query: the theory that light exists in quantized chunks was proposed in response to which of the following

pos: Quantum Quantum In physics, a quantum (plural: quanta) is the minimum amount of any physical entity (physical property) involved in an interaction. The fundamental notion that a physical property may be "quantized" is referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization". This means that the magnitude of the physical property can take on only discrete values consisting of integer multiples of one quantum. For example, a photon is a single quantum of light (or of any other form of electromagnetic radiation). Similarly, the energy of an electron bound within an atom is quantized and can exist only in certain discrete values. (Indeed,

pos: Quantum optics light being emitted in discrete units of energy. The photoelectric effect was further evidence of this quantization as explained by Einstein in a 1905 paper, a discovery for which he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. Niels Bohr showed that the hypothesis of optical radiation being quantized corresponded to his theory of the quantized energy levels of atoms, and the spectrum of discharge emission from hydrogen in particular. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter following these developments was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. However, the subfields of quantum mechanics

pos: History of optics is quantized. Quantum optics is the study of the nature and effects of light as quantized photons. The first indication that light might be quantized came from Max Planck in 1899 when he correctly modelled blackbody radiation by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. It was unknown whether the source of this discreteness was the matter or the light. In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric effect. It appeared that the only possible explanation for the effect was the quantization of light itself. Later, Niels

pos: Quantized inertia Unlike MOND, the inertial law of quantized inertia is not a tunable parameter, and better explains the anomalous behavior of globular and galaxy clusters, wide binaries and dwarf galaxies. The holographic principle in quantum gravity has also been shown to provide a link between quantized inertia and entropic gravity. The theory of quantized inertia has been criticized in articles online as being pseudoscience. Quantized inertia Quantized inertia (QI), previously known as the acronym MiHsC (Modified Inertia from a Hubble-scale Casimir effect), is a fringe theory of inertia. The concept was first proposed in 2007 by physicist Mike McCulloch, a lecturer

pos: Loop quantum gravity gravity is not a force – it is a property of spacetime itself. Loop quantum gravity is an attempt to develop a quantum theory of gravity based directly on Einstein's geometric formulation. To do this, in LQG theory space and time are quantized, analogously to the way quantities like energy and momentum are quantized in quantum mechanics. The theory gives a physical picture of spacetime where space and time are granular and discrete directly because of quantization just like photons in the quantum theory of electromagnetism and the discrete energy levels of atoms. Distance exists with a minimum. Space's structure

pos: Bahram Askerov A.I.Anselm) a quantum theory of thermomagnetic phenomena in semiconductors and metals. They proposed a method for calculating dissipative thermomagnetic currents in quantized magnetic fields, when the usual transport equation is not applicable. B.M.Askerov generalized the W.W.Adams and L.J.Goldstein`s density matrix method, underlying the quantum theory of transverse thermomagnetic phenomena in semiconductors, to the case of the indium-antimonide-type conduction band. He elaborated a theory of electron transport phenomena in quantum wells, classical and size-quantized films, and superlattices. Bahram Askerov Askerov Bahram Mehrali oglu (5 October 1933 - 12 March 2014) was a physicist. He was born in the village of Ahmedabad,

pos: Quantum spacetime Quantum spacetime In mathematical physics, the concept of quantum spacetime is a generalization of the usual concept of spacetime in which some variables that ordinarily commute are assumed not to commute and form a different Lie algebra. The choice of that algebra still varies from theory to theory. As a result of this change some variables that are usually continuous may become discrete. Often only such discrete variables are called "quantized"; usage varies. The idea of quantum spacetime was proposed in the early days of quantum theory by Heisenberg and Ivanenko as a way to eliminate infinities from quantum field

pos: Bohr model appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron (i.e., matter waves) was not suspected. In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed, quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into a more accurate model of electron motion. The new theory was proposed by Werner Heisenberg. Another form of the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger independently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions

pos: Anti-symmetric operator photon field, which can be quantized using conventional methods of canonical or path integral quantization. This has led to the theory of quantum electrodynamics, arguably the most successful theory in physics. The graviton field is the quantized gravitational field. There is yet to be a theory that quantizes the gravitational field, but theories such as string theory can be thought of the gravitational field quantized. An example of a non-relativistic bosonic field is that describing cold bosonic atoms, such as Helium-4. Free bosonic fields obey commutation relations: To illustrate, suppose we have a system of N bosons that occupy mutually

pos: Quantum field theory hand photons were considered merely the excited states of the underlying quantized electromagnetic field, and could be freely created or destroyed. It was between 1928 and 1930 that Jordan, Eugene Wigner, Heisenberg, Pauli, and Enrico Fermi discovered that material particles could also be seen as excited states of quantum fields. Just as photons are excited states of the quantized electromagnetic field, so each type of particle had its corresponding quantum field: an electron field, a proton field, etc. Given enough energy, it would now be possible to create material particles. Building on this idea, Fermi proposed in 1932 an explanation

pos: Quantum spacetime been developed considerably since then. Such an approach can theoretically be combined with quantum spacetime as above. Quantum spacetime In mathematical physics, the concept of quantum spacetime is a generalization of the usual concept of spacetime in which some variables that ordinarily commute are assumed not to commute and form a different Lie algebra. The choice of that algebra still varies from theory to theory. As a result of this change some variables that are usually continuous may become discrete. Often only such discrete variables are called "quantized"; usage varies. The idea of quantum spacetime was proposed in the early

pos: History of physics time of the conception and evolution of the theory. The basic ideas of quantum theory were introduced in 1900 by Max Planck (1858–1947), who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918 for his discovery of the quantified nature of energy. The quantum theory (which previously relied in the "correspondence" at large scales between the quantized world of the atom and the continuities of the "classical" world) was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be seen as behaving as a wave

pos: Ginzburg–Landau theory important finding from Ginzburg–Landau theory was made by Alexei Abrikosov in 1957. He used Ginzburg–Landau theory to explain experiments on superconducting alloys and thin films. He found that in a type-II superconductor in a high magnetic field, the field penetrates in a triangular lattice of quantized tubes of flux vortices. In particle physics, any quantum field theory with a unique classical vacuum state and a potential energy with a degenerate critical point is called a Landau–Ginzburg theory. The generalization to "N" = (2,2) supersymmetric theories in 2 spacetime dimensions was proposed by Cumrun Vafa and Nicholas Warner in the November

pos: Light front quantization momentum, formula_116, in the negative formula_117 direction, then formula_118 can be interpreted as the longitudinal momentum fraction formula_119 carried by the struck quark (or "parton") in the incoming fast moving proton. The structure function of the proton measured in the experiment is then given by the square of its instant-form wave function boosted to infinite momentum. Formally, there is a simple connection between the Hamiltonian formulation of quantum field theories quantized at fixed time formula_3 (the "instant form" ) where the observer is moving at infinite momentum and light-front Hamiltonian theory quantized at fixed light-front time formula_121 (the "front form").

