query: where did christianity originate rome egypt judea greece

pos: Early centers of Christianity Early centers of Christianity Early Christianity (generally considered the time period from its origin to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Eastern Mediterranean throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish diaspora. The first followers of Christianity were Jews or proselytes, commonly referred to as Jewish Christians and God-fearers. The Apostolic sees claim to have been founded by one or more of the apostles of Jesus, who are said to have dispersed from Jerusalem sometime after the crucifixion of Jesus,

pos: Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem years looked to Jerusalem as its main centre and point of reference. (See also Jerusalem in Christianity and Early centers of Christianity) Some found their way to Antioch, where they undertook evangelical efforts, and to whom the term "Christians" was first used. Before the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War (66-73 AD) and the destruction of Herod's Temple in 70 by Titus, Christians led by Simeon fled to Pella in Decapolis (Jordan), where they remained until 135. The Jews of Judea again revolted against Rome in the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136). By or during that time, the Christians had returned

pos: Pompey him." Pompey returned the Syrian cities the Jews had conquered to Syrian rule, thus bringing Judea back to its original territory. He rebuilt the city of Garara and restored seven inland cities and four coastal ones to its inhabitants. He made Jerusalem a tributary of Rome and made Judea a satellite of Syria. He put Marcus Aemilius Scaurus in charge of Syria "as far as the river Euphrates and Egypt" with two Roman legions. According to Josephus Pompey then went to Cilicia, taking Aristobulus and his children with him, and after this he returned to Rome. This contrasts with the

pos: Alexander the Alabarch was wed to princess Berenice. ("Antiquities" 19.276-277) Marcus Julius died prematurely without producing any children with Berenice. Tiberius Julius was the Procurator of Judea from 46 to 48 and the Prefect of Egypt from 66 to 69. In 70, he participated in the Siege of Jerusalem as Titus' second-in-command. It is possible that either Alexander's father or paternal grandfather was granted Roman citizenship by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar. His ancestors and family had social ties and connections to the priesthood in Judea, the Hasmonean dynasty, the Herodian Dynasty, and the Julio-Claudian dynasty in Rome. Contemporary evidence of Alexander’s life

pos: Vespasian to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt. During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome resumed. In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in 70. Judea had been rebelling since 66. Vespasian's son, Titus, finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70. According to Eusebius, Vespasian then ordered all descendants

pos: Jewish diaspora Neo-Babylonian Empire under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II. A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the Second Temple, and their dwelling in other countries for the most part was not a result of compulsory dislocation. Before the middle of the first century CE, in addition to Judea, Syria and Babylonia, large Jewish communities existed in the Roman provinces of Egypt, Cyrene and Crete and in Rome itself; after the Siege of Jerusalem in 63 BCE, when the Hasmonean kingdom became a protectorate of Rome, emigration intensified. In 6 CE the region was organized as the Roman

pos: History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel and Herod the Great) in 40 BCE. They invaded the Roman eastern provinces and managed to expel the Romans. Antigonus was made King of Judea. Herod fled to Rome, where he was elected "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate and was given the task of retaking Judea. In 37 BCE, with Roman support, Herod reclaimed Judea, and the short-lived reemergence of the Hasmonean dynasty came to an end. From 37 BCE to 6 CE, the Herodian dynasty, Jewish-Roman client kings, ruled Judea. In 20 BCE, Herod began a refurbishment and expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. His

pos: Palestine (region) Some other terms that have been used to refer to all or part of this land include Canaan, Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael or Ha'aretz), the Promised Land, Greater Syria, the Holy Land, Iudaea Province, Judea, Coele-Syria, "Israel HaShlema", Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Zion, "Retenu" (Ancient Egyptian), Southern Syria, Southern Levant and Syria Palaestina. Situated at a strategic location between Egypt, Syria and Arabia, and the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity, the region has a long and tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. The region has been controlled by numerous peoples, including Ancient

pos: Jesus Christ Superstar his mob in a war against Rome and gain absolute power ("Simon Zealotes"). Jesus rejects this suggestion, stating that none of his followers understand what true power is, nor do they understand his true message ("Poor Jerusalem"). Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judea, has had a dream, in which he meets with a Galilean (in the form of Jesus) and that he, Pilate, will receive all of the blame for the man's violent and mournful death, predicting the rise of Christianity ("Pilate's Dream"). Jesus arrives at the Temple in Jerusalem and finds that it has become a haven of sin

pos: Eastern Orthodox Church appearing in Jerusalem and the Holy Land, then in Antioch, Ethiopia, Egypt, Rome, Alexandria, Athens, Thessalonica, Illyricum, and Byzantium, which centuries later would become prominent as the New Rome. Christianity in the Roman Empire met with considerable resistance, as its adherents would refuse to comply with the Roman state (even at the threat of death) in offering sacrifice to the pagan gods. Despite persecutions, the Church spread. The persecution dissipated upon the conversion of Emperor Constantine I in 324 AD. By the 4th century Christianity had spread to numerous regions. A number of influential schools of thought had arisen, particularly

pos: Donation of Constantine the seat of Peter "power, and dignity of glory, and vigour, and honour imperial", and "supremacy as well over the four principal sees, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople, as also over all the churches of God in the whole earth". For the upkeep of the church of Saint Peter and that of Saint Paul, he gave landed estates "in Judea, Greece, Asia, Thrace, Africa, Italy and the various islands". To Sylvester and his successors he also granted imperial insignia, the tiara, and "the city of Rome, and all the provinces, places and cities of Italy and the western regions". What

neg: Roman metallurgy Roman metallurgy Metals and metal working had been known to the people of modern Italy since the Bronze Age. By 53 BCE, Rome had already expanded to control an immense expanse of the Mediterranean. This included nine provinces radiating from Italy to its islands, Spain, Macedonia, Africa, Asia Minor, Syria and Greece, and by the end of the Emperor Trajan's reign, the Roman Empire had grown further to encompass parts of Britain, Egypt, all of modern Germany west of the Rhine, Dacia, Noricum, Judea, Armenia, Illyria and Thrace (Shepard 1993). As the empire grew, so did its need for metals.

