query: where does most of the primary production occur in an ocean ecosystem

pos: Primary production Primary production In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as "primary producers" or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae

pos: Ice algae in diatoms, which dominate sympagic blooms. Other groups, such as the dinoflagellates, which also bloom in the spring/summer, have been shown to maintain low cell numbers in the water column itself, and do not primarily overwinter within the ice. Where sea ice covers ocean that is somewhat shallower, resuspension of cells from the sediment may occur. Climate change and warming of Arctic and Antarctic regions have the potential to greatly alter ecosystem functioning. Decreasing ice cover in polar regions is expected to lessen the relative proportion of sea ice algae production to measures of annual primary production. Thinning ice allows

pos: Primary producers Earth would be unable to sustain itself. Plants, along with other primary producers, produce the energy that beings consume, and the oxygen that they breathe. It is thought that the first organisms on Earth were primary producers located on the ocean floor. Aquatic algae are a significant contributor to food webs in tropical rivers and streams. This is displayed by net primary production, a fundamental ecological process that reflects the amount of carbon that is synthesized within an ecosystem. This carbon ultimately becomes available to consumers. Net primary production displays that the rates of in-stream primary production in tropical regions

pos: Ecological yield implies that ecosystems are overexploited by a factor of 1.6 on average. In most biomes, the only form of primary production is photosynthesis. In other words, all new biomass can be traced back to photosynthetic plants and algae by a chain of predation. Therefore, one can predict the yield of one organism in an ecosystem as a function of the yield of its primary producers. When the biomass from prey is converted into biomass in its predator, some losses occur due to biological and thermodynamic inefficiency. The conversion rate is typically about 10%. In other words, 100 kg of plant

pos: Forage fish produce biomass from inorganic compounds, mostly by a process of photosynthesis. In oceans, most primary production is performed by algae. This is a contrast to land, where most primary production is performed by vascular plants. Algae ranges from single floating cells to attached seaweeds, while vascular plants are represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses. Larger producers, such as seagrasses and seaweeds, are mostly confined to the littoral zone and shallow waters, where they attach to the underlying substrate and are still within the photic zone. Most primary production in the ocean is performed by microscopic organisms,

pos: Aquatic ecosystem of its net primary production. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems: Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones. One common system divides lakes into three zones (see figure). The first, the littoral zone, is the shallow zone near the shore. This is where rooted wetland plants occur. The offshore is divided into two further zones, an open water zone and a deep water zone. In the open water zone (or photic zone) sunlight supports photosynthetic algae, and the species that feed upon them. In the deep water zone,

pos: Epiphyte influenced by a number of factors including light, temperature, currents, nutrients, and trophic interactions. Algae are the most common group of epiphytes in marine systems. Photosynthetic epiphytes account for a large amount of the photosynthesis in systems in which they occur. This is typically between 20 and 60% of the total primary production of the ecosystem. They are a general group of organisms and are highly diverse, providing food for a great number of fauna. Snail and nudibranch species are two common grazers of epiphytes. Epiphyte species composition and the amount of epiphytes can be indicative of changes in the

pos: Ecological efficiency Ecological efficiency Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem. Primary production occurs in autotrophic organisms of an ecosystem. Photoautotrophs such as vascular plants and algae convert energy from the sun into energy stored as carbon compounds. Photosynthesis is carried out in the chlorophyll of green plants. The energy converted through photosynthesis is carried through the trophic levels of an ecosystem as organisms consume members of lower trophic levels. Primary production can be

pos: River ecosystem commensal relationships. Bacteria play a large role in energy recycling (see below). Algae, consisting of phytoplankton and periphyton, are the most significant sources of primary production in most streams and rivers. Phytoplankton float freely in the water column and thus are unable to maintain populations in fast flowing streams. They can, however, develop sizeable populations in slow moving rivers and backwaters. Periphyton are typically filamentous and tufted algae that can attach themselves to objects to avoid being washed away by fast currents. In places where flow rates are negligible or absent, periphyton may form a gelatinous, unanchored floating mat. Plants

pos: Stream metabolism of organic matter, such as leaves or debris are needed to fuel ecosystem respiration rates, because respiration is greater than production within the ecosystem. However, it is important to note that autochthonous (coming from within the ecosystem) pathways may also remain important in heterotrophic ecosystems. A net autotrophic ecosystem, conversely, has available primary productivity (from algae, the main primary producer in aquatic ecosystems) to fuel upper trophic levels such as insects or fishes (but again, allochthonous pathways may still be important to these systems). Stream metabolism can be influenced by a variety of factors, including physical characteristics of the stream

neg: Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre The low biomass results in clear water, allowing photosynthesis to occur to a substantial depth. The NPSG is classically described as a two-layered system. The upper, nutrient-limited layer accounts for most of the primary production, supported primarily by recycled nutrients. The lower layer has nutrients more readily available, but photosynthesis is light-limited. In open-ocean systems, biological production depends on intense nutrient recycling within the euphotic (sunlit) zone, with only a small fraction supported by the input of “new” nutrients. Previously there was a perception that the NPSG was a marine desert and that “new” nutrients were not commonly added to

neg: Primary production it provides a measure of ecosystem respiration. The light vessel permits both photosynthesis and respiration, so provides a measure of net photosynthesis (i.e. oxygen production via photosynthesis subtract oxygen consumption by respiration). Gross primary production is then obtained by adding oxygen consumption in the dark vessel to net oxygen production in the light vessel. The technique of using C incorporation (added as labelled NaCO) to infer primary production is most commonly used today because it is sensitive, and can be used in all ocean environments. As C is radioactive (via beta decay), it is relatively straightforward to measure its incorporation

neg: Ocean acidification has a value greater than 1, and does not readily dissolve. Most calcifying organisms live in such waters. Below this depth, Ω has a value less than 1, and will dissolve. However, if its production rate is high enough to offset dissolution, can still occur where Ω is less than 1. The carbonate compensation depth occurs at the depth in the ocean where production is exceeded by dissolution. The decrease in the concentration of CO decreases Ω, and hence makes dissolution more likely. Calcium carbonate occurs in two common polymorphs (crystalline forms): aragonite and calcite. Aragonite is much more soluble

