query: after complete oxidation of a glucose molecule how many number of atp molecules are formed

pos: Cellular respiration ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose. Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose).

pos: Cellular respiration ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose. Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose).

neg: Citric acid cycle are: two GTP, six NADH, two QH, and four CO. The above reactions are balanced if P represents the HPO ion, ADP and GDP the ADP and GDP ions, respectively, and ATP and GTP the ATP and GTP ions, respectively. The total number of ATP molecules obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38. The theoretical maximum yield of ATP through oxidation of one molecule of glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is 38 (assuming 3 molar equivalents of ATP per equivalent

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism FADH, which drive the creation of ATP in other processes. A molecule of NADH can produce 1.5–2.5 molecules of ATP, whereas a molecule of FADH will yield 1.5 molecules of ATP. Typically, the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose via aerobic respiration (i.e. involving both glycolysis and the Citric Acid Cycle) is usually about 30–32 molecules of ATP. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy. Glucoregulation is the maintenance of steady levels of glucose in the body. Hormones released from the pancreas regulate the overall metabolism of glucose. Insulin and glucagon are the primary

neg: Citric acid cycle fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation, which results in the production of mitochondrial "acetyl-CoA", which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene bridges produces propionyl-CoA, which is then converted into "succinyl-CoA" and fed into the citric acid cycle as an anaplerotic intermediate. The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one (six-carbon) molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the formation of 2 "acetyl-CoA" molecules, their catabolism in the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the electron transport chain. ATP production occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. There are two methods of producing ATP: aerobic and anaerobic. In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen plays a key role as it increases ATP production from 4 ATP

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions. Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high

neg: Chemiosmosis chemiosmotic hypothesis in 1961. The theory suggests essentially that most adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis in respiring cells comes from the electrochemical gradient across the inner membranes of mitochondria by using the energy of NADH and FADH formed from the breaking down of energy-rich molecules such as glucose. Molecules such as glucose are metabolized to produce acetyl CoA as an energy-rich intermediate. The oxidation of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) in the mitochondrial matrix is coupled to the reduction of a carrier molecule such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The carriers pass electrons to the electron transport

neg: Oxidative phosphorylation The amount of energy released by oxidative phosphorylation is high, compared with the amount produced by anaerobic fermentation. Glycolysis produces only 2 ATP molecules, but somewhere between 30 and 36 ATPs are produced by the oxidative phosphorylation of the 10 NADH and 2 succinate molecules made by converting one molecule of glucose to carbon dioxide and water, while each cycle of beta oxidation of a fatty acid yields about 14 ATPs. These ATP yields are theoretical maximum values; in practice, some protons leak across the membrane, lowering the yield of ATP. The electron transport chain carries both protons and electrons,

neg: Glucose for subsequent breakdown in later steps of glycolysis. At physiological conditions, this initial reaction is irreversible. In anaerobic respiration, one glucose molecule produces a net gain of two ATP molecules (four ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis through substrate-level phosphorylation, but two are required by enzymes used during the process). In aerobic respiration, a molecule of glucose is much more profitable in that a maximum net production of 30 or 32 ATP molecules (depending on the organism) through oxidative phosphorylation is generated. Tumor cells often grow comparatively quickly and consume an above-average amount of glucose by glycolysis, which leads to

neg: Cellular respiration lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two

neg: Citric acid cycle that produces ATP (ADP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase). Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix. The GTP that is formed by GDP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside-diphosphate kinase to form ATP (the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP). Products of the first turn of the cycle are one GTP (or ATP), three NADH, one QHand two CO. Because two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule. Therefore, at the end of two cycles, the products

neg: Cellular respiration to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals. According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose , because: So finally we have, per molecule of glucose Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the

neg: 1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid phosphoglycerate kinase undergoes a substrate induced conformational change similar to another metabolic enzyme called hexokinase. Because two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are formed during glycolysis from one molecule of glucose, 1,3BPG can be said to responsible for two of the ten molecules of ATP produced during the entire process. Glycolysis also uses two molecules of ATP in its initial stages as a committed and irreversible step. For this reason glycolysis is not reversible and has a net produce of 2 molecules of ATP and two of NADH. The two molecules of NADH themselves go on to produce approximately 3 molecules of

neg: Butyric acid cell. Then, ATP is produced, as can be seen, in the last step of the fermentation. Three molecules of ATP are produced for each glucose molecule, a relatively high yield. The balanced equation for this fermentation is Several species form acetone and "n"-butanol in an alternative pathway, which starts as butyrate fermentation. Some of these species are: These bacteria begin with butyrate fermentation, as described above, but, when the pH drops below 5, they switch into butanol and acetone production to prevent further lowering of the pH. Two molecules of butanol are formed for each molecule of acetone. The change

neg: Muscle form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase. Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle). Muscle cells also contain globules

neg: Basal metabolic rate in water—that is, 2 to 1—all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete oxidation of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed. The overall equation for this reaction is: Because the gas exchange in this reaction is equal, the respiratory quotient (R.Q.) for carbohydrate is unity or 1.0: The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in

neg: Inosinic acid becomes AMP or GMP. Both compounds are RNA nucleotides. AMP differs from inosinate by the replacement of IMP's carbon-6 carbonyl with an amino group. The interconversion of AMP and IMP occurs as part of the purine nucleotide cycle. GMP is formed by the inosinate oxidation to xanthylate (XMP), and afterwards adds an amino group on carbon 2. Hydrogen acceptor on inosinate oxidation is NAD+. Finally, carbon 2 gains the amino group by spending an ATP molecule (which becomes AMP+2Pi). While AMP synthesis requires GTP, GMP synthesis uses ATP. That difference offers an important regulation possibility. Inosinate and many other molecules

neg: Mixed acid fermentation energy in comparison to respiration. Mixed acid fermentation in "E. coli" occurs in two stages. These stages are outlined by the biological database for "E. coli", EcoCyc. The first of these two stages is a glycolysis reaction. Under anaerobic conditions, a glycolysis reaction takes place where glucose is converted into pyruvate: glucose → 2 pyruvate There is a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules per molecule of glucose converted. ATP is generated by substrate-level phosphorylation. NADH is formed from the reduction of NAD. In the second stage, pyruvate produced by glycolysis is converted to one or more