neg: Ahmed Osman (author) consider them worth refuting. Donald B. Redford wrote a scathing review of "Stranger in the Valley of the Kings" for "Biblical Archaeology Review" in which he wrote "The author treats the evidence as cavalierly as he pleases. He presents himself as a sober historian, yet when it suits him, the Biblical evidence is accepted at face value and literally... When the Biblical evidence does not suit Osman, it is discarded." In his "Christianity: An Ancient Egyptian Religion" (2005), Osman claims that Christianity did not originate in Judea but is the remnant of an Ancient Egyptian mystery cult that was suppressed

neg: Origins of Christianity in the syncretistic Hellenistic world of the first century CE, which was dominated by Roman law and Greek culture. Hellenistic culture had a profound impact on the customs and practices of Jews, both in the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora. The inroads into Judaism gave rise to Hellenistic Judaism in the Jewish diaspora which sought to establish a Hebraic-Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE, and became a notable "religio licita" after the Roman conquest of Greece, Anatolia, Syria, Judea, and Egypt, until its

neg: Antiquities are history defaced, or some remnants of history which have casually escaped the shipwreck of time". The art trade reflects modern usage of the term; Christie's "Department of Antiquities" covers objects "from the dawn of civilization to the Dark Ages, ranging from Western Europe to the Caspian Sea, embracing the cultures of Egypt, Greece, Rome and the Near East." Bonhams use a similar definition: "...4000 B.C to the 12th Century A.D. Geographically they originate from Egypt, the Near East and Europe ..." Official cut-off dates are often later, being unconcerned with precise divisions of art history, and using the term

neg: Harem as "selamlık". Some scholars have used the term to refer to polygynous royal households throughout history. In Muscovite Russia the area of aristocratic houses where women were secluded was known as "terem". The idea of harem or seclusion of women did not originate with Muhammad or Islam. These practices were well established amongst the upper classes of Iraq, the Byzantine Empire, Ancient Greece and Persia for thousands of years before the advent of Islam. The practice of secluding women was common to many ancient near eastern communities, especially where polygamy was permitted. In pre-Islamic Assyria, Persia, and Egypt, most royal

neg: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire start of the Byzantine Empire, and with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire. The Christian emperors persecuted their Jewish subjects and restricted their rights. According to the "Jewish Encyclopedia" article on Rome: The Jewish Encyclopedia connects the two civil wars raging during the last decades of the first century BC: one in Judea between the two Hasmonean brothers Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II and one in the Roman republic between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and describes the evolution of the Jewish population in Rome: Even before Rome annexed Judea as a

neg: Coptic history Coptic historians are: Notable non-Coptic historians include: Coptic history Coptic history is part of history of Egypt that begins with the introduction of Christianity in Egypt in the 1st century AD during the Roman period, and covers the history of the Copts to the present day. Many of the historic items related to Coptic Christianity are on display in many museums around the world and a large number is in the Coptic Museum in Coptic Cairo. Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the Holy Family sought in its flight from Judea: "When he arose,

neg: Coptic history Coptic history Coptic history is part of history of Egypt that begins with the introduction of Christianity in Egypt in the 1st century AD during the Roman period, and covers the history of the Copts to the present day. Many of the historic items related to Coptic Christianity are on display in many museums around the world and a large number is in the Coptic Museum in Coptic Cairo. Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the Holy Family sought in its flight from Judea: "When he arose, he took the young Child and His

neg: Jean-François Portaels Paul Delaroche, a prominent French painter of historical scenes. Upon his return to Belgium, he won in 1842 the Grand Prix de Rome, i.e. the first prize in the Belgian Prix de Rome. The financial reward connected to the prize allowed him to travel to Italy where he stayed in Venice, Florence and Rome. He continued to feel the pull of the Orient and travelled successively to Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Judea, Spain, Hungary and Norway. In Hungary he spent quite some time to study the typical traits of the Magyars and Romani people. During his travels he was able

neg: Hijab In a 2014 survey of men and women in seven Muslim-majority countries, the Afghan burqa was the preferred form of woman's dress for 11% of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 4% in Iraq, 3% in Pakistan, 2% in Lebanon, and 1% or less in Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey. The niqab face veil was the preferred option for 63% of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 32% in Pakistan, 9% in Egypt, 8% in Iraq, and 2% or less in Lebanon, Tunisia, and Turkey. Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all major Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism,

neg: Alexander Rud Mills pro-Isolationist 'Australia First Movement' and contributed to its newspaper "The Publicist", which, before 1939, described itself as being 'for national socialism' and 'for Aryanism; against semitism', and which was the mouthpiece for W.J. Miles, a leading member of the Rationalist Society. Mills' most influential book was published in 1933 as "The Odinist Religion: Overcoming Jewish Christianity". In this work he claimed that Nordic races had established the ancient civilisations of Sumeria, Egypt, Persia, Greece, and Rome, but that they had been weakened by miscegenation with other races and by adopting Christianity, and along with it the view that all humans

neg: Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews scholarship into people". Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews () was first published in 1978 by Alfred A. Knopf, New York. According to S. Lillian Kremer in "Dictionary of Literary Biography", The book is "a compendium of scholarship about Jewish civilization and its relation to the myriad cultures with which Judaism has come into contact." This monograph is divided into four sections with each comprising various chapters: Through Ancient Paganism (Sumer, Egypt, Canaan, Babylonia), Through Classical Paganism (Greece, Rome, Palestine), Through Islam and Christianity (Islam, Christianity), Inside Modern Paganism (Secularism). "School Library

neg: Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews () was first published in 1978 by Alfred A. Knopf, New York. According to S. Lillian Kremer in "Dictionary of Literary Biography", The book is "a compendium of scholarship about Jewish civilization and its relation to the myriad cultures with which Judaism has come into contact." This monograph is divided into four sections with each comprising various chapters: Through Ancient Paganism (Sumer, Egypt, Canaan, Babylonia), Through Classical Paganism (Greece, Rome, Palestine), Through Islam and Christianity (Islam, Christianity), Inside Modern Paganism (Secularism). "School Library Journal" said that

neg: Roman Republic swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, while Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania (modern Spain) but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece. Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory, and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48, despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one, albeit with inferior quality troops. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered. Pompey's death did not end the civil war, as Caesar's many enemies fought on. In 46 Caesar lost perhaps

neg: Christianity in the 1st century communities were founded by apostles and numerous other Christians, soldiers, merchants, and preachers in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and other places. Over 40 churches were established by 100, many in Asia Minor. Paul was responsible for bringing the Christianity to new parts of the world such as Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi, and Thessalonica. By the end of the 1st century, Christianity had already spread to Rome and to various cities in Greece, Asia Minor and Syria. Major cities such as Rome, Ephesus, Antioch and Corinth served as foundations for the expansive spread of Christianity in the post-apostolic period. Christianity