pos: Quantum thermodynamics behavior within composite quantum systems. 2." (2009). Petruccione, Francesco, and Heinz-Peter Breuer. The theory of open quantum systems. Oxford university press, 2002. Quantum thermodynamics Quantum thermodynamics is the study of the relations between two independent physical theories: thermodynamics and quantum mechanics. The two independent theories address the physical phenomena of light and matter. In 1905 Einstein argued that the requirement of consistency between thermodynamics and electromagnetism leads to the conclusion that light is quantized obtaining the relation formula_1. This paper is the dawn of quantum theory. In a few decades quantum theory became established with an independent set of rules.

pos: Digital physics by Schmidhuber (1997), who pointed out that there exists a short program that can compute all possible computable universes in an asymptotically optimal way. Loop quantum gravity could lend support to digital physics, in that it assumes space-time is quantized. Paola Zizzi has formulated a realization of this concept in what has come to be called "computational loop quantum gravity", or CLQG. Other theories that combine aspects of digital physics with loop quantum gravity are those of Marzuoli and Rasetti and Girelli and Livine. Physicist Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker's theory of ur-alternatives (theory of archetypal objects), first publicized in his

pos: Old quantum theory Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century, and remained a deep puzzle for those who advocated an atomic theory of matter. Einstein resolved this problem in 1906 by proposing that atomic motion is quantized. This was the first application of quantum theory to mechanical systems. A short while later, Peter Debye gave a quantitative theory of solid specific heats in terms of quantized oscillators with various frequencies (see Einstein solid and Debye model). One-dimensional problems are easy to solve. At any energy "E", the value of the momentum "p" is found from the conservation equation: which is integrated over all values

pos: Quantum thermodynamics Quantum thermodynamics Quantum thermodynamics is the study of the relations between two independent physical theories: thermodynamics and quantum mechanics. The two independent theories address the physical phenomena of light and matter. In 1905 Einstein argued that the requirement of consistency between thermodynamics and electromagnetism leads to the conclusion that light is quantized obtaining the relation formula_1. This paper is the dawn of quantum theory. In a few decades quantum theory became established with an independent set of rules. Currently quantum thermodynamics addresses the emergence of thermodynamic laws from quantum mechanics. It differs from quantum statistical mechanics in the emphasis on

pos: Albert Einstein experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model. Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems.

pos: Hydrodynamic quantum analogs Walking droplet systems have been found to mimic several quantum mechanical phenomena including particle diffraction, quantum tunneling, quantized orbits, the Zeeman Effect, and the quantum corral. Besides being an interesting means to visualise phenomena that are typical of the quantum mechanical world, floating droplets on a vibrating bath have interesting analogies with the pilot wave theory, also known as the De Broglie–Bohm theory, or the causal interpretation, one of the many interpretations of quantum mechanics in its early stages of conception and development. The theory was initially proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1927, and later developed by David Bohm.

pos: Nonclassical light Nonclassical light Nonclassical light is light that cannot be described using classical electromagnetism; its characteristics are described by the quantized electromagnetic field and quantum mechanics. Most common described forms of nonclassical light are the following: The density matrix for any state of light can be written as: where formula_2 is a coherent state. A "classical" state of light is one in which formula_3 is a probability density function. If it is not, the state is said to be nonclassical. Aspects of formula_3 that would make it nonclassical are: The matter is not quite simple. According to Mandel and Wolf: "The

pos: Scale invariance the electromagnetic field is coupled to charged particles, such as electrons. The QFT describing the interactions of photons and charged particles is quantum electrodynamics (QED), and this theory is not scale-invariant. We can see this from the QED beta-function. This tells us that the electric charge (which is the coupling parameter in the theory) increases with increasing energy. Therefore, while the quantized electromagnetic field without charged particles is scale-invariant, QED is not scale-invariant. Free, massless quantized scalar field theory has no coupling parameters. Therefore, like the classical version, it is scale-invariant. In the language of the renormalization group, this theory

pos: Old quantum theory and the quantum condition is that the area enclosed by an orbit in phase space is an integer. It follows that the energy is quantized according to the Planck rule: a result which was known well before, and used to formulate the old quantum condition. This result differs by formula_8 from the results found with the help of quantum mechanics. This constant is neglected in the derivation of the "old quantum theory", and its value cannot be determined using it. The thermal properties of a quantized oscillator may be found by averaging the energy in each of the discrete states

pos: Unified field theory of (the not mathematically well-defined) quantum electrodynamics. One can extend this system to include the weak and strong nuclear forces to get the Einstein–Yang–Mills–Dirac System. The French physicist Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat published a paper in the early 1940s on the standard commutation relations for the quantized spin-2 field. She continued this work in collaboration with Erwin Schrödinger after World War II. In the 1960s Mendel Sachs proposed a generally covariant field theory that did not require recourse to renormalisation or perturbation theory. In 1965, Tonnelat published a book on the state of research on unified field theories. In 1963 American physicist

pos: Nonclassical light different coherent states are not [mutually] orthogonal, so that even if formula_3 behaved like a true probability density [function], it would not describe probabilities of mutually exclusive states." Nonclassical light Nonclassical light is light that cannot be described using classical electromagnetism; its characteristics are described by the quantized electromagnetic field and quantum mechanics. Most common described forms of nonclassical light are the following: The density matrix for any state of light can be written as: where formula_2 is a coherent state. A "classical" state of light is one in which formula_3 is a probability density function. If it is not,