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism ATP. For the glucose molecule to oxidize into pyruvate, an input of ATP molecules is required. This is known as the investment phase, in which a total of two ATP molecules are consumed. At the end of glycolysis, the total yield of ATP is four molecules, but the net gain is two ATP molecules. Even though ATP is synthesized, the two ATP molecules produced are few compared to the second and third pathways, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Even if there is no oxygen present, glycolysis can continue to generate ATP. However, for glycolysis to continue to produce ATP, there

neg: Hydrolysis of energy for two main purposes: the biosynthesis of micro and macromolecules, and the active transport of ions and molecules across cell membranes. The energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients is not used directly but, by means of a complex and long sequence of reactions, it is channelled into a special energy-storage molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule contains pyrophosphate linkages (bonds formed when two phosphate units are combined together) that release energy when needed. ATP can undergo hydrolysis in two ways: the removal of terminal phosphate to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, or the removal

neg: Amphibolic one ATP molecule and a yield of 2 ATP and 2 pyruvate molecules also 1 NADH .This show the difference between the glycolytic used by humans and this pathway,that in this pathway, it require an investment of one ATP to yield a 2ATP and 2 pyruvate as a net of only one NADPH produced and one ATP result (from substrate level phosphorylation ), and the other pathway involve an investment of 2 ATP molecules to yield 4 ATP and 2 pyruvate molecules per glucose as a net of 2 ATP molecule . The cell determine whether the amphibolic function act

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism consists of ten steps, split into two phases. During the first phase, it requires the breakdown of two ATP molecules. During the second phase, chemical energy from the intermediates is transferred into ATP and NADH. The breakdown of one molecule of glucose results in two molecules of pyruvate, which can be further oxidized to access more energy in later processes. Gluconeogenesis is the reverse process of glycolysis. It involves the conversion of non-carbohydrate molecules into glucose. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are converted in this pathway include pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, alanine, and glutamine. This process occurs when there are lowered amounts

neg: Adenosine triphosphate pathways in eukaryotes are (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and (3) beta-oxidation. The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide, the combination of pathways 1 and 2, is known as cellular respiration, produces about 30 equivalents of ATP from each molecule of glucose. ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote occurs mainly in the mitochondria, which comprise nearly 25% of the volume of a typical cell. In glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate. Glycolysis generates two equivalents of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes, PGK and pyruvate kinase. Two equivalents of NADH

neg: Anaerobic glycolysis Anaerobic glycolysis Anaerobic glycolysis is the transformation of glucose to lactate when limited amounts of oxygen (O) are available. Anaerobic glycolysis is only an effective means of energy production during short, intense exercise, providing energy for a period ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes. The anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system is dominant from about 10–30 seconds during a maximal effort. It replenishes very quickly over this period and produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule or about 5% of glucose's energy potential (38 ATP molecules). The speed at which ATP is produced is about 100 times that of oxidative

neg: Glycolysis prosthetic group. Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) that proceeds further into glycolysis. This is advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the same pathway as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, simplifying regulation. The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP

neg: Glycolysis four hydroxyl groups, giving ATPMg. When these differences along with the true charges on the two phosphate groups are considered together, the net charges of −4 on each side are balanced. For simple fermentations, the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net yield of two molecules of ATP. Most cells will then carry out further reactions to 'repay' the used NAD and produce a final product of ethanol or lactic acid. Many bacteria use inorganic compounds as hydrogen acceptors to regenerate the NAD. Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism glycolysis pathway and is later cleaved into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Lactose, or milk sugar, consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose. After separation from glucose, galactose travels to the liver for conversion to glucose. Galactokinase uses one molecule of ATP to phosphorylate galactose. The phosphorylated galactose is then converted to glucose-1-phosphate, and then eventually glucose-6-phosphate, which can be broken down in glycolysis. Many steps of carbohydrate metabolism allow the cells to access energy, and store it more transiently in ATP. The cofactors NAD and FAD are sometimes reduced during this process to form NADH and

neg: Ketone bodies they are broken down into acetyl-CoA units by a sequence of reactions known as β-oxidation. The acetyl-CoA produced by β-oxidation enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrion by combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate. This results in the complete combustion of the acetyl group of acetyl-CoA (see diagram above, on the right) to CO and water. The energy released in this process is captured in the form of 1 GTP and 11 ATP molecules per acetyl group (or acetic acid molecule) oxidized. This is the fate of acetyl-CoA wherever β-oxidation of fatty acids occurs, except under certain circumstances in

neg: Respiratory quotient for organisms in metabolic balance usually ranges from 1.0 (representing the value expected for pure carbohydrate oxidation) to ~0.7 (the value expected for pure fat oxidation). In general, molecules that are more oxidized (e.g., glucose) require less oxygen to be fully metabolized and, therefore, have higher respiratory quotients. Conversely, molecules that are less oxidized (e.g., fatty acids) require more oxygen for their complete metabolism and have lower respiratory quotients. See BMR for a discussion of how these numbers are derived. A mixed diet of fat and carbohydrate results in an average value between these numbers. RQ value corresponds to a