neg: Ancient Greece essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence. After the death of Alexander, his empire was, after quite some conflict, divided among his generals, resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom (Egypt and adjoining North Africa), the Seleucid Empire (the Levant, Mesopotamia and Persia) and the Antigonid dynasty (Macedonia). In the intervening period, the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom, although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom. During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world

neg: Tacitus on Christ Christians and Jews in Rome, and (iii) that at the time pagans made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in Roman Judea. The "Annals" passage (), which has been subjected to much scholarly analysis, follows a description of the six-day Great Fire of Rome that burned much of Rome in July 64 AD. The key part of the passage (translation from Latin by A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, 1876): Tacitus then describes the torture of Christians: The exact cause of the fire remains uncertain, but much of the population of Rome suspected that Emperor Nero

neg: History of Greece the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence. During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centres of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria. (See Hellenistic civilization for the history of Greek culture outside Greece in this period.) Athens and her allies revolted against Macedon upon hearing that Alexander had died, but were defeated within a year in the Lamian

neg: Antiochus IV Epiphanes sand around Antiochus and said: "Before you leave this circle, give me a reply that I can take back to the Roman Senate." This implied Rome would declare war if the King stepped out of the circle without committing to leave Egypt immediately. Weighing his options, Antiochus decided to withdraw. Only then did Popillius agree to shake hands with him. The Seleucids, like the Ptolemies before them, held a mild suzerainty over Judea: they respected Jewish culture and protected Jewish institutions. This policy was drastically reversed by Antiochus IV, resulting in harsh persecutions and a revolt against his rule, the

neg: Mark Antony client king in Judea. Pacorus' conquest had captured much of the Syrian and Palestinian interior, with much of the Phoenician coast occupied as well. The city of Tyre remained the last major Roman outpost in the region. Antony, then in Egypt with Cleopatra, did not respond immediately to the Parthian invasion. Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of the civil war between his wife and Octavian, he was forced to return to Italy with his army to secure his position in Rome rather than defeat the Parthians. Instead, Antony dispatched Publius Ventidius Bassus

neg: Sicaricon (Jewish law) my land, but leave me alone"), a view supported by Talmudic exegetes, Rashi and Solomon Sirilio. In any case, the word unanimously refers to a Roman or foreign molester who expropriates land from its Jewish owner, usually by a decree made by a tyrant king (Caesar). During the height of the Jewish war with Rome, and especially after Caesar (Vespasian) had given order that all Judea should be exposed to sale , the law of "the usurping occupant" did not apply to cases where the Jewish landowner in Judea was compelled to relinquish his property to a Roman tenant (usually

neg: Tacitus on Christ 60. Dunn states that Tacitus seems to be under the impression that Christians were some form of Judaism, although distinguished from them. Raymond E. Brown and John P. Meier state that in addition to establishing that there was a large body of Christians in Rome, the Tacitus passage provides two other important pieces of historical information, namely that by around AD 60 it was possible to distinguish between Christians and Jews in Rome and that even pagans made a connection between Christianity in Rome and its origin in Judea. Although the majority of scholars consider it to be genuine, a

neg: Kingdom of David of independence when he marched through the county. He was amazed to find that the defenders of the city retreated not to a fortress, but to their holy sanctuary, the Temple. He was equally amazed when they refused to interrupt their religious observances to offer resistance when he entered their Temple. To Rome, Judea was but a small piece on the road to a larger prize, easy access to bountiful Egypt. To the Jews, Judea was the Promised Land given to them by God to own. Even worse for the Jews was that it pitted one Jew against the other

neg: Herod the Great Antony lost to Octavian, posing a second threat to Herod's rule. Herod had to regain Octavian's support if he was to keep his throne. At Rhodes in 31 BCE, Herod, through his ability to keep Judea open to Rome as a link to the wealth of Syria and Egypt, and ability to defend the frontier, convinced Octavian that he would be loyal to him. Herod continued to rule his subjects as he saw fit. Despite the autonomy afforded to Herod in his internal reign over Judea, restrictions were placed upon him in his relations with other kingdoms. Herod's support from

neg: Mark Antony remnant of the Seleucid Empire. Pompey had deposed Aristobulus and installed Hyrcanus as Rome's client ruler over Judea. Antony achieved his first military distinctions after securing important victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus. With the rebellion defeated by 56 BC, Gabinius restored Hyrcanus to his position as High Priest in Judea. The following year, in 55 BC, Gabinius intervened in the political affairs of Ptolemaic Egypt. Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes had been deposed in a rebellion led by his daughter Berenice IV in 58 BC, forcing him to seek asylum in Rome. During Pompey's conquests years earlier, Ptolemy had received the

neg: Palm branch Palm branch The palm branch is a symbol of victory, triumph, peace, and eternal life originating in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean world. The palm "(Phoenix)" was sacred in Mesopotamian religions, and in ancient Egypt represented immortality. In Judaism, the lulav, a closed frond of the date palm is part of the festival of Sukkot. A palm branch was awarded to victorious athletes in ancient Greece, and a palm frond or the tree itself is one of the most common attributes of Victory personified in ancient Rome. In Christianity, the palm branch is associated particularly with Palm Sunday, when

neg: Sacred garden Sacred garden A sacred garden is a religiously-influenced garden, often found on temple grounds. Religion has been an important influence on garden design. Temple gardens were made in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. Sacred groves were made in ancient India, Greece, Rome, China and Japan. Sacred trees were important in Celtic and Germanic Europe and still are important in India. Many groves or forests were sacred in ancient India and continue to be so in modern Hindu worship. Buddhism had a significant influence on garden design, with the Zen gardens of China and Japan as famous examples. In Christianity, particularly Catholicism

neg: Anointing of a top layer of oil to preserve wine in ancient amphoras, its spoiling usually being credited to demonic influence. For sanitary and religious reasons, the bodies of the dead are sometimes anointed. In medieval and early modern Christianity, the practice was particularly associated with protection against vampires and ghouls who might otherwise take possession of the corpse. Anointing guests with oil as a mark of hospitality and token of honor is recorded in Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as in the Hebrew scriptures. It was a common custom among the ancient Hebrews and continued among the Arabs into