neg: Primary production ice insulates it at lower temperatures. However, the availability of light, the source of energy for photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients, the building blocks for new growth, play crucial roles in regulating primary production in the ocean. Available Earth System Models suggest that ongoing ocean bio-geochemical changes could trigger reductions in ocean NPP between 3% and 10% of current values depending on the emissions scenario. The sunlit zone of the ocean is called the photic zone (or euphotic zone). This is a relatively thin layer (10–100 m) near the ocean's surface where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur. For

neg: Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre approximately 75%, of what we refer to as the open ocean, or the area of the ocean that does not consist of coastal areas. They are considered oligotrophic, or nutrient poor because they are far from terrestrial runoff. These regions were once thought to be homogenous and static habitats. However, there is increasing evidence that the NPSG exhibits substantial physical, chemical, and biological variability on a variety of time scales. Specifically, the NPSG exhibits seasonal and interannual variations in primary productivity (simply defined as the production of new plant material), which is important for the uptake of . The NPSG

neg: Gap dynamics over time, will create a terrestrial ecosystem. From there on herbaceous, non-woody plants will develop and trees will follow. Major holes or gaps in the forest ecosystem will take hundreds of years to regenerate from a rock base. Secondary succession occurs where a disturbance has taken place but soil remains and is able to support plant growth. It does not take nearly as long for plant regeneration to occur because of the soil substrate already present. Secondary succession is much more common than primary succession in the tropics. Ecological secondary succession occurs in four distinct phases: First, rapid colonization of

neg: Ecoforestry to keep the tree alive. The remains of the converted sugars is left in roots for consumption by the organisms surrounding the tree in the habitat. This shows the productivity of an ecosystem with its inhabitants. Productivity within the ecosystem cannot come to fruition unless the forest is sustainable enough to be harvested. If most individual organisms of the ecosystem vanish, the ecosystem itself is at risk. Once that happens, there is no longer any forest to harvest from. The overall productivity of a system can be found in an equation where the Net Primary Production, or NPP, is equal

neg: Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium diatoms to perform DNRA has major implications on their ecological role, as well as their role in the marine nitrogen cycle. Unlike denitrification, which removes reactive nitrogen from the system, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium conserves nitrogen within the system. Since DNRA takes nitrate and converts it into ammonium, it does not produce N or NO. Consequently, DNRA recycles nitrogen rather than causing N-loss, which leads to more sustainable primary production and nitrification. Within an ecosystem, denitrification and DNRA can occur simultaneously. Usually DNRA is about 15% of the total nitrate reduction rate, which includes both DNRA and denitrification. However,

neg: Remineralisation example, in the North Sea, values of carbon deposition are ~1% of primary production while that value is <0.5% in the open oceans on average. Therefore, most of nutrients remain in the water column, recycled by the biota. Heterotrophic organisms will utilize the materials produced by the autotrophic (and chemotrophic) organisms and via respiration will remineralize the compounds from the organic form back to inorganic, making them available for primary producers again. For most areas of the ocean, the highest rates of carbon remineralization occur at depths between in the water column, decreasing down to about 1,200 m where remineralization

neg: Rainbowing water becomes toxic as decomposed organic materials raise hydrogen sulfide levels. In such cases, it is often impossible for an ecosystem to revive. It often takes a couple years for the ecosystem to recover, when recovery does occur. In addition, coral can be removed or become buried by the sediment. Rainbowing Rainbowing is the process in which a dredging ship propels sand that has been claimed from the ocean floor in a high arc to a particular location. This is used for multiple purposes, ranging from building up a beach to prevent erosion to constructing new islands. The name is

neg: Ocean fertilization of primary production and carbon export to the deep ocean by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The faeces causes phytoplankton to grow and take up carbon. The phytoplankton nourish krill. Reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. Many locations, such as the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, support high marine biodiversity. Nitrogen or other nutrient loading in coral reef areas can lead to community shifts towards algal overgrowth of corals and ecosystem disruption, implying that

neg: Primary production to other species, having a marked impact on biodiversity, flows of carbon, water and energy, and ecosystem services, and scientists have questioned how large this fraction can be before these services begin to break down. Reductions in NPP are also expected in the ocean as a result of ongoing climate change, potentially impacting marine ecosystems and goods and services that the oceans provide Primary production In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also

neg: Hawaii Ocean Time-series relies on the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System research vessel Kilo Moana operated by the University of Hawaii for most of the near-monthly sampling expeditions. When at Station ALOHA, a variety of sampling strategies is used to capture the range of physical and biogeochemical dynamics natural to the NPSG ecosystem. These strategies include high resolution conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) profiles, biogeochemical analyses of discrete water samples, "in situ" vertically profiling bio-optical instrumentation, free-drifting arrays for determinations of primary production and particle fluxes, deep ocean sediment traps, and oblique plankton net tows. The suite of core measurements conducted by HOT has remained largely unchanged

neg: Marine ecosystem root systems that provide habitat to many species and act as a buffer to soil erosion. Intertidal zones are the areas that are visible during low tide and covered up by saltwater during high tide. In these zones simple organisms can be found in tide pools. These areas also have a higher salinity because salt is left diarrhea has occurred. Estuaries occur where there is a noticeable change in salinity between saltwater and freshwater sources, for example, the confluence between a river and an ocean. Many organisms rely on this fragile ecosystem at least once during their life cycle. The

neg: Primary production which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration. Some net primary production goes toward growth and reproduction of primary producers, while some is consumed by herbivores. Both gross and net primary production are in units of mass per unit area per unit time interval. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C m yr) is most often used as the unit of measurement. On the land, almost all primary production is now performed by vascular plants, with a small

