query: what powers did a tribune allow the plebeians to exercise

pos: Tribune of the Plebs Tribune of the Plebs Tribunus plebis, rendered in English as tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune, was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of the Roman Senate and magistrates. These tribunes had the power to convene and preside over the "Concilium Plebis" (people's assembly); to summon the senate; to propose legislation; and to intervene on behalf of plebeians in legal matters; but the most significant power was to veto the actions of the consuls

pos: Tribune of the Plebs Tribune of the Plebs Tribunus plebis, rendered in English as tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune, was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of the Roman Senate and magistrates. These tribunes had the power to convene and preside over the "Concilium Plebis" (people's assembly); to summon the senate; to propose legislation; and to intervene on behalf of plebeians in legal matters; but the most significant power was to veto the actions of the consuls

pos: Tribune of the Plebs the senate, at least until the third century. There is evidence that the tribunate continued to exist as late as the fifth century AD. Tribune of the Plebs Tribunus plebis, rendered in English as tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune, was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of the Roman Senate and magistrates. These tribunes had the power to convene and preside over the "Concilium Plebis" (people's assembly); to summon the senate; to propose

pos: Tribune the plebs had the power to convene the "concilium plebis", or plebeian assembly, and propose legislation before it. Only one of the tribunes could preside over this assembly, which had the power to pass laws affecting only the plebeians, known as "plebiscita", or plebiscites. After 287 BC, the decrees of the "concilium plebis" had the effect of law over all Roman citizens. By the 3rd century BC, the tribunes could also convene and propose legislation before the senate. Although sometimes referred to as "plebeian magistrates," technically the tribunes of the plebs were not magistrates, having been elected by the plebeians

pos: Tribune of the Plebs the plebeians alone ("plebiscita"), and beginning in 493 BC to elect the plebeian tribunes and aediles. From the institution of the tribunate, any one of the tribunes of the plebs was entitled to preside over this assembly. The tribunes were entitled to propose legislation before the assembly. By the third century BC, the tribunes also had the right to call the senate to order, and lay proposals before it. "Ius intercessionis", also called "intercessio," the power of the tribunes to intercede on behalf of the plebeians and veto the actions of the magistrates, was unique in Roman history. Because they

neg: Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic that tribune was within the city of Rome. If the tribune was abroad, the plebeians in Rome could not enforce their oath to kill any individual who harmed or interfered with the tribune. Since tribunes were technically not magistrates, they had no magisterial powers ("major powers" or "maior potestas"), and thus could not rely on such powers to veto. Instead, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' ("intercessio") to physically stop

neg: Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. The sacrosanctity of a tribune (and thus all of his legal powers) were only in effect so long as

neg: Tribune of the Plebs act, he would impose his "ius intercessionis" ("right of intercession"). Although a tribune could veto any action of the magistrates, senate, or other assemblies, he had to be physically present in order to do so. Because the sacrosanctity of the tribunes depended on the oath of the plebeians to defend them, their powers were limited to the boundaries of the city of Rome. A tribune traveling abroad could not rely on his authority to intervene on behalf of the plebeians. For this reason, the activities of the tribunes were normally confined to the city itself, and a one-mile radius beyond.

neg: Tribune of the Plebs and other magistrates, thus protecting the interests of the plebeians as a class. The tribunes of the plebs were sacrosanct, meaning that any assault on their person was prohibited by law. In imperial times, the powers of the tribunate were granted to the emperor as a matter of course, and the office itself lost its independence and most of its functions. During the day the tribunes used to sit on the tribune benches on the Forum Romanum. Fifteen years after the expulsion of the kings and establishment of the Roman Republic, the plebeians were burdened by the weight of crushing

neg: Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic was that the Tribes of the Plebeian Council only included Plebeians, whereas the Tribes of the Tribal Assembly included both Plebeians and Patricians. The Plebeian Council elected two 'Plebeian Magistrates', the "Plebeian Tribunes" and the "Plebeian Aediles". Usually the Plebeian Tribune presided over the assembly, although the Plebeian Aedile sometimes did as well. Originally, statutes passed by the Plebeian Council ("Plebiscites") only applied to Plebeians. However, in 449 BC, a statute of an Assembly was passed which gave Plebiscites the full force of law over all Romans (Plebeians and Patricians). It was not until 287 BC, however, that the last

neg: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 19 BC, Agrippa was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in Hispania (Cantabrian Wars). In 18 BC, Agrippa's powers were even further increased to almost match those of Augustus. That year his proconsular imperium was augmented to cover the provinces of the Senate. More than that, he was finally granted tribunicia potestas, or powers of a tribune of the plebeians. As was the case with Augustus, Agrippa’s grant of tribunician powers was conferred without his having to actually hold that office. These powers were considerable, giving him veto power over the acts of the Senate or other

neg: Cursus honorum the head of the Plebeian Council. In the mid-to-late Republic, however, plebeians were often just as, and sometimes more, wealthy and powerful than patricians. Those who held the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power to rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could

neg: Lex Canuleia the tribune was proposing nothing less than the breakdown of Rome's social and moral fabric, at a time when the city was faced with external threats. Undeterred, Canuleius reminded the people of the many contributions of Romans of lowly birth, including several of the kings, and pointed out that the Senate had willingly given Roman citizenship to defeated enemies, even while maintaining that the marriage of patricians and plebeians would be detrimental to the state. He then proposed that, in addition to restoring the right of "conubium", the law should be changed to allow plebeians to hold the consulship; all

neg: Roman emperor the emperor with inviolability (sacrosanctity) of his person, and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act, criminal or otherwise. By holding the powers of the tribune, the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties. The emperor's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it, as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate, including the actual tribune of the plebeians. Also, as holder of the tribune's power, the emperor would convoke the Council of the People, lay legislation before

neg: Social class in ancient Rome the creation of office of tribune of the "plebs". This office, founded in 494 BC as a result of a plebeian secession, was the main legal bulwark against the powers of the patrician class, and only plebeians were eligible. The tribunes originally had the power to protect any plebeian from a patrician magistrate. Later revolts forced the Senate to grant the tribunes additional powers, such as the right to veto legislation. A tribune’s person was sacrosanct, and he was obliged to keep an open house at all times while in office. Some patricians, notably Clodius Pulcher in the late 60s