pos: Equipartition theorem to suggest that energy in the oscillators in an object, which emit light, were quantized, a revolutionary hypothesis that spurred the development of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. The name "equipartition" means "equal division," as derived from the Latin "equi" from the antecedent, æquus ("equal or even"), and partition from the noun, "partitio" ("division, portion"). The original concept of equipartition was that the total kinetic energy of a system is shared equally among all of its independent parts, "on the average", once the system has reached thermal equilibrium. Equipartition also makes quantitative predictions for these energies. For example, it

pos: Graviton such as one-loop diagrams behave normally. However, Feynman diagrams with at least two loops lead to ultraviolet divergences. These infinite results cannot be removed because quantized general relativity is not perturbatively renormalizable, unlike quantum electrodynamics models such as the Yang–Mills theory. Therefore, incalculable answers are found from the perturbation method by which physicists calculate the probability of a particle to emit or absorb gravitons, and the theory loses predictive veracity. Those problems and the complementary approximation framework are grounds to show that a theory more unified than quantized general relativity is required to describe the behavior near the Planck scale.

pos: Quantum field theory and emit electromagnetic radiation, as tiny oscillators with the crucial property that their energies can only take on a series of discrete, rather than continuous, values. These are known as quantum harmonic oscillators. This process of restricting energies to discrete values is called quantization. Building on this idea, Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 an explanation for the photoelectric effect, that light is composed of individual packets of energy called photons (the quanta of light). This implied that the electromagnetic radiation, while being waves in the classical electromagnetic field, also exists in the form of particles. In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced

pos: Old quantum theory different motions do not have to be the same, they can even be incommensurate, but there must be a set of coordinates where the motion decomposes in a multi-periodic way. The motivation for the old quantum condition was the correspondence principle, complemented by the physical observation that the quantities which are quantized must be adiabatic invariants. Given Planck's quantization rule for the harmonic oscillator, either condition determines the correct classical quantity to quantize in a general system up to an additive constant. This quantization condition is often known as the "Wilson–Sommerfeld rule", proposed independently by William Wilson and Arnold Sommerfeld.

pos: Photon fields. More generally, the normal concept of a Schrödinger probability wave function cannot be applied to photons. As photons are massless, they cannot be localized without being destroyed; technically, photons cannot have a position eigenstate formula_14, and, thus, the normal Heisenberg uncertainty principle formula_15 does not pertain to photons. A few substitute wave functions have been suggested for the photon, but they have not come into general use. Instead, physicists generally accept the second-quantized theory of photons described below, quantum electrodynamics, in which photons are quantized excitations of electromagnetic modes. Another interpretation, that avoids duality, is the De Broglie–Bohm theory:

pos: Semiconductor luminescence equations extensions of the SLEs include the possibility to study resonance fluorescence resulting from optical pumping with coherent laser light. At this level, one is often interested to control and access higher-order photon-correlation effects, distinct many-body states, as well as light–semiconductor entanglement. Such investigations are the basis of realizing and developing the field of quantum-optical spectroscopy which is a branch of quantum optics. The derivation of the SLEs starts from a system Hamiltonian that fully includes many-body interactions, quantized light field, and quantized light–matter interaction. Like almost always in many-body physics, it is most convenient to apply the second-quantization formalism. For

pos: Term symbol use of the word "term" for an energy level is based on the Rydberg-Ritz combination principle, an empirical observation that the wavenumbers of spectral lines can be expressed as the difference of two "terms". This was later explained by the Bohr quantum theory, which identified the terms (multiplied by "hc", where "h" is the Planck constant and "c" the speed of light) with quantized energy levels and the spectral wavenumbers (again multiplied by "hc") with photon energies. Tables of atomic energy levels identified by their term symbols have been compiled by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. In this

pos: Quantum entanglement be explained. Using femtosecond spectroscopy, the coherence of entanglement in the Fenna-Matthews-Olson complex was measured over hundreds of femtoseconds (a relatively long time in this regard) providing support to this theory. In October 2018, physicists reported producing quantum entanglement using living organisms, particularly between living bacteria and quantized light. Quantum entanglement Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon which occurs when pairs or groups of particles are generated, interact, or share spatial proximity in ways such that the quantum state of each particle cannot be described independently of the state of the other(s), even when the particles are separated by a

pos: Semiconductor laser theory the photon life time formula_11 enters instead of the resonator eigenmodes. In this approximative approach, formula_11 may be calculated from the resonance mode and is roughly proportional to the strength of the mode within the cavity. Fully microscopic modeling of laser emission can be performed with the semiconductor luminescence equations where the light modes enter as an input. This approach includes many-body interactions and correlation effects systematically, including correlations between quantized light and the excitations of the semiconductor. Such investigations can be extended to studying new intriguing effects emerging in semiconductor quantum optics. Semiconductor laser theory Semiconductor lasers or laser

pos: Quantum optics Quantum optics Quantum optics (QO) is a field of research that uses semi-classical and quantum-mechanical physics to investigate phenomena involving light and its interactions with matter at submicroscopic levels. In other words it is quantum mechanics applied to photons or light. Light propagating in a vacuum has its energy and momentum quantized according to an integer number of particles known as photons. Quantum optics studies the nature and effects of light as quantized photons. The first major development leading to that understanding was the correct modeling of the blackbody radiation spectrum by Max Planck in 1899 under the hypothesis of

pos: Superfluidity system of compressed light to generate the superfluid analogue of shock waves and tornadoes: The idea that superfluidity exists inside neutron stars was first proposed by Arkady Migdal. By analogy with electrons inside superconductors forming Cooper pairs due to electron-lattice interaction, it is expected that nucleons in a neutron star at sufficiently high density and low temperature can also form Cooper pairs due to the long-range attractive nuclear force and lead to superfluidity and superconductivity. Superfluid vacuum theory (SVT) is an approach in theoretical physics and quantum mechanics where the physical vacuum is viewed as superfluid. The ultimate goal of