neg: Stream metabolism Stream metabolism Stream metabolism, also known as aquatic ecosystem metabolism in lakes, can be expressed as net ecosystem productivity (NEP), the difference between gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER). Analogous to metabolism within an individual organism, stream metabolism represents how energy is created (primary production) and used (respiration) within an aquatic ecosystem. In net heterotrophic ecosystems, GPP:ER is <1 (ecosystem using more energy than it is creating); in net autotrophic ecosystems it is >1 (ecosystem creating more energy than it is using) (Odum 1956). A net heterotrophic ecosystem often means that allochthonous (coming from outside the ecosystem) inputs

neg: Anchoa mitchilli species is distributed in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico along the eastern coasts of North America from Maine to Yucatán. It does not occur in the West Indies. It is well known in the Chesapeake Bay, where it is the most abundant fish. It occurs in a wide range of water temperatures and salinities, including some hypersaline environments. It does not tolerate low-oxygen waters and easily asphyxiates when deprived of oxygen. This fish spends most of its time cruising the water column. It can also be found over bare substrates at the ocean floor and in tide pools

neg: Carbon sequestration limited understanding of its complete effects on the marine ecosystem, including side effects and possibly large deviations from expected behavior. Such effects potentially include release of nitrogen oxides, and disruption of the ocean's nutrient balance. Natural iron fertilisation events (e.g., deposition of iron-rich dust into ocean waters) can enhance carbon sequestration. Sperm whales act as agents of iron fertilisation when they transport iron from the deep ocean to the surface during prey consumption and defecation. Sperm whales have been shown to increase the levels of primary production and carbon export to the deep ocean by depositing iron rich feces into

neg: Foredune ecosystem, is a result of sediment deposition at a southern location. Sediment accumulation can also be a result of wave action. Wave currents occur in a swash and backwash motion. This continual wave action allows for the movement of sediment. The angles at which the swash and backwash occur, are associated with the off shore transport current as well as the change in winter and summer ocean currents. The vegetation analyzed at the Mad River County Beach showed an evolutionary change in the ecosystem as a result of several thriving invasive species. Upon arrival to the beach, it became visually

neg: Florida Florida Reef. The Florida Reef, being a delicate ecosystem like other coral reefs, faces many threats including overfishing, plastics in the ocean, coral bleaching, rising sea levels, and changes in sea surface temperature. Florida is a low per capita energy user. It is estimated that approximately 4% of energy in the state is generated through renewable resources. Florida's energy production is 6% of the nation's total energy output, while total production of pollutants is lower, with figures of 6% for nitrogen oxide, 5% for carbon dioxide, and 4% for sulfur dioxide. Wildfires in Florida occur at all times of the

neg: Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre which is problematic because this would make any rapid increase, or bloom of phytoplankton impossible. Despite ever-present nutrient limitation in the upper portion, plankton biomass and rates of primary production have considerable temporal variability and do produce blooms in the NPSG. This interannual variability has been attributed to alterations in upper ocean nutrient supply stemming from physical variations due to ENSO and PDO. Based on new data, it now appears that present rates of primary production in these low nutrient regions are much greater than had been considered, and can vary significantly on time scales ranging from daily to interdecadal.

neg: Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre this system. The outlook has changed, as scientists have begun to have a better understanding of this habitat. Although fairly high rates of primary production are maintained through rapid recycling of nutrients, physical processes such as internal waves and tides, cyclonic mesoscale eddies, wind-driven Ekman pumping, and atmospheric storms may carry in new nutrients. Nutrients that do not get used up on the surface will eventually sink down and nourish the seafloor habitat. The deep benthic habitats of the ocean gyres have been thought to typically consist of some of the most food-poor regions on the planet. One of the

neg: Primary production of the field methods used to estimate NPP. Estimates of ecosystem respiration, the total carbon dioxide produced by the ecosystem, can also be made with gas flux measurements. The major unaccounted pool is belowground productivity, especially production and turnover of roots. Belowground components of NPP are difficult to measure. BNPP (below-ground NPP) is often estimated based on a ratio of ANPP:BNPP (above-ground NPP:below-ground NPP) rather than direct measurements. Gross primary production can be estimated from measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide made by the eddy covariance technique. During night, this technique measures all components of ecosystem respiration.

neg: Primary production oceanic primary production is the micronutrient iron. This is used as a cofactor in enzymes involved in processes such as nitrate reduction and nitrogen fixation. A major source of iron to the oceans is dust from the Earth's deserts, picked up and delivered by the wind as aeolian dust. In regions of the ocean that are distant from deserts or that are not reached by dust-carrying winds (for example, the Southern and North Pacific oceans), the lack of iron can severely limit the amount of primary production that can occur. These areas are sometimes known as HNLC (High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) regions,

neg: Ecosystem then be re-used for plant and microbial production and returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (or water) where it can be used for photosynthesis. In the absence of decomposition, the dead organic matter would accumulate in an ecosystem, and nutrients and atmospheric carbon dioxide would be depleted. Approximately 90% of terrestrial net primary production goes directly from plant to decomposer. Decomposition processes can be separated into three categories—leaching, fragmentation and chemical alteration of dead material. As water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-soluble components. These are then taken up by organisms in the

neg: Whiterock Conservancy a healthy and resilient environment. Historically, fire was an important part of Iowa's landscape. It helped to create and maintain habitat, recycle nutrients and maintain a level of ecosystem functional balance on the land that helped minimize the impact of other disturbances, like flooding. Fire, an ecosystem disturbance, has been dramatically curbed on the Iowa landscape over the last 100 years, resulting in a highly degraded and poorly functioning Iowa ecosystem. Agricultural production is an important part of the Iowa landscape. Although economic production is a primary for many landowners, some production systems, such as grazing beef cattle, are also

neg: Benguela Current Commission to implement the policy actions. The Implementation Plan provides a framework for the BCC to develop detailed scientific or management projects that help to meet its objectives. The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) extends from east of the Cape of Good Hope, northwards into Angolan waters and encompasses the full extent of Namibia’s marine environment. Like the Humboldt, California and Canary current systems, the Benguela is a major coastal upwelling ecosystem and an important centre of marine biodiversity and marine food production. Distinctive bathymetry, hydrography, chemistry and trophodynamics combine to make the BCLME one of the most productive ocean

