query: what part of the brain plays an important role in emotional conditioning

pos: Amygdala with emotional learning. Emotional memories are thought to be stored in synapses throughout the brain. Fear memories, for example, are considered to be stored in the neuronal connections from the lateral nuclei to the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (part of the extended amygdala). Of course, these connections are not the sole site of fear memories given that the nuclei of the amygdala receive and send information to other brain regions that are important for memory such as the hippocampus. Some sensory neurons project their axon terminals to the central nucleus. The

pos: Neuroanatomy of memory learning and memory, as it responds strongly to emotional stimuli, especially fear. These neurons assist in encoding emotional memories and enhancing them. This process results in emotional events being more deeply and accurately encoded into memory. Lesions to the amygdalae in monkeys have been shown to impair motivation, as well as the processing of emotions. Pavlovian conditioning tests have shown the active role of the amygdala in fear conditioning in rats. Research involving lesions to the basolateral nucleus have shown a strong association with memories involving fear. The central nucleus is linked with the behavioral responses that are dependent on

pos: Amygdala with emotional learning. Emotional memories are thought to be stored in synapses throughout the brain. Fear memories, for example, are considered to be stored in the neuronal connections from the lateral nuclei to the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (part of the extended amygdala). Of course, these connections are not the sole site of fear memories given that the nuclei of the amygdala receive and send information to other brain regions that are important for memory such as the hippocampus. Some sensory neurons project their axon terminals to the central nucleus. The

neg: Trisynaptic circuit brain responsible for emotional reaction, but plays an important role in processing of memory and decision making as well. It is part of the limbic system. The amygdala projects to various structures in the brain including the hypothalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, and more. The medial septum plays a role in the generation of theta waves in the brain. In an experiment, it has been proposed that the generation of theta oscillations involves an ascending pathway leading from the brainstem to hypothalamus to medial septum to hippocampus. The same experiment demonstrated that injection of lidocaine, a local anesthetic, inhibits theta

neg: Emotion perception obtained from viewing the features of the mouth, which is the most expressive part of the face. However, in eastern cultures, where overt emotional expression is less common and therefore the mouth plays a lesser role in emotional expression, emotional information is more often obtained from viewing the upper region of the face, primarily the eyes. These cultural differences suggest a strong environmental and learned component in emotion expression and emotion perception. Although facial expressions convey key emotional information, context also plays an important role in both providing additional emotional information and modulating what emotion is actually perceived in a

neg: Vigilance (psychology) may reside in the right cerebral hemisphere in a variety of brain regions. Reductions in arousal generally correspond to reductions in vigilance. Arousal is defined as a component of vigilance, though it is not, as one may believe, the sole source of the main effect of the vigilance decrement. As such, subcortical brain regions associated with arousal play a critical role in the performance of vigilance tasks. Because the amygdala plays an important role in the recognition of emotional stimuli, it appears to be an important brain structure in the regulation of vigilance. Subcortical brain regions associated with arousal include

neg: Emotional isolation brain known as the ventral striatum than the lonely subjects. The ventral striatum plays an important role in learning. It is also part of the brain's reward center, and can be stimulated by rewards like food and love. The lonely subjects displayed far less activity in this region while viewing pleasant pictures, and they also had less brain activity when shown the unpleasant pictures. When non-lonely subjects viewed the unpleasant pictures, they demonstrated activity in the temporoparietal junction, an area of the brain associated with empathy; the lonely subjects had a lesser response [source: University of Chicago]. Social withdrawal is

neg: Brain Emotional Learning Inspired Models is fulfilled through interaction among its components. Fear conditioning as a system shows an intelligent behavior by learning how to respond to fear-induced stimuli and thus can be utilized to design new CI models for prediction and decision-making applications" Brain Emotional Learning Inspired Models Brain Emotional Learning-inspired Models or BELiMs can be considered as a primary step to take inspiration from emotional systems to form new computational Intelligence (CI) models. BELIMs have been inspired by fear conditioning that is one of the emotional systems in mammalians and is a mechanism by which a biological system learns how to predict aversive

neg: Fear of the brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species. The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, the sensory cortex, the hippocampus, thalamus, septum, and the brainstem. The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning, and SSDRs are learned through interaction with the environment and others of the same species. An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which

neg: Brain Emotional Learning Inspired Models Brain Emotional Learning Inspired Models Brain Emotional Learning-inspired Models or BELiMs can be considered as a primary step to take inspiration from emotional systems to form new computational Intelligence (CI) models. BELIMs have been inspired by fear conditioning that is one of the emotional systems in mammalians and is a mechanism by which a biological system learns how to predict aversive events. The hypothesis behind the development of BELiMs is that "the neural structure of fear conditioning can be considered as a natural system that consists of some components (e.g., the amygdala, thalamus, and the sensory cortex) and whose functionality

neg: Amygdala with no fear". This finding reinforces the conclusion that the amygdala "plays a pivotal role in triggering a state of fear". The amygdala appears to play a role in binge drinking, being damaged by repeated episodes of intoxication and withdrawal. Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing, including the amygdala. Protein kinase C-epsilon in the amygdala is important for regulating behavioral responses to morphine, ethanol, and controlling anxiety-like behavior. The protein is involved in controlling the function of other proteins and plays a role in development of the ability to consume a large amount

neg: BELBIC simulated using computer systems. To construct a computational model of emotional learning in the brain requires a thorough analysis of the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex and the interaction between them: In mammals, emotional responses are processed in a part of the brain called the limbic system which lies in the cerebral cortex. The main components of the limbic system are the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, thalamus and the sensory cortex. The amygdala is an almond shaped area which is placed such that it can communicate with all other cortices within the limbic system. The primary affective conditioning of the system

neg: Sleep and emotions Sleep and emotions Emotions play a key role in overall mental health, and sleep plays a crucial role in maintaining the optimal homeostasis of emotional functioning. Deficient sleep, both in the form of sleep deprivation and restriction, adversely impacts emotion generation, emotion regulation, and emotional expression. Scientists offer two explanations for the effects of sleep loss on emotions. One explanation is that sleep loss causes disinhibition of emotional brain regions, leading to an overall increase in emotional intensity (also referred to as Dysregulation Model). The other explanation describes how sleep loss causes an increase in fatigue and sleepiness, coupled with

