query: a flow of charge can be caused by ions moving in a

pos: Electric current Electric current An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas (plasma). The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a device called an ammeter. Electric currents cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. They

pos: Electric current Electric current An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas (plasma). The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a device called an ammeter. Electric currents cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. They

pos: Cathode device which absorbs energy of charge (such as recharging a battery), the cathode is negative (electrons flow out of the cathode, and charge flows into it), and in a device which provides energy (such as battery in use), the cathode is positive (electrons flow into it and charge flows out): A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where the current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this "uphill"

pos: Hydraulic analogy the energy flows as fields in the space surrounding the wires, and does not flow inside the metal. Also, an accelerating electron will drag its neighbors along while attracting them, both because of magnetic forces. Charge: Unlike water, movable charge carriers can be positive or negative, and conductors can exhibit an overall positive or negative net charge. The mobile carriers in electric currents are usually electrons, but sometimes they are charged positively, such as the positive ions in an electrolyte, the H ions in proton conductors or holes in p-type semiconductors and some (very rare) conductors. Leaking pipes: The electric

pos: Hard water precipitation (formation of an insoluble solid) is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration. The resulting build-up of scale restricts the flow of water in pipes. In boilers, the deposits impair the flow of heat into water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the metal boiler components to overheat. In a pressurized system, this overheating can lead to failure of the boiler. The damage caused by calcium carbonate deposits varies on the crystalline form, for example, calcite or aragonite. The presence of ions in an electrolyte,

pos: Organic electrochemical transistor contact to the electrolyte. The electrolyte can be liquid, gel, or solid. In the most common biasing configuration, the source is grounded and a voltage (drain voltage) is applied to the drain. This causes a current to flow (drain current), due to electronic charge (usually holes) present in the channel. When a voltage is applied to the gate, ions from the electrolyte are injected in the channel and change the electronic charge density, and hence the drain current. When the gate voltage is removed, the injected ions return to the electrolyte and the drain current goes back to its original

pos: Electro-osmosis it would through a narrow glass tube. Any combination of an electrolyte (a fluid containing dissolved ions) and an insulating solid would generate electro-osmotic flow, though for water/silica the effect is particularly large. Even so, flow speeds are typically only a few millimeters per second. Electro-osmosis was discovered independently in 1814 by the English chemist Robert Porrett Jr. (1783–1868). Electroosmotic flow is caused by the Coulomb force induced by an electric field on net mobile electric charge in a solution. Because the chemical equilibrium between a solid surface and an electrolyte solution typically leads to the interface acquiring a net

pos: Electrolyte a solution of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) in water, the cathode reaction will be and hydrogen gas will bubble up; the anode reaction is and chlorine gas will be liberated. The positively charged sodium ions Na will react toward the cathode, neutralizing the negative charge of OH there, and the negatively charged hydroxide ions OH will react toward the anode, neutralizing the positive charge of Na there. Without the ions from the electrolyte, the charges around the electrode would slow down continued electron flow; diffusion of H and OH through water to the other electrode takes longer than

pos: Stewart–Tolman effect body; while for rotation the negative charge accumulates at the outer rim. The accumulation of charges can be measured by a galvanometer. This effect is proportional to the mass of the charge carriers. It is much more significant in electrolyte conductors than metals, because ions in the former are 10-10 times more massive than electrons in the latter. Stewart–Tolman effect The Stewart–Tolman effect is a phenomenon in electrodynamics caused by the finite mass of electrons in conducting metal, or, more generally, the finite mass of charge carriers in an electrical conductor. It is named after T. Dale Stewart and Richard

pos: Pseudocapacitance reduced their ion dimensions are able to enter, resulting in larger ionic packing density and increased charge storage. The tailored sizes of pores in nano-structured carbon electrodes can maximize ion confinement, increasing specific capacitance by faradaic adsorption treatment. Occupation of these pores by de-solvated ions from the electrolyte solution occurs according to (faradaic) intercalation. Pseudocapacitance properties can be expressed in a cyclic voltammogram. For an ideal double-layer capacitor, the current flow is reversed immediately upon reversing the potential yielding a rectangular-shaped voltammogram, with a current independent of the electrode potential. For double-layer capacitors with resistive losses, the shape changes to

pos: Lithium-ion battery phase (SEI) in the negative electrode. SEI forms in between the first charge and discharge and results in the consumption of lithium ions. The consumption of lithium ions reduces the charge and discharge efficiency of the electrode material. However, SEI film is organic solvent insoluble and hence it can be stable in organic electrolyte solutions. If proper additives are added to the electrolyte to promote SEI formation, the co-embedding of solvent molecules can be effectively prevented and the damage to electrode materials can be avoided. On the other hand, SEI is selective and allows lithium ions to pass through and

pos: Johnson–Nyquist noise who was able to explain the results. Thermal noise is distinct from shot noise, which consists of additional current fluctuations that occur when a voltage is applied and a macroscopic current starts to flow. For the general case, the above definition applies to charge carriers in any type of conducting medium (e.g. ions in an electrolyte), not just resistors. It can be modeled by a voltage source representing the noise of the non-ideal resistor in series with an ideal noise free resistor. The one-sided power spectral density, or voltage variance (mean square) per hertz of bandwidth, is given by where

neg: Electric current is defined as moving in the same direction as the positive charge flow. So, in metals where the charge carriers (electrons) are negative, conventional current is in the opposite direction as the electrons. In conductors where the charge carriers are positive, conventional current is in the same direction as the charge carriers. In a vacuum, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed. In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of both positively and negatively charged particles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely due to positive charge flow. For

neg: Ballistic conduction Ballistic conduction In mesoscopic physics, Ballistic conduction (ballistic transport) is the transport of charge carriers in a medium (usually electrons), having negligible electrical resistivity caused by scattering. Without scattering, electrons simply obey Newton's second law of motion at non-relativistic speeds. In general, the resistivity of a material exists because an electron, while moving inside a medium, is scattered by impurities, defects, thermal fluctuations of ions in a crystalline solid, or, generally, by any freely-moving atom/molecule composing a gas or liquid. For a given particle, a mean free path can be described as being the average length that the electron can