neg: Malate-aspartate shuttle ATPs produced in glycolysis (3/NADH), ultimately resulting in a net gain of 38 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose metabolized. Compare this to the glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle, which reduces FAD to produce FADH, donates electrons to the quinone pool in the electron transport chain, and is capable of generating only 2 ATPs per NADH generated in glycolysis (ultimately resulting in a net gain of 36 ATPs per glucose metabolized). (These ATP numbers are prechemiosmotic, and should be reduced in light of the work of Mitchell and many others. Each NADH produced only 2.5 ATPs, and each FADH produces only 1.5

neg: Pyruvic acid potassium hydrogen sulfate, by the oxidation of propylene glycol by a strong oxidizer (e.g., potassium permanganate or bleach), or by the hydrolysis of acetyl cyanide, formed by reaction of acetyl chloride with potassium cyanide: Pyruvate is an important chemical compound in biochemistry. It is the output of the metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis. One molecule of glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate, which are then used to provide further energy, in one of two ways. Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-coenzyme A, which is the main input for a series of reactions known as the Krebs cycle (also

neg: Substrate-level phosphorylation substrate-level phosphorylation. The second substrate-level phosphorylation occurs by dephosphorylating phosphoenolpyruvate, catalyzed by pyruvate kinase, producing pyruvate and ATP. During the preparatory phase, each 6-carbon glucose molecule is broken into two 3-carbon molecules. Thus, in glycolysis dephosphorylation results in the production of 4 ATP. However, the prior preparatory phase consumes 2 ATP, so the net yield in glycolysis is 2 ATP. 2 molecules of NADH are also produced and can be used in oxidative phosphorylation to generate more ATP. ATP can be generated by substrate-level phosphorylation in mitochondria in a pathway that is independent from the proton motive force. In the

neg: Acyl-CoA cytosol, but oxidation occurs in the mitochondria. Because there is no transport protein for CoA adducts, acyl groups must enter the mitochondria via a shuttle system involving the small molecule carnitine. Acyl-CoA Acyl-CoA is a group of coenzymes involved in the metabolism of fatty acids. It is a temporary compound formed when coenzyme A (CoA) attaches to the end of a long-chain fatty acid inside living cells. The compound undergoes beta oxidation, forming one or more molecules of acetyl-CoA. This, in turn, enters the citric acid cycle, eventually forming several molecules of ATP. To be oxidatively degraded, a fatty acid

neg: Cell (biology) anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways. Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.

neg: Ethanol fermentation of sucrose (CHO) into ethanol (CHOH). Alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of glucose into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon dioxide, producing two moles of ATP in the process. The overall chemical formula for alcoholic fermentation is: Sucrose is a dimer of glucose and fructose molecules. In the first step of alcoholic fermentation, the enzyme invertase cleaves the glycosidic linkage between the glucose and fructose molecules. Next, each glucose molecule is broken down into two pyruvate molecules in a process known as glycolysis. Glycolysis is summarized by the equation: CHCOCOO is pyruvate, and P is inorganic phosphate.

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism molecules of ATP is therefore one of the most important biochemical pathways found in living organisms. Glycolysis, which means “sugar splitting,” is the initial process in the cellular respiration pathway. Glycolysis can be either an aerobic or anaerobic process. When oxygen is present, glycolysis continues along the aerobic respiration pathway. If oxygen is not present, then ATP production is restricted to anaerobic respiration. The location where glycolysis, aerobic or anaerobic, occurs is in the cytosol of the cell. In glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is split into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. These carbon molecules are oxidized into NADH and

neg: Secondary organic aerosols Secondary organic aerosols Secondary Organic Aerosols or SOA are molecules produced via oxidation over several generations of a parent organic molecule. In contrast to primary organic aerosols, which are emitted directly from the biosphere, secondary organic aerosols are formed via homogeneous nucleation through the successive oxidation of gas-phase organic compounds. These gas-phase species exert high vapor pressures, meaning they are volatile and stable in the gas-phase, however, upon oxidation, the increased polarity of the molecules results in a reduction of vapor pressure. After sufficient oxidation, the vapor pressure is sufficiently low that the gas-phase compound partitions into the solid-phase, producing

neg: C4 carbon fixation the pathway uses more energy than the pathway. The pathway requires 18 molecules of ATP for the synthesis of one molecule of glucose, whereas the pathway requires 30 molecules of ATP. This energy debt is more than paid for by avoiding losing more than half of photosynthetic carbon in photorespiration as occurs in some tropical plants, making it an adaptive mechanism for minimizing the loss. There are several variants of this pathway: The plants often possess a characteristic leaf anatomy called "kranz anatomy", from the German word for wreath. Their vascular bundles are surrounded by two rings of cells; the

neg: Light-independent reactions to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each molecule produces two G3P molecules, three molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved). The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps. Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules

neg: Human mitochondrial genetics certain circumstances. Mitochondrial inheritance is therefore non-Mendelian, as Mendelian inheritance presumes that half the genetic material of a fertilized egg (zygote) derives from each parent. Eighty percent of mitochondrial DNA codes for mitochondrial RNA, and therefore most mitochondrial DNA mutations lead to functional problems, which may be manifested as muscle disorders (myopathies). Because they provide 30 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule in contrast to the 2 ATP molecules produced by glycolysis, mitochondria are essential to all higher organisms for sustaining life. The mitochondrial diseases are genetic disorders carried in mitochondrial DNA, or nuclear DNA coding for mitochondrial components. Slight