neg: Phenomenology of religion the authentic sources: writings and images by the believers themselves. This procedure compelled him to reduce the field of his research - he had to profoundly master all relating languages and writings in order to be able to understand his sources in a way as they would have wanted to be understood themselves. Consequently, he reduced his field of research to the phenomena in religions living around the origin of Christianity: during the millennia before and the centuries after Christ, in Iran (Avesta), Babylonia and Assyria, Israel, Egypt, Greece and Rome. The required knowledge of speeches, also, is one of

neg: Teleost in genetics and developmental biology. The zebrafish is the most commonly used laboratory vertebrate, offering the advantages of genetic similarity to mammals, small size, simple environmental needs, transparent larvae permitting non-invasive imaging, plentiful offspring, rapid growth, and the ability to absorb mutagens added to their water. Teleost fishes have been frequent subjects in art, reflecting their economic importance, for at least 14,000 years. They were commonly worked into patterns in Ancient Egypt, acquiring mythological significance in Ancient Greece and Rome, and from there into Christianity as a religious symbol; artists in China and Japan similarly use fish images symbolically. Teleosts

neg: Fish in culture is based on a constellation of the same name, but there is a second fish constellation in the night sky, Piscis Austrinus. Fish have been frequent subjects in art, reflecting their economic importance, for at least 14,000 years. They were commonly worked into patterns in Ancient Egypt, acquiring mythological significance in Ancient Greece and Rome, and from there into Christianity as a religious symbol; artists in China and Japan similarly use fish images symbolically. Teleosts became common in Renaissance art, with still life paintings reaching a peak of popularity in the Netherlands in the 17th century. In the 20th century,

neg: History of Greece place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored by this decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt. Caracalla's decree did not set in motion the processes that led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to Greece and the East, but rather accelerated them, setting the foundations for the millennium-long rise of Greece, in the form of the Eastern Roman Empire, as a major power in Europe and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages. The history of the East Roman or

neg: Vincenzo Marinelli 1842 to 1848, he studied in Rome at the Academy under Tommaso Minardi. Returning to Naples after the restoration, he traveled through Greece working for Otto, King of Greece. He visited the Greek isles, and painted for the Cathedral of Rethymno in Crete. He then traveled to Egypt, where he completed works for the Ottoman Khedive, Muhammad Sa'id Pasha, accompanying him on a nine-month trip to Sudan. Back in Naples in 1859, ten years later he was invited to the inauguration of the Suez Canal, he returned to Egypt and traveled up to the first cataract of the Nile. Again

neg: Ceremonial use of lights which lights hung like fruit. The lamps in the pagan temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings to the gods. Torches and lamps were also carried in religious processions. The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next world; the lamps were for the most part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it having been observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in Egypt or Greece. In Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination of Rome. In Christianity,

neg: François-René de Chateaubriand Fesch to Rome. But the two men soon quarrelled and Chateaubriand was nominated as minister to Valais (in Switzerland). He resigned his post in disgust after Napoleon ordered the execution in 1804 of Louis XVI's cousin, Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien. Chateaubriand was, after his resignation, completely dependent on his literary efforts. However, and quite unexpectedly, he received a large sum of money from the Russian Tsarina Elizabeth Alexeievna. She had seen him as a defender of Christianity and thus worthy of her royal support. Chateaubriand used his new-found wealth in 1806 to visit Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt, Tunisia

neg: Christian art in art has remained remarkably consistent. Until the adoption of Christianity by Constantine Christian art derived its style and much of its iconography from popular Roman art, but from this point grand Christian buildings built under imperial patronage brought a need for Christian versions of Roman elite and official art, of which mosaics in churches in Rome are the most prominent surviving examples. Christian art was caught up in, but did not originate, the shift in style from the classical tradition inherited from Ancient Greek art to a less realist and otherworldly hieratic style, the start of gothic art. Much

neg: Ptolemaic coinage Phoenicia. However, the Seleucids discontinued a Ptolemaic mint in Jaffa. In Greece, Ptolemaic coinage mainly originate from Peloponnese and Euboea. Corinth did not strike Ptolemaic coinage during its brief subordination to the kingdom. Cyprus had many important mints, and the island struck large amounts of Ptolemaic coinage from 200 BC to 80 BC. Cyprus was also richer in silver than Egypt. In the second century BC, most of the Cypriot coinage are easily identifiable and datable because they include abbreviations for mints and dates for both gold and silver coinage. Cypriot mints from this period include Salamis (abbr. ΣA), Kition

neg: Pompey account of Plutarch. The latter did not mention any action in Judea. He wrote that Pompey marched on Petra (the capital of the Kingdom of Nabataea) to confirm Aretas, who wanted to become a friend of Rome. It was while he was encamped near Petra that he was told that Mithridates was dead. He then left Arabia and went to Amisus (Samsun), in Pontus, on the north coast of Anatolia (see above). Josephus did write that Pompey marched on Nabataea, but did not mention the reason for this. However, he also marched to Judea to deal with Aristobulus. He did

neg: Stephen Biesty 1991: "Explore the World of Man-made Wonders" (Simon Adams) 1992: "Exploring the Past: Ancient Egypt" (George Hart) 1992: "Incredible Cross-Sections" (Richard Platt) 1993: "Man-of-War" (Richard Platt) 1994: "Castle" (Richard Platt) 1996: "Incredible Explosions" (Richard Platt) 1998: "Incredible Body" (Richard Platt) 1999: "Absolutely Best Cross-Sections Book Ever" (Richard Platt) 1999: "Millennium Dome Pop-up Book" 2001: "The Coolest Cross-Sections Ever!" (Richard Platt) 2002: "Gold: A Treasure Hunt through Time" (Meredith Hooper) 2003: "Rome" (Andrew Solway) 2005: "Egypt" (Stewart Ross) 2006: "Greece" (Stewart Ross) 2008: "Ancient World: Egypt, Rome, and Greece" 2014: "The Story of Buildings", Walker Books. 2014: "Castles" (Meredith Hooper) 2014:

neg: Nicola Rubino 1942 he took part in the fourth Rome Quadriennale and in 1948 into the "Rassegna d'arte figurativa" (Exposition of figurative art) of Rome. In 1952 he took part in the fifth Rome Quadriennale and in the XXVI Venice Biennale and his works were then exhibited in foreign countries, among which there were Greece, Turkey and Egypt. Between 1953 and 1959 he participated at the "Mostra d'arte del Mezzogiorno" (Southern Italy Art Exhibition) of Rome (1953), Naples (1953 and 1954) where he is assigned the prize "Salvator Rosa", and then at the "International Medal Exhibition" (Palazzo Venezia in Rome). In 1953