neg: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa probably covered Augustus' imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That was to come later, as was the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas, or powers of a tribune of the plebeians. These great powers of state are not usually heaped upon a former exile. It is said that Maecenas advised Augustus to attach Agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced him to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter, Julia the Elder—the widow of Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty, abilities, and her shameless extravagance—by 21 BC. In

neg: Plebeian Council was dependent on a particular patrician family. Thus, each plebeian family belonged to the same curia as did its patrician patron. While the plebeians each belonged to a particular curia, only patricians could actually vote in the Curiate Assembly. Before the first plebeian secession in 494 BC, the plebeians probably met in their own assembly on the basis of the curiae. However, this assembly probably had no political role until the offices of plebeian tribune and plebeian aedile were created that year, in order to end the secession. As a result of the plebeian movement, the patrician aristocracy formally recognized

neg: Plebeian Council derived from the fact that Roman law did not recognize an assembly consisting only of one group of people (plebeians in this case) from an assembly consisting of all of the People of Rome. Over time, however, these legal differences were mitigated with legislation. The Plebeian Council elected two plebeian officers, the tribunes and the aediles, and thus Roman law classified these two officers as the elected representatives of the plebeians. As such, they acted as the presiding officers of this assembly. The creation of the office of plebeian tribune and plebeian aedile marked the end of the first phase

neg: Valerio-Horatian Laws in question. The principle of the inviolability of the plebeian tribunes had been established following the first plebeian rebellion. Besides being the leaders of the plebeians, the plebeian tribunes were the protectors of the plebeians. They had the power to stop actions by the consuls or officials which they deemed as summary and harmful to individual plebeians. This power rested on the principle that the person of the plebeian tribune was sacrosanct. Anyone who hurt him would be declared sacer. In effect this meant that the plebeians swore to kill whoever hurt their tribunes and this was given a religious

neg: Tribune of the Plebs debt. A series of clashes between the people and the ruling patricians in 495 and 494 BC brought the plebeians to the brink of revolt, and there was talk of assassinating the consuls. Instead, on the advice of Lucius Sicinius Vellutus, the plebeians seceded "en masse" to the "Mons Sacer" (the Sacred Mount), a hill outside of Rome. The senate dispatched Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, a former consul who was well-liked by the plebeians, as an envoy to the plebeians. Menenius was well-received, and told the fable of the belly and the limbs, likening the people to the limbs who chose

neg: Pompey the ancient sources. Unfortunately, the books of Livy, otherwise the most detailed of the sources, which cover this period have been lost. However, the Periochae, a short summary of Livy's work, records that "Marcus Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey were made consuls ... and reconstituted the tribunician powers." Suetonius wrote that when Julius Caesar was a military tribune "he ardently supported the leaders in the attempt to re-establish the authority of the tribunes of the commons [the plebeians], the extent of which Sulla had curtailed." The two leaders must obviously have been the two consuls, Crassus and Pompey. Piracy in the

neg: Roman Republic consul Gaius Marcius Rutilus became the first plebeian dictator in 356 and censor in 351. In 342, the tribune of the plebs Lucius Genucius passed his "Leges Genuciae", which abolished interest on loans, in a renewed effort to tackle indebtedness, required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year, and prohibited a magistrate from holding the same magistracy for the next ten years or two magistracies in the same year. In 339, the plebeian consul and dictator Quintus Publilius Philo passed three laws extending the powers of the plebeians. His first law followed the "Lex Genucia" by reserving

neg: First Triumvirate each other on this issue. Livy’s Periochae (a short summary of Livy's work) recorded that "Marcus Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey were made consuls ... and reconstituted the tribunician powers." Similarly, Suetonius wrote that when Caesar was a military tribune, "he ardently supported the leaders in the attempt to re-establish the authority of the tribunes of the commons [the plebeians], the extent of which Sulla had curtailed." The two leaders must obviously have been the two consuls, Crassus and Pompey. Therefore, on this issue there must have been unity of purpose among these three men. This was an issue of great

neg: Roman Republic in the senate, or purge them from the senate. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. It was a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his

neg: Decemviri were regarded as the representatives of regal power. As such, consular powers were undefined and therefore without limits. Gaius Terentilus wanted to have them defined, and therefore curtailed, as a way of proving further protections for the plebeians. The patricians were opposed to this curtailment and managed to postpone the debate on this law for eight years. In 454 BC the plebeian tribunes dropped the fruitless pursuit of this law. They asked the senate to “consent to the appointment of a body of legislators, chosen in equal numbers from plebeians and patricians to enact what would be useful to both

neg: Tribune of the Plebs not to support the belly, and thus starved themselves; just as the belly and the limbs, the city, he explained, could not survive without both the patricians and plebeians working in concert. The plebeians agreed to negotiate for their return to the city; and their condition was that special tribunes should be appointed to represent the plebeians, and to protect them from the power of the consuls. No member of the senatorial class would be eligible for this office (in practice, this meant that only plebeians were eligible for the tribunate), and the tribunes should be sacrosanct; any person who

neg: Volero Publilius Volero Publilius Volero Publilius was tribune of the plebs at Rome in 472 and 471 BC. During his time as tribune, he secured the passage of two important laws increasing the independence of his office. The tribunes of the plebs had been created following the secession of the people in 494 BC. Burdened by crushing debt and angered by a series of clashes between the patricians and plebeians, in which the patricians held all of the political power, the plebeians deserted the city "en masse" and encamped upon the sacred mount. One of the concessions offered by the senate to

neg: Gaius Julius Iulus (consular tribune 408 BC) of the following year would also be consular tribunes, thereby leaving open the possibility that plebeians might be elected. But the aristocratic party again secured all of the positions for patrician candidates: the previous year they had presented only those plebeians whose election seemed preposterous; this time they nominated those patrician candidates who were so respected that they easily won election. Julius was consular tribune for the second time in 405, a year in which six men were elected to that office. His colleagues were Titus Quinctius Capitolinus, Quintus Quinctius Cincinnatus, Aulus Manlius Vulso, Lucius Furius Medullinus, and Manius Aemilius