neg: PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway synapse. mTOR activated p70S6K and inactivated 4EBP1 which changes gene expression to allow LTP to occur. Long-term fear conditioning training was affected in rats but there was no effect in short term conditioning. Specifically, amygdala fear conditioning was lost. This is a type of trace conditioning which is a form of learning that requires association of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. This effect was lost in PI3K knockdowns and increased in PI3K overexpressions. It is known that PI3K-AKT signaling pathway has an important role in brain growth. In fact, it was discovered that it is the cause of

neg: Emotional lateralization ACC that is elicited during subjective feelings of pain; this supports the association of right AI in aroused (‘sympathetic’) feelings and left AI in affiliative (‘parasympathetic’) feelings. Particularly, cardiovascular function appears to be lateralized and tied to emotional stress. Intense emotional stimuli that cause stress can lead to alterations in cardiovascular function. The right insular cortex probably plays the most significant role in these phenomena. Similar lateralization is probably involved in cardiovascular malfunction in patients with head injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, brain tumors, meningitis and encephalitis, migraine, cluster headache and neurosurgical procedures. "It is unlikely that the brain evolved an

neg: Sleep and emotions dysregulation, as well as maintaining various psychiatric conditions through contributing to emotion dysfunction. Sleep and emotions Emotions play a key role in overall mental health, and sleep plays a crucial role in maintaining the optimal homeostasis of emotional functioning. Deficient sleep, both in the form of sleep deprivation and restriction, adversely impacts emotion generation, emotion regulation, and emotional expression. Scientists offer two explanations for the effects of sleep loss on emotions. One explanation is that sleep loss causes disinhibition of emotional brain regions, leading to an overall increase in emotional intensity (also referred to as Dysregulation Model). The other explanation

neg: Albert Einstein's brain the operculum called Broca's area plays an important role in speech production. To compensate, the inferior parietal lobe was 15 percent wider than normal. The inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition, and imagery of movement. Dr. Dahlia Zaidel of the University of California, Los Angeles, examined two slices of Albert Einstein's brain containing the hippocampus in 2001. The hippocampus is a subcortical brain structure that plays an important role in learning and memory. The neurons on the left side of the hippocampus were found to be significantly larger than those on the right, and when compared

neg: Behaviorism a response). Skinner created the "Skinner Box" or operant conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats. From this study, he discovered that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded frequently. Skinner also found that he could shape the rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in turn, be applied to human learning as well. Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that need not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's

neg: Adolescence this, by early adulthood the synaptic balance in the brain is more inhibitory than excitatory. Dopamine is associated with pleasure and attuning to the environment during decision-making. During adolescence, dopamine levels in the limbic system increase and input of dopamine to the prefrontal cortex increases. The balance of excitatory to inhibitory neurotransmitters and increased dopamine activity in adolescence may have implications for adolescent risk-taking and vulnerability to boredom (see Cognitive development below). Serotonin is a neuromodulator involved in regulation of mood and behavior. Development in the limbic system plays an important role in determining rewards and punishments and processing emotional

neg: Posterior cingulate cortex discriminative avoidance learning. More recently the PCC was shown to display intense activity when autobiographical memories (such as those concerning friends and family) are recalled successfully. In a study involving autobiographical recollection, the caudal part of the left posterior cingulate cortex was the only brain structure highly active in all subjects. Furthermore, the PCC does not show this same activation during attempted but unsuccessful retrieval, implying an important role in successful memory retrieval (see below: Alzheimer’s Disease). The posterior cingulate cortex has also been firmly linked to emotional salience. Thus, it has been hypothesized that the emotional importance of autobiographical

neg: Educational neuroscience rise to educational questions regarding the emotional bases of performance on school tasks, neuroscience has the potential to reveal the brain basis of higher-order thinking processes and thus may help to understand the role that emotion plays in learning and open new areas of study of emotional thought in the classroom. The term "neuromyths" was first coined by an OECD report on understanding the brain. The term refers to the translation of scientific findings into misinformation regarding education. The OECD report highlights three neuromyths for special attention, although several others have been identified by researchers such as Usha Goswami. The

neg: Emotional lateralization and posterior (angular gyrus) regions resulted in reduced SCR. Damage to the right hemisphere in these regions resulted in a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in SCR while the damage to the left hemisphere of these regions did not (p > 0.05). The right superior temporal gyrus was the most significantly activated area during the processing happiness. The right superior temporal gyrus increasingly responds to an increasingly happy stimuli, while the left pulvinar increasingly responds to increasingly fearful stimuli. The right pulvinar is activated during aversive conditioning. The amygdala plays a key role in emotional processing especially fear, and amygdala

neg: Prenatal memory so dependent upon the mother, maternal nutrition also plays a large role in the infant developing healthy brain functioning; including memory function, which the infant cannot live without. Thus, fetal memory is critical to the survival and healthy development of the infant before and after birth. Many of these functions are measured through methods such as classical conditioning, habituation and exposure learning, being the most popular. There are considered to be three paradigms used to investigate fetal learning and memory. They are: classical conditioning, habituation and exposure learning. Classical conditioning is described as the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS)

neg: Time-based prospective memory In terms of prospective memory, the parietal lobe plays an important role in processing and recognizing cues that trigger and keep attention focused on intended actions while performing other tasks. This part of the brain is activated most intensely when these cues are visual or spatial. The parietal lobe is located in the superior region of the brain above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe. For time-based prospective memory, the parietal lobe is important especially when an individual is required to remember numbers, more specifically, a certain time that will act a cue to perform an intended task.

neg: Emotional lateralization when presented with emotional stimuli, and they also have problems reading fear and disgust in other people. People with left inferior frontal lobe damage produced less facial expression and could not analyze emotional situations as well as those with right frontal lobe damage especially with fear and disgust. The left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) plays an important role in anger while the right IFG plays a larger role in disgust. Patients with dorsolateral frontal cortex lesions have difficulty discerning propositional attitude. Patients with left lesions show further increased impairment. Damage to the inferior parietal region including the anterior (supramarginal gyrus)

neg: Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency clear understanding of the pathogenic mechanism of this deficiency, some researchers have suggested a brain-specific interaction between Malonyl-CoA and CTP1 enzyme which may leads to unexplained symptoms of the MCD deficiency. Research has found that large amount of MCD are detached in the hypothalamus and cortex of the brain where high levels of lipogenic enzymes are found, indicating that MCD plays a role in lipid synthesis in the brain. Disturbed interaction between Malonyl-CoA and CPT1 may also contributed to abnormal brain development. Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase plays an important role in the β-oxidation processes in both mitochondria and peroxisome. Some other authors