neg: Campaign history of the Roman military and Battle of Ilerda he decided to attack Pompey in Greece. Pompey initially defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BC but failed to follow up on the victory. Pompey was decisively defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered in an attempt to ingratiate the country with Caesar and avoid a war with Rome. Pompey's death did not see the end of the civil wars since initially Caesar's enemies were manifold and Pompey's supporters continued to fight on

neg: Great Synagogue of Rome Great Synagogue of Rome The Great Synagogue of Rome () is the largest synagogue in Rome. The Jewish community of Rome goes back to the 2nd century B.C when the Roman Republic had an alliance of sorts with Judea under the leadership of Judah Maccabeus. At that time, many Jews came to Rome from Judea. Their numbers increased during the following centuries due to the settlement that came with Mediterranean trade. Then large numbers of Jews were brought to Rome as slaves following the Jewish–Roman wars in Judea from 63 to 135 CE. The present Synagogue was constructed shortly after

neg: Historiography of early Christianity Bauer's "Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum" ("Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity") in 1934. Bauer endeavored to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He stated that the 2nd-century church was very diverse and included many "heretical" groups that had an equal claim to apostolic tradition. Bauer interpreted the struggle between the orthodox and heterodox to be the "mainstream" Roman church struggling to attain dominance. He presented Edessa and Egypt as places where the "orthodoxy" of Rome had little influence during the 2nd century. As he saw it, the theological thought of the Orient at

neg: Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire the Senate sentences the fleeing Nero to death, his suicide bringing the Julio-Claudian dynasty to an end. The First Jewish-Roman War begins when the Jews rise up against their corrupt governor, drive the Romans out of Judea and defeat a counter-attack at the Battle of Beth Horon. The future Emperor Titus is sent to recall his father Vespasian from exile in Greece to lead the legions against the rebels in Galilee. Josephus Ben Matityahu commands the resistance from the city of Jotapata, where many Jews take refuge from Vespasian’s campaign of terror. Vespasian leads a three-week Siege of Jotapata and

neg: History of Egypt Hypatia, and Heron broke new ground in astronomy, mathematics, and other disciplines. Culturally, the city of Alexandria at times rivaled Rome in its importance. Christianity reached Egypt relatively early in the evangelist period of the first century (traditionally credited to Mark the Evangelist). Alexandria, Egypt and Antioch, Syria quickly became the leading centers of Christianity. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic

neg: Our Lady of Bethlehem (Puerto Rico) Delivery”) in St. Augustine, Florida. The tradition of milk dates back to the first centuries of Christianity. Those converting to Christianity were given a mixture of milk and honey to drink, which in the early churches of Egypt, Rome, and North Africa was solemnly blessed at the Easter and Pentecost vigils. Milk with honey symbolized the union of the two natures in Christ. The custom of giving milk with honey to the newly baptized did not last long, but this tradition is visible in artistic representations. The image is painted on a wooden canvas. It measures 37.2 cm by 65

neg: Marcellus (prefect of Judea) Marcellus (prefect of Judea) Marcellus was Roman Prefect of the province of Judea. He was a friend of Lucius Vitellius (ib. 4, § 2), who appointed him after sending Pontius Pilate to Rome (in 36 or 37) to render account. It may be assumed, however, that Marcellus was not really a governor of Judea, but only a subordinate official of Vitellius. Indeed, this is the only instance where Josephus, in designating the office of Marcellus, uses the expression "epimeletes" ("ἐπιμελητής") = "overseer", which is uncommon, and we are not certain whether Marcellus really had the powers of a prefect or

neg: Saint Peter during this journey he ordained Zacchaeus as the first bishop of Caesarea and Maro as the first bishop of Tripolis. Fred Lapham suggests the route recorded in the Clementine writings may have been taken from an earlier document mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in his "Panarion" called "The Itinerary of Peter". Eusebius of Caesarea relates that when Peter confronts Simon Magus at Judea (mentioned in Acts 8), Simon flees to Rome where the Romans got to regard him as a god. According to Eusebius, his luck did not last long since God sent Peter to Rome and Simon was quenched

neg: Philo Greeks dead. Philo lived in an era of increasing ethnic tension in Alexandria, exacerbated by the new strictures of imperial rule. Some expatriate Hellenes in Alexandria condemned the Jews for a supposed alliance with Rome, even as Rome was seeking to suppress Jewish nationalism in Judea. In "Against Flaccus", Philo describes the situation of the Jews in Egypt, writing that they numbered not less than a million and inhabited two of the five districts in Alexandria. He recounts the abuses of the prefect Aulus Avilius Flaccus, who he says retaliated against the Jews when they refused to worship Caligula as

neg: Greece in the Roman era longest period of peace in Greek history, and Greece became a major crossroads of maritime trade between Rome and the Greek speaking eastern half of the empire. The Greek language served as a "lingua franca" in the East and in Italy, and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome. During this time, Greece and much of the rest of the Roman east came under the influence of Early Christianity. The apostle Paul of Tarsus preached in Philippi, Corinth and Athens, and Greece soon became one of the most highly Christianized areas of the

neg: Sculpture and Contemporary art) as they were in the Rococo, or in ancient Greece when Tanagra figurines were a major industry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, and Mesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues of Gudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144–2124 BCE. In ancient Greece and Rome, the erection of a portrait statue in a

neg: Friedrich von Amerling London, where he was influenced by the portrait painter Sir Thomas Lawrence. Further journeys led him to Paris, where he studied with Horace Vernet, and Rome; he then returned to Vienna, where after 1828 he worked for the Austrian court, the aristocracy and middle class. He received the Reichel prize of the academy in Vienna in 1829. Amerling spent much time traveling: in 1836 and 1838 to Italy, 1838 to the Netherlands, 1839 to Munich, 1840-43 in Rome, 1882 in Spain, 1883 in England, 1884 in Greece, 1885 in Skandinavia up to Norway's North Cape and 1886 to Egypt and

