query: what is the control centre of reflex action

pos: Reflex arc Reflex arc A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex. In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of routing signals through the brain. However, the brain will receive the sensory input while the reflex is being carried out and the analysis of the signal takes place after the reflex action. There are two types: autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner organs) and somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles). However, autonomic reflexes sometimes

pos: Reflex arc Reflex arc A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex. In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of routing signals through the brain. However, the brain will receive the sensory input while the reflex is being carried out and the analysis of the signal takes place after the reflex action. There are two types: autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner organs) and somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles). However, autonomic reflexes sometimes

pos: Golgi tendon reflex Golgi tendon reflex The Golgi tendon reflex is a normal component of the reflex arc of the peripheral nervous system. In a Golgi tendon reflex, skeletal muscle contraction causes the antagonist muscle to simultaneously lengthen and relax. This reflex is also called the inverse myotatic reflex, because it is the inverse of the stretch reflex. Though muscle tension is increasing during the contraction, alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord supplying the muscle are inhibited. However, antagonistic muscles are activated. The Golgi tendon reflex operates as a protective feedback mechanism to control the tension of an active muscle by causing

pos: Neural control of limb stiffness mechanics of the limb and is controlled voluntarily. Some components of limb stiffness are under voluntary control while others are involuntary. The determining factor as to whether a component of stiffness is controlled voluntarily or involuntarily is the timescale of that particular component's method of action. For example, stiffness corrections that happen very quickly (80-100 milliseconds) are involuntary while slower stiffness corrections and adjustments are under voluntary control. Many of the voluntary stiffness adjustments are controlled by the motor cortex while involuntary adjustments can be controlled by reflex loops in the spinal cord or other parts of the brain. Stiffness

pos: Golgi tendon reflex relaxation before the tendon tension becomes high enough to cause damage. First, as a load is placed on the muscle, the afferent neuron from the Golgi tendon organ fires into the central nervous system. Second, the motor neuron from the spinal cord is inhibited via an IPSP and muscle relaxes. The stretch reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle length by causing muscle contraction. In contrast, the tendon reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might be torn. Although the tendon reflex is

pos: Righting reflex an efference copy, which compares expectations of the body's posture with how it is oriented at the time. The difference between expected posture and actual posture is corrected for via motorneurons in the spinal cord, which control muscle movements for righting the body. These automatic postural adjustments can be explained in terms of two reflexes similar to the righting reflex: the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and the vestibulocollic reflex (VCR). The VOR involves movement of the eyes while the head turns to remain fixated on a stationary image, and the VCR involves control of neck muscles for correction of the head's

pos: Motor control spinal cord without receiving input from the brain, and thus do not require attention or conscious control. Others involve lower brain areas and can be influenced by prior instructions or intentions, but they remain independent of perceptual processing and online control. The simplest reflex is the "monosynaptic reflex" or short-loop reflex, such as the monosynaptic stretch response. In this example, Ia afferent neurons are activated by muscle spindles when they deform due to the stretching of the muscle. In the spinal cord, these afferent neurons synapse directly onto alpha motor neurons that regulate the contraction of the same muscle. Thus,

pos: Escape reflex back to the muscles of the arm (effectors) via an intermediate neuron (interneuron) and then a motor neuron; the muscle contracts. There often is an opposite response of the opposite limb. Because this occurs automatically and independently in the spinal cord, not the brain, the brain only becomes aware of the response after it has taken place. Escape reflex arcs have a high survival value, enabling organisms to take rapid action to avoid potential danger. Various animals may have specialized escape reflex circuits. Escape reflex Escape reflex, a kind of escape response, is a simple reflectory reaction in response to

pos: Reflex arc involve the spinal cord and some somatic reflexes are mediated more by the brain than the spinal cord. During a somatic reflex, nerve signals travel along the following pathway: A reflex arc, then, is the pathway followed by nerves which (a.) carry sensory information from the receptor to the spinal cord, and then (b) carry the response generated by the spinal cord to effector organ(s) during a reflex action. When a reflex arc in an animal consists of only one sensory neuron and one motor neuron, it is defined as monosynaptic, referring to the presence of a single chemical synapse.

pos: Escape reflex Escape reflex Escape reflex, a kind of escape response, is a simple reflectory reaction in response to stimuli indicative of danger, that initiates an escape motion of an animal. Escape reflexes control the seemingly chaotic motion of a cockroach running from under the foot when one tries to squash it. In higher animals examples of escape reflex include the withdrawal reflex, e.g., the withdrawal of a hand in response to a pain stimulus. Sensory receptors in the stimulated body part send signals to the spinal cord along a sensory neuron. Within the spine a reflex arc switches the signals straight

pos: Axon reflex it causes an indirect axon-reflex sweat response. Sudomotor axon reflexes can be peripherally amplified in the transmission of the action potential magnitude by acetylcholine. Acetylcholine also activates sudomotor fibers and primary afferent nociceptors, triggering axon reflexes in both. However, with nerve damage (neuropathy) there is still some increase in axon reflex mediated sweating. Cutaneous receptors are sensory receptors in the skin that detect changes in temperature (thermoreceptors) and pain (nociceptors). These cutaneous receptors initiate an impulse via excitation of the main sensory axon to the spinal cord. The axon reflex is the spread of this impulse from the main axon