neg: Selected-ion flow-tube mass spectrometry via a heated sampling tube, where they meet the precursor ions and may undergo chemical ionization, depending on their chemical properties, such as their proton affinity or ionization energy. The newly formed "product ions" flow into the mass spectrometer chamber, which contains a second quadrupole mass filter, and an electron multiplier detector, which are used to separate the ions by their mass-to-charge ratios (m/z) and measure the count rates of the ions in the desired m/z range. The concentrations of individual compounds can be derived largely using the count rates of the precursor and product ions, and the reaction rate

neg: Sedimentation potential Sedimentation potential Sedimentation potential occurs when dispersed particles move under the influence of either gravity or centrifugation in a medium. This motion disrupts the equilibrium symmetry of the particle's double layer. While the particle moves, the ions in the electric double layer lag behind due to the liquid flow. This causes a slight displacement between the surface charge and the electric charge of the diffuse layer. As a result, the moving particle creates a dipole moment. The sum of all of the dipoles generates an electric field which is called "sedimentation potential". It can be measured with an open electrical

neg: Charge density in the metal's crystal lattice. Static electricity is caused by surface charges consisting of ions on the surface of objects, and the space charge in a vacuum tube is composed of a cloud of free electrons moving randomly in space. The charge carrier density in a conductor is equal to the number of mobile charge carriers (electrons, ions, etc.) per unit volume. The charge density at any point is equal to the charge carrier density multiplied by the elementary charge on the particles. However because the elementary charge on an electron is so small (1.6•10 C) and there are so

neg: Sedimentation potential and equilibrium can occur anywhere in separation channels. Various combinations of the driving force and moving phase determine various electrokinetic effects. Following "Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science" by Lyklema (1995), the complete family of electrokinetic phenomena includes: Sedimentation potential Sedimentation potential occurs when dispersed particles move under the influence of either gravity or centrifugation in a medium. This motion disrupts the equilibrium symmetry of the particle's double layer. While the particle moves, the ions in the electric double layer lag behind due to the liquid flow. This causes a slight displacement between the surface charge and the electric charge

neg: Excitatory postsynaptic potential Excitatory postsynaptic potential In neuroscience, an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a postsynaptic potential that makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire an action potential. This temporary depolarization of postsynaptic membrane potential, caused by the flow of positively charged ions into the postsynaptic cell, is a result of opening ligand-gated ion channels. These are the opposite of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), which usually result from the flow of "negative" ions into the cell or positive ions "out" of the cell. EPSPs can also result from a decrease in outgoing positive charges, while IPSPs are sometimes caused by an increase

neg: Ball and chain inactivation by changing the rate and amount of ion flow through the channels. Voltage-gated ion channels open upon depolarization of the cell membrane. This creates a current caused by the flow of ions through the channel. Shortly after opening, the channel is blocked by the peptide ball. The β1 subunit aids recovery from inactivation, while β2 accelerates inactivation. The β subunits can also interfere with ball and chain domains by blocking their entry into the channel. This leads to persistent currents, caused by the continued influx of ions. The β3 subunit can increase persistent current in certain sodium channels. Differences in

neg: Capillary electrophoresis–mass spectrometry development of interfaces with other CE variants, including capillary isotachophoresis and capillary isoelectric focusing. Capillary electrophoresis is a separation technique which uses high electric field to produce electroosmotic flow for separation of ions. Analytes migrate from one end of capillary to other based on their charge, viscosity and size. Higher the electric field, greater is the mobility. Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies chemical species depending on their mass-to-charge ratio. During the process, an ion source will convert molecules coming from CE to ions that can then be manipulated using electric and magnetic field. The separated ions are

neg: Thermionic emission Thermionic emission Thermionic emission is the thermally induced flow of charge carriers from a surface or over a potential-energy barrier. This occurs because the thermal energy given to the carrier overcomes the work function of the material. The charge carriers can be electrons or ions, and in older literature are sometimes referred to as thermions. After emission, a charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the total charge emitted is initially left behind in the emitting region. But if the emitter is connected to a battery, the charge left behind is neutralized by charge supplied by

neg: Double layer (surface science) with a maximum value around 100 mV (up to several volts on electrodes). The chemical composition of the sample at which the ζ-potential is 0 is called the point of zero charge or the iso-electric point. It is usually determined by the solution pH value, since protons and hydroxyl ions are the charge-determining ions for most surfaces. Zeta potential can be measured using electrophoresis, electroacoustic phenomena, streaming potential, and electroosmotic flow. The characteristic thickness of the DL is the Debye length, κ. It is reciprocally proportional to the square root of the ion concentration "C". In aqueous solutions it is

neg: Charge contrast imaging assist in the accumulation of charge. Charge contrast imaging Charge contrast imaging is an scanning electron microscope imaging mode which can produce images of otherwise invisible microstructures in insulating materials and in fossils. While the technique clearly illustrates changes in minerals which reflect genuine compositional differences, the method by which such phenomena occur is not understood. It is thought to involve the interaction of several electronic forces, including the incoming electrons emitted by the SEM machine, local charge variations in the sample being imaged, the flow of ions in the sample, and any electric fields existing; these may be controlled

neg: Ion thruster the necessary change in velocity (delta-v) for a particular mission. Ion thrusters are designed to provide continuous operation for intervals of weeks to years. The lifetime of electrostatic ion thrusters is limited by several processes. In electrostatic gridded designs, charge-exchange ions produced by the beam ions with the neutral gas flow can be accelerated towards the negatively biased accelerator grid and cause grid erosion. End-of-life is reached when either the grid structure fails or the holes in the grid become large enough that ion extraction is substantially affected; e.g., by the occurrence of electron backstreaming. Grid erosion cannot be avoided