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism only a few of the more complex carbohydrates. The disaccharide lactose, for instance, requires the enzyme lactase to be broken into its monosaccharide components, glucose and galactose. Glycolysis is the process of breaking down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while storing energy released during this process as ATP and NADH. Nearly all organisms that break down glucose utilize glycolysis. Glucose regulation and product use are the primary categories in which these pathways differ between organisms. In some tissues and organisms, glycolysis is the sole method of energy production. This pathway is anaerobic, because it doesn’t require oxygen. Glycolysis

neg: Cellulose fiber and other complex carbohydrate molecules is how the glucose molecules are linked together. In addition, cellulose is a straight chain polymer, and each cellulose molecule is long and rod-like. This differs from starch, which is a coiled molecule. A result of these differences in structure is that, compared to starch and other carbohydrates, cellulose cannot be broken down into its glucose subunits by any enzymes produced by animals. Natural cellulose fibers are fibers that are still recognizable as being from a part of the original plant because they are only processed as much as needed to clean the fibers for

neg: Glycation Glycation Glycation (sometimes called non-enzymatic glycosylation) is the result of the covalent bonding of a sugar molecule, such as glucose or fructose, to a protein or lipid molecule, without the controlling action of an enzyme. Glycation may occur either inside the body (endogenous glycation) or outside the body (exogenous glycation). It is a haphazard process that impairs the functioning of biomolecules, and does not require the expenditure of ATP (the energy storing molecule). Glycosylation, in contrast, is the enzyme-mediated ATP-dependent attachment of sugars to protein or lipid molecules at defined sites on the target molecule. It is an important form

neg: Digestion the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules. In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2

neg: Dioxygen in biological reactions 38 ATP molecules are formed from one molecule of glucose). The simplified version of this reaction is: Reactive oxygen species are dangerous by-products that sometimes result from the use of oxygen in organisms. Important examples include; oxygen free radicals such as the highly-dangerous superoxide O, and the less harmful hydrogen peroxide (HO). The body uses superoxide dismutase to reduce superoxide radicals to hydrogen peroxide. Glutathione peroxidase and similar enzymes then convert the HO to water and dioxygen. Parts of the immune system of higher organisms, however, create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Recently, singlet oxygen has

neg: Ackee only in the seeds. These two molecules are converted in the body to methylene cyclopropyl acetic acid (MCPA). Hypoglycin A and MCPA are both toxic. MCPA and hypoglycin A inhibit several enzymes involved in the breakdown of acyl CoA compounds, often binding irreversibly to coenzyme A, carnitine and carnitine acyltransferases I and II, reducing their bioavailability and consequently inhibiting beta oxidation of fatty acids. Beta oxidation normally provides the body with ATP, NADH, and acetyl CoA which is used to supplement the energy produced by glycolysis. Glucose stores are consequently depleted leading to hypoglycemia. Clinically, this condition is called Jamaican

neg: Glycolysis (At lower exercise intensities it can sustain muscle activity in diving animals, such as seals, whales and other aquatic vertebrates, for very much longer periods of time.) Under these conditions NAD is replenished by NADH donating its electrons to pyruvate to form lactate. This produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, or about 5% of glucose's energy potential (38 ATP molecules in bacteria). But the speed at which ATP is produced in this manner is about 100 times that of oxidative phosphorylation. The pH in the cytoplasm quickly drops when hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscle, eventually inhibiting the enzymes

neg: Glycerol kinase deficiency it into the energy rich molecule pyruvate. Inside the overall reaction there lie many steps that need to be followed in order for the original glucose molecule to be transformed into pyruvate. The glucose first gathers a phosphate group from an ATP molecule in order to become glucose-6-phosphate. It is then changed into fructose 6-phosphate, with the assistance of phosphoglucose isomerase, which is then changed into fructose 1,6-biphosphate when the fructose molecule receives a phosphate group from another ATP. The next step in the chain is crucial for cells in order to make more energy than they expend through the

neg: Dioxygen in biological reactions excitation and resonance energy transfer onto plastoquinone. Photosytem II therefore has also been referred to as water-plastoquinone oxido-reductase. The protons from the oxidized water molecules are released into the thylakoid lumen, thus contributing to the generation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. This proton gradient is the driving force for ATP synthesis via photophosphorylation and coupling the absorption of light energy and photolysis of water to the creation of chemical energy during photosynthesis. The O remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere. Water oxidation is catalyzed by a manganese-containing enzyme complex known as

neg: Starch exported via the plastidic glucose translocator (pGlcT). These two sugars act as a precursor for sucrose synthesis. Sucrose can then be used in the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway in the mitochondria, to generate ATP at night. While amylose was thought to be completely unbranched, it is now known that some of its molecules contain a few branch points. Amylose is a much smaller molecule than amylopectin. About one quarter of the mass of starch granules in plants consist of amylose, although there are about 150 times more amylose than amylopectin molecules. Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plant in semi-crystalline

neg: Tellimagrandin II to cornusiin E in "Tellima grandiflora". Tellimagrandin II Tellimagrandin II is the first of the ellagitannins formed from 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloyl-glucose. It can be found in "Geum japonicum" and "Syzygium aromaticum" (clove). Tellimagrandin II is an isomer of punicafolin or nupharin A, but the hexahydroxydiphenoyl group is not attached to the same hydroxyl groups in the glucose molecule. The compound shows anti-herpesvirus properties. It is formed by oxidation of pentagalloyl glucose in "Tellima grandiflora" by the enzyme , a laccase-type phenol oxidase. It is further oxidized to casuarictin, a molecule formed via oxidative dehydrogenation of 2 other galloyl groups in "Casuarina" and

neg: Tellimagrandin II Tellimagrandin II Tellimagrandin II is the first of the ellagitannins formed from 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloyl-glucose. It can be found in "Geum japonicum" and "Syzygium aromaticum" (clove). Tellimagrandin II is an isomer of punicafolin or nupharin A, but the hexahydroxydiphenoyl group is not attached to the same hydroxyl groups in the glucose molecule. The compound shows anti-herpesvirus properties. It is formed by oxidation of pentagalloyl glucose in "Tellima grandiflora" by the enzyme , a laccase-type phenol oxidase. It is further oxidized to casuarictin, a molecule formed via oxidative dehydrogenation of 2 other galloyl groups in "Casuarina" and "Stachyurus" species. It is laccase-catalyzed dimerized