neg: Gaius Julius Iulus (consular tribune 408 BC) was consular tribune in 388 and 379 BC, or the Gaius who was nominated dictator in 352. In 408 BC, Julius was one of three military tribunes with consular power. His colleagues were Gaius Servilius Ahala and Publius Cornelius Cossus. They took office in the midst of continuing strife over the desire of the plebeians to attain the highest offices of the state. The previous year, the tribunes of the plebs had succeeded in winning the election of the first plebeian quaestors, and while the senate steadfastly refused to open the consulship to the plebeians, the tribunes hoped to elect

neg: Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis Among the laws of ancient Rome, the lex Gabinia (Gabinian Law) was an emergency measure in 67 BC which granted Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") proconsular powers in any province within 50 miles of the Mediterranean Sea without holding a properly elected magistracy, with the purpose of combating piracy. The law was proposed and passed by the tribune Aulus Gabinius and it was also known as "lex de uno imperatore contra praedones instituendo" or "lex de piratis persequendis". Pompey enjoyed huge popularity amongst the plebeians of Rome on account of his previous successes against Sertorius

neg: Internal Security Act (Singapore) it would in effect allow the executive to exercise arbitrary powers of detention, therefore rendering sections 8 and 10 of the ISA inconsistent with Article 12(1). When the case was decided, Article 149(1) of the Constitution, which protects the validity of anti-subversion laws notwithstanding inconsistencies with specified fundamental liberties, did not cover inconsistencies with Article 12. Also, the Court noted that adopting the objective test would be consistent with Article 93 of the Constitution, which vests judicial power in the courts. It did not, however, directly address the argument by counsel that the subjective test, in conferring arbitrary powers of

neg: Rabuleia gens was tribune of the plebs. However, Broughton points out that all of the other Rabuleii known were plebeians, and that precisely half of the decemvirs in 450 are either described as plebeians, or bore plebeian names, including Rabuleius. This view appears to have prevailed in modern scholarship, and it seems reasonably certain that the Rabuleii were plebeians. Neither of the Rabuleii mentioned in the early Republic bore a cognomen, but one of those known from inscriptions was surnamed "Rufus", red, indicating that he or one of his ancestors probably had red hair. A freedman of the gens bore the cognomen

neg: Plebeian Council of the army. Its divisions were not ethnic (as the divisions of the Curia were), but rather geographical. Tullius divided the city into four geographical districts, each encompassing a single tribe. Between the reign of Tullius and the late 3rd century BC, the number of tribes expanded from 4 to 35. By 471 BC, the plebeians decided that organization by tribe granted them a level of political independence from their patrician patrons that the curiae did not. Therefore, around 471 BC, a law was passed to allow the plebeians to begin organizing by tribe. Thus, the "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" began

neg: Conflict of the Orders Centuriate Assembly became the principal Roman assembly in which magistrates were elected, laws were passed, and trials occurred. Also around this time, the Plebeians assembled into an informal Plebeian Curiate Assembly, which was the original Plebeian Council. Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia (and thus by clan), they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons. In 471 BC, a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius, which allowed the Plebeians to organize by Tribe, rather than by Curia. Thus, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and the Plebeians became

neg: Tribune of the Plebs of the consuls to be a plebeian. Rather than permit the election of a plebeian consul, the senate resolved upon the election of military tribunes with consular power, who might be elected from either order. Initially this compromise satisfied the plebeians, but in practice only patricians were elected. The regular election of military tribunes in the place of consuls prevented any plebeians from assuming the highest offices of state until the year 400, when four of the six military tribunes were plebeians. Plebeian military tribunes served in 399, 396, 383, and 379, but in all other years between 444 and

neg: Australian constitutional law use of such powers is restricted by constitutional convention, which mandate the Governor General to act on ministerial advice, except in exceptional circumstances. Because the conventions are not written in The Constitution, the limits of the Governor General's powers are unclear. Convention does, however, allow The Governor General to exercise some powers without ministerial advice in exceptional circumstances. These powers are known as "reserve powers". The reserve powers allow The Governor General to commission a Prime Minister when no party, or coalition of parties has a majority of seats in The House of Representatives and the power to dismiss a

neg: Three certainties if he fails to consider his exercise of the power, the courts may force him to do so. The leading test for mere powers is the "any given postulant" test, laid down in "Re Gulbenkian". This states that the trustees must be able to say with certainty, when a potential beneficiary comes before them, that he either is or is not a beneficiary. Discretionary trusts are trusts which require that the trustees exercise their powers, in the same way as a fixed trust, but allow some discretion in how to do so, in a similar manner to mere powers. Since

neg: Tribune of the Plebs were not technically magistrates, and thus possessed no "maior potestas", they relied on their sacrosanctity to obstruct actions unfavourable to the plebeians. Being sacrosanct, no person could harm the tribunes or interfere with their activities. To do so, or to disregard the veto of a tribune, was punishable by death, and the tribunes could order the death of persons who violated their sacrosanctity. This could be used as a protection when a tribune needed to arrest someone. This sacrosanctity also made the tribunes independent of all magistrates; no magistrate could veto the action of a tribune. If a magistrate, the

neg: Marcus Fabius Ambustus (consular tribune 381 BC) Marcus Fabius Ambustus (consular tribune 381 BC) Marcus Fabius Ambustus was a consular tribune of the Roman Republic in 381 BC, and a censor in 363. He was the son of Caeso Fabius Ambustus, and the father of two daughters, the elder of whom married Servius Sulpicius Praetextatus, and the younger Gaius Licinius Stolo, one of the authors of the "Lex Licinia Sextia". The Fabii were patricians. The younger Fabia had married a plebeian, and according to Livy, persuaded her father to support the legislation that would open of the consulship to plebeians and hence her husband. As consular tribune

neg: Preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867 the reasoning of Duff C.J. was subsequently adopted by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in "Saskatchewan v. John East Iron Works"), provincial legislatures were restricted from vesting in administrative tribunals powers ordinarily exercised by judges appointed under s. 96. This was relaxed in the "Residential Tenancies Reference" to allow for such tribunals to exercise ancillary “judicial” powers, subject to the qualification that the judicial function must not be isolated from the rest of the administrative structure of the legislation. Whether a tribunal could exercise such powers was made subject to a three-step test: A provincial scheme is only