neg: Charge contrast imaging Charge contrast imaging Charge contrast imaging is an scanning electron microscope imaging mode which can produce images of otherwise invisible microstructures in insulating materials and in fossils. While the technique clearly illustrates changes in minerals which reflect genuine compositional differences, the method by which such phenomena occur is not understood. It is thought to involve the interaction of several electronic forces, including the incoming electrons emitted by the SEM machine, local charge variations in the sample being imaged, the flow of ions in the sample, and any electric fields existing; these may be controlled by structures within the sample which

neg: Madison Symmetric Torus (down to "n=1"). This line emission is Doppler-broadened as a result of ion thermal motion, and Doppler-shifted as a result of ion flow. The Doppler shift causes the emission to be blue-shifted (towards shorter wavelength/higher frequency) if the ions are moving towards the point of observation, or red-shifted (towards longer wavelength/lower frequency) if the flow is away from the point of observation. Measurements of the carbon emission line shape are therefore used to extract values for the impurity ion temperature and velocity. "Charge Exchange": H + C → H + C ("n=7", "l=6") "Radiative decay": C ("n=7", "l=6") → C

neg: Time of flight time and flow compensation. It can be used in the detection of aneurysm, stenosis or dissection. In time-of-flight mass spectrometry, ions are accelerated by an electrical field to the same kinetic energy with the velocity of the ion depending on the mass-to-charge ratio. Thus the time-of-flight is used to measure velocity, from which the mass-to-charge ratio can be determined. The time-of-flight of electrons is used to measure their kinetic energy. In near infrared spectroscopy, the TOF method is used to measure the media-dependent optical pathlength over a range of optical wavelengths, from which composition and properties of the media can

neg: Double layer forces (CC) boundary conditions. In this case, the diffuse layer potential will increase upon approach. On the other hand, when the surface potential is kept constant, one refers to "constant potential" (CP) boundary condition. In this case, the surface charge density decreases upon approach. Such decrease of charge can be caused by adsorption of desorption of charged ions from the surface. Such variation of adsorbed species upon approach has also been referred to as "proximal adsorption". The ability of the surface to regulate its charge can be quantified by the regulation parameter where "C" = "ε" "ε κ" is the diffuse

neg: Cooper pair John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer for which they shared the 1972 Nobel Prize. Although Cooper pairing is a quantum effect, the reason for the pairing can be seen from a simplified classical explanation. An electron in a metal normally behaves as a free particle. The electron is repelled from other electrons due to their negative charge, but it also attracts the positive ions that make up the rigid lattice of the metal. This attraction distorts the ion lattice, moving the ions slightly toward the electron, increasing the positive charge density of the lattice in the vicinity. This positive

neg: Mass spectrometry sector field mass analyzer uses a static electric and/or magnetic field to affect the path and/or velocity of the charged particles in some way. As shown above, sector instruments bend the trajectories of the ions as they pass through the mass analyzer, according to their mass-to-charge ratios, deflecting the more charged and faster-moving, lighter ions more. The analyzer can be used to select a narrow range of "m/z" or to scan through a range of "m/z" to catalog the ions present. The time-of-flight (TOF) analyzer uses an electric field to accelerate the ions through the same potential, and then measures

neg: Ion transporter equilibrium the concentrations of the ion in both areas will be equal, so if there is a difference in concentration the ions will seek to flow "down" the concentration gradient or from a high concentration to low concentration. Ion channels allows the specific ions that will fit into the channel to flow down their concentration gradient, equalizing the concentrations on either side of the cell membrane. Ion channels accomplish this via facilitated diffusion which is a type of passive transport. In contrast, ion transporters perform active transport by moving ions against their concentration gradient. Using energy sources such as ATP,

neg: Electric charge conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations. At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron holes that act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (ions or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma. Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is

neg: Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry samples no more than a few thousand years old. AMS extended the range of C dating to about 60,000 years BP, and is about 10 times more sensitive than conventional IRMS. AMS works by accelerating negative ions through a large (mega-volt) potential, followed by charge exchange and acceleration back to ground. During charge exchange, interfering species can be effectively removed. In addition, the high energy of the beam allows the use of energy-loss detectors, that can distinguish between species with the same mass/charge ratio. Together, these processes allow the analysis of extreme isotope ratios above 10. Moving wire IRMS is

neg: Thermionic emission use of gallium arsenide can increase the device's efficiency to 55–60 percent, nearly triple that of existing systems, and 12–17 percent more than existing 43 percent multi-junction solar cells. Thermionic emission Thermionic emission is the thermally induced flow of charge carriers from a surface or over a potential-energy barrier. This occurs because the thermal energy given to the carrier overcomes the work function of the material. The charge carriers can be electrons or ions, and in older literature are sometimes referred to as thermions. After emission, a charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the total

neg: Electrostatic precipitator to the collection plate. At the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection plate, the voltage is zero, whereas at the outer surface of the dust layer, where new particles and ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can be quite high. The strength of this electric field depends on the resistance and thickness of the dust layer. In high-resistance dust layers, the dust is not sufficiently conductive, so electrical charges have difficulty moving through the dust layer. Consequently, electrical charges accumulate on and beneath the dust layer surface, creating a strong electric field. Voltages can

neg: Astrocyte repercussions on the activities of others that are quite distant from the original astrocyte. An influx of Ca ions into astrocytes is the essential change that ultimately generates calcium waves. Because this influx is directly caused by an increase in blood flow to the brain, calcium waves are said to be a kind of hemodynamic response function. An increase in intracellular calcium concentration can propagate outwards through this functional syncytium. Mechanisms of calcium wave propagation include diffusion of calcium ions and IP3 through gap junctions and extracellular ATP signalling. Calcium elevations are the primary known axis of activation in astrocytes,

neg: Energy storage but can be recharged very cheaply and used many times. Common rechargeable battery chemistries include: A flow battery operates by passing a solution over a membrane where ions are exchanged to charge/discharge the cell. Cell voltage is chemically determined by the Nernst equation and ranges, in practical applications, from 1.0 to 2.2 V. Its storage capacity is a function of the volume of the tanks holding the solution. A flow battery is technically akin both to a fuel cell and an electrochemical accumulator cell. Commercial applications are for long half-cycle storage such as backup grid power. Supercapacitors, also called electric

