan opened two ports to foreign trade, Shimoda and Hakodate, in 1854 (Convention of Kanagawa), to the United States. In 1858, with the Treaty of Amity and Commerce designated four more ports, Kanagawa, Hyogo, Nagasaki, and Niigata.

neg: East India Squadron established the East India Squadron. Some Americans in China suffered during the first Opium War of 1839 as Chinese, indignant about British opium traders, failed to distinguish between English-speaking people of European ancestry. Commodore Kearny was given command of a squadron consisting of the 42-year-old frigate "Constellation" and the sloop "Boston". Kearny arrived in China in March 1842 and the Opium War soon ended. Kearny first learned of the Treaty of Nanking when he arrived in Hong Kong. Kearny observed the treaty's provisions opening five Chinese ports to British trade, and sought equal trading opportunity for Americans. The Viceroy of

neg: Treaty Ports (Ireland) State. As part of the settlement of the Anglo-Irish Trade War in the 1930s, the ports were transferred to Ireland (the Free State's successor) in 1938 following agreements reached between the British and Irish Governments. In 1921, Éamon de Valera originally offered – in an early version of the Anglo-Irish Treaty – to allow the British to continue to use the ports for a further period of five years. The British would also be able to use whatever harbours they required in wartime. However, Article 8 was defeated by republicans within de Valera's own party and removed from the final

neg: China–Korea Treaty of 1882 China–Korea Treaty of 1882 The China–Korea Treaty of 1882 (中朝商民水陸貿易章程, 조청상민수륙무역장정) was negotiated between representatives of the Qing Dynasty and the Joseon Dynasty in October 1882. This agreement has been described as the "Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules"; and it has been called the "Sino-Korean Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade." The treaty remained in effect until 1895. After 1895, China lost its influence over Korea because of the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1876, Korea established a trade treaty with Japan after Japanese ships approached Ganghwado. Treaty negotiations with several Western countries were made possible by the completion of this

neg: Treaty of Shimonoseki as "Liaotung", now southern part of modern Liaoning province), and the islands of Formosa (Taiwan) and Penghu (also known as the Pescadores) to Japan. China also paid Japan a war indemnity of 200 million Kuping taels, payable over seven years, and the signing of a commercial treaty similar to ones previously signed by China with various western powers in the aftermath of the First and Second Opium Wars. This commercial treaty confirmed the opening of various ports and rivers to Japanese trade. As a result of the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), China recognized the "full and complete independence and autonomy"

neg: Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance Republic of China and recalled recognition of the Republic of China. Mao travelled to the Soviet Union in order to sign the Treaty after its details had been concluded, one of only two times he travelled outside China in his life. The Treaty dealt with a range of issues such as Soviet privileges in Xinjiang and Manchuria. Specifically the Chinese Eastern Railway and the ports of Dalian and Lushun were to be returned to China. One of its most important points was the provision of a $300 million loan from the Soviet Union to the PRC, which had suffered economically

neg: China War Medal (1842) the different width and style of the two suspenders meant that it was not clear how this was to be done. As a result, the clasps were often simply slipped over the ribbon which was sometimes replaced with the narrower 32mm type supplied with the second medal. Other recipients of the earlier medal replaced the original suspender with one similar to that found on the second medal. China War Medal (1842) The China War Medal was issued by the British Government in 1843 to members of the British and Indian forces who took part in the First Anglo-Chinese War (1839–42).

neg: United States–Korea Treaty of 1882 Japanese overture. Negotiations with China were a significant feature of the process which resulted in this treaty. The United States and Korea negotiated and approved a 14 article treaty. The treaty established mutual friendship and mutual assistance in case of attack; and the treaty also addressed such specific matters as extraterritorial rights for American citizens in Korea and most favored nation trade status. The treaty encompasses a range of subjects. The treaty remained in effect until the annexation of Korea in 1910. The US treaty established a template which was explicitly modelled in treaties with other Western nations — Germany

neg: Treaty of Tientsin (1885) treaty ports. The Government of His Majesty the Emperor of China will set up customs posts there, and the Government of the Republic will be able to maintain consuls there with the same privileges and prerogatives accorded to similar agents in the treaty ports. His Majesty the Emperor of China may appoint consuls in the principal towns of Tonkin, subject to the agreement of the French Government. ARTICLE SIX A special regulation, annexed to the present treaty, will specify the conditions in which will be carried out the land commerce between Tonkin and the Chinese provinces of Yunnan, Kwangsi and