neg: Autocatalysis as the light profile. The light undergoes optical modulation instability, spontaneous dividing into a multitude of optical filaments, and the polymer system thereby forms filaments within the blend structure. The result is a new system that couples optical autocatalytic behavior to spinodal decompositon. It is known that an important metabolic cycle, glycolysis, displays temporal order. Glycolysis consists of the degradation of one molecule of glucose and the overall production of two molecules of ATP. The process is therefore of great importance to the energetics of living cells. The global glycolysis reaction involves glucose, ADP, NAD, pyruvate, ATP, and NADH. The

neg: Carbohydrate one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 to 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP. Organisms capable of anaerobic and aerobic respiration that metabolizes glucose and oxygen (aerobic) to release energy with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Catabolism is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy. There are two major metabolic pathways

neg: Glycolysis as part of glycolysis. These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H from glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a vastly different mechanism to the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis. The lower-energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration relative to aerobic respiration, results in greater flux through the pathway under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, unless alternative sources of anaerobically oxidizable substrates, such as fatty acids, are found. The pathway of glycolysis as it is known today took almost 100 years to fully discover. The

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism of glucose. The production of glucose by this pathway is important to tissues that cannot use any other fuels, such as the brain. The liver is the primary location of gluconeogenesis, but some also occurs in the kidney. This pathway is regulated by multiple different molecules. Glucagon, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and ATP encourage gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is inhibited by AMP, ADP, and insulin. Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen. In the liver, muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs to provide glucose when necessary. A single glucose molecule is cleaved from a branch of glycogen, and is transformed into glucose-1-phosphate during

neg: Amphibolic cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway is an extremely important part of the metabolism of these cells. In these cell, the pentose phosphate pathway is active and shifted in favor of ribose production . Entner-Doudoroff pathway is a glycolytic pathway that is considered the second pathway used for carbohy used by certain microbes. In this process, Glucose6-phosphate is oxidize through 6-phosphogluconate to pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, with the concomitant reduction of NADP. By conventional glyceraldehyde3-phosphate oxidation to pyruvate, one NAD is reduced and a net one ATP is formed In that pathway, as for every glucose molecule there is investment of

neg: Chemiosmosis from the cytoplasm. This "costs" one "extra" proton import per ATP, hence the actual efficiency is only 65% (= 2.4/3.67). The complete breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen is called cellular respiration. The last steps of this process occur in mitochondria. The reduced molecules NADH and FADH are generated by the Krebs cycle, glycolysis, and pyruvate processing. These molecules pass electrons to an electron transport chain, which uses the energy released to create a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase then uses the energy stored in this gradient to make ATP. This process is called

neg: Formal charge track of all of the valence electrons that each atom brings with it when the molecule is formed. Formal charge is a tool for estimating the distribution of electric charge within a molecule. The concept of oxidation states constitutes a competing method to assess the distribution of electrons in molecules. If the formal charges and oxidation states of the atoms in carbon dioxide are compared, the following values are arrived at: The reason for the difference between these values is that formal charges and oxidation states represent fundamentally different ways of looking at the distribution of electrons amongst the atoms

neg: Ribose 5-phosphate NADPH and R5P is balanced, G6P forms one Ru5P molecule through the PPP, generating two NADPH molecules and one R5P molecule. When more R5P is needed than NADPH, R5P can be formed through glycolytic intermediates. Glucose 6-phosphate is converted to fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) during glycolysis. Transketolase and transaldolase convert two molecules of F6P and one molecule of G3P to three molecules of R5P. During rapid cell growth, higher quantities of R5P and NADPH are needed for nucleotide and fatty acid synthesis, respectively. Glycolytic intermediates can be diverted toward the non-oxidative phase of PPP by the expression

neg: Ycf9 protein domain the oxidation (splitting) of water molecules, and to produce ATP via a proton pump. Photosystem I (PSI) has a P700 reaction centre containing chlorophyll that takes the electron and associated hydrogen donated from PSII to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. Both ATP and NADPH are subsequently used in the light-independent reactions to convert carbon dioxide to glucose using the hydrogen atom extracted from water by PSII, releasing oxygen as a by-product. Ycf9 protein domain In molecular biology, the PsbZ (Ycf9) is a protein domain, which is low in molecular weight. It is a transmembrane protein and therefore is located in the

neg: Cellular waste product along the same pathway as aerobic respiration, but once glucose is converted to pyruvate proceeds down one of two pathways and produces only two molecules of ATP from each molecule of glucose. In the homolactic pathway, it produces lactic acid as waste. In the heterolactic pathway, it produces lactic acid as well as ethanol and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid fermentation is relatively inefficient. The waste products lactic acid and ethanol have not been fully oxidized and still contain energy, but it requires the addition of oxygen to extract this energy. Generally, lactic acid fermentation occurs only when aerobic cells are

neg: Glucose 6-phosphate body needs a way to store the excess glucose. After being converted to G6P, the molecule can be turned into glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase. Glucose-1-phosphate can then be combined with uridine triphosphate (UTP) to form UDP-glucose, driven by the hydrolysis of UTP, releasing phosphate. Now, the activated UDP-glucose can add to a growing glycogen molecule with the help of glycogen synthase. This is a very efficient storage mechanism for glucose since it costs the body only 1 ATP to store the 1 glucose molecule and virtually no energy to remove it from storage. It is important to note that glucose-6-phosphate is

neg: Oxaloacetic acid an intermediate of the citric acid cycle, where it reacts with acetyl-CoA to form citrate, catalysed by citrate synthase. It is also involved in gluconeogenesis, urea cycle, glyoxylate cycle, amino acid synthesis, and fatty acid synthesis. Oxaloacetate is also a potent inhibitor of Complex II. Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway consisting of a series of eleven enzyme-catalyzed reactions, resulting in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrates substrates. The beginning of this process takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, where pyruvate molecules are found. A pyruvate molecule is carboxylated by a pyruvate carboxylase enzyme, activated by a molecule each of ATP