neg: Membrane potential ions. Likewise, there is a net negative charge in solution A from the greater concentration of negative chloride ions than positive sodium ions. Since opposite charges attract and like charges repel, the ions are now also influenced by electrical fields as well as forces of diffusion. Therefore, positive sodium ions will be less likely to travel to the now-more-positive B solution and remain in the now-more-negative A solution. The point at which the forces of the electric fields completely counteract the force due to diffusion is called the equilibrium potential. At this point, the net flow of the specific ion

neg: Surface charge on the surface, and can be expressed by the equation: formula_2 where E is the electric field caused by the charge on the conductor and formula_3 is the permittivity of the free space. This equation is only strictly accurate for conductors with infinitely large area, but it provides a good approximation if E is measured at the surface of the conductor. When a surface is immersed in a solution containing electrolytes, it develops a net surface charge. This is often because of ionic adsorption. Aqueous solutions universally contain positive and negative ions (cations and anions, respectively), which interact with partial

neg: Debye–Hückel theory unit electrical charge. The solvent (pale blue) is shown as a uniform medium, without structure. On average, each ion is surrounded more closely by ions of opposite charge than by ions of like charge. These concepts were developed into a quantitative theory involving ions of charge "z""e" and "z""e", where "z" can be any integer. The principal assumption is that departure from ideality is due to electrostatic interactions between ions, mediated by Coulomb's law: the force of interaction between two electric charges, separated by a distance, "r" in a medium of relative permittivity ε is given by It is also

neg: Surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization where they are separated by their velocity differences. The mass-to-charge ratio of each ion can be determined from the length of the tube, the kinetic energy given to ions by the electric field, and the velocity of the ions in the tube. The velocity of the ions is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass-to-charge ratio of the ion; ions with low mass-to-charge ratios are detected earlier than ions with high mass-to-charge ratios. The binding of proteins to the SELDI surface acts as a solid-phase chromatographic separation step, and as a result, the proteins attached to the surface

neg: Hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia symptoms include muscle spasms, tetany, and seizures. Laboratory testing indicates hypomagnesemia (decreased serum magnesium levels), hypocalcemia (decreased serum calcium levels), and little to no measurable parathyroid hormone levels. Diagnosis is confirmed with these symptoms and can be further solidified with genetic sequencing of the TRPM6 gene. HSH is caused by decreased intestinal magnesium reabsorption through TRPM6 channels. When expressed in cells, TRPM6 produces outwardly rectifying currents with the outward portion composed of Na ions and the inward portion of divalent cations (particularly magnesium and calcium). Inward flow of sodium ions is blocked by extracellular divalent cations. Increased intracellular magnesium concentrations

neg: Viscosity models for mixtures acting between two moving layers can be separated into a term formula_281 caused by dilute gas collisions, and a term formula_282 caused by friction in the dense fluid. The dilute gas viscosity (i.e. the limiting viscosity behavior as the pressure, normal stress, goes to zero) and the dense fluid viscsoity (the residual viscosity) can be calculated by where du/dy formula_285 is the local velocity gradient orthogonal to the direction of flow. Thus The basic idea of QZS (2000) is that internal surfaces in a Couette flow acts like (or is analogue to) mechanical slabs with friction forces acting on each

neg: Pyroelectricity current (the leakage can be due to electrons moving through the crystal, ions moving through the air, or current leaking through a voltmeter attached across the crystal). Pyroelectricity can be visualized as one side of a triangle, where each corner represents energy states in the crystal: kinetic, electrical and thermal energies. The side between electrical and thermal corners represents the pyroelectric effect and produces no kinetic energy. The side between kinetic and electrical corners represents the piezoelectric effect and produces no heat. Pyroelectric charge in minerals develops on the opposite faces of asymmetric crystals. The direction in which the propagation

neg: Capacitive deionization the concentration of cations. However, in the EDLs formed in the intraparticle pores in a carbon-based electrode, an excess of one type of ion over the other is possible, but it has to be compensated by electrical charge in the carbon matrix. In a first approximation, this EDL can be described using the Gouy-Chapman-Stern model, which distinguishes three different layers: As the carbon matrix is charged, the charge has to be compensated by ionic charge in the diffuse layer. This can be done by either the adsorption of counterions, or the desorption of co-ions (ions with an equal charge sign

neg: Electrolytic cell reaction which would not occur spontaneously otherwise. A galvanic cell can be considered an electrolytic cell acting in reverse. While electrolytic cells convert electrical energy into chemical energy, galvanic cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Galvanic cells are often used in batteries. Michael Faraday defined the cathode of a cell as the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions, like silver ions Ag) flow within the cell, to be reduced by reacting with electrons (negatively charged) from that electrode. Likewise he defined the anode as the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions, like chloride ions Cl) flow within

neg: Electrolytic cell water, particularly when ions are added (salt water or acidic water), can be "electrolyzed" (subject to electrolysis). When driven by an external source of voltage, H ions flow to the cathode to combine with electrons to produce hydrogen gas in a reduction reaction. Likewise, OH ions flow to the anode to release electrons and an H ion to produce oxygen gas in an oxidation reaction. In molten sodium chloride, when a current is passed through the salt the anode oxidizes chloride ions (Cl) to chlorine gas, releasing electrons to the anode. Likewise the cathode reduces sodium ions (Na), which accept

neg: Mass spectrometry on ions traveling through these fields. The speed of a charged particle may be increased or decreased while passing through the electric field, and its direction may be altered by the magnetic field. The magnitude of the deflection of the moving ion's trajectory depends on its mass-to-charge ratio. Lighter ions get deflected by the magnetic force more than heavier ions (based on Newton's second law of motion, "F" = "ma"). The streams of sorted ions pass from the analyzer to the detector, which records the relative abundance of each ion type. This information is used to determine the chemical element

neg: Current meter to estimate the through-flow through the gateway and the complete setup can be seen as one huge current meter. The physics behind: Charged particles (the ions in seawater) are moving with the ocean currents in the magnetic field of the Earth which is perpendicular to the movement. Using Faraday's law of induction (the third of Maxwell's equations), it is possible to evaluate the variability of the averaged horizontal flow by measuring the induced electric currents. The method has a minor vertical weighting effect due to small conductivity changes at different depths. Tilt current meters operate under the drag-tilt principle and