neg: Ecology biomass, soil organic material). Ecosystem ecologist attempt to determine the underlying causes of these fluxes. Research in ecosystem ecology might measure primary production (g C/m^2) in a wetland in relation to decomposition and consumption rates (g C/m^2/y). This requires an understanding of the community connections between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers (e.g., fungi and bacteria), The underlying concept of ecosystem can be traced back to 1864 in the published work of George Perkins Marsh ("Man and Nature"). Within an ecosystem, organisms are linked to the physical and biological components of their environment to which they are adapted. Ecosystems

neg: Cascade effect (ecology) Cascade effect (ecology) An ecological cascade effect is a series of secondary extinctions that is triggered by the primary extinction of a key species in an ecosystem. Secondary extinctions are likely to occur when the threatened species are: dependent on a few specific food sources, mutualistic (dependent on the key species in some way), or forced to coexist with an invasive species that is introduced to the ecosystem. Species introductions to a foreign ecosystem can often devastate entire communities, and even entire ecosystems. These exotic species monopolize the ecosystem's resources, and since they have no natural predators to decrease their

neg: Alcanivorax environments. Oil spills can occur during transportation of oil or during extraction. Such spills may dump significant quantities of oil into the ocean and pollute the environment, affecting ecosystems near and far. Normally, many years are needed for an ecosystem to recover fully (if at all) from an oil spill, so scientists have been looking into ways to expedite the cleanup of areas affected by an oil spill. Most efforts so far use direct human involvement/labor to physically remove the oil from the environment. However, "A. borkumensis" presents a possible alternative. Since "A. borkumensis" naturally breaks down oil molecules to

neg: Michael Fasham of the North Atlantic. In later work, Fasham continued to advance ecosystem models by considering aspects such as parameter optimisation, the balance of autotrophic and heterotrophic plankton, diel vertical migration, and the role of the micronutrient iron in oceanic primary production. Fasham also played an important role in the international Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) that ran from 1987 to 2003, and he served on both the National and International Committees before ultimately taking the role as chair of the International Committee from 1998 to 2000. Fasham was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2000, and

neg: Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre is dynamic and contains physical, chemical, and biological variability on a variety of time scales. With the current changing climate, patterns in the atmosphere are shifting and causing changes in primary production in the NPSG. Variations in primary productivity can affect the ocean carbon cycle and potentially atmospheric and climate, because such variations can change the amount of carbon that is stored in the subsurface layers of the oceans. Because the NPSG is the largest contiguous biome on earth, it is not only important to a community of organisms, but also the rest of the planet. The NPSG has received

neg: Mitigation of global warming in Australia storage locations is most likely to be via pipeline. Storage of the captured carbon is the final part of the process. The vast majority of storage is expected to occur in geological sites on land, or below the seabed. Disposing of waste in the ocean has also been proposed, but this method has been largely discounted due to the significant impacts would have on the ocean ecosystem and legal constraints that effectively prohibit it. However, according to the Greenpeace False Hope Report, CCS cannot deliver in time to avoid a dangerous increase in world temperatures. The earliest timeframe for deployment

neg: Cud population to live and function. Consumption by ruminants of an insufficiently fibrous diet leads to little cud formation and therefore lowered amounts of saliva production. This in turn is associated with rumen acidosis, where the rumen pH can fall to 5 or lower. Rumen acidosis is associated with a lowered appetite which leads to still lower rates of saliva secretion. Eventually, a collapse of the microbial ecosystem in the rumen will occur because of the low pH. Acute rumen acidosis can lead to death of the animal, and will occur if the animal is allowed to eat a diet with

neg: Havasupai–Hualapai language can occur and where, and how syllable boundaries are divided. There are three types of stress: primary, secondary, and weak. All vowels can have any of these three types of stress, but syllabic consonants can only have weak stress. Primary stresses occur at regularly timed intervals in an utterance. Secondary stresses occur according to an alternating-stress system, which most commonly dictates that two secondary stresses follow a primary stressed (phonetically long) vowel. The most common syllable structures that occur in Havasupai-Hualapai are CV, CVC, and VC; however, consonant clusters of two or three consonants can and do occur initially, medially,

neg: Mesopredator release hypothesis habitat alterations. Examples of anthropogenic habitat change include agriculture, grazing land, and urbanization. More importantly, the hypothesis does not take into account that higher trophic levels are affected by primary productivity. It also does not mention that trophic interactions operate at different strengths according to the ecosystem. Therefore, the roles of predation and food/nutrient processes in influencing ecosystem structures remain open to controversy and further testing. Mesopredator release hypothesis The mesopredator release hypothesis is an ecological theory used to describe the interrelated population dynamics between apex predators and mesopredators within an ecosystem, such that a collapsing population of the former

neg: Mesopelagic zone will not be uniform throughout the global mesopelagic zone, it is predicted that some areas may actually decrease in fish biomass, while others increase. Water column stratification will also likely increase with ocean warming and climate change. Increased ocean stratification reduces the recycling of nutrients in the deep ocean to the euphotic zone resulting in decreases in both net primary production and sinking particulate matter. Additional research suggests shifts in the geographical range of many species could also occur with warming, with many of them shifting poleward. The combination of these factors could potentially mean that as global ocean basins

neg: Ecological collapse will cause all the species in that area to have to leave, or they will suffocate. This along with climate change, and ocean acidification can cause the collapse of an ecosystem. Although global climate change and human dominance are inevitable, humans can institute greater self-awareness in order to aid the habits of creatures such as coral reefs. Some scientists predict that a global ecological collapse will occur after 50% of the natural landscape is gone due to human development. Although the causes of ecological collapse are due to factors unique to their environment, they all for the most part share

neg: Primary production littoral zone and adjacent shallow waters, where they can attach to the underlying substrate but still be within the photic zone. There are exceptions, such as "Sargassum", but the vast majority of free-floating production takes place within microscopic organisms. The factors limiting primary production in the ocean are also very different from those on land. The availability of water, obviously, is not an issue (though its salinity can be). Similarly, temperature, while affecting metabolic rates (see Q), ranges less widely in the ocean than on land because the heat capacity of seawater buffers temperature changes, and the formation of sea