neg: Eagles of the Empire intrigue that often leaves the protagonists in receipt of contempt from the Roman political class. The sixth book, "The Eagle's Prophecy" opens with the two on leave in the city of Rome, and detailed to carry out a pursuit of pirates operating in the Mediterranean. The seventh and eighth books, "The Eagle in the Sand" and "Centurion", take place in the Roman Empire's eastern provinces, Judea and Palmyra, respectively. While returning to Rome from Palmyra, the protagonists are shipwrecked on the island of Crete in "The Gladiator", which leads to them being sent to Egypt in the tenth novel, "The

neg: Western Christianity the 16th century, as did Independent Catholicism in the 19th century. Thus, the term "Western Christianity" does not describe a single communion or religious denomination, but is applied to distinguish all these denominations collectively from Eastern Christianity. The establishment of the distinct Latin Church, a particular church sui iuris of the Catholic Church (in contrast to the Eastern Catholic Churches, also in full communion with the Pope in Rome) coincided with the consolidation of the Holy See in Rome, where the bishop claimed a particular role since Antiquity. The terms "Western" and "Eastern" in this regard originated with geographical divisions

neg: Mark Antony (Rome character) two sons, Cleopatra Selene, Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus by Cleopatra. Only Antonia Major and Cleopatra's twins Selene and Helios are noted in the series. The historical timeline has also been manipulated. Antony fathered his first two children with Cleopatra before marrying Octavia; when he later left Rome, he settled in Athens, Greece with Octavia, and they had their daughters. He ultimately left his wife in Greece and reunited with Cleopatra in Egypt; he and Cleopatra subsequently had their third child. In the series, Antony marries Octavia and is then forced by Octavian to relocate to Egypt; he leaves Octavia

neg: Copts an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body for 16 centuries has been out of communion with both the Roman Catholic Church (in Rome) and the various Eastern orthodox churches. According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced within present day Egypt by Saint Mark in Alexandria, shortly after the ascension of Christ and during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that Saint Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. From Alexandria, Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria, as is clear from a

neg: Tiriel (poem) (1795), Urizen is imprisoned within "Coldness, darkness, obstruction, a Solid/Without fluctuation, hard as adamant/Black as marble of Egypt; impenetrable" (Chap. I, Verse 10). Many years later, in "On Virgil" (1822), Blake claims that "Sacred Truth has pronounced that Greece & Rome as Babylon & Egypt: so far from being parents of Arts & Sciences as they pretend: were destroyers of all Art." Similarly, in "The Laocoön" (also 1822), he writes "The Gods of Greece & Egypt were Mathematical Diagrams," "These are not the Works/Of Egypt nor Babylon Whose Gods are the Powers of this World. Goddess, Nature./Who first spoil &

neg: Usury a legal sense where interest rates may be regulated by law. Historically, some cultures (e.g., Christianity in much of Medieval Europe, and Islam in many parts of the world today) have regarded charging any interest for loans as sinful. Some of the earliest known condemnations of usury come from the Vedic texts of India. Similar condemnations are found in religious texts from Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (the term is "riba" in Arabic and "ribbit" in Hebrew). At times, many nations from ancient Greece to ancient Rome have outlawed loans with any interest. Though the Roman Empire eventually allowed loans

neg: History of same-sex unions for this as being that the Hebrews were warned not to "follow the acts of the land of Egypt or the acts of the land of Canaan." The sages explicitly state: "what did [the Egyptians and Canaanites] do? A man would marry a man and a woman [marry] a woman." Same-sex unions were known in Ancient Greece and Rome, ancient Mesopotamia, in some regions of China, such as Fujian province, and at certain times in ancient European history. Same-sex marital practices and rituals were more recognized in Mesopotamia than in ancient Egypt. The Almanac of Incantations contained prayers favoring on

neg: Cradle of civilization start of a specific ethnic group; which often occurred significantly earlier than the emergence of civilization proper. There is academic consensus that Classical Greece is the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture, democracy, theatre, historiography, philosophy, mathematics and science. For this reason it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization. Along with Greece, Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics, republicanism, law, technology, warfare and Christianity. Both Greece and Rome produced extensive art and literature, that form a

neg: Liberal Christianity Liberal Christianity Liberal Christianity, also known as liberal theology, covers diverse philosophically and biblically informed religious movements and ideas within Christianity from the late 18th century onward. "Liberal" does not refer to progressive Christianity or to political liberalism but to the philosophical and religious thought that developed and grew as a consequence of the Enlightenment. Liberal Christianity, broadly speaking, is a method of biblical hermeneutics, an undogmatic method of understanding God through the use of scripture by applying the same modern hermeneutics used to understand any ancient writings, symbols and scriptures. Liberal Christianity did not originate as a belief structure,

neg: Cremation Jainism are notable for not only allowing but prescribing cremation. Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture (from c. 1900 BCE), considered the formative stage of Vedic civilization. The Rigveda contains a reference to the emerging practice, in RV 10.15.14, where the forefathers "both cremated ("agnidagdhá-") and uncremated ("ánagnidagdha-")" are invoked. Cremation remained common but not universal, in both ancient Greece and ancient Rome. According to Cicero, in Rome, inhumation was considered the more archaic rite, while the most honoured citizens were most typically cremated—especially upper classes and members of imperial families. The rise of Christianity

neg: Predation in northern Europe, and a creature of the devil in early Christianity; the fox is sly, greedy, and cunning in fables from Aesop onwards. The big bad wolf is known to children in tales such as "Little Red Riding Hood", but is a demonic figure in the Icelandic Edda sagas, where the wolf Fenrir appears in the apocalyptic ending of the world. In the middle ages, belief spread in werewolves, men transformed into wolves. In ancient Rome, and in ancient Egypt, the wolf was worshipped, the she-wolf appearing in the founding myth of Rome, suckling Romulus and Remus. More recently,

neg: Edward Gibbon Edward Gibbon's central thesis, that Rome fell due to embracing Christianity, is not accepted by mainstream scholars today. Gibbon's apparent antagonism to Christian doctrine spilled over into the Jewish faith, leading to charges of anti-Semitism. For example, he wrote: From the reign of Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious massacres and insurrections. Humanity is shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which they committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship

neg: Apocrypha texts as canonical, preferring to hold to only what was written in the Law of Moses (making most of the presently accepted canon, both Jewish and Christian, "apocryphal" in their eyes). Certain circles in Judaism, such as the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt, were said to have a secret literature (see Dead Sea scrolls). Other traditions maintained different customs regarding canonicity. The Ethiopic Jews, for instance, seem to have retained a spread of canonical texts similar to the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, cf "Encyclopaedia Judaica", Vol 6, p 1147. During the birth of Christianity many Jewish texts of