neg: Treaty of Utrecht (1474) Cloth, but in 1470, wool taxes were as much as 48% on alien immigrants. The trade war had to come to an end. The treaty, negotiated by Lübeck's mayor Hinrich Castorp, granted the league threatened privileges they deemed a success. The Hanseatic League gained ownership of the London Steelyard premises, which were secured this way until the middle of the 19th century as Hanseatic property in London. Londoners rioted in the streets in protest at the unfair treatment the city's merchants. The Hansa was guaranteed access to the ports of Hull, Lynn, and Boston and a claim on customs dues

neg: Canada–China relations talks on a bilateral extradition treaty with China in 2016. At the same time, Canada negotiated the release after a two-year Chinese imprisonment on espionage charges of Canadian missionary Kevin Garratt; and also had a wrangle over Canadian canola (oil seed) exports to China. Charles Burton, presented as a critic of the government policy and former Canadian diplomat as the treaty talks were revealed, said in a New York Times account, "We don't seem to have the linguistic and cultural expertise and political knowledge to defend our interests against a very sophisticated diplomatic engagement by China, which seems to always

neg: Coolie in Peru and Cuba. However, many Chinese laborers worked in British colonies such as Singapore, Jamaica, British Guiana (now Guyana), British Malaya, Trinidad and Tobago, British Honduras (now Belize) - as well as in the Dutch colonies within the Dutch East Indies, and Suriname. The first shipment of Chinese labourers was to the British colony of Trinidad in 1806. In 1847, two ships from Cuba transported workers to Havana to work in the sugar cane fields from the port of Xiamen, one of the five Chinese treaty ports opened to the British by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The

neg: Names of China the Chinese people a sense that China included areas such as Mongolia and Tibet due to education reforms in geography which made it clear where the borders of the Qing state were even if they didn't understand how the Chinese identity included Tibetans and Mongolians or understand what the connotations of being Chinese were. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) English version refers to "His Majesty the Emperor of China" while the Chinese refers both to "The Great Qing Emperor" ("Da Qing Huangdi") and to Zhongguo as well. The Treaty of Tientsin (1858) has similar language. In the late 19th century

neg: Treaty of Huế (1884) and Tôn Thất Phan, representatives of the emperor Tự Đức’s court. It is known in Vietnamese as Hòa ước Giáp Thân 1884, or Hòa ước Patenotre. On 6 June 1884, three weeks after the conclusion of the Tientsin Accord with China, which implicitly renounced China's historic suzerainty over Vietnam, the French concluded a treaty with Vietnam which provided for a French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin. The treaty was negotiated for France by Jules Patenôtre, the new French minister to China. The new treaty replaced the notoriously vague 'Philastre treaty' of 15 March 1874 (the Treaty of Saigon), which

neg: Return of the Chinese Eastern Railway negotiate the status of the CCR in response to the threat to Chinese reproachment with the West. The Soviets wanted to maintain their joint ownership of the Chinese Changchun Railway and the ports of Dalian and Lüshun, however they were willing to negotiate on the length of ownership from the 30 years stipulated in the original treaty. The Chinese were determined to achieve full sovereignty over the Chinese Changchun Railway and the ports, however they also desired that the Soviet Union make significant capital investments in these properties before eventually returning them to China. In the end, the two sides

neg: HMS Cornwallis (1813) to retreat. The crew threw boats, guns and other equipment overboard in order to escape. After China's defeat in the First Opium War, representatives from the British and Qing Empires negotiated a peace treaty aboard "Cornwallis" in Nanjing. On 29 August 1842, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives, Qiying, Yilibu and Niujian, signed the Treaty of Nanking aboard her. "Cornwallis" was fitted with screw propulsion and reduced to 60 guns in 1855, and took part in the Crimean War, where she was commanded by George Wellesley, future admiral and First Sea Lord, and the nephew of the Duke

neg: Treaty of Wanghia the UK and China, but differed in being more detailed. Among other things, it contained provisions for: The United States also granted the Qing empire powers to confiscate American ships if operating outside treaty ports and withdrew consular protection in cases where American citizens were trading in opium under articles 3 and 33, respectively. Furthermore, the U.S. agreed to hand over any offenders to China. Treaty of Wanghia The Treaty of Wanghia (also Treaty of Wangxia, Treaty of Peace, Amity, and Commerce, with tariff of duties, ) was a diplomatic agreement between Qing-dynasty China and the United States, signed on

neg: West Florida the short-lived Republic lay within the borders of the modern U.S. state of Florida; it comprised the Florida parishes of today's Louisiana.) Within months it was annexed by the United States, which claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1819 the United States negotiated the purchase of the remainder of West Florida and all of East Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty, and in 1822 both were merged into the Florida Territory. The area known as West Florida was originally claimed by Spain as part of "La Florida", which included most of what is now the