neg: Ecosystem ecology provision and filtration, production of biomass in forestry, agriculture, and fisheries, and removal of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO) from the atmosphere are examples of ecosystem services essential to public health and economic opportunity. Nutrient cycling is a process fundamental to agricultural and forest production. However, like most ecosystem processes, nutrient cycling is not an ecosystem characteristic which can be “dialed” to the most desirable level. Maximizing production in degraded systems is an overly simplistic solution to the complex problems of hunger and economic security. For instance, intensive fertilizer use in the midwestern United States has resulted in

neg: Oil spill Oil spill An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or

neg: Cold seep of a methane seep in the Southern Ocean, cold seeps are now known in all major oceans. Cold seeps are common along continental margins in areas of high primary productivity and tectonic activity, where crustal deformation and compaction drive emissions of methane rich fluid. Cold seeps are patchily distributed and they occur most frequently near ocean margins from intertidal to hadal depths. In Chile cold seeps are known from the intertidal zone, in Kattegat the methane seeps are known as "bubbling reefs" and are typically at depths of , and off northern California they can be found as shallow as

neg: Ecological facilitation and population dynamics of the plant species. Facilitation most often affects distribution by simply making it possible for a species to occur in a site where some environmental stress would otherwise prohibit growth of that species. This is apparent in whole-community facilitation by a foundation species, such as sediment stabilization in cobble beach plant communities by smooth cordgrass. A facilitating species may also help drive the progression from one ecosystem type to another, as mesquite apparently does in the grasslands of the Rio Grande Plains. As a nitrogen-fixing tree, mesquite establishes more readily than other species on nutrient-poor soils, and

neg: Ocean different vertical zones defined by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The photic zone includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Because plants require photosynthesis, life found deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are the primary source of energy in what is known as the

neg: The Green Connection using natural sunlight. Another display showcases one of the worlds most deadly snakes, the banded sea krait Laticauda colubrina. The Green Connection is arranged as an introduction to the ecosystem of Sabah. Visitors walk through limestone caves, dense jungle, muddy mangroves, reefs, and out into the open ocean where coral reefs grow. The discovery section of the aquarium is an interactive experience where the exhibits bring the world of water and ocean science to life. School visits follow the Malaysian Curriculum and usually focus on environmental education and conservation issues. When visitors first arrive at Sabah, the aquarium provides an

neg: Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas and under this definition there are an estimated 1000–2800 seamounts in the Atlantic Ocean and around 60 in the Mediterranean Sea. Seamounts enhance water flow through localised tides, eddies, and upwelling, and these physical processes may enhance primary production. Seamounts may therefore be considered as hotspots of marine life; fauna benefit from the enhanced hydrodynamics and phytoplankton supply, and thrive on the slopes and summits. Suspension feeders, such as gorgonian sea fans and the cold-water corals like Lophelia pertusa, often dominate the rich benthic (seafloor-dwelling) communities. The enhanced abundance and diversity of fauna is not limited to benthic species, as

neg: Indian Ocean (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects Prince Edward Islands to the Eighty Five East Ridge. These hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above. Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentration of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean upwelling, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and

neg: Terrestrial ecosystem Terrestrial ecosystem A terrestrial ecosystem is a type of ecosystem found only on biomes. Seven primary terrestrial ecosystems exist: tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest, tropical rain forest, grassland , deserts A community of organisms and their environment that occurs on the land masses of continents and islands. Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor. Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both a diurnal and seasonal basis than occur in aquatic ecosystems in similar climates. The availability of light is greater in

neg: Primary production as biomass that primary producers create in a given length of time. (GPP is sometimes confused with Net Primary "productivity", which is the rate at which photosynthesis or chemosynthesis occurs.) Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration"). The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as "net primary production" (NPP). Net primary production is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate at

neg: Aquatic ecosystem Aquatic ecosystem An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems. Marine ecosystems, the largest of all ecosystems, cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain approximately 97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the world's net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water. Approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are

neg: Merluccius capensis and northwards in autumn. Spawning is variably reported either to be year-round, or to occur mainly from mid-spring to early summer. The Cape hake is often fished together with the species "Merluccius paradoxus", which generally lives at greater depths. Most reported catches combine both species, but the range of "M. capensis" continues towards the north-west coast of southern Africa, in the region of Angola, where, for practical purposes, "M. paradoxus" does not occur. Merluccius capensis Merluccius capensis (shallow-water Cape hake or South African hake) is a ray-finned fish in the genus "Merluccius", found in the south-eastern Atlantic Ocean, along the

neg: Primary production this, 56.4 Pg C yr (53.8%), was the product of terrestrial organisms, while the remaining 48.5 Pg C yr, was accounted for by oceanic production. Scaling ecosystem-level GPP estimations based on eddy covariance measurements of net ecosystem exchange (see above) to regional and global values using spatial details of different predictor variables, such as climate variables and remotely sensed fAPAR or LAI led to a terrestrial gross primary production of 123±8 Gt carbon (NOT carbon dioxide) per year during 1998-2005 In areal terms, it was estimated that land production was approximately 426 g C m yr (excluding areas with permanent

neg: Mesopredator release hypothesis control could have on higher trophic levels. This means that it supports the argument that top predators control the structure and population dynamics of an ecosystem, but it does not take into account that prey species and primary producers also have an effect on the ecosystem’s structure. Furthermore, populations of smaller predators do not "always" increase after the removal of top predators; in fact, they sometimes decline sharply. Another problem is that the hypothesis is offered as an explanation after large predators have already become rare or extinct in an ecosystem. Consequently, there is no data on the past ecosystem

neg: Ecosystem Functional Type concept has been the identification of EFTs from the satellite-derived dynamics of primary production, an essential and integrative descriptor of ecosystem functioning. In 1992, Soriano and Paruelo proposed the concept of Biozones to identify vegetation units that share ecosystem functional characteristics using time-series of satellite images of spectral vegetation indices. Biozones were later renamed to EFTs by Paruelo et al. (2001), using an equivalent definition and methodology. Shugart (1997) was one of the first authors that used the term EFT as “aggregated components of ecosystems whose interactions with one another and with the environment produce differences in patterns of ecosystem