neg: Amygdala been shown to reduce appetitive learning in rats. Lesions of the basolateral regions do not exhibit the same effect. Research like this indicates that different nuclei within the amygdala have different functions in appetitive conditioning. Nevertheless, researchers found an example of appetitive emotional learning showing an important role for the basolateral amygdala: The naïve female mice are innately attracted to non-volatile pheromones contained in male-soiled bedding, but not by the male-derived volatiles, become attractive if associated with non-volatile attractive pheromones, which act as unconditioned stimulus in a case of Pavlovian associative learning. In the vomeronasal, olfactory and emotional systems, Fos

neg: Stephen Maren of Behavioural Brain Research Stephen Maren Stephen Andrew Maren (born November 7, 1967) is an American behavioral neuroscientist investigating the brain mechanisms of emotional memory, particularly the role context plays in the behavioral expression of fear. He has discovered brain circuits regulating context-dependent memory, including mapping functional connections between the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala that are involved in the expression and extinction of learned fear responses. Maren obtained his undergraduate education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, graduating in Psychology (BS) in 1989. His undergradaute research resulted in an honors thesis that described, for the first time, the

neg: Choroid plexus of metabolic waste from the brain and exchange of biomolecules and xenobiotics into and out of the brain. In this way the choroid plexus has a very important role in helping to maintain the delicate extracellular environment required by the brain to function optimally. The choroid plexus is also a major source of transferrin secretion that plays a part in iron homeostasis in the brain. The blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) is a fluid–brain barrier that is composed of a pair of membranes that separate blood from CSF and CSF from brain tissue. The blood–CSF boundary at the choroid plexus is

neg: Myotonin-protein kinase family of small GTPases. Substrates for this enzyme include myogenin, the beta-subunit of the L-type calcium channels, and phospholemman. Although the specific function of this protein is unknown, it appears to play an important role in muscle, heart, and brain cells. This protein may be involved in communication within cells. It also appears to regulate the production and function of important structures inside muscle cells by interacting with other proteins. For example, myotonic dystrophy protein kinase has been shown to turn off (inhibit) part of a muscle protein called myosin phosphatase. Myosin phosphatase is an enzyme that plays a role

neg: Deep Jwele Jaai an emotional resort, which is where Sen's character plays her part. Her role is to act as a friend and a lover for the patient, but at the same time, refrain from any emotional involvement on her own part as her role is purely that of a nurse who is helping the patient recover. She has to repeatedly break the emotional attachments that she experiences because as a nurse, she is a part of therapy. The movie looks at the neglected emotional trauma of this nurse who is used merely as a tool in the whole process of therapy. The

neg: Dopamine Dopamine Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families that plays several important roles in the brain and body. It is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical L-DOPA, which is synthesized in the brain and kidneys. Dopamine is also synthesized in plants and most animals. In the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons (nerve cells) to send signals to other nerve cells. The brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways, one of which plays a major role in the motivational

neg: Curiosity the striatum plays a role in attention and reward anticipation, both of which are important in the provocation of curiosity. The precuneus is a region of the brain that is involved in attention, episodic memory, and visuospatial processing. There has been a correlation found between the amount of grey matter in the precuneus and levels of curious and exploratory behaviors; suggesting that the precuneus density has an influence on levels of curiosity. Memory plays an important role in the understanding of curiosity. If curiosity is the desire to seek out and understand unfamiliar or novel stimuli, one's memory is important

neg: Cerebrospinal venous system the CSVS in their review article: "Today, the vertebral venous plexus is considered part of the cerebrospinal venous system, which is regarded as a unique, large-capacitance, valveless plexiform venous network in which flow is bidirectional that plays an important role in the regulation of intracranial pressure with changes in posture and in venous outflow from the brain, whereas in disease states, it provides a potential route for the spread of tumor, infection, or emboli.". The cerebrospinal venous system may serve as a route for therapeutic delivery of large molecules to the brain and spinal cord, as discussed: "... the drug

neg: Classical conditioning is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is conditioned suppression. As an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity. Thus, a stimulus that has occurred before sexual interaction comes to cause sexual arousal, which prepares the individual for sexual contact. For example, sexual arousal has been conditioned in human subjects by pairing a stimulus like a picture of a jar of pennies with views of an erotic film clip. Similar experiments involving

neg: Sensory neuroscience Sensory neuroscience Sensory neuroscience is a subfield of neuroscience which explores the anatomy and physiology of neurons that are part of sensory systems such as vision, hearing, and olfaction. Neurons in sensory regions of the brain respond to stimuli by firing one or more nerve impulses (action potentials) following stimulus presentation. How is information about the outside world encoded by the rate, timing, and pattern of action potentials? This so-called neural code is currently poorly understood and sensory neuroscience plays an important role in the attempt to decipher it. Looking at early sensory processing is advantageous since brain regions that

neg: Spontaneous recovery the basal ganglia and creates a stronger bond between the stimulus and response. Furthermore, if there is a traumatic incident that is associated to a memory, and that becomes suppressed, the amygdala is responsible for this fear conditioning. The amygdala leads to the caudate nucleus in the neocortex of the basal ganglia, so the fear response can also be triggered via spontaneous recovery. Basically, the stronger the emotional arousal after a learning event, positive or negative, can greatly enhance the memory's recall in the future. Another area of the brain important for memory recovery is the hippocampus and medial temporal

neg: Stephen Maren Stephen Maren Stephen Andrew Maren (born November 7, 1967) is an American behavioral neuroscientist investigating the brain mechanisms of emotional memory, particularly the role context plays in the behavioral expression of fear. He has discovered brain circuits regulating context-dependent memory, including mapping functional connections between the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala that are involved in the expression and extinction of learned fear responses. Maren obtained his undergraduate education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, graduating in Psychology (BS) in 1989. His undergradaute research resulted in an honors thesis that described, for the first time, the activity of basolateral amygdala

neg: Electronic voice phenomenon can cause the impression of paranormal voices. The human brain evolved to recognize patterns, and if a person listens to enough noise the brain will detect words, even when there is no intelligent source for them. Expectation also plays an important part in making people believe they are hearing voices in random noise. "Apophenia" is related to, but distinct from pareidolia. Apophenia is defined as "the spontaneous finding of connections or meaning in things which are random, unconnected or meaningless", and has been put forward as a possible explanation. According to the psychologist James Alcock what people hear in EVP