neg: Chapter III Court of government required a rigid adherence to separation of powers. The only exception to this rule is the discharge of functions ancillary to the exercise of judicial power. Section 51 (xxxix) of the Constitution allows the Parliament to vest in Chapter III courts any power incidental to its exercise of judicial power. This exception has in subsequent cases been used to allow courts to be vested with wide-ranging powers. Thus, in R v Joske; Ex parte Australian Building Construction Employees and Builders' Labourers' Federation, powers such as reorganising unions and invalidating union rules were allowed to be exercised by a

neg: Tribune who might be either patrician or plebeian, should be elected in place of the consuls. The first "tribuni militum consulare potestate", or "military tribunes with consular power", were elected for the year 444. Although plebeians were eligible for this office, each of the first "consular tribunes" was a patrician. Military tribunes were elected in place of the consuls in half the years from 444 to 401 BC, and in each instance, all of the tribunes were patricians; nor did any plebeian succeed in obtaining the consulship. The number of tribunes increased to four beginning in 426, and six beginning in

neg: Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune) Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune) The younger Marcus Livius Drusus, son of Marcus Livius Drusus the Elder, was a Roman politician and reformer, most famous as tribune of the plebeians in 91 BC. The failure of his legislative reforms and his subsequent assassination late in 91 BC are often seen as an immediate cause of the Social War (91-88 BC). M. Livius Drusus' was the son of Marcus Livius Drusus the Elder, a distinguished statesman who had served all the major magistracies of the Cursus honorum as tribune in 122 BC, consul in 112 BC, and censor in 109 BC. Drusus

neg: Gaius Canuleius of the Orders in which his laws played a major part is doubted by some modern scholars. Gaius Canuleius Gaius Canuleius, according to Livy book 4, was a tribune of the plebs in 445 BC. He introduced a bill proposing that intermarriage between patricians and plebeians be allowed. As well, with his fellow tribunes he proposed another bill allowing one of the two annually elected consuls to be a plebeian. Despite fierce opposition from the patricians, his laws were eventually passed when the plebeians went on a military strike, refusing to defend the city against its attacking neighbors. That law,

neg: Gaius Canuleius Gaius Canuleius Gaius Canuleius, according to Livy book 4, was a tribune of the plebs in 445 BC. He introduced a bill proposing that intermarriage between patricians and plebeians be allowed. As well, with his fellow tribunes he proposed another bill allowing one of the two annually elected consuls to be a plebeian. Despite fierce opposition from the patricians, his laws were eventually passed when the plebeians went on a military strike, refusing to defend the city against its attacking neighbors. That law, the "Lex Canuleia," bears his name. The accuracy of Livy's description of Canuleius' tribunate and the Struggle

neg: Gaius Licinius Stolo Gaius Licinius Stolo Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo, along with Lucius Sextius, was one of the two tribunes of ancient Rome who opened the consulship to the plebeians. A member of the plebeian "Licinia gens", Stolo was tribune from 376 BC to 367 BC, during which he passed the "lex Licinia Sextia" restoring the consulship, requiring a plebeian consul seat, limiting the amount of public land that one person could hold, and regulating debts. He also passed a law stipulating that the "Sibylline Books" should be overseen by "decemviri", of whom half would be plebeians in order to prevent any falsification

neg: Lex Licinia Sextia that, according to Livy and his sources, the regular and unbroken sharing of the consulship stemmed from the Lex Genucia proposed by the plebeian tribune Lucius Genucius in 342 BC which, it is claimed, allowed plebeians to hold both consulships. However, the Fasti consulares (a chronicle of yearly events in which the years are denoted by their consuls) suggest that this law made it obligatory for one consulship to be held by a plebeian. This most probably explains why the first instance of plebeians holding both consulships was in 173 BC despite Livy's interpretation. It might be that it was

neg: Lucius Sextius curule aediles from the plebs in alternate years: later the election was thrown open without distinction". Some modern historians have pointed out that there is lack of clarity regarding the law which provided that one consul should be a plebeian. Livy saw this law as a breakthrough in the political advancement of the plebeians. T.J. Cornell notes that, according to Livy and his sources, the regular and unbroken sharing of the consulship stemmed from the Lex Genucia proposed by the plebeian tribune Lucius Genucius in 342 BC which, it is claimed, allowed plebeians to hold both consulships. However, the Fasti

neg: Plebeian Council the political power of the plebeian tribune, and thus legitimized the power of the assembly over which the plebeian tribune presided. This "Plebeian Curiate Assembly" was the original Plebeian Council. After 494 BC, a plebeian tribune always presided over the Plebeian Curiate Assembly. This assembly elected the plebeian tribunes and the plebeian aediles, and passed legislation ("plebiscita") that applied only to the plebeians. During the later years of the Roman Kingdom, King Servius Tullius enacted a series of constitutional reforms. One of these reforms resulted in the creation of a new organizational unit, the tribe, to assist in the reorganization

neg: Tribune Tribune Tribune () was the title of various elected officials in ancient Rome. The two most important were the tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes. For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the authority of the senate and the annual magistrates, holding the power of "ius intercessionis" to intervene on behalf of the plebeians, and veto unfavourable legislation. There were also military tribunes, who commanded portions of the Roman army, subordinate to the higher magistrates, such as the consuls and praetors, promagistrates, and their legates. Various officers

neg: Publius Sulpicius Rufus Publius Sulpicius Rufus Publius Sulpicius Rufus (; c. 121 BC – 88 BC) was an orator and statesman of the Roman Republic, most famous as tribune of the "plebs" in 88 BC. Sulpicius served as legate in 89 BC to Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo in the Social War. In 89 BC, he was elected as Tribune of the Plebs for the following year. It is worth noting that the Sulpicii family were of patrician status: since patricians were legally barred from standing as tribune of the plebs, Sulpicius must have therefore carried out a formal transfer to the plebeians at some