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle of carbon from the surface ocean. This increased export could theoretically remove excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for storage in the deep ocean. Ongoing investigations regarding artificial fertilization exist. Due to the scale of the ocean and the fast response times of heterotrophic communities to increases in primary production, it is difficult to determine whether limiting-nutrient fertilization results in an increase in carbon export. However, the majority of the community does not believe this is a reasonable or viable approach. There are over 16 million dams in the world that alter carbon transport from rivers to oceans. Using data

neg: Marine pollution or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff

neg: Ecosystem approach and the human component; however, its varies from the other methods as the scale of the problem is larger and intricate. The objectives should be straightforward and condensed with important systematic information. Also, EBM considers social and cultural aspects into the solution not just only scientific reasoning. With ecosystem management, the process is similar to EBM; however, factors such as socioeconomics and politics can impact the decision and solution. A cultural aspect is also considered when creating a solution. The ecosystem approach is currently being used in the fields of environmental and ocean management (i.e. the ecosystem approach does not

neg: Ecosystem substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them. Consequently, they are often subject to feedback loops. While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading. Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species present are also internal factors. Primary production is the production of organic matter from inorganic carbon sources. This mainly occurs through photosynthesis. The energy incorporated

neg: Eastern Pomo language (with primary stress on the V). The roots of polysyllabic words cannot always be isolated in this language, making it impossible to predict where the primary stress is going to fall solely on the type of morpheme. However, primary stress does occur on the second syllable of most words, including the words in which the roots cannot be isolated. The weakest degree of stress falls on a syllable following a primarily or secondarily stressed syllable, and alternates on the following syllables. The syllables following the primarily stressed syllable alternates with every second syllable being slightly louder than the preceding unstressed

neg: Leuser Ecosystem Leuser Ecosystem The Leuser Ecosystem is an area of forest located in the provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. Covering more than 2.6 million hectares it is one of the richest expanses of tropical rain forest in Southeast Asia and is the last place on earth where sumatran elephant, sumatran rhinoceros, sumatran tiger and sumatran orangutan are found within one area. It has one of the world's richest yet least-known forest systems, and its vegetation is an important source of Earth's oxygen. The ecosystem stretches from the coast of the Indian Ocean to

neg: Ecosystem ecology primary productivity (production of biomass), decomposition, and trophic interactions. Studies of ecosystem function have greatly improved human understanding of sustainable production of forage, fiber, fuel, and provision of water. Functional processes are mediated by regional-to-local level climate, disturbance, and management. Thus ecosystem ecology provides a powerful framework for identifying ecological mechanisms that interact with global environmental problems, especially global warming and degradation of surface water. This example demonstrates several important aspects of ecosystems: These characteristics also introduce practical problems into natural resource management. Who will manage which ecosystem? Will timber cutting in the forest degrade recreational fishing in the stream?

neg: Ecosystem engineer able to influence soils and vegetation of the landscape while providing underground corridors for arthropods, avians, other small mammals, and reptiles. This has a positive effect on species richness and diversity of their habitats which results in the prairie dogs being labelled as keystone species. In marine environments, filter feeders and plankton are ecosystem engineers because they alter turbidity and light penetration, controlling the depth at which photosynthesis can occur. This in turn limits the primary productivity of benthic and pelagic habitats and influences consumption patterns between trophic groups. Another example of ecosystem engineers in marine environments would be scleractinian

neg: Primary producers carbon dioxide, an inorganic carbon source. Examples of chemolithotrophs are some archaea and bacteria (unicellular organisms) that produce biomass from the oxidation of inorganic chemical compounds, these organisms are called chemoautotrophs, and are frequently found in hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean. Primary producers ares at the lowest trophic level, and are the reasons why Earth is sustainable for life to this day . There are many different types of primary producers out in the Earth's ecosystem at different states. Fungi and other organisms that gain their biomass from oxidizing organic materials are called decomposers and are not primary producers.

neg: Freshwater inflow at determining the freshwater inflow amount necessary to maintain an estuarine ecosystem. One common methodology implemented in studies in several U.S. states including Texas, Florida, and California is to indirectly link estuarine resources (i.e. integrity- species composition, biomass, diversity; function- primary production, secondary production, nutrient recycling; sustainability- habitats, valued resources, ecosystem services) to freshwater inflow (i.e. quantity- timing, frequency, duration, extent; quality; tidal connections) through estuarine conditions (i.e. salinity; sediment; dissolved material; particulate material). In the Mtata Estuary of South Africa, an Estuarine Health Index is used to compare the current state of the estuary to a predicted reference state.

neg: Hydrogen fuel the usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply. Hydrogen is usually considered an energy carrier, like electricity, as it must be produced from a primary energy source such as solar energy, biomass, electricity (e.g. in the form of solar PV or via wind turbines), or hydrocarbons such as natural gas or coal. Conventional hydrogen production using natural gas induces significant environmental impacts; as with the use of any hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is emitted. Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally on Earth in large quantities, it usually requires a primary energy input to produce on an industrial scale. Common

neg: Ecosystem services conditions by which humans are indirectly impacted (such as climate change, erosion regulation or natural hazard regulation, etc.). Estuarine and coastal ecosystems are both marine ecosystems. An estuary is defined as the area in which a river meets the sea or the ocean. The waters surrounding this area are predominantly salty waters or brackish waters; and the incoming river water is dynamically motioned by the tide. An estuary strip may be covered by populations of reed (or similar plants) and/or sandbanks (or similar form or land). A coastal ecosystem occurs in areas where the sea or ocean waters meet the

neg: Carbon sink role, because of the limitation to pump by ambient light and nutrients required by the phytoplankton that ultimately drive it. Total inorganic carbon is not believed to limit primary production in the oceans, so its increasing availability in the ocean does not directly affect production (the situation on land is different, since enhanced atmospheric levels of CO essentially "fertilize" land plant growth to some threshold). However, ocean acidification by invading anthropogenic CO may affect the biological pump by negatively impacting calcifying organisms such as coccolithophores, foraminiferans and pteropods. Climate change may also affect the biological pump in the future by