neg: Judea (Roman province) appeal from his own population. Another, Herod Antipas, ruled as tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 BCE to 39 CE, being then dismissed by Caligula. The third tetrarch, Herod's son Philip, ruled over the northeastern part of his father's kingdom. In 6 CE Archelaus' tetrachy (Judea, plus Samaria and Idumea) came under direct Roman administration. The Judean province did not initially include Galilee, Gaulanitis (the Golan), nor Peraea or the Decapolis. Its revenue was of little importance to the Roman treasury, but it controlled the land and coastal sea routes to the bread basket of Egypt and was a

neg: History of Eastern Christianity Empire ruled the Middle Eastern coastal communities and the Mediterranean during the time of Christ. As Christians within the Roman Empire many different nationalities and ethnic peoples where subject to Roman rule. Though the power of the Empire was seated in Rome the greatest unifying force of the Empire was its foundations, which were built on the conquests of Alexander the Great. It was the Hellenistic Empire which established a unified civilization of the Mediterranean and Greater Middle East, parts of Africa, India and southern Europe. With its conquests of the Mediterranean including Egypt and Babylon, that Rome inherited by

neg: Buddhism and Christianity a crucifixion scene it reminded him of the "gap that lies deep" between Christianity and Buddhism. Suggestions have been made that Buddhism may have influenced early Christianity. Buddhist missionaries, sent by Emperor Ashoka to India, Ceylon, Syria, Egypt and Greece, may have helped prepare for the ethics of Christ. Gnostics (a small number of sects) are not considered part of mainstream Christianity and some have been declared heretical. However, Elaine Pagels proposes Buddhist influences on Gnosticism. Pagels suggested that there are parallels with teachings attributed to Jesus Christ and teachings found in Eastern traditions, but concludes that these parallels might

neg: A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years is a 2009 book by the British ecclesiastical historian Diarmaid MacCulloch. It is a survey of Christianity from its earliest lineages. The first American edition was titled Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years, published in 2010 by Penguin Books from Viking. In a review at the "London Review of Books", Frank Kermode notes that the subtitle of the book, 'The First Three Thousand Years', includes the ancient world of Greece, Rome, and Judaism () that so influenced Christianity. A review by then-Archbishop

neg: Macedonian Wars the "Freedom of the Greeks", which constituted Rome's (arguably misguided) new policy towards Greece. This was that Greece was now stable and Rome could completely remove itself from Greek affairs without risking more instability. It seemed that Rome had no further interest in the region, as they withdrew all military forces without even attempting to consolidate any gains, and subsequently returned to their prior apathy even when their Greek allies ignored later Roman requests. With Egypt and Macedonia now weakened, the Seleucid Empire became increasingly aggressive and successful in its attempts to conquer the entire Greek world. When Rome pulled

neg: Nicolai Michoutouchkine where he studied painting in the "Grande Chaumière" art school in Montparnasse and also at the Scientific Commercial School where he obtained the commercial diploma. In 1949, he made his first hitchhiking trip to Rome, Italy. On 7 August 1953, Nicolai Michoutouchkine left Paris. During the next 4 years, he was to visit Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, where he met the president Camille Chamoun, Egypt, where he met the president Muhammad Naguib, Israel and then Jordan where he met the Jordanian king Hussein bin Talal, then Iraq where he met King Faisal, Iran where he met the Shah Mohammed

neg: Battle of Thapsus 13th Legion, a clear violation of Roman Law, and marched to Rome. The Optimates fled to Greece under the command of Pompey since they were incapable of defending the city of Rome itself against Caesar. Led by Caesar, the Populares followed, but were greatly outnumbered and defeated in the Battle of Dyrrhachium. Still outnumbered, Caesar recovered and went on to decisively defeat the Optimates under Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey then fled to Egypt, where to Caesar's consternation, Pompey was assassinated. The remaining Optimates, not ready to give up fighting, regrouped in the African provinces. Its leaders were Marcus Cato (the

neg: Cleopatra Tarentum or Brundisium, but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly. Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at Patrai in Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC they had moved to Actium, on the southern side of the Ambracian Gulf. Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but Cleopatra had already been in conflict with Herod, and an earthquake in Judea provided him with an excuse to be absent from the campaign. They also lost the support of Malichus I, which would prove to have strategic consequences. Antony

neg: Reign of Cleopatra Cleopatra had the defense of Egypt in mind, as any southward movement by Octavian's fleet along the coast of Greece could be detected. Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings. Conflict between Cleopatra and Herod had previously erupted and an earthquake in Judea provided an excuse for him and his forces not to be present at Actium in support of the couple. They also lost the support of Malichus I of Nabataea, which would prove to have strategic consequences. Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC. Defections to

neg: Herodian dynasty the eastern Roman provinces and managed to drive the Romans out of many areas. In Judea, the Hasmonean dynasty was restored under king Antigonus as a pro-Parthian monarch. Herod the Great, the son of Antipater the Idumean and Cypros (possibly of Nabataean descent), managed to escape to Rome. After convincing the Roman Senate of his sincere intentions in favor of Romans he eventually was announced as king of the Jews by the Roman Senate. Despite his announcement as king of the whole of Judea, Herod did not fully conquer it until 37 BCE. He subsequently ruled the Herodian kingdom as

neg: Ethnarch region even after it fell under the dominion of Rome, and into the early Roman Empire, to refer to rulers of vassal kingdoms who did not rise to the level of kings. The Romans used the terms "natio" and "gens" for a people as a genetic and cultural entity, regardless of political statehood. The best-known is probably Herod Archelaus, son of Herod the Great, who was ethnarch of Samaria, Judea (Biblical Judah), and Idumea (Biblical Edom), from the death of his father in 4 BC to AD 6. This region is known as the Tetrarchy of Judea. His brother Philip

neg: Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) the later Old Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid. Cereal agriculture and centralization contributed to the success of the state for the next 800 years. It seems certain that Egypt became unified as a cultural and economic domain long before its first king ascended to the throne in the lower Egyptian city of Memphis where the dynastic period did originate. This would last for many centuries. Political unification proceeded gradually, perhaps over a period of a century or so as local districts established trading networks and the ability of their governments to organize agriculture labor on a larger scale

neg: Caratacus entry of Christianity to Britain: "Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners." Another tradition, which has remained popular among British Israelites and others, makes Caratacus already a Christian before he came to Rome, Christianity having been brought