neg: Linguistic intelligence speech, and that speech processing seems to occur within Wernicke's area. Hearing plays an important part in both speech generation and comprehension. When speaking, the person can hear their speech, and the brain uses what it hears as a feedback mechanism to fix speech errors. If a single feedback correction occurs multiple times, the brain will begin to incorporate the correction to all future speech, making it a feed forward mechanism. This is apparent in some deaf people. Deafness, as well as other, smaller deficiencies in hearing, can greatly affect one's ability to comprehend spoken language, as well as to

neg: George Koob in extrahypothalamic brain structures and may play an important role in brain emotional function. Recent use of specific corticotropin-releasing factor receptor antagonists suggests that endogenous brain corticotropin-releasing factor may be involved in specific behavioral responses to stress, the psychopathology of anxiety and affective disorders, and drug addiction. He has also characterized functional roles for other stress-related neurotransmitters/neuroregulators, such as norepinephrine, vasopressin, hypocretin (orexin), neuropeptide Y, and neuroactive steroids. In the domain of drug addiction, Koob's past work contributed significantly to our understanding of the neurocircuitry associated with the acute reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse. More recently, the focus has

neg: CEP290 CEP290 Centrosomal protein of 290 kDa is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "CEP290" gene. CEP290 is located on the Q arm of chromosome 12. The gene CEP290 is a centrosomal protein that plays an important role in centrosome and cilia development. This gene is vital in the formation of the primary cilium, a small antenna-like projections of the cell membrane that plays an important role in the photoreceptors at the back of the retina (which detect light and color) and in the kidney, brain, and many other organs of the body. Knocking down levels of the

neg: Sortilin 1 been implicated in LDL-cholesterol metabolism, VLDL secretion, and PCSK9 secretion, and thus plays a role in the development of atherosclerotic lesions. Other processes involving sortilin include endocytosis, negative regulation of lipoprotein lipase activity, myotube differentiation, ossification, and regulation of gene expression. Given its function in facilitating lysosomal degradation or recycling of ligands in lipid metabolism and the neural system, sortilin likely plays an important role in the underlying mechanisms and pathophysiology of atherogenesis and coronary artery disease, as well as in neurological disorders. For example, sortilin has been identified as an important receptor for brain apolipoprotein E (APOE) metabolism, which

neg: Blue Brain Project Brain Project, while similar research tasks across the world are touched on. The Cajal Blue Brain is coordinated by the Technical University of Madrid and uses the facilities of the Supercomputing and Visualization Center of Madrid and its supercomputer Magerit. The Cajal Institute also participates in this collaboration. The main lines of research currently being pursued at Cajal Blue Brain include neurological experimentation and computer simulations. Nanotechnology, in the form of a newly designed brain microscope, plays an important role in its research plans. Blue Brain Project The Blue Brain, a Swiss national brain initiative, aims to create a digital

neg: Neuroscience and race other-race faces than same-race faces. This region of the brain is associated with fear conditioning, and has many connections with the cortex to control the body’s emotional response. Often, there is variation in amygdala activation due to motivation and goals. The amygdala’s activation can be changed through not focusing on race or focusing on removing the racial bias. Scientists believe that amygdala activation differences arise due to social/cultural perceptions and individual experiences. However, it is important to note that patients with a damaged amygdala still show a racial bias, meaning that the amygdala isn’t the only region involved in activating

neg: Logo in logo design and plays an important role in brand differentiation. The importance of color in this context is due to the mechanics of human visual perception wherein color and contrast play critical roles in visual detail detection. In addition, we tend to acquire various color connotations and color associations through social and cultural conditioning, and these play a role in how we decipher and evaluate logo color. While color is considered important to brand recognition and logo design, it shouldn't conflict with logo functionality, and it needs to be remembered that color connotations and associations are not consistent across

neg: Ventromedial prefrontal cortex Ventromedial prefrontal cortex The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is a part of the prefrontal cortex in the mammalian brain. The ventral medial prefrontal is located in the frontal lobe at the bottom of the cerebral hemispheres and is implicated in the processing of risk and fear. It also plays a role in the inhibition of emotional responses, and in the process of decision making and self control. It is also involved in the cognitive evaluation of morality. While the ventromedial prefrontal cortex does not have a universally agreed on demarcation, in most sources, it is equivalent to the ventromedial reward

neg: Conditioned emotional response immediately prior to the presentation of the CS). A measure of 0.5 indicates no conditioning, while measures that deviate from 0.5 reflect effective conditioning, relatively (0 is indicative of asymptotic conditioning). CER can, therefore, measure both conditioned excitation and conditioned inhibition. The amygdala, located in the temporal lobe, is a key brain region involved in the conditioned fear response and contributes to the autonomic, hormonal, and behavioral factors associated with that response. According to studies by Coover, Murison, & Jellestad and Davis and LeDoux in 1992, when a dog's amygdala is damaged, it does not show fear, and, when tamed

neg: Parahippocampal gyrus Parahippocampal gyrus The parahippocampal gyrus "(Syn. hippocampal gyrus)" is a grey matter cortical region of the brain that surrounds the hippocampus and is part of the limbic system. This region plays an important role in memory encoding and retrieval. It has been involved in some cases of hippocampal sclerosis. Asymmetry has been observed in schizophrenia. The anterior part of the gyrus includes the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices. The term parahippocampal cortex is used to refer to an area that encompasses both the posterior parahippocampal gyrus and the medial portion of the fusiform gyrus. The parahippocampal place area (PPA) is a

neg: Parahippocampal gyrus of visual background. Tests by a California-based group led by Katherine P. Rankin indicate that the lobe may play a crucial role in identifying social context as well, including paralinguistic elements of verbal communication. For example, Rankin's research suggests that the right parahippocampal gyrus enables people to detect sarcasm. Parahippocampal gyrus The parahippocampal gyrus "(Syn. hippocampal gyrus)" is a grey matter cortical region of the brain that surrounds the hippocampus and is part of the limbic system. This region plays an important role in memory encoding and retrieval. It has been involved in some cases of hippocampal sclerosis. Asymmetry has

neg: Elizabeth Kensinger including the amygdala, which plays an important role in processing emotional (especially negative) stimuli. The authors reported that Alzheimer's patients showed a disproportionate impairment in remembering negative words and pictures when compared with healthy elderly controls. These findings implicate the amydala in accounting for the memory boost associated with processing information with a negative emotional valence. Results also show that young and older adults but not Alzheimer's disease patients portray better memory for emotional versus neutral pictures and words. Older adults and Alzheimers patients show no benefit from emotional context, on the other hand, young adults remember more items buried

neg: Canada Post millennium stamps a vital part of Canada's heritage. Believed to possess supernatural powers, the shaman plays an integral role in Aboriginal life, serving as a mystical guide who helps heal the sick, influence the weather, and interpret dreams. Shamans and elders take a holistic approach to health based on physical, emotional, psychological and spiritual balance. Believed to possess supernatural powers, the shaman plays an integral role in Aboriginal life, serving as a mystical guide who helps heal the sick, influence the weather, and interpret dreams. Shamans and elders take a holistic approach to health based on physical, emotional, psychological and spiritual balance.