neg: De novo peptide sequencing of water (-18 Da) can be observed in fragment with STED amino acids in it. No satellite ions are shown in the spectra. In high energy CID, all different types of fragment ions can be observed but no losses of ammonia or water. In electron transfer dissociation (ETD) and electron capture dissociation (ECD), the predominant ions are c, y, z+1, z+2 and sometimes w ions. For post source decay (PSD) in MALDI, a, b, y-ions are most common product ions. Factors affecting fragmentation are the charge state (the higher charge state, the less energy is needed for fragmentation), mass of

neg: Direct energy conversion (producing a transverse magnetic field), and electrodes (connected to load resistors). Charge carriers (free electrons and ions) incoming with the flow are then separated by the Lorentz force and an electric potential difference can be retrieved from pairs of connected electrodes. Shock tubes used as pulsed MHD generators were for example able to produce several megawatts of electricity in channels the size of a beverage can. In addition to converters using electrodes, pure inductive magnetic converters have also been proposed by Lev Artsimovich in 1963, then Alan Frederic Haught and his team from United Aircraft Research Laboratories in 1970, and

neg: Salt (chemistry) Salt (chemistry) In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that can be formed by the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without a net charge). These component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride (Cl), or organic, such as acetate (); and can be monatomic, such as fluoride (F), or polyatomic, such as sulphate (). Salts can be classified in a variety of ways. Salts that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are called

neg: Kelvin water dropper positive or negative ions in the water of the supply lines. This is separate from the bulk flow of water that falls through the rings and breaks into droplets on the way to the containers. For example, as water approaches the negatively charged ring on the right, any free electrons in the water can easily flee toward the left, against the flow of water. Eventually, when both buckets have become highly charged, several different effects may be seen. An electric spark may briefly arc between the two buckets or rings, decreasing the charge on each bucket. If there is a

neg: Reflectron Reflectron A reflectron (mass reflectron) is a type of time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOF MS) that comprises a pulsed ion source, field-free region, ion mirror, and ion detector and uses a static or time dependent electric field in the ion mirror to reverse the direction of travel of the ions entering it. Using the reflectron, one can substantially diminish a spread of flight times of the ions with the same mass-to-charge ratio ("m/z") caused by spread in kinetic energy of these ions measured at the exit from the ion source. The idea of improving mass resolution in TOF MS by implementing

neg: Capacitance differences between nanoscale capacitors and macroscopic (conventional) capacitors are the number of excess electrons (charge carriers, or electrons, that contribute to the device's electronic behavior) and the shape and size of metallic electrodes. In nanoscale devices, nanowires consisting of metal atoms typically do not exhibit the same conductive properties as their macroscopic, or bulk material, counterparts. In electronic and semiconductor devices, transient or frequency-dependent current between terminals contains both conduction and displacement components. Conduction current is related to moving charge carriers (electrons, holes, ions, etc.), while displacement current is caused by time-varying electric field. Carrier transport is affected by electric

neg: Glow discharge in the gas, so glow discharges are used in plasma physics and analytical chemistry. They are also used in the surface treatment technique called sputtering. Conduction in a gas requires charge carriers, which can be either electrons or ions. Charge carriers come from ionizing some of the gas molecules. In terms of current flow, glow discharge falls between dark discharge and arc discharge. Below the breakdown voltage there is no or little glow and the electric field is uniform. When the electric field increases enough to cause ionization, the Townsend discharge starts. When a glow discharge develops, the electric field

neg: Hydrogen ion the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. A hydrogen atom is made up of a nucleus with charge +1, and a single electron. Therefore, the only positively charged ion possible has charge +1. It is noted H. Depending on the isotope in question, the hydrogen cation has different names: In addition, the ions produced by the reaction of these cations with water as well as their hydrates are called hydrogen ions: Zundel cations and Eigen cations play an important role in proton diffusion according to the Grotthuss mechanism. In

neg: Cytosol cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions. This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside. Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential. To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions

neg: Madison Symmetric Torus principle, provide direct information about the deuterium ions. Measurements of the impurity ion temperature ("T") and flow velocity ("v") are obtained on MST using Charge Exchange Recombination Spectroscopy, or CHERS. The CHERS process can be broken down into two separate steps: Charge Exchange and Radiative Decay. In the first stage, an electron is transferred from a neutral atom (e.g. deuterium) to an impurity ion that has no electrons (e.g. C). During this transfer, the electron typically winds up in an excited state (high energy level) of the impurity ion. As the electron decays down to the ground state (minimum energy

neg: Time-of-flight mass spectrometry an expanding plume moving from the sample plate with a high speed (400–1000 m/s). Since the thickness of the ion packets arriving at the detector is important to mass resolution, on first inspection it can appear counter-intuitive to allow the ion plume to further expand before extraction. Delayed extraction is more of a compensation for the initial momentum of the ions: it provides the same arrival times at the detector for ions with the same mass-to-charge ratios but with different initial velocities. In delayed extraction of ions produced in vacuum, the ions that have lower momentum in the direction of

neg: Optical flow Optical flow Optical flow or optic flow is the pattern of apparent motion of objects, surfaces, and edges in a visual scene caused by the relative motion between an observer and a scene. Or can be defined as the distribution of apparent velocities of movement of brightness pattern in an image. The concept of optical flow was introduced by the American psychologist James J. Gibson in the 1940s to describe the visual stimulus provided to animals moving through the world. Gibson stressed the importance of optic flow for affordance perception, the ability to discern possibilities for action within the environment.