neg: North Pacific Marine Science Organization its effect on marine ecosystems, and the productive capacity of the ocean. An important outcome of the work was learning that decadal-scale variation is dominant in the North Pacific, to the point where long-term changes are difficult to detect The second program on Forecasting and Understanding Trends, Uncertainty and Responses of North Pacific Marine Ecosystems (FUTURE) began in October 2009. Its primary goals are to understand how marine ecosystems in the North Pacific respond to climate change and human activities, to provide forecasts of ecosystem status, and to communicate the results of the program broadly. From time to time, member

neg: New production nitrate (via nitrite), by the process of nitrification. This is performed by different bacteria in two stages : NH + O → NO + 3H + 2e NO + HO → NO + 2H + 2e Crucially, this process is believed to only occur in the absence of light (or as some other function of depth). In the ocean, this leads to a vertical separation of nitrification from primary production, and confines it to the aphotic zone. This leads to the situation whereby any nitrate in the water column must be from the aphotic zone, and must have originated from

neg: Phosphorus cycle Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds. Runoff may carry a small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time (thousands of years) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression. The primary

neg: Salt marsh die-off ecologists like Eugene Odum and John Teal sparked the current bottom-up paradigm in ecology through work on Sapelo Island, GA (U.S.A) that stressed the dominant role of physical factors like temperature, salinity, and nutrients in regulating plant primary productivity and ecosystem structure (Teal 1962, Odum 1971). Ecologists noted that marsh plants were not heavily grazed and appeared to be relatively unpalatable, and thus argued that most plants entered salt marsh food chains as detritus (Teal 1962). A corollary of this dogma is that consumers play an unimportant or subtle role in controlling salt marsh primary production (Smalley 1960, Teal 1962).

neg: Alan Longhurst Alan Longhurst Alan Reece Longhurst is a British-born Canadian oceanographer who invented the Longhurst-Hardy Plankton Recorder, and is widely known for his contributions to the primary scientific literature, together with his numerous monographs, most notably the "Ecological Geography of the Sea". He led an effort that produced the first estimate of global primary production in the oceans using satellite imagery, and also quantified vertical carbon flux through the planktonic ecosystem via the biological pump. More recently, he has offered a number of critical reviews of several aspects of fishery management science and climate change science. Alan Longhurst obtained a doctoral

neg: Terrestrial ecosystem is occupied by tropical forest. The most productive ecosystems are temperate and tropical forests, and the least productive are deserts and tundras. Cultivated lands, which together with grasslands and savannas utilized for grazing are referred to as agroecosystems, are of intermediate extent and productivity. Because of both their areal extent and their high average productivity, tropical forests are the most productive of all terrestrial ecosystems, contributing 45% of total estimated net primary productivity on land. Terrestrial ecosystem A terrestrial ecosystem is a type of ecosystem found only on biomes. Seven primary terrestrial ecosystems exist: tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest, tropical

neg: Mercury pollution in the ocean and toxicity of mercury in the ocean. Some methyl mercury is released to the ocean through river run-off. However, most of the methyl mercury found in the ocean is produced in –situ (inside the ocean itself). Methylation of inorganic mercury can occur via biotic and abiotic pathways. However, biotic pathways are more predominant. The reactions illustrated in a simplified scheme below are actually parts of complex enzyme driven metabolic pathways taking place inside microbial cells. In abiotic reactions, humic substances act as methylating agents and therefore this process occur at shallow sea levels where decomposing organic matter is available to

neg: Marine snow aggregates and the loss due to sinking: where Thus, aggregation of marine particles is more prevalent when cell and particle concentration is higher (e.g. algal blooms) Export production is the amount of organic matter produced in the ocean by primary production that is not recycled (remineralised) before it sinks into the aphotic zone. Because of the role of export production in the ocean's biological pump, it is typically measured in units of carbon (e.g. mg C m d). The fraction of primary production that is exported to the aphotic zone is generally higher when primary production occurs in short (seasonal)

neg: High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions Equatorial Pacific, and the Southern Ocean macronutrients are found in sufficient ratios, quantities and bioavailable forms to support greater levels of primary production than found. Macronutrient availability in HNLC regions in tandem with low standing stocks of phytoplankton suggests that some other biogeochemical process limits phytoplankton growth. Since primary production and phytoplankton biomass cannot currently be measured over entire ocean basins, scientists use chlorophyll α as a proxy for primary production. Modern satellite observations monitor and track global chlorophyll α abundances in the ocean via remote sensing. Higher chlorophyll concentrations generally indicate areas of enhanced primary production, and conversely lower

neg: Ocean acidification negotiations. Our study provides compelling arguments for a radical change at the UN conference (in Paris) on climate change". The rate at which ocean acidification will occur may be influenced by the rate of surface ocean warming, because the chemical equilibria that govern seawater pH are temperature-dependent. Greater seawater warming could lead to a smaller change in pH for a given increase in CO. Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells and plates out of

neg: Achada of the Achada plain, have been the source of the region's economy. Agriculture and dairy production is typical in this area, including ceral crops and tubers. A small port was commercially important until the 20th century when most exports were handled from Ponta Delgada. Today, potatoes and corn are principal crops cultivated in the area, where the harvested materials are used for feed in the raising of cattle. Traditional festivals occur in the month of August, and include a diverse program of events such as the traditional "barracas" with native foods and drink. The primary events occur around the "Império

neg: Functional group (ecology) output, it may be more beneficial to conserve this single species, rather than a functional group. Understanding functional diversity and redundancy, and the roles each play in conservation efforts is often hard to accomplish because the tools with which we measure diversity and redundancy cannot be used interchangeably. Due to this, recent empirical work most often analyzes the effects of either functional diversity or functional redundancy, but not both. This does not create a complete picture of the factors influencing ecosystem production. In ecosystems with similar and diverse vegetation, functional diversity is more important for overall ecosystem stability and productivity.