neg: Pierre Trémaux de Rome in Architecture in 1845. As a trained architect, he worked at the Schneider establishments in Le Creusot. He was interested in urbanism, the breakthrough of the Suez Canal. A naturalist, he traveled to Algeria, Tunisia, Upper Egypt, Eastern Sudan and Ethiopia in 1847-1848, where he made many drawings and became one of the first to produce photographic images of the region. From Alexandria, he went up the Nile to Nubia. In 1853-1854, he undertook a second photographic trip to Libya, Egypt, Asia Minor, Tunisia, Syria and Greece. He returned from these trips with many illustrations and photographic images,

neg: Princeton University Art Museum led to a substantial collection in that area. New acquisitions, enabled by a dedicated fund, are focused on areas where the collection is weak, notably still life and genre painting. Ancient art has played a central role in the museum's collection since its beginning. The first major addition to the collection included many Etruscan vases, as well as those from Egypt, Greece, and Rome. There are now more than 5,000 objects in the collection, documenting the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, Iran, Asia Minor, and the Levant. The great diversity of artifacts also covers the various eras of ancient Egypt, from

neg: History of Western civilization and Hellenistic Judaism stemming back to Second Temple Judea, Galilee, and the early Jewish diaspora; and some other Middle Eastern influences. Christianity and Roman Catholicism has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, which throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture. (There were Christians outside of the West, such as China, India, Russia, Byzantium and the Middle East). Western civilization has spread to produce the dominant cultures of modern Americas and Oceania, and has had immense global influence in recent centuries in many ways. Following the 5th century Fall of Rome, Western

neg: Jewish Christian Uniat offshoots ("Catholic" or "united" with Rome). Today, certain families are associated with descent from the early Jewish Christians of Antioch, Damascus, Judea, and Galilee. Some of those families carry surnames such as Youhanna (John), Hanania (Ananias), Sahyoun (Zion), Eliyya/Elias (Elijah), Chamoun/Shamoun (Simeon/Simon), Semaan/Simaan (Simeon/Simon), Menassa (Manasseh), Salamoun/Suleiman (Solomon), Youwakim (Joachim), Zakariya (Zacharias) and others. In modern days, the term "Jewish Christian" generally refers to ethnic Jews who have converted to or have been raised in Christianity. They are mostly members of Catholic and Protestant congregations, and are generally assimilated into the Christian mainstream, although they retain a strong sense

neg: History of religion in Malta the time. Catacombs in Rabat testify to an early Christian community in Malta. The Acts of the Apostles tells the story of how Paul of Tarsus was shipwrecked in Malta on his way from Caesarea Maritima to Rome, sent by Porcius Festus, procurator of Judea, to stand trial before the Emperor. Paul ministered in Malta for three months (). According to tradition, Publius, the Roman Governor of Malta at the time, became the first Bishop of Malta following his conversion to Christianity. His episcopate is said to have lasted thirty-one years before facing martyrdom in Athens. There is scant information

neg: Christianity in the 1st century the Roman Empire, beginning in 64 AD, when Emperor Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome. Several of the New Testament writings mention persecutions and stress endurance through them. Christians suffered persecutions for their refusal to give any worship to the Roman emperor, considered treasonous and punishable by execution. Systematic persecution of the early Christian church caused it to be an underground movement. Of the underground churches that existed before the Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, some churches are recorded to have existed as the catacombs in Europe, Catacombs of Rome, Greece, and also in the underground cities

neg: Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC I, and the latter supported him in the fight against the pro-Roman Jewish leaders Hyrcanus II and Phasael, successfully installing him as the new king of Judea. Hyrcanus II and Phasael were captured while trying to negotiate with the Parthians, and were deported to Parthia, while Herod, another leader, fled. Mark Antony left Egypt for Greece and sent Publius Ventidius Bassus to Asia Minor. He scored two victories with minimal forces north of the Taurus Mountains in 39 BC (Battle of the Cilician Gates, Battle of Amanus Pass), capturing and executing Labienus. He then drove the Parthians out of Syria.

neg: Christianity in Ethiopia than to a specific person. Judaism was practiced in Ethiopia long before Christianity arrived and the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible contains numerous Jewish Aramaic words. The Old Testament in Ethiopia may be a translation of the Hebrew with possible assistance from Jews. According to church historian Nicephorus, the apostle St. Matthew later preached the Christian Gospel to modern-day Ethiopia after having preached in Judea. Rufinus of Tyre, a noted church historian, recorded a personal account as did other church historians such as Socrates and Sozemius. The Garima Gospels are thought to be the world's oldest illuminated Christian manuscripts. After being shipwrecked

neg: History of the East–West Schism line between secular and ecclesiastical power. "See also: First phase of papal supremacy and Early centers of Christianity" In the early church up until the ecumenical councils, Rome was regarded as an important centre of Christianity, especially since it was the capital of the Roman Empire. The eastern and southern Mediterranean bishops generally recognized a persuasive leadership and authority of the Bishop of Rome, because the teaching of the bishop of Rome was almost invariably correct. But the Mediterranean Church did not regard the Bishop of Rome as any sort of infallible source, nor did they acknowledge any juridical authority

neg: Lucius Sempronius Atratinus colleague Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus convened the Senate to introduce Herod the Great, who received the title of King of Judea. This same year he was elected to the role of Augur, one of the priests of ancient Rome, a position he held until his death in 7 AD. A supporter of Mark Antony, Atratinus was one of his legates, serving as propraetor in Greece in 39 BC. In 36 BC he was given command of a portion of a fleet which Antony had sent to help Octavianus deal with Sextus Pompey. In 34 BC he was elected suffect consul

neg: Hanukkah tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn Ma'oz Tzur is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in Jewish history, and praises God for survival despite these tragedies (the exodus from Egypt, the Babylonian captivity, the miracle of the holiday of Purim, the Hasmonean victory), and a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over Rome. The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the

neg: Rome amphitheatre, known as the Colosseum) and Antonine dynasties. This time was also characterised by the spread of the Christian religion, preached by Jesus Christ in Judea in the first half of the first century (under Tiberius) and popularized by his apostles through the empire and beyond. The Antonine age is considered the apogee of the Empire, whose territory ranged from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates and from Britain to Egypt. After the end of the Severan Dynasty in 235, the Empire entered into 50-year period known as the Crisis of the Third Century during which there were numerous putsches