neg: God helmet that psychological factors must have played an important role in prior experiments. Persinger and colleagues also developed a device nicknamed "The Octopus" which uses solenoids around the whole brain, in a circle just above subject's ears. Commercial versions of the God helmet, Octopus and associated devices are sold by Persinger’s research associate Todd Murphy, and he reports that his devices are able to modulate emotional states in addition to enhancing meditation and generating altered states. One experiment found no changes in emotional responses to photographs whether the device was on or off, Persinger and colleagues report significant changes in subjects'

neg: Doob–Dynkin lemma Doob–Dynkin lemma In probability theory, the Doob–Dynkin lemma, named after Joseph L. Doob and Eugene Dynkin, characterizes the situation when one random variable is a function of another by the inclusion of the formula_1-algebras generated by the random variables. The usual statement of the lemma is formulated in terms of one random variable being measurable with respect to the formula_1-algebra generated by the other. The lemma plays an important role in the conditional expectation in probability theory, where it allows replacement of the conditioning on a random variable by conditioning on the formula_1-algebra that is generated by the random variable.

neg: Freezing behavior similar ways of being quantified when it comes to fear conditioning. It has been experimentally tested that particular areas of the brain are involved with freezing behavior. As mentioned before, Ann E. Power investigated the effect of basolateral amygdala on freezing behavior. It was also found that muscarinic cholinergic activation plays a role in the behavior. That suggests that neurotransmitters, in general, play a role in freezing behavior. Several investigations show that freezing behavior is influenced by the following: Hashimoto et al. investigated the effects of conditioned fear on serotonin and freezing behavior in rats. Through in vivo microdialysis, certain

neg: Nonsynaptic plasticity initiate further changes in the neurons or by a short-term storage mechanism for short-term memory. Nonsynaptic plasticity can emerge during learning as a result of cellular processes, although the timing, persistence, and the relationship between nonsynaptic plasticity and synaptic output are all poorly understood. Studies have shown that nonsynaptic plasticity plays an indirect but important role in the formation of memories. Learning-induced nonsynaptic plasticity is associated with soma depolarization. Experiments have revealed that nonsynaptic changes take place during conditional learning.Woody "et al". demonstrated that eyeblink conditioning (EBC), a form of classical conditioning for studying neural structures and mechanisms underlying learning

neg: Robert Kurzban human brain evolved with a mechanism to encode what is currently referred to as "race". A series of experiments showed that with a relatively minor manipulation in the laboratory, the extent to which people categorized others by "race" could be reduced. He also has done research on cooperation, morality, and mate choice (including speed dating). Evolutionary psychology has come under attack from a number of critics. Kurzban has been active in defending the discipline from prominent detractors and also has worked to clarify the principle of cognitive modularity, which plays an important role in the discipline. In 2009, he gave

neg: Auditory cortex a peripheral bit of this brain region is active when trying to identify musical pitch. Individual cells consistently get excited by sounds at specific frequencies, or multiples of that frequency. The auditory cortex plays an important yet ambiguous role in hearing. When the auditory information passes into the cortex, the specifics of what exactly takes place are unclear. There is a large degree of individual variation in the auditory cortex, as noted by biologist James Beament, who wrote, “The cortex is so complex that the most we may ever hope for is to understand it in principle, since the evidence

neg: Cerebral autoregulation and much research effort, benefit to patients has so far been limited. Cerebral autoregulation Cerebral autoregulation is a process in mammals, which aims to maintain adequate and stable cerebral blood flow. While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, the brain is very sensitive to over- and underperfusion. Cerebral autoregulation plays an important role in maintaining an appropriate blood flow to that region. Brain perfusion is essential for life since the brain has a high metabolic demand. By means of cerebral autoregulation the body is able to deliver sufficient blood containing oxygen and nutrients to the brain

neg: Cerebral autoregulation Cerebral autoregulation Cerebral autoregulation is a process in mammals, which aims to maintain adequate and stable cerebral blood flow. While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, the brain is very sensitive to over- and underperfusion. Cerebral autoregulation plays an important role in maintaining an appropriate blood flow to that region. Brain perfusion is essential for life since the brain has a high metabolic demand. By means of cerebral autoregulation the body is able to deliver sufficient blood containing oxygen and nutrients to the brain tissue for this metabolic need, and remove CO and other waste products.

neg: Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell of the most important transcription factors involved in OLG production. Olig2 inactivation during development reduces OPC production. Differentiation of OPCs into OLGs involves massive reorganization of cytoskeleton proteins ultimately resulting in increased cell branching and lamella extension, allowing OLGs to myelinate multiple axons. Laminin, a component of the extracellular matrix, plays an important role regulating OLG production. Mice lacking laminin alpha2-subunit produced fewer OPCs in the SVZ. MicroRNA (miRNA) plays a role in the regulation of OLG differentiation and myelin maintenance. Deletion of Dicer1 in miRNA disrupts normal brain myelination. However, miR-7a, and miRNA in OPCs, promotes OPC production during

neg: Intelligent tutoring system on student learning). Emotional affect A growing body of work is considering the role of affect on learning, with the objective of developing intelligent tutoring systems that can interpret and adapt to the different emotional states. Humans do not just use cognitive processes in learning but the affective processes they go through also plays an important role. For example, learners learn better when they have a certain level of disequilibrium (frustration), but not enough to make the learner feel completely overwhelmed. This has motivated affective computing to begin to produce and research creating intelligent tutoring systems that can interpret the

neg: Mah Meri people a shaman in their society, plays an important role in the kampung. "Main puteri" (meaning "Playing princess"), a dying ritualistic form of treatment due to Islamisation; is performed by the Mah Meri shaman with the purpose to rejuvenate patients suffering from emotional depression, physical fatigue or psychological problems caused by metaphysical forces. Major settlements of the Mah Meri people are:- Mah Meri people The Mah Meri are an ethnic group native to western part of Peninsular Malaysia. They are one of the 18 Orang Asli groups named by the Malaysian government. They are of the Senoi subgroup. Most of the