neg: Nano-tetherball sensor needs. This structure is at times further functionalized to complete the biosensor fabrication process. A multi-wall platinum substrate, subsequently functionalized by oxidation, helps to allow the effectivity on the control of the glucose oxidase enzymes. The open ends of nanotubes, which are carboxylated (CNT), are used for the control of the enzymes and signaling detection monitor by the platinum substrate which gives the actual transduction platform. This glucose oxidase functionalized MWNT biosensor was used to detect various amounts of glucose. In devices such as these the CNTs play a dual role a substrate to attach biologically significant molecules and as

neg: Phosphotransferase Phosphotransferase Phosphotransferases are a category of enzymes (EC number 2.7) that catalyze phosphorylation reactions. The general form of the reactions they catalyze is: Where "P" is a phosphate group and A and B are the donating and accepting molecules, respectively. Phosphotransferases are generally classified according to the acceptor molecule. The phosphotransferase system (PTS) is a complex group translocation system present in many bacteria. The PTS transports sugars (such as glucose, mannose, and mannitol) into the cell. The first step of this reaction is phosphorylation of the substrate via phosphotransferase during transport. In the case of glucose, the product of this

neg: Sulfate-reducing microorganisms to but not limited to, avoid anaerobic methane oxidation and the generation of hydrogen sulfide, ultimately resulting in minimizing potential production loss. Before sulfate can be used as an electron acceptor, it must be activated. This is done by the enzyme ATP-sulfurylase, which uses ATP and sulfate to create adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (APS). APS is subsequently reduced to sulfite and AMP. Sulfite is then further reduced to sulfide, while AMP is turned into ADP using another molecule of ATP. The overall process, thus, involves an investment of two molecules of the energy carrier ATP, which must to be regained from the

neg: Glycolysis carbons into the pentose phosphate pathway. Pyruvate kinase enzyme catalyzes the last step of glycolysis, in which pyruvate and ATP are formed. Pyruvate kinase catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP, yielding one molecule of pyruvate and one molecule of ATP. Liver pyruvate kinase is indirectly regulated by epinephrine and glucagon, through protein kinase A. This protein kinase phosphorylates liver pyruvate kinase to deactivate it. Muscle pyruvate kinase is not inhibited by epinephrine activation of protein kinase A. Glucagon signals fasting (no glucose available). Thus, glycolysis is inhibited in the liver but unaffected in muscle

neg: Biochemistry pathway. In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism molecules to about 30 ATP molecules. In anaerobic respiration, oxygen is not required. When oxygen is absent, the generation of ATP continues through fermentation.There are two types of fermentation: alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. There are several different types of carbohydrates: polysaccharides (e.g., starch, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose), monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose) and the disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, maltose, lactose). Glucose reacts with oxygen in the following redox reaction, CHO + 6O → 6CO + 6HO, Carbon dioxide and water are waste products, and the overall reaction is exothermic. The breakdown of glucose into energy in the form of

neg: Pasteur effect in the glycolysis pathway. The Pasteur effect will only occur if glucose concentrations are low (<2 g/L) and if other nutrients, mostly nitrogen, are limited. From the standpoint of ATP production then, it is advantageous for yeast to utilize the citric acid cycle in the presence of oxygen, as more ATP is produced from less glucose; however, Boulton et al. (1996) have maintained that yeast will follow the anaerobic, rather than aerobic, fermentative pathway if glucose is not limited, in that respiration, although capable of producing more ATP than glycolysis per molecule of glucose, also requires more energy in terms

neg: Clostridium difficile toxin A glucosylation and the subsequent irreversible inactivation of target molecules in the Ras family of small GTPases. These target molecules include RhoA, Rac, and Cdc42, which are regulatory proteins of the eukaryotic actin cytoskeleton and modulators of many various cell signaling pathways. TcdA primarily targets Rho, Rac, and Cdc42. These molecules are important regulators of cell signaling. Small GTPases such as Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 regulate their activity by alternating between an active GTP-bound state, and an inactive GDP-bound state. Guanine exchange factors (GEFs) regulate the exchange of GTP and GDP. TcdA glucosylates RhoA by transferring a glucose molecule from UDP-glucose,

neg: Trimetazidine oxidation. In an ischaemic cell, energy obtained during glucose oxidation requires less oxygen consumption than in the beta-oxidation process. Potentiation of glucose oxidation optimizes cellular energy processes, thereby maintaining proper energy metabolism during ischaemia. By preserving energy metabolism in cells exposed to hypoxia or ischaemia, trimetazidine prevents a decrease in intracellular ATP levels, thereby ensuring the proper functioning of ionic pumps and transmembrane sodium-potassium flow whilst maintaining cellular homeostasis. Trimetazidine is among the performance enhancing drugs being tested for by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Trimetazidine is distributed under many brand names: 3 Kat, Adexor, Aiyiling, Angimax, Angimet, Anginox, Angintriz, Angiozil,

neg: Mitochondrion acid cycle. With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl-CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix, and is never regenerated. It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl-CoA that produces CO and water, with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP. In the liver, the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway, which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose, under the influence of high levels of glucagon and/or epinephrine in the blood. Here, the addition of oxaloacetate to

neg: Cellular waste product Cellular waste product Cellular waste products are formed as a by-product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of ATP. Two examples of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. Each pathway generates different waste products. When in the presence of oxygen, cells use aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose molecules. Simplified Theoretical Reaction: CHO + 6O → 6CO + 6HO + ~ 30ATP Cells undergoing aerobic respiration produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 6 molecules of water, and up to 30 molecules

neg: Glucose a product of photosynthesis. Glucose is also formed by the breakdown of polymeric forms of glucose like glycogen (in animals and mushrooms) or starch (in plants). The cleavage of glycogen is termed glycogenolysis, the cleavage of starch is called starch degradation. The metabolic pathway that begins with molecules containing two to four carbon atoms (C) and ends in the glucose molecule containing six carbon atoms is called gluconeogenesis and occurs in all living organisms. The smaller starting materials are the result of other metabolic pathways. Ultimately almost all biomolecules come from the assimilation of carbon dioxide in plants during photosynthesis.