pos: Duane's hypothesis Epstein and Ehrenfest." Examining the hypothesis of Duane on quantized translational momentum transfer, as it accounted for X-ray diffraction by crystals, and its follow-up by Compton, Epstein and Ehrenfest had written "The phenomena of Fraunhofer diffraction can be treated as well on the basis of the wave theory of light as by a combination of concept of light quanta with Bohr's principle of correspondence." Later, Born and Biem wrote: "Every physicist must accept Duane's rule." Using Duane's 1923 hypothesis, the old quantum theory and the de Broglie relation, linking wavelengths and frequencies to energy and momenta, gives an account of

pos: Leonhard Euler the development of accurate longitude tables. In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the "Opticks", which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of light proposed by Christiaan Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development of the quantum theory of light. In 1757 he published an important set of equations for inviscid flow, that are now known as the Euler equations. In differential form, the equations are: where Euler is also well known in structural

pos: Magnetic monopole is the mathematical statement that magnetic monopoles do not exist. Nevertheless, it was pointed out by Pierre Curie in 1894 that magnetic monopoles "could" conceivably exist, despite not having been seen so far. The "quantum" theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A. M. Dirac in 1931. In this paper, Dirac showed that if "any" magnetic monopoles exist in the universe, then all electric charge in the universe must be quantized (Dirac quantization condition). The electric charge "is", in fact, quantized, which is consistent with (but does not prove) the existence of monopoles. Since Dirac's

pos: Casimir effect The second quantization of quantum field theory requires that each such ball-spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. At the most basic level, the field at each point in space is a simple harmonic oscillator, and its quantization places a quantum harmonic oscillator at each point. Excitations of the field correspond to the elementary particles of particle physics. However, even the vacuum has a vastly complex structure, so all calculations of quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum. The vacuum has,

pos: Vacuum energy interconnected vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field is like the displacement of a ball from its rest position. The theory requires "vibrations" in, or more accurately changes in the strength of, such a field to propagate as per the appropriate wave equation for the particular field in question. The second quantization of quantum field theory requires that each such ball–spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. Canonically, if the field at each point in space is a simple harmonic oscillator, its quantization places a

pos: Planck's law of energy should be proportional to the respective characteristic oscillation frequency of the hypothetical oscillator, and in 1901 he expressed this with the constant of proportionality : Planck did not propose that light propagating in free space is quantized. The idea of quantization of the free electromagnetic field was developed later, and eventually incorporated into what we now know as quantum field theory. In 1906, Planck acknowledged that his imaginary resonators, having linear dynamics, did not provide a physical explanation for energy transduction between frequencies. Present-day physics explains the transduction between frequencies in the presence of atoms by their quantum

pos: Canonical quantization quantization. This method was further used in the context of quantum field theory by Paul Dirac, in his construction of quantum electrodynamics. In the field theory context, it is also called second quantization, in contrast to the semi-classical first quantization for single particles. When it was first developed, quantum physics dealt only with the quantization of the motion of particles, leaving the electromagnetic field classical, hence the name quantum mechanics. Later the electromagnetic field was also quantized, and even the particles themselves became represented through quantized fields, resulting in the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED) and quantum field theory in

pos: Quantum optics is today studied as a topic in quantum optics. Usage of the term overlapped early work on the quantum Hall effect and quantum cellular automata. Quantum optics Quantum optics (QO) is a field of research that uses semi-classical and quantum-mechanical physics to investigate phenomena involving light and its interactions with matter at submicroscopic levels. In other words it is quantum mechanics applied to photons or light. Light propagating in a vacuum has its energy and momentum quantized according to an integer number of particles known as photons. Quantum optics studies the nature and effects of light as quantized photons. The

pos: Loop quantum gravity of the spacetime region considered. Progress has been made in calculating background independent scattering amplitudes this way with the use of spin foams. This is a way to extract physical information from the theory. Claims to have reproduced the correct behaviour for graviton scattering amplitudes and to have recovered classical gravity have been made. "We have calculated Newton's law starting from a world with no space and no time." – Carlo Rovelli. Some quantum theories of gravity posit a spin-2 quantum field that is quantized, giving rise to gravitons. In string theory one generally starts with quantized excitations on top

pos: History of physics in much the same way as electromagnetic waves behave like particles (wave–particle duality). In 1905, Einstein used the quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect, and in 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr used the same constant to explain the stability of Rutherford's atom as well as the frequencies of light emitted by hydrogen gas. The quantized theory of the atom gave way to a full-scale quantum mechanics in the 1920s. New principles of a "quantum" rather than a "classical" mechanics, formulated in matrix-form by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925, were based on the probabilistic relationship

neg: Electromagnetism of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Unlike what was proposed by the electromagnetic theory of that time, light and other electromagnetic waves are at present seen as taking the form of quantized, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies. Ørsted was not the only person to examine the relationship between electricity and magnetism. In 1802, Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected

neg: Quantized inertia Quantized inertia Quantized inertia (QI), previously known as the acronym MiHsC (Modified Inertia from a Hubble-scale Casimir effect), is a fringe theory of inertia. The concept was first proposed in 2007 by physicist Mike McCulloch, a lecturer in geomatics at the University of Plymouth, as an alternative to general relativity and the mainstream Lambda-CDM model. According to McCulloch, quantized inertia would also be able to explain various anomalous effects such as the Pioneer and flyby anomalies, as well as controversial propellantless propulsion experiments such as the EmDrive and the Woodward effect, which would be "horizon drives". In August 2018, planned

neg: String field theory no higher order vertices are required. Similar vertices exist for the open string. When one considers light-cone quantized "superstrings", the discussion is more subtle as divergences can arise when the light-cone vertices collide. To produce a consistent theory, it is necessary to introduce higher order vertices, called contact terms, to cancel the divergences. Light-cone string field theories have the disadvantage that they break manifest Lorentz invariance. However, in backgrounds with light-like killing vectors, they can considerably simplify the quantization of the string action. Moreover, until the advent of the Berkovits string it was the only known method for quantizing strings