neg: Emotional self-regulation argue that context is important when evaluating the adaptiveness of a strategy, suggesting that in some contexts suppression may be adaptive. Drug use, an example of response modulation, can be a way to alter emotion-associated physiological responses. For example, alcohol can produce sedative and anxiolytic effects and beta blockers can affect sympathetic activation. Exercise, an example of response modulation, can be used to downregulate the physiological and experiential effects of negative emotions. Regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce emotional distress and improve emotional control. Sleep plays a role in emotion regulation, although stress and worry can also

neg: Yoon Bo-hyun many studies demonstrated a limited role for birth hypoxia in the etiology of cerebral palsy. From 1996, Yoon and his colleagues provided strong clinical and experimental evidence that intrauterine infection/inflammation, which is causally linked to preterm birth, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of fetal brain damage and cerebral palsy. Moreover, they demonstrated that intrauterine infection/inflammation is an important risk factor for the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia which is one of the most frequent and significant complications of preterm newborns. These have important implications because the two most important complications of preterm newborns, cerebral palsy and bronchopulmonary dysplasia, seem

neg: Kinesthetic learning the brainstem and is very densely packed with neurons and neural connections. This part of the brain is involved in timing as well as movement. It assists in predicting events, especially in the formation, execution, and timing of conditioned responses. The cerebellum plays a very important role in all forms of kinesthetic learning and motor function. For a ballerina, it is important to be able to control their movements and time it exactly right for their routine. For a football player it is important to be able to regulate movement when running throwing, and being able to have control over

neg: Transduction (psychology) the brain. Vision is from light reflecting off objects around us, audition is from the vibrations caused by change in air pressure, touch is from the signals in our skin feeling the pressure of objects touching us and taste/smell is from the molecules in the air or in our saliva that let us know what we are smelling or tasting. Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) plays an important role in visual transductions. This fact was well rooted when Fesenko demonstrated that this nucleotide cGMP was able to directly regulate a new assort of membrane channels now called the nucleotide-gated cation channels.

neg: Sialic acid acid than did formula-fed infants. However human milk varies in sialic acid content, depending upon genetic inheritance, lactation, etc. Investigations are focused on comparing sialic acid’s effects upon breast-fed children versus non-breast-fed children. Brain development is complex but it occurs quickly: by two years of age, a child’s brain reaches about 80% of its adult weight. Children are born with a complete number of brain neurons, but the synaptic connections between them will be elaborated after birth. Sialic acid plays an essential role in proper brain development and cognition, and it is important that the child has an adequate supply

neg: Blood–brain barrier of the blood–brain barrier. The weakening of the blood–brain barrier may be a result of a disturbance in the endothelial cells on the inside of the blood vessel, due to which the production of the protein P-glycoprotein is not working well. There are currently active investigations into treatments for a compromised blood–brain barrier. It is believed that oxidative stress plays an important role into the breakdown of the barrier. Anti-oxidants such as lipoic acid may be able to stabilize a weakening blood–brain barrier. Neuromyelitis optica, also known as Devic's disease, is similar to and is often confused with multiple sclerosis.

neg: Long-term memory brain. This gets worse over time and eventually leads to cognitive decline, after the loss of memory. Pioglitazone may improve cognitive impairments, including memory loss and may help protect long-term and visiospatial memory from neurodegenerative disease. Parkinson's disease patients have problems with cognitive performance; these issues resemble what is seen in frontal lobe patients and can often lead to dementia. It is thought that Parkinson's disease is caused by degradation of the dopaminergic mesocorticolimbic projection originating from the ventral tegmental area. It has also been indicated that the hippocampus plays an important role in episodic and spatial (parts of LTM)

neg: High-altitude cerebral edema One theory is that variations in brain size play a role, but the increase in brain volume from edema does not likely cause cranial vault impingement. The presence of large sulci indicate the condition may be influenced by the brain tightly fitting. Elevated intracranial pressure is generally accepted to be a late effect of HACE. High central venous pressure may also occur late in the condition's progression. One study demonstrated that normal autorelation of cerebral blood flow does not cause HACE. What role the sympathetic nervous system plays in determining who gets HACE is unclear, but it may have an

neg: Military personnel initial training, a physically and psychologically intensive process which resocializes recruits for the unique nature of military demands. According to an expert in military training methods, Lt Col. Dave Grossman, initial training uses four conditioning techniques: role modeling, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and brutalization. For example, throughout initial training: In conditions of continuous physical and psychological stress, the trainee group normally forms a bond of mutual loyalty, commonly experienced as an emotional commitment. It has been called a "we-feeling", and helps to commit recruits to their military organisation. Throughout their initial training, recruits are repeatedly instructed to stand, march, and

neg: Cannon–Bard theory affective responses could be elicited by appropriate stimulations. These emotional effects were no longer present when the optic thalamus was removed from the animals; thus, it was concluded that this region plays a significant role in the expression of emotions. To further support the assertion that emotional expression results from action of subcortical centers, Cannon and Britton performed further experimental research with cats. Cats were decorticated, and after a period of recovery they spontaneously displayed the behaviours characteristic of intense fury. This response, referred to as sham rage, continued to be displayed after ablation of all brain regions anterior to

neg: God gene from studies of identical twins reared apart. In order to identify some of the specific genes involved in self-transcendence, Hamer analyzed DNA and personality score data from over 1,000 individuals and identified one particular locus, VMAT2, with a significant correlation. VMAT2 codes for a vesicular monoamine transporter that plays a key role in regulating the levels of the brain chemicals serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine. These monoamine transmitters are in turn postulated to play an important role in regulating the brain activities associated with mystic beliefs. Hamer hypothesized that self-transcendence might provide an evolutionary advantage by providing human beings with an

neg: Anne's House of Dreams brought him home, amnesiac, brain-damaged and generally helpless, and now dependent on Leslie like a "big baby". Leslie becomes friends with Anne, but is sometimes bitter towards her because she is so happy and free, when Leslie can never have what Anne does. Anne's former guardian Marilla visits her occasionally and still plays an important role in her life. Marilla is present when Anne gives birth to her first child, Joyce, who dies shortly after birth (as Montgomery's second son did). After the baby's death, Anne and Leslie become closer as Leslie feels that Anne now understands tragedy and pain—as

neg: Homo sapiens the vertical forehead in humans plays an important role in human communication through eyebrow movements and forehead skin wrinkling. Brain size in both Neanderthals and AMH is significantly larger on average (but overlapping in range) than brain size in "H. erectus". Neanderthal and AMH brain sizes are in the same range, but there are differences in the relative sizes of individual brain areas, with significantly larger visual systems in Neanderthals than in AMH. Compared to archaic people, anatomically modern humans have smaller, differently shaped teeth. This results in a smaller, more receded dentary, making the rest of the jaw-line stand