neg: Capacitive deionization saturated with ions, the adsorbed ions are released for regeneration of the electrodes. The potential difference between electrodes is reversed or reduced to zero. In this way, ions leave the electrode pores and can be flushed out of the CDI cell resulting in an effluent stream with a high salt concentration, the so-called brine stream or concentrate. Part of the energy input required during the adsorption phase can be recovered during this desorption step. Any amount of charge should always be compensated by the same amount of counter-charge. For example, in an aqueous solution the concentration of the anions equals

neg: Anion-exchange chromatography flow-through and/or in subsequent buffer washes. Proteins that bind to the positively charged resin are retained and can be eluted in one of two ways. First, the salt concentration in the elution buffer is gradually increased. The negative ions in the salt solution (e.g. Cl) compete with protein in binding to the resin. Second, the pH of the solution can be gradually decreased which results in a more positive charge on the protein, releasing it from the resin. Both of these techniques can displace the negatively charged protein which is then eluted into test tubes fractions with the buffer. The

neg: Crystal oscillator hydrogens and a hole), peroxy groups, etc. Some of the defects produce localized levels in the forbidden band, serving as charge traps; Al(III) and B(III) typically serve as hole traps while electron vacancies, titanium, germanium, and phosphorus atoms serve as electron traps. The trapped charge carriers can be released by heating; their recombination is the cause of thermoluminescence. The mobility of interstitial ions depends strongly on temperature. Hydrogen ions are mobile down to 10 K, but alkali metal ions become mobile only at temperatures around and above 200 K. The hydroxyl defects can be measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. The trapped

neg: Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry pumped through a capillary and there is also nebulization at the tip, where a corona discharge takes place. First, the ionizing gas surrounding the interface and the mobile phase solvent are subject to chemical ionization at the ion source. Later, these ions react with the analyte and transfer their charge. The sample ions then pass through small orifice skimmers by means of or ion-focusing lenses. Once inside the high vacuum region, the ions are subject to mass analysis. This interface can be operated in positive and negative charge modes and singly-charged ions are mainly produced. APCI ion source can also

neg: Electro-osmosis fixed electrical charge, a layer of mobile ions, known as an electrical double layer or Debye layer, forms in the region near the interface. When an electric field is applied to the fluid (usually via electrodes placed at inlets and outlets), the net charge in the electrical double layer is induced to move by the resulting Coulomb force. The resulting flow is termed electroosmotic flow. The resulting flow from applying a voltage is a plug flow. Unlike a parabolic profile flow generated from a pressure differential, a plug flow’s velocity profile is approximately planar, with slight variation near the electric

neg: Ionochromism Ionochromism Ionochromic materials, similar to photochromic, thermochromic and other chromic materials, alter colour in the presence of a factor and reverse to their initial state when the factor is removed. The factor which causes colour change in ionochromic substances are ions. A flow of ions through an ionochromic material results in a reaction/colour change from the material. This material is in many ways similar to electrochromic materials which change colour when electrons flow through them. Electrons, just like anions, carry a negative charge. Both electrochromic and ionochromic substances have their colour change activated by the flow of charged particles. Ionochromic

neg: Electron-capture dissociation an ion–electron interaction volume. Electron current density and cross-section of ECD is directly proportional to fragmentation frequency. An indirectly heated dispenser cathode used as an electron source results in larger electron current and larger emitting surface area. <chem>Efficiency\ of\ ECD\ MS/MS</chem> = <chem>\frac{Total\ number(abundance)\ of\ fragment\ ions}{Total\ number (abundance)\ of\ precursor\ ions}</chem> ECD devices can be of two forms. It can trap analyte ions during the ECD stage or can undergo flow through mode where dissociation takes place as analyte ions flows continuously through the ECD region. Flow through mode has advantage over other mode because nearly all the analyte

neg: Faraday cup are the charge carriers in vacuum and the Faraday cup is the interface to the solid metal where electrons act as the charge carriers (as in most circuits). By measuring the electric current (the number of electrons flowing through the circuit per second) in the metal part of the circuit the number of charges being carried by the ions in the vacuum part of the circuit can be determined. For a continuous beam of ions (each with a single charge) where N is the number of ions observed in a time t (in seconds), I is the measured current (in

neg: Plasma afterglow excited and thus made into plasma. Flowing afterglow ion sources can be coupled with a selected-ion flow-tube for selection of reactant ions. When this ion source is coupled with mass spectrometry it is referred to as flowing afterglow mass spectrometry. Flowing-afterglow mass spectrometry uses a flowing afterglow to create protonated water cluster ions in a helium or argon carrier gas in a flow tube that react with sample molecules that are measured by a mass spectrometer downstream. These systems can be used for trace gas analysis. This works by keeping the initial ionization source spatially separated from the target analyte

neg: Power-to-weight ratio extend both electrodes with a nanopourous material such as activated carbon to significantly increase the surface area upon which electric charge can accumulate, reducing the dielectric medium to nanopores and a very thin high permittivity separator. While capacitors tend not to be as temperature sensitive as batteries, they are significantly capacity constrained and without the strength of chemical bonds suffer from self-discharge. Power-to-weight ratio of capacitors is usually higher than batteries because charge transport units within the cell are smaller (electrons rather than ions), however energy-to-weight ratio is conversely usually lower. Fuel cells and flow cells, although perhaps using similar

neg: Rebreather is due to difference in pressure between the lungs of the diver and the counterlungs of the rebreather. This pressure difference is generally due to a difference in hydrostatic pressure caused by a difference in depth between lung and counterlung, but can be modified by ballasting the moving side of a bellows counterlung. Resistive work of breathing is the sum of all the restrictions to flow due to bends, corrugations, changes of flow direction, valve cracking pressures, flow through scrubber media, etc., and the resistance to flow of the gas, due to inertia and viscosity, which are influenced by density,

neg: Selected-ion flow-tube mass spectrometry ions may allow the operator to distinguish between two or more compounds that react to produce ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio in certain spectra. For example, dimethyl sulphide (CHS, 62amu) accepts a proton when it reacts with HO to generate CHS product ions which appear at m/z 63 in the resulting spectrum. This may conflict with other product ions, such as the association product from the reaction with carbon dioxide, HOCO, and the single hydrate of the protonated acetaldehyde ion, CHO(HO), which also appear at m/z 63, and so it may be unidentifiable in certain samples. However dimethyl sulfide