neg: Light front holography has been to formulate QCD as a lattice gauge theory and employ large numerical simulations on advanced computers. Notwithstanding, important dynamical QCD properties in Minkowski space-time are not amenable to Euclidean numerical lattice computations. An important theoretical goal is thus to find an initial approximation to QCD which is both analytically tractable and which can be systematically improved. To address this problem, the light front holography approach maps a confining gauge theory quantized on the light front to a higher-dimensional anti-de Sitter space (AdS) incorporating the AdS/CFT correspondence as a useful guide. The AdS/CFT correspondence is an example of the

neg: Light-front quantization applications which has scale invariance and dimensional counting at short distances, together with color confinement at large distances. "Light-Front Holography" refers to the remarkable fact that dynamics in AdS space in five dimensions is dual to a semiclassical approximation to Hamiltonian theory in physical formula_82 space-time quantized at fixed light-front time. Remarkably, there is an exact correspondence between the fifth-dimension coordinate of AdS space and a specific impact variable formula_83 which measures the physical separation of the quark constituents within the hadron at fixed light-cone time formula_84 and is conjugate to the invariant mass squared formula_85. This connection allows one to

neg: Telicity the other hand, are "verbs which do not involve any goal nor endpoint in their semantic structure, but denote actions that are realized as soon as they begin". Perhaps the most commonly assumed definition of telicity nowadays is the algebraic definition proposed by Manfred Krifka. Krifka defines telic expressions as ones that are quantized. Atelic ones can be defined in terms of cumulative reference. An expression 'P' can be said to be quantized if and only if it satisfies the following implication, for any choice of x and y: Suppose, for example, that John built two houses. Then each of

neg: Oversampled binary image sensor Oversampled binary image sensor An oversampled binary image sensor is an image sensor with non-linear response capabilities reminiscent of traditional photographic film. Each pixel in the sensor has a binary response, giving only a one-bit quantized measurement of the local light intensity. The response function of the image sensor is non-linear and similar to a logarithmic function, which makes the sensor suitable for high dynamic range imaging. Before the advent of digital image sensors, photography, for the most part of its history, used film to record light information. At the heart of every photographic film are a large number of

neg: String field theory D-branes. It has also had applications to topological string theory, non-commutative geometry, and strings in low dimensions. String field theories come in a number of varieties depending on which type of string is second quantized: "Open string field theories" describe the scattering of open strings, "closed string field theories" describe closed strings, while "open-closed string field theories" include both open and closed strings. In addition, depending on the method used to fix the worldsheet diffeomorphisms and conformal transformations in the original free string theory, the resulting string field theories can be very different. Using light cone gauge, yields "light-cone string

neg: Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend similarly incriminating anagrams could be derived from Wallace's own book. When Harper's Magazine excerpted "Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend", Heaney and Jacobson wrote in response that its first three sentences: are an anagram of: Carroll has been voted by the staff and readers of "" as the least likely suspect (out of 22 names featured) to have actually been Jack the Ripper. Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend is a 1996 book by Richard Wallace in which Wallace proposed a theory that British author Lewis Carroll, whose real name was Charles L. Dodgson (1832–1898), and his

neg: Albert Einstein 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the "Zeitschrift für Physik". Einstein also

neg: Twisted sector Twisted sector In theoretical physics, a twisted sector is a subspace of the full Hilbert space of closed string states in a particular theory over a (good) orbifold. In the first quantized formalism of string theory (or in two-dimensional conformal field theory) the target space is an orbifold M/G if the observables of the string are only defined modulo G. Consequently, the value of the field after one cycle around the closed string need only be the same as its original value modulo some G transformation. i.e. there exists some formula_1 such that For each conjugacy class of G, we

neg: Oversampled binary image sensor light intensity information. Thanks to the small size and large number of these grains, one hardly notices this quantized nature of film when viewing it at a distance, observing only a continuous gray tone. The oversampled binary image sensor is reminiscent of photographic film. Each pixel in the sensor has a binary response, giving only a one-bit quantized measurement of the local light intensity. At the start of the exposure period, all pixels are set to 0. A pixel is then set to 1 if the number of photons reaching it during the exposure is at least equal to a

neg: Gladstone–Dale relation the theory of light as an electromagnetic wave (Iksander 1992), light takes a straight-line path through water at reduced speed (v) and wavelength (λ). The ratio v/λ is a constant equal to the frequency (ν) of the light, as is the quantized (photon) energy using Planck's constant and E = hν. Compared to the constant speed of light in a vacuum (c), the index of refraction of water is n = c/v. The Gladstone–Dale term (n−1) is the non-linear optical path length or time delay. Using Isaac Newton's theory of light as a stream of particles refracted locally by (electric)

neg: Response modulation hypothesis goal. Response modulation argues that the attention to goals is what modulates whether psychopaths have normal or abnormal levels of fear and empathy. In studies when psychopaths were asked to focus on these cues, they had normal levels of fear and empathy. The theory was first proposed by Gorenstein and Newman (1980) and has since gone through changes. Initially it was proposed as theory of reward hypersensitivity in response to the Low Fear theory proposed by David T. Lykken. Gorenstein and Newman found that animals with septal and hippocampal lesions could behave in ways analogous to human psychopaths: animals with

neg: Tired light Richard Tolman compared recessional redshift with a non-recessional one, writing that they: In the early 1950s, Erwin Finlay-Freundlich proposed a redshift as "the result of loss of energy by observed photons traversing a radiation field." which was cited and argued for as an explanation for the redshift-distance relation in a 1962 astrophysics theory "Nature" paper by University of Manchester physics professor P. F. Browne. The pre-eminent cosmologist Ralph Asher Alpher wrote a letter to "Nature" three months later in response to this suggestion heavily criticizing the approach, "No generally accepted physical mechanism has been proposed for this loss." Still, until

neg: Philosophy of space and time water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (Mach's Principle). Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the principle of relativity. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by Maxwell's equations, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at