neg: Low arousal theory low emotion arousal often elicits hypoactivity of the amygdala. The amygdala in the brain is part of the limbic system, and is responsible for processing and regulating emotions. This could possibly explain as to why those suffering from low arousal often lack empathy as well as emotional reactivity to other people. This disorder is characterized by repeated deceitfulness, impulsivity, irritability, and aggressiveness since 15 years old. Persons diagnosed with this disorder often score low on fear conditioning. The lack of the empathy associated with ASPD is thought to be linked to the low arousal theory. A study conducted showed that

neg: Lateral inhibition eyes. Also, neighboring cells in the auditory cortex have similar specific frequencies that cause them to fire, creating a map of sound frequencies similar to that of the somatosensory cortex. Lateral inhibition in tonotopic channels can be found in the inferior colliculus and at higher levels of auditory processing in the brain. However, the role that lateral inhibition plays in auditory sensation is unclear. Some scientists found that lateral inhibition could play a role in sharpening spatial input patterns and temporal changes in sensation, others propose it plays an important role in processing low or high tones. Lateral inhibition is

neg: GABRA2 the brain, such as the hippocampus. Subunit isoforms are seen around in various locations in the brain throughout growth. The combination of subunits has a large effect on the pharmacological and biophysical characteristics. GABRA2 has been found to mediate anxiolytic activity, which plays a key role in emotional and behavioral control. Most of GABRA2 modifications have been found to be linked to alcoholism and adolescent behavior. GABRA2 is one of the 16 distinct alpha subunits found for the GABA receptor. GABA-A has a pentametric form, with two alpha, two beta, and one gamma subunit. The various subunit isoforms seen in

neg: Emotional lateralization of the amygdala due to fearful stimuli may also produce unilateral activation of other regions. The right middle temporal gyrus, right brainstem, left hippocampus, right cerebellum, right fuisform gyrus, and left lingual gyrus were also activated during fearful stimuli. Activation of multiple brain regions both indicates that emotions are processed in many parts of the brain and that emotions are complex. The amygdala probably plays a role in the conscious processing of emotion. The left amygdala was activated during the processing of conscious stimuli while the right amygdala was active during the processing of nonconscous stimuli. The anterior cingulate cortex

neg: Risk aversion (psychology) from multiple brain areas converge on the lateral amygdala, allowing for the creation of associations that regulate fear-conditioning; Cells in the superior dorsal lateral amygdala are able to rapidly pair the neutral stimulus with the aversive stimulus. Cells that project from the lateral amygdala to the central amygdala allow for the initiation of an emotional response if a stimulus is deemed threatening. "Cognitive Control". Evaluating a gamble and calculating its expected value requires a certain amount of cognitive control. Several brain areas are dedicated to monitoring the congruence between expected and actual outcomes. Evidence by Ridderinkhof et al. (2004) suggests

neg: Donald Winnicott of specialised jargon, there was a pragmatic usefulness to the ordinary word "self" with its range of traditional meanings. For example, where other psychoanalysts used the Freudian terminology of ego and id to describe different functions of a person's psychology, Winnicott at times used "self" to refer to both. For Winincott, the self is a very important part of mental and emotional well-being which plays a vital role in creativity. He thought that people were born without a clearly developed self and had to "search" for an authentic sense of self as they grew. "For Winnicott, the sense of feeling

neg: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor development, BDNF alterations may play a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. BDNF has been found within many areas of the brain and plays an important role is supporting the formation of memories. It has been shown that BDNF mRNA levels are decreased in cortical layers IV and V of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients, an area that is known to be involved with working memory. Since schizophrenic patients often suffer from impairments in working memory, and BDNF mRNA levels have been shown to be decreased in the DLPFC of schizophrenic patients, it is highly likely that BDNF

neg: Computer vision explains the behavior of optics which are a core part of most imaging systems. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Also, various measurement problems in physics can be addressed using computer vision, for example motion in fluids. A third field which plays an important role is neurobiology, specifically the study of the biological vision system. Over the last century, there has been an extensive study of eyes, neurons, and the brain structures devoted to processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals. This has led to a

neg: Cannon–Bard theory his classic treatise on homeostasis. Philip Bard (1898–1977) was a doctoral student of Cannon's, and together they developed a model of emotion called the Cannon–Bard Theory. Cannon was an experimenter who relied on studies of animal physiology. Through these studies, Cannon and Bard highlighted the role of the brain in generating physiological responses and feelings; a role that is important in their explanation of emotion experience and production. A dominant theory of emotion of Cannon's time was the James–Lange theory of emotion, and Cannon recognized that to test this theory, an examination of emotional expression with no visceral afferent feedback

neg: Effects of domestic violence on children lacking the emotional and physical attachment to their mother, suffer from developmental delays, and have excessive diarrhea from both trauma and stress. Infants are most affected by the environment of abuse because the child's brain hasn't fully developed. Physical effects of witnessing domestic violence in older children are less evident than behavioral and emotional effects. The trauma that children experience when they witness domestic violence in the home, plays a major role in their development and physical well being. Older children can sometimes turn the stress towards behavioral problems. Sometimes children who see the abuse turn to drugs, hoping to

neg: Educational neuroscience acceptance of neuroscientific findings and proactive collaboration. Bennett & Rolheiser-Bennett (2001) point out that "teachers must be aware of and act on the science within the art of teaching". They suggest that educators must become aware of other methods and incorporate them into their practice. Furthermore, Bennett and Rolheiser-Bennett suggest that specific bodies of knowledge will play an important role in informing educators when making important decisions with regards to the "design of learning environments". The bodies of knowledge discussed include multiple intelligences, emotional intelligences, learning styles, the human brain, children at risk and gender. As the authors explain these

neg: Psychological behaviorism shortly after a buzzer is sounded, for a number of times, the buzzer will come to elicit salivation, part of an emotional response. In operant conditioning, if a piece of food is presented to a dog after the dog makes a particular motor response, the dog will come to make that motor response more frequently. For Staats, these two types of conditioning are not separate, they interact. A piece of food elicits an emotional response. A piece of food presented after the dog has made a motor response will have the effect of strengthening that motor response so that it

neg: Measures of conditioned emotional response Measures of conditioned emotional response In experimental psychology the term "conditioned emotional response" refers to a phenomenon that is seen in classical conditioning after a conditioned stimulus (CS) has been paired with an emotion-producing unconditioned stimulus (US) such as electric shock. The conditioned emotional response is usually measured through its effect in suppressing an ongoing response. For example, a rat first learns to press a lever through operant conditioning. Classical conditioning follows: in a series of trials the rat is exposed to a CS, often a light or a noise. Each CS is followed by the US, an electric shock.