neg: Glycerol kinase deficiency process of glycolysis; this step is when the fructose 1,6-bisphosphate molecule breaks down into two molecules of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), so from this point on whenever ATP is being generated from ADP there are really two ATP molecules generated because there are two molecules undergoing the same reaction. One molecule that takes advantage of this second part of the metabolic process is the fatty molecule glycerol. This is unfortunately prevented if someone is experiencing Glycerol Kinase Deficiency. Glycerol Kinase Deficiency causes the condition known as hyperglycerolemia, an accumulation of glycerol in the blood and urine. This excess of glycerol in

neg: Citric acid cycle rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion, and thus the availability of ATP to the cell. "Acetyl-CoA", on the other hand, derived from pyruvate oxidation, or from the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle. With each turn of the cycle one molecule of "acetyl-CoA" is consumed for every molecule of "oxaloacetate" present in the mitochondrial matrix, and is never regenerated. It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of "acetyl-CoA" that produces CO and water, with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP. The three steps of beta-oxidation resemble

neg: Biochemistry to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. This also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents of converting NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: oxidised form) to NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: reduced form). This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e.g., in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e.g., in yeast). Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic

neg: Cellular respiration ATP. In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed. The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced

neg: Glucose-1,6-bisphosphate synthase The glucose-1,6-bisphosphate increase the activity of glycolysis, of which glucose-6-phosphate is a reagent. In addition, one of the reactants (1,3-bisphosphoglycerate) and one of the products (3-phosphoglycerate) are intermediates in the 'payoff' phase of glycolysis. In other words, two molecules involved with glucose-1,6-bisphosphate synthase are able to be both created and recycled in the glycolytic pathway. The reactant glucose 1-phosphate is an important precursor molecule in many different pathways, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway. Glucose-1,6-bisphosphate synthase is allosterically inhibited by inorganic phosphate, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, 3-phosphoglycerate (a product), citrate, lithium, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), and acetyl CoA. The inhibition of the enzyme

neg: Citric acid cycle number of ATP molecules derived from the beta oxidation of a 6 carbon segment of a fatty acid chain, and the subsequent oxidation of the resulting 3 molecules of "acetyl-CoA" is 40. In this subheading, as in the previous one, the TCA intermediates are identified by "italics". Several of the citric acid cycle intermediates are used for the synthesis of important compounds, which will have significant cataplerotic effects on the cycle. "Acetyl-CoA" cannot be transported out of the mitochondrion. To obtain cytosolic acetyl-CoA, "citrate" is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the

neg: Cellular waste product of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is directly used to produce energy, from each molecule of glucose in the presence of surplus oxygen. In aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the electron transport chain. Aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong oxidant. Aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and ATP is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat. This strategy results in the waste products HO and CO being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration.

neg: Metabolic trapping organs. In order to use it as a diagnostic tool in medicine, scientists have studied the trapping of radioactive molecules within different tissues throughout the body. In 1978, Gallagher et al. studied glucose tagged with Fluorine-18 (F-18) to see how it metabolized in the tissues of different organs. This group studied how long it took the lungs, liver, kidneys, heart, and brain to metabolize radioactive glucose. They found the molecule distributed uniformly, and then, after two hours, only the heart and the brain had significant levels of radioactivity from the F-18 due to metabolic trapping. This trapping occurred because once

neg: NOD-like receptor are three well-characterized inflammasomes – NLRP1, NLRP3 and IPAF. The formation of NLRP3 inflammasome can be activated by PAMPs such as microbial toxins (for example alpha-toxin Staphylococcus aureus) or whole pathogens, for instance Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Sendai virus, Influenza. NLRP3 recognize also DAMPs which indicate stress in the cell. The danger molecule can be extracellular ATP, extracellular glucose, crystals of monosodium urate (MSU), calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD), alum, cholesterol or environmental irritants – silica, asbestos, UV irradiation and skin irritants. The presence of these molecules causes a production of ROS and K+ efflux. NLRP1 recognizes lethal toxin from Bacillus

neg: Myosin domain. Multiple myosin II molecules generate force in skeletal muscle through a power stroke mechanism fuelled by the energy released from ATP hydrolysis. The power stroke occurs at the release of phosphate from the myosin molecule after the ATP hydrolysis while myosin is tightly bound to actin. The effect of this release is a conformational change in the molecule that pulls against the actin. The release of the ADP molecule leads to the so-called rigor state of myosin. The binding of a new ATP molecule will release myosin from actin. ATP hydrolysis within the myosin will cause it to bind

neg: Cellular respiration NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate. Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting". Pyruvate is

neg: Gaseous signaling molecules for example, during heme oxidation by heme oxygenase-1. It can also be formed from malonic acid. It has been shown that carbon suboxide in an organism can quickly polymerize into macrocyclic polycarbon structures with the common formula (CO) (mostly (CO) and (CO)), and that those macrocyclic compounds are potent inhibitors of Na/K-ATP-ase and Ca-dependent ATP-ase, and have digoxin-like physiological properties and natriuretic and antihypertensive actions. Those macrocyclic carbon suboxide polymer compounds are thought to be endogenous digoxin-like regulators of Na/K-ATP-ases and Ca-dependent ATP-ases, and endogenous natriuretics and antihypertensives. Other than that, some authors think also that those macrocyclic compounds of