neg: Cell isolation dissociated. A simple technique for dissociating cells involves cutting the tissue into small chunk before agitating the chunks in a solution using a pipette. Isolated cells can be used to study how cells work, how they change in response to disease, and how they are affected by drugs. An example of an experimental technique which uses isolated cells is patch clamp electrophysiology, used to study how charged particles flow across the cell membrane. Complementary techniques include calcium fluorescence imaging using dyes that emit light in response to calcium to measure how calcium is regulated within the cell, and immunocytochemistry which

neg: Oversampled binary image sensor photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) camera. A better reconstruction quality with fewer temporal measurements and faster, hardware friendly implementation, can be achieved by more sophisticated algorithms. Oversampled binary image sensor An oversampled binary image sensor is an image sensor with non-linear response capabilities reminiscent of traditional photographic film. Each pixel in the sensor has a binary response, giving only a one-bit quantized measurement of the local light intensity. The response function of the image sensor is non-linear and similar to a logarithmic function, which makes the sensor suitable for high dynamic range imaging. Before the advent of digital image sensors, photography,

neg: Wave–particle duality instead of disproving it. While energy of ejected electrons reflected Planck's constant, the existence of photons was not explicitly proven until the discovery of the photon antibunching effect, of which a modern experiment can be performed in undergraduate-level labs. This phenomenon could only be explained via photons, and not through any semi-classical theory (which could alternatively explain the photoelectric effect). When Einstein received his Nobel Prize in 1921, it was not for his more difficult and mathematically laborious special and general relativity, but for the simple, yet totally revolutionary, suggestion of quantized light. Einstein's "light quanta" would not be called

neg: Quantum gravity (called gravitons). No concrete proof of gravitons exists, but quantized theories of matter may necessitate their existence. The observation that all fundamental forces except gravity have one or more known messenger particles leads researchers to believe that at least one must exist. This hypothetical particle is known as the "graviton". The predicted find would result in the classification of the graviton as a force particle similar to the photon of the electromagnetic interaction. Many of the accepted notions of a unified theory of physics since the 1970s assume, and to some degree depend upon, the existence of the graviton. These

neg: Philosophy of physics such as velocity, momentum, energy, and fields. Both Newton and Galileo, as well as most people up until the 20th century, thought that time was the same for everyone everywhere. Our modern conception of time is based on Einstein's theory of relativity and Minkowski's spacetime, in which rates of time run differently in different inertial frames of reference, and space and time are merged into spacetime. Time may be quantized, with the theoretical smallest time being on the order of the Planck time. Einstein's general relativity as well as the redshift of the light from receding distant galaxies indicate that

neg: Shot noise outcomes with a significant excess of heads over tails or vice versa are common; if an experiment with a few throws is repeated over and over, the outcomes will fluctuate a lot. It can be proven that the relative fluctuations reduce as the reciprocal square root of the number of throws, a result valid for all statistical fluctuations, including shot noise. Shot noise exists because phenomena such as light and electric current consist of the movement of discrete (also called "quantized") 'packets'. Consider light—a stream of discrete photons—coming out of a laser pointer and hitting a wall to create a

neg: Old quantum theory of quanta. Einstein concluded that the quanta could be treated as if they were localizable objects (see page 139/140), particles of light, and named them photons. Einstein's theoretical argument was based on thermodynamics, on counting the number of states, and so was not completely convincing. Nevertheless, he concluded that light had attributes of both waves and particles, more precisely that an electromagnetic standing wave with frequency formula_25 with the quantized energy: should be thought of as consisting of n photons each with an energy formula_12. Einstein could not describe how the photons were related to the wave. The photons have

neg: High-temperature superconductivity theory, cuprate superconductors (and other unconventional superconductors) remain distinctive. There also has been much debate as to high-temperature superconductivity coexisting with magnetic ordering in YBCO, iron-based superconductors, several ruthenocuprates and other exotic superconductors, and the search continues for other families of materials. HTS are Type-II superconductors, which allow magnetic fields to penetrate their interior in quantized units of flux, meaning that much higher magnetic fields are required to suppress superconductivity. The layered structure also gives a directional dependence to the magnetic field response. Cuprate superconductors are generally considered to be quasi-two-dimensional materials with their superconducting properties determined by electrons moving

neg: Christiaan Huygens to formulate the correct laws of elastic collision in his work "De motu corporum ex percussione", but his findings were not published until 1703, after his death. In the field of optics, he is best known for his wave theory of light, which he proposed in 1678 and described in 1690 in his "Treatise on Light", which is regarded as the first mathematical theory of light. His theory was initially rejected in favor of Isaac Newton's corpuscular theory of light, until Augustin-Jean Fresnel adopted Huygens' principle in 1818 and showed that it could explain the rectilinear propagation and diffraction effects

neg: Delos Wickens Using alternately cat or humans, he investigated classical conditioning in light of proactive interference. He found evidence of retention of the conditioned response even in the midst of several kinds of interference and transfer of the conditioned response from the original setting to others. Context of conditioning was further examined, showing transference even after variance of stimuli tone or light. He applied interference to memory theory, researching retrieval, memory set size, and working memory. Wickens also investigated semantic memory, testing new proposed dimensions for semantic space and working off of some of his earlier work. His articles and ideas still

neg: Paleolithic dog timing of the development of a relationship between humans and wolves is debated. There exists two schools of thought. The early domestication theory proposed by argues that the relationship commenced once humans moved into the colder parts of Eurasia around 35,000 YBP, which is when the proposed Paleolithic dogs first began to appear. Wolves that were adjusting to live with humans may have developed shorter, wider skulls and more steeply-rising foreheads that would make wolf facial expressions easier to interpret. The late domestication theory proposed by Susan J. Crockford argues that Paleolithic dogs are an unusual phenotype of wolf and

neg: Light of modern physical optics. Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age, and preferred his view to Descartes' theory of the "plenum". He stated in his "Hypothesis of Light" of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon

neg: Aether (classical element) this motion was popular during the 17th and 18th centuries, including a theory proposed by Johann II Bernoulli, who was recognized in 1736 with the prize of the French Academy. In his theory, all space is permeated by aether containing "excessively small whirlpools". These whirlpools allow for aether to have a certain elasticity, transmitting vibrations from the corpuscular packets of light as they travel through. This theory of luminiferous aether would influence the wave theory of light proposed by Christiaan Huygens, in which light traveled in the form of longitudinal waves via an "omnipresent, perfectly elastic medium having zero density,