neg: Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire they could seek election to a higher office, which was typically the Praetorship. Members of Patrician (aristocratic) families could seek election to the Praetorship after serving as Quaestor, and they did not have to serve as Plebeian Tribune or Aedile before this. However, since one had to be at least thirty years old before they could run for the Praetorship, Patricians ultimately had no true advantage over Plebeians. After an individual served as Praetor, they had to wait for another two years before they could seek election to the Consulship, and so, while it was not specifically mandated, candidates for

neg: Genucia (gens) early as 476 BC, when a Titus Genucius was Tribune of the Plebs. If the gens was originally patrician, then the plebeian Genucii may have arisen as the result of intermarriage with the plebeians, or because some of the Genucii were expelled from the patriciate or voluntarily chose to become plebeians. Throughout the history of the Republic, these Genucii were renowned as representatives of and advocates for the rights of the plebeian order. The Genucii of the Republic favoured the praenomina "Lucius, Titus, Marcus", and "Gnaeus", all of which were very common throughout Roman history. The surnames of the Genucii

neg: Roman assemblies Tribal Assembly. Under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune (the chief representative of the people), the Plebeian Council elected Plebeian Tribunes and Plebeian Aediles (the Plebeian Tribune's assistant), enacted laws called plebiscites, and presided over judicial cases involving Plebeians. Originally, laws passed by the Plebeian Council only applied to Plebeians. However, by 287 BC, laws passed by the Plebeian Council had acquired the full force of law, and from that point on, most legislation came from the council. The legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. During the reign of the second Roman

neg: Mostowfi ol-Mamalek World War I, giving credence to his reputation as a person of character and integrity. It has been noted that, unlike some of his contemporaries, Mostowfi was patriotic and did not engage with foreign powers in order to preserve or boost his own financial or political standings. Despite his perceived popularity Mostowfi has at times been criticized for being unable to form a strong government with the ability to exercise what it presented to the Majlis. It has also been suggested that on occasion Mostowfi showed a lack of strong leadership. Sources disagree on his allegiances to foreign powers with

neg: Tribune the plebs, in order to protect the interests of the plebeians against the actions of the senate and the annual magistrates, who were uniformly patrician. The ancient sources indicate the tribunes may have originally been two or five in number. If the former, the college of tribunes was expanded to five in 470 BC. Either way, the college was increased to ten in 457 BC, and remained at this number throughout Roman history. They were assisted by two "aediles plebis", or plebeian aediles. Only plebeians were eligible for these offices, although there were at least two exceptions. The tribunes of

neg: Conflict of the Orders creation of the office of Plebeian Tribune, and with it the first acquisition of real power by the Plebeians. At first only Patricians were allowed to stand for election to political office, but over time these laws were revoked, and eventually all offices were opened to the Plebeians. Since most individuals who were elected to political office were given membership in the Roman Senate, this development helped to transform the senate from a body of Patricians into a body of Plebeian and Patrician aristocrats. This development occurred at the same time that the Plebeian legislative assembly, the Plebeian Council, was

neg: Mutual Life Insurance Co of New York v Rank Organisation Ltd treatment (this is the "oppression" provision; see now, s 994 unfair prejudice). Goulding J dismissed the shareholders' complaint. He held s 20 did not create a term of the corporate contract that shareholders were to be treated equally in respect of a board resolution (or for that matter a resolution of shareholders in general meeting). The duties of the directors were to exercise their powers to issue shares in good faith, "bona fide" in the interests of the company and exercise them fairly between shareholders (not necessarily treat shareholders identically). That is what the directors had done. The treatment of

neg: Lucius Julius Iulus (consular tribune 401 BC) Valerius reconnoitered Anxur, but found it too well protected for a direct attack, and instead decided to besiege the town. Julius, the only consular tribune not mentioned leading troops in the field, may have remained at Rome to see to domestic matters while his colleagues undertook their campaigns. As a result of the burdensome levies of troops and the highly unpopular war tax, as well as the attempt to have patricians co-opted as tribunes of the plebs in violation of the "Lex Trebonia", the plebeians finally succeeded in pushing through one of their candidates for consular tribune: Publius Licinius Calvus,

neg: Marcus Caecilius Metellus (praetor) an Ambassador to the Court of Attalus I Soter. Marcus Caecilius Metellus (praetor) Marcus Caecilius Metellus was a son of Lucius Caecilius Metellus. He was deported after the defeat of Cannae, before Hannibal, in 216 BC, for having conspired with other officers to transfer themselves along with their troops to another place. Their commander, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, prevented this from taking place. Metellus was eventually rehabilitated, and reconducted to Rome, where he was elected Quaestor in 214 BC and Tribune of the Plebeians in 213 BC. He was later made Aedile of the Plebeians in 209 BC, Urban Praetor in

neg: Aedile the Plebeian Council, usually while under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune. Curule aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly, usually while under the presidency of a consul. Since the plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians as well as members of the Patrician aristocracy), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the "lex annalis", individuals could run for the aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-five. By the 1st century BC,

neg: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom monarchy became hereditary is obvious from the kinship among those three kings, as well as from the lack of interregna. The fact that the auspices did not revert to the Senate upon the deaths of those kings constituted a serious erosion of the Senate's authority, because it prevented the Senate from electing a monarch of its choosing. This violation of the Senate's sovereignty, rather than an intolerable tyranny, was probably what led the patricians in the Senate to overthrow the last king. The king may have sought the support of the plebeians, but the plebeians were no doubt exhausted from

neg: History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom of those kings constituted a serious breach in the authority of the senate because it prevented the senate from electing a monarch of its choosing. This breach in the senate's sovereignty, rather than an intolerable tyranny, was probably what led the Patricians in the senate to overthrow the last king. The king may have sought the support of the Plebeians, however, the Plebeians were no doubt exhausted from their continued military service, and from their forced labor in the construction of public works. They were probably also embittered by their lack of political power, and therefore did not come to

neg: History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic was the original Plebeian Council. Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia (and thus by clan), they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons. In 471 BC, a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius, which allowed the Plebeians to organize by Tribe, rather than by Curia. Thus, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and the Plebeians became politically independent. During the regal period, the king nominated two Quaestors to serve as his assistants, and after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Consuls retained this authority. However, in 447 BC,