neg: Atom a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis. A more area-selective

neg: Electrohydrodynamics tiny micro-channels with a pressure difference. This technology could some day provide a practical and clean energy storage device, replacing today's batteries, for devices such as mobile phones or calculators which would be charged up by simply pumping water to high pressure. Pressure would then be released on demand, for fluid flow to take place over the micro-channels. When water travels, or streams over a surface, the ions of which water is made "rub" against the solid, leaving the surface slightly charged. Kinetic energy from the moving ions would thus be converted to electrical energy. Although the power generated from

neg: Ion channel hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease channels are selective for cations over anions, voltage-independent, and display a long channel lifetime, from minutes to hours. They can be extremely large, up to 5 nS in size, and can insert into the cell membrane from aqueous solution. Aβ channels are heterogeneous and allow flow of physiologcially relevant ions such as Ca, Na, K, Cs, and Li across the cell membrane. Cytotoxicity caused by ion channel formation is commonly seen in the world of bacteria. While eukaryotic cells are generally less vulnerable to channel-forming toxins because of their larger volume and stiffer, sterol-containing membranes, several eukaryotic channel-forming toxins have

neg: Insulator (electricity) pass through it. However, it is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the material's insulating properties. Materials that lack electron conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved. When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown. When the electric field applied across an

neg: Reactive-ion etching platter cause the platter to build up charge due to its DC isolation. This charge build up develops a large negative voltage on the platter, typically around a few hundred volts. The plasma itself develops a slightly positive charge due to the higher concentration of positive ions compared to free electrons. Because of the large voltage difference, the positive ions tend to drift toward the wafer platter, where they collide with the samples to be etched. The ions react chemically with the materials on the surface of the samples, but can also knock off (sputter) some material by transferring some

neg: Smoke detector does not allow the entry of particles. The radioactive source emits alpha particles into both chambers, which ionizes some air molecules. There is a potential difference (voltage) between pairs of electrodes in the chambers; the electrical charge on the ions allows an electric current to flow. The currents in both chambers should be the same as they are equally affected by air pressure, temperature, and the ageing of the source. If any smoke particles enter the open chamber, some of the ions will attach to the particles and not be available to carry the current in that chamber. An electronic

neg: Commonwealth Bay average annual wind speed of per hour. Storms are caused by katabatic wind, a concentrated flow of cold air moving along the steep surface of the ice shield towards the sea. The air flow is accelerated by the increasing gradient of the surface of ice and the cliff monolith at Cape Denison. In the summer there are periods of relative calm but during winter storms are especially strong and long lasting, and can start and end unexpectedly. An abrupt start and end of storm might be accompanied by powerful whirlpools and expressive short-lived and fast-moving clouds at the coast line.

neg: Cyclic nucleotide–gated ion channel using mouse retina and molecular cloning to find a new subunit of the channel, CNG6. CNG channels have important functions in signal transduction in retinal photoreceptors and olfactory receptor neurons. They are directly activated by cyclic nucleotides, and approximately 4 cyclic nucleotides are needed to activate each channel. CNG channels are nonselective and allow many alkali ions to flow into or out of a cell expressing CNG channels on its membrane. This flow of ions can result in either depolarization or hyperpolarization. CNG channels can be activated by cAMP or cGMP exclusively, or sometimes by a combination of both cNMPs,

neg: Flow battery iodine-bromide ions (I2Br–) as a means to free up iodide ions for charge storage. Traditional flow battery chemistries have both low specific energy (which makes them too heavy for fully electric vehicles) and low specific power (which makes them too expensive for stationary energy storage). However a high power of 1.4 W/cm2 was demonstrated for hydrogen-bromine flow batteries, and a high specific energy (530 Wh/kg at the tank level) was shown for hydrogen-bromate flow batteries One system uses organic polymers and a saline solution with a cellulose membrane. The prototype withstood 10000 charging cycles while retaining substantial capacity. The energy

neg: High-performance liquid chromatography therefore flow through the column quicker than smaller molecules, that is, the smaller the molecule, the longer the retention time. This technique is widely used for the molecular weight determination of polysaccharides. SEC is the official technique (suggested by European pharmacopeia) for the molecular weight comparison of different commercially available low-molecular weight heparins. In ion-exchange chromatography (IC), retention is based on the attraction between solute ions and charged sites bound to the stationary phase. Solute ions of the same charge as the charged sites on the column are excluded from binding, while solute ions of the opposite charge of the

neg: Glybuzole When a sulphonylurea binds to its receptor, the ATP-dependent channels for K+ ions will be blocked. Therefore, the flow of K+ ions into the β-pancreatic cell will stop and the cell membrane becomes depolarized. As a result, calcium ions will flow into the cell and that will then cause the contraction of actomyosin filaments which are responsible for the exocytosis of insulin. Finally, the increased secretion of insulin can then lead to a decrease in the blood glucose level. Glybuzole is a hypoglycaemic medicine that is primarily used to treat diabetes mellitus type 2. Glybuzole and other sulphonylureas cannot be

neg: Free-flow electrophoresis Free-flow electrophoresis Free-flow electrophoresis (FFE), also known as carrier-free electrophoresis, is a matrix-free electrophoretic separation technique. FFE is an analogous technique to capillary electrophoresis, with a comparable resolution, that can used for scientific questions, where semi-preparative and preparative amounts of samples are needed. It is used to quantitatively separate samples according to differences in charge or isoelectric point. Because of the versatility of the technique, a wide range of protocols for the separation of samples like rare metal ions, protein isoforms, multiprotein complexes, peptides, organelles, cells, DNA origami, blood serum and nanoparticles exist. The advantage of FFE is the fast

neg: Electric charge distances towards the right hand. No force, either of attraction or of repulsion, can be observed between an electrified body and a body not electrified. Electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object, which produces no net loss or gain of electric charge. The most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the "conventional current" without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the