neg: Treaty of Canton Treaty of Canton The Treaty of Canton (, ) was the first treaty made between Sweden-Norway and the Chinese Empire. The treaty was negotiated in March 1847 by Carl Fredrik Liljevalch and Qiying, the Viceroy of Liangguang, and was one of the unequal treaties between Western powers and China that followed the First Opium War. The treaty was actually never ratified by Chinese representatives, which cast a shadow over the legality of the outcome, but nevertheless went into effect, lasting the following 60 years. Its terms, similar to the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia between the United States and China, provided

neg: Treaty Ports (Ireland) terms of the treaty. Instead the issue of the ports was addressed in Article 7: The Annex referred to in that Article read as follows: The Annex included reference to Belfast Lough because Northern Ireland was included within the original territory of the Irish Free State, although under the Treaty it had the right to opt out of the Free State and back into the UK. It did so on 8 December 1922. With the departure of Northern Ireland from the Free State, this left three United Kingdom bases in the territory of the Free State (subsequently renamed "Ireland" in

neg: USS St. Louis (1828) Peru, she returned to Norfolk on 15 September 1842 and was laid up in ordinary there the following day. "St. Louis" was recommissioned on 27 February 1843 and soon joined the East India Squadron as flagship. She was at Singapore early in 1844 while the first commercial treaty with China was being negotiated. She returned to Norfolk in September 1845 after participating in the evacuation of British colonists during the Battle of Kororareka, New Zealand in March. At Norfolk the ship underwent conversion to lengthen her hull by 13 feet. Departing from Norfolk on 11 August 1848, she sailed to

neg: Doklam "Secretary for International Borders" reported the same claims to the National Assembly. China claims the Doklam area as Chinese territory based on the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890, negotiated between the British Empire in India and the Chinese royal mission. The treaty states that representatives of Sikkim and Tibet were part of these negotiations, but records show that they were not present during the negotiations in Calcutta. The territorial boundary between Sikkim and Tibet was delineated in the Article I of the treaty in the following manner: Mochu is the Tibetan name for the Amo Chu river. Gipmochi is mentioned in

neg: China–United States relations China, which was then under the Qing dynasty. The United States demanded this practice to end so that all nations could trade on an equal footing. In 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent diplomatic letters to these nations, asking them to guarantee the territorial and administrative integrity of China and to not interfere with the free use of treaty ports within their respective spheres of influence. The major powers evaded commitment, saying they could not agree to anything until the other powers had consented first. Hay took this as acceptance of his proposal, which came to be known

neg: Treaty of Huế (1883) 11 May 1884, in which China implicitly renounced her historic suzerainty over Vietnam. The treaty was negotiated for France by Jules Patenôtre, the new French minister to China. Treaty of Huế (1883) The Treaty of Huế, concluded on 25 August 1883 between France and Vietnam, recognised a French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin. Dictated to the Vietnamese by the French administrator François-Jules Harmand in the wake of the French military seizure of the Thuận An forts, the treaty is often known as the 'Harmand Treaty'. Considered overly harsh in French diplomatic circles, the treaty was never ratified in France, and

neg: Bahawalpur (princely state) to the British. As part of the 1809 Treaty of Amritsar, Ranjit Singh was confined to the right bank of the Sutlej. The first treaty with Bahawalpur was negotiated in 1833, the year after the treaty with Ranjit Singh for regulating traffic on the Indus. It secured the independence of the Nawab within his own territories, and opened up the traffic on the Indus and Sutlej. The political relations of Bahawalpur with the paramount power, as at present existing, are regulated by a treaty made in October, 1838, when arrangements were in progress for the restoration of Shah Shuja to

neg: Boston Artists' Association so doing, they pledge to each other their honor as gentlemen, to lay aside all ungenerous, envious, or selfish feelings, and to seek the advancement of the arts alone, for the art's sake." There were "44 members in 1842, and 66 in 1845." They held "regularly scheduled bi-weekly social meetings" in Chester Harding's space on School Street. In the association's "studio ... both living models and casts were provided for members." The association "had casts donated to them by member Henry Sargent, and negotiated to borrow some of those at the Athenaeum." A school was organized in 1842, overseen by

neg: Treaty of Canton have its commerce being subjected to fixed tariffs only. The provisions of the treaty remained in force until the twentieth century, with a new treaty being negotiated in 1908 by Gustav Oscar Wallenberg, three years after the dissolution of Sweden-Norway. Treaty of Canton The Treaty of Canton (, ) was the first treaty made between Sweden-Norway and the Chinese Empire. The treaty was negotiated in March 1847 by Carl Fredrik Liljevalch and Qiying, the Viceroy of Liangguang, and was one of the unequal treaties between Western powers and China that followed the First Opium War. The treaty was actually never