neg: Marcus Caecilius Metellus (praetor) Marcus Caecilius Metellus (praetor) Marcus Caecilius Metellus was a son of Lucius Caecilius Metellus. He was deported after the defeat of Cannae, before Hannibal, in 216 BC, for having conspired with other officers to transfer themselves along with their troops to another place. Their commander, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, prevented this from taking place. Metellus was eventually rehabilitated, and reconducted to Rome, where he was elected Quaestor in 214 BC and Tribune of the Plebeians in 213 BC. He was later made Aedile of the Plebeians in 209 BC, Urban Praetor in 206 BC. In 205 BC he was sent as

neg: Plebeian Council Plebeian Council The Concilium Plebis (English: Plebeian Council or Plebeian Assembly) was the principal assembly of the ancient Roman Republic. It functioned as a legislative assembly, through which the plebeians (commoners) could pass laws, elect magistrates, and try judicial cases. The Plebeian Council was originally organized on the basis of the Curia. Thus, it was originally a "Plebeian Curiate Assembly". The Plebeian Council usually met in the well of the comitium and could only be convoked by the Tribune of the Plebs. The assembly elected the Tribunes of the Plebs and the plebeian aediles, and only the plebeians were allowed

neg: Tribune of the Plebs for one year in place of the annual magistrates, and codify Roman law. The tribunate itself was suspended during this time. But when a second college of decemvirs appointed for the year 450 illegally continued their office into the following year, and the abuses of their authority became clear to the people, the decemvirate was abolished and the tribunate restored, together with the annual magistrates. Among the laws codified by the decemvirs was one forbidding intermarriage between the patricians and the plebeians; the Twelve Tables of Roman law also codified that the consulate itself was closed to the plebeians. Worse

neg: Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis (consul 471 BC) son, then the decemvir must have been an older man, since he had been a candidate for the consulship in 482, and was thus probably born before 510 BC; but Livy calls Appius the "youngest" of the decemvirs, and he is generally supposed to have been the father of Appius Claudius Crassus, consular tribune in 424 BC. In addition, Appius, the consul of 471, was well known for his severity and hatred of the plebeians; while Appius the decemvir was thought to be mild and fair toward the plebeians, until his true nature was revealed during the second year of

neg: De Lille v Speaker of the National Assembly or incompatible with the Constitution is invalid. The extent of privilege is inextricably bound with the exercise thereof. The determination of the extent of privilege must relate to its exercise; otherwise, the court noted, Parliament would have a blank cheque to set the limits of its own powers. On a proper interpretation of the Constitution, the power to determine and control the National Assembly's internal arrangements did not embrace the power to suspend a Member as punishment for contempt. The powers under section 57(1)(a) of the Constitution were meant to facilitate the proper exercise of powers and functions of the

neg: Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic they were elected only by the "plebeians", but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. "Dictator" was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency (usually military) for a short period. During this period, the dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. The magistrates ("magistratus") were elected by the People of Rome, which consisted of "plebeians" (commoners) and "patricians" (aristocrats). Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, called "major powers" or "maior potestas". "Dictators" had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and thus

neg: Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune) 54 BC). However, both Livia and Cato seem to have died in the mid to late 90s BC, as Servilia, Cato, and Porcia all spent their earliest years in Drusus' house before his assassination in 91 BC. Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune) The younger Marcus Livius Drusus, son of Marcus Livius Drusus the Elder, was a Roman politician and reformer, most famous as tribune of the plebeians in 91 BC. The failure of his legislative reforms and his subsequent assassination late in 91 BC are often seen as an immediate cause of the Social War (91-88 BC). M. Livius Drusus' was

neg: History of the Roman Constitution reigns of the final three kings, however, the monarchy became hereditary, and as such, the senate became subordinated to the king. This breach in the senate's sovereignty, rather than an intolerable tyranny, was probably what led the Patricians in the senate to overthrow the last king. The king may have sought the support of the Plebeians; however, the Plebeians were no doubt exhausted from their continued military service, and from their forced labor in the construction of public works. They were probably also embittered by their lack of political power, and therefore did not come to the aide of either

neg: Subpoena duces tecum appearing on these records, in the exercise of appellate jurisdiction in this manner, to direct them to be set aside. And if the proceedings should be treated as involving a final determination as on issues joined to the right to such possession and custody, there was no complaint of want of notice or of hearing, and the summary made adopted did not in itself affect the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court upon the ground that it had exceeded its powers." Mandamus is the remedy where a lower court has clearly failed to issue compulsion to produce documents, or to allow

neg: Letters Patent, 1947 same position as the Sovereign in regard to the exercise of certain prerogative powers", the 1947 Letters Patent serve to allow the Canadian political system a greater amount of flexibility in the exercise of the Canadian Crown's powers. Letters Patent, 1947 The Letters Patent, 1947 (more formally, the Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of Canada) are a legal instrument introduced by King George VI, which came into effect on 1 October 1947 and continue to, along with parts of the Constitution Act, 1867, constitute the Office of the Governor General. These letters served to expand

neg: Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland between those jurisdictions may be established by their respective responsible authorities for stated purposes and may exercise powers and functions in respect of all or any part of the island. As amended, Article 2 provides that everyone born on the island of Ireland has the right to be a part of the 'Irish Nation'. The apparent intention is partly to allow the people of Northern Ireland, if they wish, to feel included in the 'nation' without making what might be perceived as a revanchist claim. However, it has been argued that "the new Article 2 of the Irish constitution gave

neg: Plebeian Council the Plebeian Council. In this way the law removed from the patrician senators their final check over the Plebeian Council. The "lex Hortensia", however, should not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy. Close relations between the plebeian tribunes and the senate meant that the senate could still exercise a great degree of control over the Plebeian Council. Thus, the ultimate significance of this law was that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. This ended the Conflict of the Orders, and brought the plebeians to a level of full political equality with

neg: First secessio plebis preferred by the majority of historians. When they arrived they set up camp and fortified it with ramparts and trenches and waited there for a number of days. The senate, fearing what might come next, was finally spurred to negotiate with the plebeians. They sent the former consul Agrippa Menenius Lanatus as an envoy, on account of his eloquence and also because of his popularity which was due, Livy says, to his being descended from plebeians (although precisely what is meant by this is unclear). When he arrived, Menenius told the plebeians a fable about the necessity of all the