neg: Measures of conditioned emotional response the CS that has the same duration as the CS: formula_1. Where SR = suppression Ratio, D = responding during CS and B = responding before CS. Measures of conditioned emotional response In experimental psychology the term "conditioned emotional response" refers to a phenomenon that is seen in classical conditioning after a conditioned stimulus (CS) has been paired with an emotion-producing unconditioned stimulus (US) such as electric shock. The conditioned emotional response is usually measured through its effect in suppressing an ongoing response. For example, a rat first learns to press a lever through operant conditioning. Classical conditioning follows: in

neg: Chivaraku Migiledi that she could not meet the standards set by Savitri in "Chivaraku Migiledi" (1960) for the character she played in "Khamoshi". This is a story of a nurse in a psychiatric hospital, played by Savitri. The character is a part of a team exploring new therapy for patients who have suffered emotional trauma. The approach taken by the team is to offer these individuals an emotional resort, which is where Savitri's character plays her part. Her role is to act as a friend and a lover for the patient, but at the same time, refrain from any emotional involvement on

neg: Traumatic brain injury a family, increased level of stress and household tension, changes in emotional dynamics, and overwhelming desire to return to pre-injury status. In addition, families may exhibit less effective functioning in areas including coping, problem solving and communication. Psychoeducation and counseling models have been demonstrated to be effective in minimizing family disruption TBI is a leading cause of death and disability around the globe and presents a major worldwide social, economic, and health problem. It is the number one cause of coma, it plays the leading role in disability due to trauma, and is the leading cause of brain damage in

neg: Death a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and "immortal" germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line. The "Volvox" algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely different cell types, and as a consequence include death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated part of its life history. Death is an important subject of religious doctrine. In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role. Awareness of death was what motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to find the "deathless" and finally

neg: Fixed fantasy perfect" while sufferers of avoidant personality disorder would believe that they are "not good enough". Challenging such "automatic thoughts ... attitudes and basic negative beliefs" is an important part of cognitive therapy. A fixed fantasy also differs from religion or superstition in that these are culturally bound, whereas a fixed fantasy is specific to an individual. In and of themselves, fixed fantasies are not necessarily harmful, but they can interfere with an individual's ability to develop a coherent and integrated life experience. In a disciplinary distinct usage (though one equally dependent upon emotional conditioning, upon how "emotions can become associated

neg: Music-specific disorders frequently used by music neuroscientists is "fine-grained pitch processing" which refers to the ability of a person to distinguish minor changes or fluctuations in pitch. Processing pitch is an extremely integral part of music cognition. Recent developments in brain scanning techniques have shown neuroscientists that the posterior secondary cortex plays an extremely important part in the processing of pitch in the brain. In music, "pitch relation" is more important than pitch itself. A subset of five to seven pitches creates a scale. The scale tones are "not equivalent and are organized around a central tone, called the tonic" (Peretz 2005).

neg: Mind-blindness associated with the mind-blindness. The temporal poles provide personal experiences for mentalization such as facial recognition, emotional memory and familiar voices. In patients suffering from semantic dementia, the temporal regions of these patients undergo atrophy and lead to certain deficits which can cause mind-blindness. The amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex also are a part of the ToM. It is in involved in the interpretation of behaviour which plays an important role in social cognition and therefore contributes to the theory of the mind. It is suspected that the damage to the orbitofrontal cortex brings upon subtle impairments, but not a

neg: AHI1 associated with schizophrenia and autism due to the role it plays in brain development. An AHI1 heterozygous knockout mouse model was created to study the correlation between alterations in AHI1 expression and the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders. The core temperatures and corticosterone secretions of the heterozygous knockout mice after exposure to environmental and visceral stress exhibited extreme repression of autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses. The knockout mice demonstrated an increased resilience to different types of stress and these results lead to a correlation between emotional regulation and neuropsychiatric disorders. Jouberin is a protein that in humans is encoded by

neg: Neural oscillation is inversely related to the delay time. An example of such a feedback loop is the connections between the thalamus and cortex – the thalamocortical radiations. This thalamocortical network is able to generate oscillatory activity known as recurrent thalamo-cortical resonance. The thalamocortical network plays an important role in the generation of alpha activity. In a whole-brain network model with realistic anatomical connectivity and propagation delays between brain areas, oscillations in the beta frequency range emerge from the partial synchronisation of subsets of brain areas oscillating in the gamma-band (generated at the mesoscopic level). Scientists have identified some intrinsic neuronal properties

neg: Emotional lateralization (ACC) plays a role in a variety of functions including emotional ones. The ACC may be important in conscious awareness of emotion. Damage to the ACC is associated with decreased SCR to physical and psychological stimuli. Bilateral and unilateral damage both resulted in decreased SCR indicates that the right and left ACC's may specialized in certain aspects of emotional response. The left anterior insula (AI) increasingly responds to increasingly fearful stimuli. The AI may also be involved in the conscious experience of emotion. Phenomena such as emotional lateralization may help describe how emotions arise, persist, and alter our behavior. Understanding

neg: Glial fibrillary acidic protein deficits in conditioning experiments such as the eye-blink task. Biochemical studies of GFAP have shown MgCl and/or calcium/calmodulin dependent phosphorylation at various serine or threonine residues by PKC and PKA which are two kinases that are important for the cytoplasmic transduction of signals. These data highlight the importance of GFAP for cell-cell communication. GFAP has also been shown to be important in repair after CNS injury. More specifically for its role in the formation of glial scars in a multitude of locations throughout the CNS including the eye and brain. In 2016 a CNS inflammatory disorder associated with anti-GFAP antibodies

neg: Progesterone Progesterone Progesterone (P4) is an endogenous steroid and progestogen sex hormone involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis of humans and other species. It belongs to a group of steroid hormones called the progestogens, and is the major progestogen in the body. Progesterone has a variety of important functions in the body. It is also a crucial metabolic intermediate in the production of other endogenous steroids, including the sex hormones and the corticosteroids, and plays an important role in brain function as a neurosteroid. In addition to its role as a natural hormone, progesterone is used as a medication,