neg: Faraday cup Faraday cup A Faraday cup is a metal (conductive) cup designed to catch charged particles in vacuum. The resulting current can be measured and used to determine the number of ions or electrons hitting the cup. The Faraday cup is named after Michael Faraday who first theorized ions around 1830. When a beam or packet of ions hits the metal it gains a small net charge while the ions are neutralized. The metal can then be discharged to measure a small current proportional to the number of impinging ions. Essentially the Faraday cup is part of a circuit where ions

neg: Surface charge deficiency of electrons at the electrode's surface. To maintain electrical neutrality the charge of the electrode will be balanced by a redistribution of ions close to its surface. The attracted ions thus form a layer balancing the electrode's charge. The closest distance an ion can come to the electrode will be limited to the radius of the ion plus a single solvation sphere around an individual ion. Overall, two layers of charge and a potential drop from the electrode to the edge of the outer layer (outer Helmholtz Plane) are observed. Given the above description, the Helmholtz model is equivalent

neg: Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization the first electronic excited state, and S is a higher electronic excited state. The product ions can be proton transfer or electron transfer ion pairs, indicated by M and M above. Secondary processes involve ion-molecule reactions to form analyze ions. The lucky survivor model (cluster ionization mechanism) postulates that analyte molecules are incorporated in the matrix maintaining the charge state from solution. Ion formation occurs through charge separation upon fragmentation of laser ablated clusters. Ions that are not neutralized by recombination with photoelectrons or counter ions are the so-called lucky survivors. The thermal model postulates that the high temperature facilitates

neg: Epithelial sodium channel with gas exchange and allowing for the collection of bacteria. Nevertheless, an upregulation of CFTR does not correct the influence of high-activity ENaC. Probably other interacting proteins are necessary to maintain a functional ion homeostasis in epithelial tissue of the lung, like potassium channels, aquaporins or Na/K-ATPase. In sweat glands, CFTR is responsible for the "reabsorption" of chloride in the sweat duct. Sodium ions follow passively through ENaC as a result of the electrochemical gradient caused by chloride flow. This reduces salt and water loss. In the absence of chloride flow in cystic fibrosis, sodium ions do not flow through

neg: Salt (chemistry) similar in odor to the acid or base they are derived from. For example, sodium acetate, NaCHCOO, smells similar to acetic acid CHCOOH. Salt (chemistry) In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that can be formed by the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without a net charge). These component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride (Cl), or organic, such as acetate (); and can be monatomic, such as fluoride (F), or polyatomic, such

neg: Ion exchange anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of cations and anions can be more efficiently performed in "mixed beds", which contain a mixture of anion- and cation-exchange resins, or passing the treated solution through several different ion-exchange materials. Ion exchanges can be unselective or have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions, depending on their chemical structure. This can be dependent on the size of the ions, their charge, or their structure. Typical examples of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are: Along with absorption and adsorption, ion exchange is a form of sorption. Ion exchange is a

neg: Calutron a type of sector mass spectrometer, an instrument in which a sample is ionized and then accelerated by electric fields and deflected by magnetic fields. The ions ultimately collide with a plate and produce a measurable electric current. Since the ions of the different isotopes have the same electric charge but different masses, the heavier isotopes are deflected less by the magnetic field, causing the beam of particles to separate out into several beams by mass, striking the plate at different locations. The mass of the ions can be calculated according to the strength of the field and the charge

neg: Neuron A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that actively transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other. Most ion channels are permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are voltage gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be switched between

neg: Steam locomotive it a major problem in desert areas, as are found in some regions of the United States, Australia and South Africa. In places where water is available, it may be hard, which can cause "scale" to form, composed mainly of calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and calcium sulfate. Calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to be deposited as off-white solids on the inside the surfaces of pipes and heat exchangers. This precipitation is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration. The resulting build-up of scale restricts the flow

neg: Vela Supercluster position inside the disc. This region is known colloquially as the "Zone of Avoidance". Hence, the supercluster can only be studied at longer wavelengths (infrared, microwave, radio) which can pass through the gases and dust of the Milky Way disc. The supercluster is close to the location where the Milky Way, and hence the Solar System, is currently moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background, a phenomenon known as the dark flow. This movement was found to be significant relative to the normal Hubble flow of the galaxies caused by the metric expansion of space. Although the Planck spacecraft

neg: Cardiac action potential into the cell. At the same time potassium channels (called I) open and close rapidly, allowing for a brief flow of potassium ions out of the cell, making the membrane potential slightly more negative. This is referred to as a ‘notch’ on the action potential waveform. There is no obvious phase 1 present in pacemaker cells. This phase is also known as the "plateau" phase due to the membrane potential remaining almost constant, as the membrane very, very slowly begins to repolarize. This is due to the near balance of charge moving into and out of the cell. During this

neg: Ionization chamber the ion chamber does not have any "multiplication effect". This is in distinction to the Geiger–Müller tube or the proportional counter whereby secondary electrons, and ultimately multiple avalanches, greatly amplify the original ion-current charge. The following chamber types are commonly used. This is a chamber freely open to atmosphere, where the fill gas is ambient air. The domestic smoke detector is a good example of this, where a natural flow of air through the chamber is necessary so that smoke particles can be detected by the change in ion current. Other examples are applications where the ions are created outside

neg: Flame rectification the ionization process occurring mostly at the base of the flame, making it more difficult for the electrode further from the base of the flame to attract positive ions from the burner, yet leaving the electron current largely unchanged with distance because of the greater mobility of the electron charge carriers. Flame rectification Flame rectification is a phenomenon in which a flame can act as an electrical rectifier. The effect is commonly described as being caused by the greater mobility of electrons relative to that of positive ions within the flame, and the asymmetric nature of the electrodes used to

neg: Electrochemistry metal which is oxidized (loses electrons) to form zinc ions in solution, and copper ions accept electrons from the copper metal electrode and the ions deposit at the copper cathode as an electrodeposit. This cell forms a simple battery as it will spontaneously generate a flow of electric current from the anode to the cathode through the external connection. This reaction can be driven in reverse by applying a voltage, resulting in the deposition of zinc metal at the anode and formation of copper ions at the cathode. To provide a complete electric circuit, there must also be an ionic