neg: Li Chongfu of the chancellor Zhang Jianzhi, who was inimical to her lover Wu Sansi the Prince of Liang. She therefore accused Li Chongfu of being involved in Li Chongzhao's death. In response, Emperor Zhongzong first exiled Li Chongfu out of the capital to serve as the prefect of Pu Prefecture (濮州, roughly modern Heze, Shandong), but did not allow him to actually exercise prefect powers. He was later further exiled to be the prefect of Jun Prefecture, under the same conditions. Emperor Zhongzong also ordered that the prefectural governmental officials keep close watch on Li Chongfu. During Emperor Zhongzong's reign, he

neg: Valerio-Horatian Laws BC, during what was to be the 200-year Conflict of the Orders between the patricians and the plebeians, the patricians gave “consent to the appointment of a body of legislators, chosen in equal numbers from plebeians and patricians to enact what would be useful to both orders and secure equal liberty for each.” The plebeians wanted a published set of laws so that there were clear and known rules and protections as well as punishments. Up until that time, the laws were unwritten and open to arbitrary use and, at times, abuse. A ten-man commission was appointed to develop the

neg: Urban agglomeration of Longueuil of Saint-Lambert from the city Longueuil resulted in the immediate disbanding of the Saint-Lambert/LeMoyne borough. LeMoyne's small population and territory did not allow it to become a borough of its own. In 2005, the population of LeMoyne was given the choice to pick a new borough between Le Vieux-Longueuil, Saint-Hubert and Greenfield Park. Le Vieux-Longueuil ended up being the winner and amalgamated LeMoyne into its borough on January 1, 2006. Following the demergers, Longueuil relocated its city hall from Brossard to Saint-Hubert, where it is still located. According to the "Act respecting the exercise of certain municipal powers in certain

neg: Kruger v Commonwealth children was not the exercise of judicial power and did not decide whether the separation of powers doctrine applied. Toohey J held that the proposition that the separation of powers doctrine extended to the territories was very persuasive, however his Honour did not determine the question on that basis because "judged by the values and standards prevailing at the time" the Ordinance had a welfare purpose and thus were neither puniative nor the exercise of judicial power. Gaudron J similarly based her decision on the finding that the power to authorise detention in custody was not exclusively judicial power. Gummow

neg: Roman Constitution attended by bodyguards called lictors. The lictors would carry fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a rod with an embedded axe, were symbols of the coercive power of the state. Quaestors were not curule magistrates, but rather, administrators and had little real power. Plebeian tribunes were not officially "magistrates", since they were elected only by the plebeians. Since they were considered to be the embodiment of the People of Rome, their office and their person were considered sacrosanct. It was considered to be a capital offense to harm a tribune, to attempt to harm a tribune, or to attempt to

neg: Tribune to a raised platform used to address the soldiers or administer justice. A notable military tribune in fiction is Messala, the primary antagonist in Lew Wallace's novel, "Ben-Hur". Messala was portrayed by Stephen Boyd in the 1959 film based on the novel. In 445 BC, the tribunes of the plebs succeeded in passing the "lex Canuleia", repealing the law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, and providing that one of the consuls might be a plebeian. Rather than permit the consular dignity to pass into the hands of a plebeian, the senate proposed a compromise whereby three military tribunes,

neg: General-law municipality may allow or require charters for all municipalities or may allow charters only for municipalities meeting certain criteria, requiring other municipalities to be general-law municipalities. In California, a general-law city has only those powers expressly granted or necessarily incident to those expressly granted. Any fair, reasonable doubt is resolved against the exercise of such powers. A general-law city may have only a form of government authorized by state general law. In Michigan, villages can be general-law villages, governed under the General Law Village Act (Act 3 of 1895), or home-rule villages having charters. In Minnesota, cities are either statutory cities

neg: Tribune alone, and not the whole Roman people. However, they were sacrosanct, and the whole body of the plebeians were pledged to protect the tribunes against any assault or interference with their persons during their terms of office. Anyone who violated the sacrosanctity of the tribunes might be killed without penalty. This was also the source of the tribunes' power, known as "ius intercessionis," or "intercessio," by which any tribune could intercede on behalf of a Roman citizen to prohibit the act of a magistrate or other official. Citizens could appeal the decisions of the magistrates to the tribunes, who would

neg: Balbi On the reverse is the god Jupiter and a quadriga (a four-horse chariot). T. Ampius Balbus, plebeian, Tribune of the Plebs in 63 B.C. Tribune of the Plebs was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or paramilitary offices of the Roman Empire. It derived originally from the representatives of the tribes into which the Roman people were divided for military and voting purposes. Plebeians was the general body of Roman citizens, distinct from the privileged class of the patricians. T. Ampius Balbus is believed to have written some work on the history of his times; Suetonius

neg: Duilia (gens) Duilia (gens) The gens Duilia or Duillia was a plebeian family at Rome. The first of the gens to achieve prominence was Marcus Duilius, tribune of the plebs in BC 470. The family produced several important statesmen over the first three centuries of the Republic, before fading into obscurity. The plebeian character of this gens is attested by the fact of Marcus Duilius being tribune of the plebs in BC 470, and further by the statement of Dionysius, who expressly says, that the decemvir Caeso Duilius and two of his colleagues were plebeians. In Livius we indeed read, that "all"

neg: Cursus honorum duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office owned no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the "toga praetexta". The office of Tribune of the Plebs was an important step in the political career of plebeians. Patricians could not hold the office. The Tribune was an office first created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as

neg: Tribune Broadcasting were sold off to other companies later that year) became affiliates of The CW on September 18, 2006, through ten-year agreements (the exceptions were in Philadelphia, Seattle and Atlanta, due to The CW affiliating with CBS-owned stations in those markets), though Tribune itself would not exercise an ownership stake in The CW as it did with The WB. In April 2007, Tribune's broadcasting interests were included in the sale of the entire company to Chicago investor Sam Zell, who planned take the publicly traded company private. The deal was completed on December 20, 2007. On December 21, 2007, Tribune and