neg: Unconscious mind events in the plot. The latent content of the dream is what supports the idea of wish fulfillment. It represents the intimate information in the dreamer's current issues and childhood conflict. In response to Freud's theory on dreams, other psychologists have come up with theories to counter his argument. Theorist Rosalind Cartwright proposed that dreams provide people with the opportunity to act out and work through everyday problems and emotional issues in a non-real setting with no consequences. According to her cognitive problem solving view, a large amount of continuity exists between our waking thought and the thoughts that exist

neg: String field theory the second-quantized theory is given by a wave function in the original theory. In the case of string field theory, this implies that a classical configuration, usually called the string field, is given by an element of the free string Fock space. The principal advantages of the formalism are that it allows the computation of off-shell amplitudes and, when a classical action is available, gives non-perturbative information that cannot be seen directly from the standard genus expansion of string scattering. In particular, following the work of Ashoke Sen, it has been useful in the study of tachyon condensation on unstable

neg: Growing block universe to which past, present, and future all exist) and presentism (according to which only the present exists). It is held to be closer to common-sense intuitions than the alternatives. C. D. Broad was a proponent of the theory (1923). Some modern defenders are Michael Tooley (in 1997) and Peter Forrest (in 2004). Broad first proposed the theory in 1923. He described the theory as follows: It will be observed that such a theory as this accepts the reality of the present and the past, but holds that the future is simply nothing at all. Nothing has happened to the present

neg: Semantic memory Control of Thought) (and later ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational)) theory of cognition represents declarative memory (of which semantic memory is a part) with "chunks", which consist of a label, a set of defined relationships to other chunks (i.e., "this is a _", or "this has a _"), and any number of chunk-specific properties. Chunks, then, can be mapped as a semantic network, given that each node is a chunk with its unique properties, and each link is the chunk's relationship to another chunk. In ACT, a chunk's activation decreases as a function of the time since the chunk was

neg: P3b research, several alternative theories have been proposed. For example, Verleger and colleagues (2005) have proposed that the P3b component reflects a process that mediates between perceptual analysis and response initiation. More specifically, this process emerges from a cognitive mechanism responsible for monitoring whether the classification of a stimulus is appropriately translated into action.) This theory constitutes a direct challenge to the widely held view that the P3b component reflects processes involved in perception but not response initiation (see Verleger, 1997). Another theory proposed by Kok proposed that the P3b reflects mechanisms involved in event categorization, or the process that leads

neg: Light of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarisation could be explained by the wave theory of light and only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical substance "luminiferous aether" proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson–Morley experiment. Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster

neg: Traffic flow case usually exists when the arriving demand is relatively small. The N-curve representation of the unsaturated case is shown in the Figure 19. If there is a bottleneck with a capacity of "μ"(<"μ") downstream of the light, the ultimate departure of the light-bottleneck system will be that of the downstream bottleneck. Dynamic traffic assignment can also be solved using the "N"-curve. There are two main approaches to tackle this problem: system optimum, and user equilibrium. This application will be discussed further in the following section. Kerner’s three-phase traffic theory is an alternative theory of traffic flow. Probably the most important

neg: Final value theorem theorem "appears" to predict the final value of the impulse response to be 0 and the final value of the step response to be 1. However, neither time-domain limit exists, and so the final value theorem predictions are not valid. In fact, both the impulse response and step response oscillate, and (in this special case) the final value theorem describes the average values around which the responses oscillate. There are two checks performed in Control theory which confirm valid results for the Final Value Theorem: Rule 1 was not satisfied in this example, in that the roots of the denominator

neg: Frank Macfarlane Burnet produces antibodies in response to antigens. The dominant idea in the literature through the 1940s was that the antigen acted as a template for antibody production, which was known as the "instructive" hypothesis. Burnet was not satisfied with this explanation, and in the second edition of "The Production of Antibodies", he and Fenner advanced an indirect template theory which proposed that each antigen could influence the genome, thus effecting the production of antibodies. In 1956 he became interested in Niels Kaj Jerne's natural selection hypothesis, which described a mechanism for immune response based on an earlier theory of Nobel-winning immunologist

neg: Speed of light light as measured directly by Fizeau. The following year Gustav Kirchhoff calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at this speed. In the early 1860s, Maxwell showed that, according to the theory of electromagnetism he was working on, electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space at a speed equal to the above Weber/Kohlrausch ratio, and drawing attention to the numerical proximity of this value to the speed of light as measured by Fizeau, he proposed that light is in fact an electromagnetic wave. It was thought at the time that empty space was filled with

neg: Planck constant (along with Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect) in convincing physicists that Planck's postulate of quantized energy levels was more than a mere mathematical formalism. The very first Solvay Conference in 1911 was devoted to "the theory of radiation and quanta". Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta". The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it. It was first observed by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, although credit is

neg: Redundancy theory of truth essentially not an analysis but a periphrasis, for 'The fact that "a" has "R" to "b" exists' is no different from ' "a" has "R" to "b" '. A variant of redundancy theory is the disquotational theory, which uses a modified form of Tarski's T-schema: To say that "'P' is true" is to say that P. Yet another version of deflationism is the prosentential theory of truth, first developed by Dorothy Grover, Joseph Camp, and Nuel Belnap as an elaboration of Ramsey's claims. They argue that sentences like "That's true", when said in response to "It's raining", are prosentences (see

neg: Big Bounce a finding later accepted as the Cosmological Principle to apply at scales beyond roughly 300 million light-years. It was recognized that it was necessary to find an explanation for how distant regions of the universe could have essentially identical properties without ever having been in light-like communication. A solution was proposed to be a period of exponential expansion of space in the early universe, as a basis for what became known as Inflation theory. Following the brief inflationary period, the universe continues to expand, but at a less rapid rate. Various formulations of inflation theory and their detailed implications became

neg: Conformal gravity flat metrics are solutions of this equation. Since these theories lead to fourth-order equations for the fluctuations around a fixed background, they are not manifestly unitary. It has therefore been generally believed that they could not be consistently quantized. This is now disputed. Conformal gravity is an example of a 4-derivative theory. This means that each term in the wave equation can contain up to 4 derivatives. There are pros and cons of 4-derivative theories. The pros are that the quantized version of the theory is more convergent and renormalisable. The cons are that there may be issues with causality.