neg: Starch the form of starch, on the other hand, is not soluble, therefore osmotically inactive and can be stored much more compactly. Glucose molecules are bound in starch by the easily hydrolyzed alpha bonds. The same type of bond is found in the animal reserve polysaccharide glycogen. This is in contrast to many structural polysaccharides such as chitin, cellulose and peptidoglycan, which are bound by beta bonds and are much more resistant to hydrolysis. Plants produce starch by first converting glucose 1-phosphate to ADP-glucose using the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase. This step requires energy in the form of ATP. The enzyme starch

neg: Polysaccharide unknown. Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient (as of 2005), dietary fiber is nevertheless regarded as important for the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake. Starch is a glucose polymer in which glucopyranose units are bonded by "alpha-"linkages. It is made up of a mixture of amylose (15–20%) and amylopectin (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain of 24–30 glucose units is one unit of Amylopectin). Starches are insoluble in water. They

neg: Electron transport chain Electron transport chain An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during

neg: ATPase The coupling between ATP hydrolysis and transport is more or less a strict chemical reaction, in which a fixed number of solute molecules are transported for each ATP molecule that is hydrolyzed; for example, 3 Na ions out of the cell and 2 K ions inward per ATP hydrolyzed, for the Na/K exchanger. Transmembrane ATPases harness the chemical potential energy of ATP, because they perform mechanical work: they transport solutes in a direction opposite to their thermodynamically preferred direction of movement—that is, from the side of the membrane where they are in low concentration to the side where they are

neg: Starch chain, a glucose molecule is released. Now, BAM can release another maltose molecule from the remaining chain. This cycle repeats until starch is degraded completely. If BAM comes close to the phosphorylated branching point of the glucose chain, it can no longer release maltose. In order for the phosphorylated chain to be degraded, the enzyme isoamylase (ISA) is required. The products of starch degradation are predominantly maltose and smaller amounts of glucose. These molecules are exported from the plastid to the cytosol, maltose via the maltose transporter, which if mutated (MEX1-mutant) results in maltose accumulation in the plastid. Glucose is

neg: Luciferin Luciferin Luciferin (from the Latin "lucifer", "light-bringer") is a generic term for the light-emitting compound found in organisms that generate bioluminescence. Luciferins typically undergo an enzyme-catalysed oxidation and the resulting excited state intermediate emits light upon decaying to its ground state. This may refer to molecules that are substrates for both luciferases and photoproteins. Luciferins are a class of small-molecule substrates that are oxidized in the presence of a luciferase (an enzyme) to produce energy in the form of light. It is not known just how many types of luciferins there are, but some of the better-studied compounds are listed

neg: Monosaccharide the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the double bonds of these two molecules). For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose. The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called glucopyranose. Cyclic forms with a 7-atom ring (the same of oxepane), rarely encountered, are called heptoses. For many monosaccharides (including glucose), the cyclic forms predominate, in the solid state and in solutions, and therefore the

neg: Thermal oxidation are not to be oxidized are covered with a film of silicon nitride, which blocks diffusion of oxygen and water vapor due to its oxidation at a much slower rate. The nitride is removed after oxidation is complete. This process cannot produce sharp features, because lateral (parallel to the surface) diffusion of oxidant molecules under the nitride mask causes the oxide to protrude into the masked area. Because impurities dissolve differently in silicon and oxide, a growing oxide will selectively take up or reject dopants. This redistribution is governed by the segregation coefficient, which determines how strongly the oxide absorbs

neg: DNA gyrase segment and introduction of 2 negative supercoils. N-gates are formed by ATPase domains of GyrB subunits. Binding of 2 ATP molecules leads to dimerization and, therefore, closing of the gates. Hydrolysis, on the contrary, opens them. DNA cleavage and reunion is performed by a catalytic center located in DNA-gates build by all gyrase subunits. C-gates are formed by GyrA subunits . A single molecule study has characterized gyrase activity as a function of DNA tension (applied force) and ATP, and proposed a mechanochemical model. Upon binding to DNA (the "Gyrase-DNA" state), there is a competition between DNA wrapping and dissociation,

neg: Doughnut due to how tightly its molecules are packed. The sugar used in baking is essentially sucrose, and besides imparting sweetness in the doughnut, sugar also functions in the color and tenderness of the final product. Sucrose is a simple carbohydrate whose structure is made up of a glucose molecule bound to a fructose molecule. Milk is utilized in the making of doughnuts, but in large scale bakeries, one form of milk used is nonfat dry milk solids. These solids are obtained by removing most of the water from skim milk with heat, and this heat additionally denatures the whey proteins

neg: P-glycoprotein of the protein. Following binding of each, ATP hydrolysis shifts the substrate into a position to be excreted from the cell. Release of the phosphate (from the original ATP molecule) occurs concurrently with substrate excretion. ADP is released, and a new molecule of ATP binds to the secondary ATP-binding site. Hydrolysis and release of ADP and a phosphate molecule resets the protein, so that the process can start again. The protein belongs to the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins transport various molecules across extra- and intra-cellular membranes. ABC genes are divided into seven distinct subfamilies (ABC1, MDR/TAP,

neg: Beta oxidation generally closer to 2.5 ATP per NADH molecule produced, 1.5 for each FADH molecule produced and this equates to 10 per cycle of the TCA (according to the P/O ratio), broken down as follows: For an even-numbered saturated fat (C), n - 1 oxidations are necessary, and the final process yields an additional acetyl CoA. In addition, two equivalents of ATP are lost during the activation of the fatty acid. Therefore, the total ATP yield can be stated as: or For instance, the ATP yield of palmitate (C, "n = 8") is: Represented in table form: For sources that use