neg: Caeso Fabius Ambustus to provide an explanation for an otherwise unmotivated attack on Rome, and to depict Rome as a bulwark of Italy against the Gauls. He was the father of Marcus Fabius Ambustus. Caeso Fabius Ambustus Caeso Fabius Ambustus was a four-time consular tribune of the Roman Republic around the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Caeso was quaestor in 409 BC, the first year the office was opened to the "plebs", and three of his colleagues were plebeians. Caeso was consular tribune for the first time in 404, again in 401, a third time in 395, and a fourth

neg: Publius Manilius Vopiscus Vicinillianus patricians or favored plebeians; about the same time he was admitted into the "Salii Collinus". According to the order of the inscription, Vopiscus was a military tribune in Legio IV Scythica before he was a quaestor in attendance to the emperor Trajan; this order is unusual, for, by this point in history, serving as a military tribune almost always came after the office of quaestor. After his term as praetor, Vopiscus was admitted as flamen, then was co-opted into the "collegia" of pontifs. He served as a "curator fani Herculis Victoris fuit Tibure" before acceding to the consulship. Vopiscus' career

neg: Caeso Fabius Ambustus Caeso Fabius Ambustus Caeso Fabius Ambustus was a four-time consular tribune of the Roman Republic around the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Caeso was quaestor in 409 BC, the first year the office was opened to the "plebs", and three of his colleagues were plebeians. Caeso was consular tribune for the first time in 404, again in 401, a third time in 395, and a fourth time in 390. Caeso was the son of Marcus Fabius Ambustus, the Pontifex Maximus, and brother to Numerius and Quintus. With his two brothers, Caeso was sent as ambassador to the

neg: Roman emperor virgins and some flamens, lead the Collegium Pontificum, and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion. While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence, they did not include legal authority. In 23 BC, Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power. The first was "Tribunicia Potestas", or the powers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding the office (which would have been impossible, since a tribune was by definition a plebeian, whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become a patrician when he was adopted into the "gens Julia"). This endowed

neg: Constitutional reforms of Sulla two processes had marked the end to the Conflict of the Orders, during which time the Plebeians had sought political equality with the aristocratic Patrician class. Sulla, himself a Patrician and thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune, thoroughly disliked the office. Some of his dislike may have been acquired when Marius' Tribune had revoked Sulla's authorization to command the war against Mithridates. As Sulla viewed the office, the Tribunate was especially dangerous, which was in part due to its radical past, and so his intention was to not only deprive the Tribunate of power, but also

neg: Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus of the magistracies that comprised the "vigintiviri". It was usually held either by Patricians or young men favored by the Emperor. Plebeians who held this office usually went on to enjoy successful careers. Evidence of this favor appears shortly afterwards: after serving a term as military tribune in Legio IV Flavia Felix based at Singidunum, Tuscus served as quaestor to the emperor Antoninus Pius, then was legatus or assistant to the proconsul of Africa. These latter two assignments provided him with potential for visibility and introductions to influential people. After holding the Republican magistracies of plebeian tribune and praetor, Tuscus

neg: Military tribune Tribunes with Consular Authority." At the time only Patricians could be chosen as Consuls, but both Patricians and Plebeians could be elected as tribunes with consular authority. Instead of the usual two consuls, between four and six military tribunes were elected for the year. The reasons for this choice are obscure, though Livy often cast the decision according to the class struggles he saw as endemic during this period, with patricians generally favoring consuls and plebs the military tribunes. The office of "consular tribune" eventually fell out of use after 366 BC. After the Marian reforms of 107 BC (subsequently

neg: Decemviri both the consulship and the plebeian tribunate. This made the decemvirate an extraordinary magistracy (a governing body with extraordinary powers) as well as a commission tasked with compiling laws. After a long debate about whether plebeians should sit on the decemvirate, the plebeian tribunes agreed to a patrician-only panel in exchange for a law they had passed not being repealed. The decemviri took office in 451 BC. Both consuls elect, Appius Claudius Crassinus Inregillensis Sabinus and Titus Genucius Augurinus, resigned. So did the other magistrates and the plebeian tribunes. In compensation for their loss of office, Appius Claudius and Titus

neg: Tribune of the Plebs granting of this authority was a means of designating a favoured member of the imperial court as the emperor's intended successor. Agrippa, Drusus the Younger, Tiberius, Titus, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius each received the tribunician power in this way. With the regular assumption of the tribunician power by the emperors and their heirs, the ancient authority of the tribunes dwindled away. Although the office of tribune endured throughout imperial times, its independence and most of its practical functions were lost. Together with the aedileship, it remained a step in the political career of many plebeians who aspired to sit in

neg: Lex Publilia (471 BC) taking any further action against the plebeians, and Publilius was elected tribune for the following year. As tribune of the plebs in BC 472, Publilius proposed a law transferring the election of the plebeian tribunes from the "comitia curiata" (or possibly the "comitia centuriata") to the "comitia tributa". The significance of this measure was that it would prevent the patricians from influencing the election through the votes of their "clientes". The proposal was debated throughout the year, but never passed. The following year, Publilius brought the law forward for the second time. The debate was marked by a confrontation between

neg: Marcus Furius Camillus 384 BC, Camillus was consular tribune again. His office was troubled chiefly by the charismatic Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, who became his greatest detractor and around whom all plebeians had aggregated. While Capitolinus was said to have kingly dreams, he attacked Camillus with precisely such a king-like accusation. Nonetheless, Capitolinus was formally judged and executed. The southern Latin tribes were contemptuous of the Romans after their latest expedition. Antium and several of the Volsci cities united, including the Latin cities of Praeneste, and Velitrae. They liberated Satricum, slaying all the Roman inhabitants. Given this crisis, Camillus was appointed consular tribune for

neg: Sacrosanctity commanders to the death. The plebeians swore to obey the plebeian tribunes they elected and to defend them to the death. Those who harmed them became sacer. Effectively this was a "lynch-law disguised as divine justice." Given that the plebeian tribunes were not part of the Roman state and had no secular legal status, the threat to kill those who harmed them by the plebeians formed the base from which the powers of the plebeian tribunes were derived. The invocation of a religious law provided the justification and sacrosanctity conferred impunity. These tribunes provided protection from arbitrary coercion by public