neg: Atomic orbital Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom, wherein electrons orbited the nucleus with classical periods, but were only permitted to have discrete values of angular momentum, quantized in units "h"/2π. This constraint automatically permitted only certain values of electron energies. The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state (by declaring that there was no state below this), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines. After Bohr's use of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect to relate energy levels in atoms with the wavelength of emitted light,

neg: Averroes' theory of the unity of the intellect enables thinking by making things intelligible, much like light allows seeing by making things visible. Plotinus (d. 270), whose works were well known in the Islamic world, proposed that human beings gained knowledge through their relation to a divine intellect. Muslim philosophers Al-Farabi (d. 951) and Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina, d. 1037) further develop this theory and call it the "agent intellect", which gives forms to matter and facilitates human knowledge. Avempace (also known as Ibn Bajja, d. 1138) proposed a theory of the intellect that was to influence Averroes' theory, but, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica,

neg: Quantized inertia than from the rear and this imbalance pushes it back against its acceleration, resulting in the effect observed as inertia. There is another event horizon much further away: the Hubble horizon. So even in front of an accelerating object, some of the Unruh waves are disallowed, especially the very long Unruh waves that exist if the object has a very low acceleration. Therefore, quantized inertia predicts that such an object with very low acceleration would lose inertial mass in a new way. This loss of inertia occurs more gradually than the empirical relation proposed by MOND. In quantized inertia, the

neg: BitTorrent serving altered chunks when the victim is downloading the executable using the BitTorrent protocol. Despite the fact that a proof of concept exists, the attack may succeed in very limited cases: such as small chunk size (32kB). By selecting larger chunks (i.e. >256kB) the amount of resources required to find SHA1 collision is tremendous, which makes the attack virtually impossible. BitTorrent BitTorrent (abbreviated to BT) is a communication protocol for peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P) which is used to distribute data and electronic files over the Internet. BitTorrent is one of the most common protocols for transferring large files, such as

neg: Hubble's law and filled with a uniform distribution of stars, then every line of sight in the sky would end on a star, and the sky would be as bright as the surface of a star. However, the night sky is largely dark. Since the 17th century, astronomers and other thinkers have proposed many possible ways to resolve this paradox, but the currently accepted resolution depends in part on the Big Bang theory and in part on the Hubble expansion. In a universe that exists for a finite amount of time, only the light of a finite number of stars has had

neg: Scale invariance is known as the Gaussian fixed point. However, even though the classical massless "φ" theory is scale-invariant in "D"=4, the quantized version is not scale-invariant. We can see this from the beta-function for the coupling parameter, "g". Even though the quantized massless "φ" is not scale-invariant, there do exist scale-invariant quantized scalar field theories other than the Gaussian fixed point. One example is the Wilson-Fisher fixed point, below. Scale-invariant QFTs are almost always invariant under the full conformal symmetry, and the study of such QFTs is conformal field theory (CFT). Operators in a CFT have a well-defined scaling dimension, analogous

neg: Aberration of light Sun. However, this explanation proved inaccurate once the wave nature of light was better understood, and correcting it became a major goal of the 19th century theories of luminiferous aether. Augustin-Jean Fresnel proposed a correction due to the motion of a medium (the aether) through which light propagated, known as "partial aether drag". He proposed that objects partially drag the aether along with them as they move, and this became the accepted explanation for aberration for some time. George Stokes proposed a similar theory, explaining that aberration occurs due to the flow of aether induced by the motion of the

neg: Operant conditioning the next shock. Note that each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew. This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) "Classical conditioning of fear." Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS (conditioned stimulus) with an aversive US (unconditioned stimulus). The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the

neg: G. H. Pember the earth. Pember argued a position known as "The Gap Theory", and which had been previously proposed by the Scottish theologian Thomas Chalmers (1780–1847). In this theory, God originally created the universe but due to the rebellion of some angels led by Lucifer (or Satan) the earth descended into chaos and life was destroyed. Pember's position was that the first chapter of Genesis gave an account of God restoring or recreating the world after the collapse of the original creation. So proponents of the Gap Theory like Pember propose that a "gap" exists between the first two verses in Genesis

neg: String field theory in the free case, formula_21 is a ghostnumber one element of the BRST-quantized free bosonic open-string Fock-space. The cubic vertex, is a triliniar map which takes three string fields of total ghostnumber three and yields a number. Following Witten, who was motivated by ideas from noncommutative geometry, it is conventional to introduce the formula_23-product defined implicitly through The formula_23-product and cubic vertex satisfy a number of important properties (allowing the formula_26 to be general ghost number fields): In these equations, formula_27 denotes the ghost number of formula_21. These properties of the cubic vertex are sufficient to show that formula_29 is

neg: SSAT (The Schools Network) and overseas, starting principally in Australia. It exists and flourishes today, with networks in the United States, China, the Netherlands and Wales. The Leading Edge programme was announced in 2003 – a response to the idea of specialism in school improvement, first proposed by Estelle Morris in 1998. Again a practitioner-led philosophy, a large network of Leading Edge schools exists today. Following a challenge from the then Schools Minister David Miliband, the Trust began working with headteachers to define personalising learning. Professor David Hargreaves held a series of workshops with 200 headteachers and identified the nine gateways to personalising learning.

neg: Raj Amit Kumar Blemished Light. He is also a media academic, teacher, and writer. He has taught cinema theory and history at both his alma maters between the years 2005 to 2009, and his writings and research papers have been published and presented at various conferences as well. In India, "Unfreedom" was refused certification by the Examining Committee; a revising committee of the Censor Board proposed cuts which Kumar refused. He appealed to the Indian Government's Information and Broadcasting Appellate Tribunal FCAT, and in response, the Tribunal completely banned the film. Kumar is now appealing the decision in the High Court. Recently, the