neg: F-ratio (or more complex molecules that are then metabolised to ammonium). This is known as "regeneration", since the ammonium can be used by phytoplankton, and again enter the food-web. Primary production fuelled by ammonium in this way is thus referred to as regenerated production. However, ammonium can also be oxidised to nitrate (via nitrite), by the process of nitrification. This is performed by different bacteria in two stages : Crucially, this process is believed to only occur in the absence of light (or as some other function of depth). In the ocean, this leads to a vertical separation of nitrification from

neg: Living machine with the surrounding ecosystem, and where populations have been heavily managed to foster equilibrium. If a Living Machine were subject to the ecology of invasions, new species would be free to colonize the system, and natural selection would dictate the success of any species. This would be true ecosystem self-design and self-management partnered with human stewardship. Photosynthetic changes, specifically the control of light exposure is another powerful management practice capable of slowing or accelerating primary production. This is similar to the idea of trophic management, except that it manipulates the other end of the food web. Finally, there is economic

neg: Villy Christensen of biomass over time in the Chesapeake Bay area, as well as how marine protected areas can be optimally positioned. He is also director of the Lenfest Ocean Futures Project, where a visualization system is being developed to support decision making in ecosystem-based fisheries management. This system combines Blender, a 3D-gaming engine, with Ecopath. Villy Christensen Villy Christensen is an ecosystem modeller with a background in fisheries science. He is known for his work as a project leader and core developer of Ecopath, an ecosystem modelling software system widely used in fisheries management. Ecopath was initially an initiative of the

neg: Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre to determine the chemical composition of seawater and the organic matter in suspension and to study the distribution and abundance of various communities of organisms. The motivation for studying open ocean ecosystems has changed over time, whereas today more modern studies focus on biodiversity and the effects of climate on ecosystem dynamics. Today, the Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT) program has assembled the largest and most comprehensive ecological data set for the NPSG and is scheduled to continue to the next millennium. Programs like HOT have debunked the hypothesis that this ecosystem is static and homogenous, finding that the NPSG exhibits

neg: Satellite tornado Satellite tornado A satellite tornado is a tornado that rotates around a larger, primary tornado and interacts with the same mesocyclone. Satellite tornadoes occur apart from the primary tornado and are not considered subvortices; the primary tornado and satellite tornadoes are considered to be separate tornadoes. The cause of satellite tornadoes is not known. Such tornadoes are more often anticyclonic than are typical tornadoes and these pairs may be referred to as tornado couplets. Satellite tornadoes most commonly form in association with very large and intense tornadoes. Satellite tornadoes are relatively uncommon. When a satellite tornado does occur there is

neg: Ocean colonization Ocean colonization Ocean colonization or ocean colonisation is the theory and practice of permanent human settlement of oceans. Such settlements may be seasteads floating on the surface of the water, or exist as underwater habitats secured to the ocean floor, or in an intermediate position. One primary purpose of ocean colonization is the expansion of livable area. Other possible benefits include expanded access to undersea resources, novel forms of governance (for instance micronations), and new recreational activities. Lessons learned from ocean colonization may prove applicable to space colonization. The ocean may prove simpler to colonize than space and thus occur

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle in the cycle does not occur. Sedimentation is a long-term sink for carbon in the ocean, as well as the largest loss of carbon from the oceanic system. Deep marine sediments and geologic formations are important since they provide a thorough record of life on Earth and an important source of fossil fuel. Oceanic carbon can exit the system in the form of detritus that sinks and is buried in the seafloor without being fully decomposed or dissolved. Ocean floor surface sediments account for 1.75x10 kg of carbon in the global carbon cycle At most, 4% of the particulate organic

neg: Pair production the black hole. Pair production is also the mechanism behind the hypothesized pair-instability supernova type of stellar explosion, where pair production suddenly lowers the pressure inside a supergiant star, leading to a partial implosion, and then explosive thermonuclear burning. Supernova SN 2006gy is hypothesized to have been a pair production type supernova. Pair production does not occur in X-ray imaging because the machines are usually rated ~ 150kV. Pair production Pair production is the creation of a subatomic particle and its antiparticle from a neutral boson. Examples include creating an electron and a positron, a muon and an antimuon, or

neg: Marine habitats and rhizomes stabilize the seabed. Their importance to associated species is mainly due to provision of shelter (through their three-dimensional structure in the water column), and due to their extraordinarily high rate of primary production. As a result, seagrasses provide coastal zones with ecosystem services, such as fishing grounds, wave protection, oxygen production and protection against coastal erosion. Seagrass meadows account for 15% of the ocean’s total carbon storage. Reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters; however, reefs can

neg: Coral reef Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that host different kinds of habitats. Usually, three major zones are recognized: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef (frequently referred to as the reef lagoon). The three zones are physically and ecologically interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes create opportunities for exchange of seawater, sediments, nutrients and marine life. Most coral reefs exist in waters less than 50 m deep. Some inhabit tropical continental shelves where cool, nutrient-rich upwelling does not occur, such as the Great Barrier Reef. Others are found in the deep ocean surrounding islands or as atolls, such

neg: Effects of global warming on oceans the summer, the western Indian Ocean is home to one of the largest concentrations of marine phytoplankton blooms in the world when compared to other oceans in the tropics. Increased warming in the Indian Ocean enhances ocean stratification, which prevents nutrient mixing in the euphotic zone where there is ample light available for photosynthesis. Thus, primary production is constrained and the region’s entire food web is disrupted. If rapid warming continues, experts predict that the Indian Ocean will transform into an ecological desert and will no longer be productive. The same study also addresses the abrupt decline of tuna catch

neg: River ecosystem time their life events based on when floods and droughts occur. For example, some mayflies synchronize when they emerge as flying adults with when snowmelt flooding usually occurs in Colorado streams. Other insects do not have a flying stage and spend their entire life cycle in the river. Like most of the primary consumers, lotic invertebrates often rely heavily on the current to bring them food and oxygen. Invertebrates are important as both consumers and prey items in lotic systems. The common orders of insects that are found in river ecosystems include Ephemeroptera (also known as a mayfly), Trichoptera (also