pos: Alpha motor neuron horn of the spinal cord. Amyotropic lateral sclerosis likewise is associated with the selective loss of motor neurons. Paralysis is one of the most pronounced effects of damage to α-MNs. Because α-MNs provide the only voluntary innervation to extrafusal muscle fibers, losing α-MNs effectively severs the connection between the brainstem and spinal cord and the muscles they innervate. Without this connection, voluntary and involuntary (reflex) muscle control is impossible. Voluntary muscle control is lost because α-MNs relay voluntary signals from upper motor neurons to muscle fibers. Loss of involuntary control results from interruption of reflex circuits such as the tonic

pos: Instinct stimulus in a reflex may not require brain activity but instead may travel to the spinal cord as a message that is then transmitted back through the body, tracing a path called the reflex arc. Reflexes are similar to fixed action patterns in that most reflexes meet the criteria of a FAP. However, a fixed action pattern can be processed in the brain as well; a male stickleback's instinctive aggression towards anything red during his mating season is such an example. Examples of instinctive behaviors in humans include many of the primitive reflexes, such as rooting and suckling, behaviors which

neg: Onuf's nucleus extends from Onuf's nucleus, connects directly to the rhabdosphincter muscle to control micturation. The sympathetic storage reflex or pelvic-to-hypo-gastric reflex is initiated when the bladder swells. Stretch receptors cause postganglionic neurons to release norepinephrine (NE). NE causes the bladder to relax and the urethra to contract, thus preventing urine loss. The somatic storage reflex or the pelvic-to-pudendal or guarding reflex is initiated when one laughs, sneezes, or coughs, which causes increased bladder pressure. Glutamate is the primary excitatory transmitter for the reflex. Glutamate activates NMDA and AMPA receptors which produce action potentials. These action potentials activate the release of acetylcholine

neg: Lordosis behavior send information which makes it possible to coordinate the lordosis reflex with postural balance. More importantly, the ventromedial hypothalamus sends projections that inhibit the reflex at the spinal level. For this reason, in general, the lordosis reflex is not functional. Sex hormones control reproduction and coordinate sexual activity with the physiological state. Schematically, at the breeding season, and when an ovum is available, hormones (especially estrogen) simultaneously induce ovulation and estrus (heat). Under the action of estrogen in the hypothalamus, the lordosis reflex is uninhibited. The female is ready for copulation and fertilization. During the copulation, when a male approaches

neg: Primitive reflexes feed their child more competently. In addition, it helps parents to comfort their infant while allowing the baby to control distress and the amount of stimulation they receive. The sucking reflex is common to all mammals and is present at birth. It is linked with the rooting reflex and breastfeeding. It causes the child to instinctively suck anything that touches the roof of their mouth, and simulates the way a child naturally eats. There are two stages of the action: The rooting reflex is present at birth (age of appearance 28 weeks) and disappears around four months of age, as

neg: MX vs. ATV Reflex well. Overall reception of "MX vs. ATV Reflex" was positive. A large portion of praise has gone towards both the new control scheme as well as the terrain deformation. Many have acknowledged the game's successful separation of the rider from the machine with the rider reflex dual-analog control. The Metacritic average score is 78 on the Xbox 360, and 77 on the PlayStation 3. Dakota Grabowski at GameZone gave the title an 8.0 for both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 stating, "A wonderful foundation has been set and it’s now time for Rainbow Studios to expand on what they

neg: Righting reflex input where visual input is not available, and the visual cortex can become rewired to accommodate other senses taking control. Developmentally blind patients have a larger portion of the brain dedicated to vestibular and somatosensory input than patients with normal visual function. Recently blind patients must form new connections where visual inputs once were, and vestibular therapy may enhance this ability. This principle, called neuroplasticity, is of growing interest to researchers today. Many inner ear disorders can cause dizziness, which leads to dysfunctional righting reflex action. Common inner ear disorders can cause vertigo in patients, which can be acute or

neg: John Dewey had a practical emphasis on action and application. In Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which appeared in "Psychological Review" in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one considers the situation, and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit. While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain. He developed the idea that there

neg: Hoffmann's reflex Hoffmann's reflex In medicine, Hoffmann's reflex (Hoffmann's sign, sometimes simply "Hoffmann's") is a finding elicited by a reflex test which can help verify the presence or absence of issues arising from the corticospinal tract. It is named after neurologist Johann Hoffmann. Sometimes referred to as the finger flexor reflex, Hoffmann's sign is a finding elicited by a reflex action which verifies the presence – or absence – of problems in the corticospinal tract, including myelopathy. Usually considered a pathological reflex in a clinical setting, the Hoffmann's reflex has also been used as a measure of spinal reflex processing (adaptation) in

neg: Reflex activity of a reflex on a scale from 0 to 4. While 2+ is considered normal, some healthy individuals are hypo-reflexive and register all reflexes at 1+, while others are hyper-reflexive and register all reflexes at 3+. Reflex A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex is made possible by neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an impulse before that impulse reaches the brain. The reflex is then an automatic response to a stimulus that does not receive or need conscious thought. Myotatic reflexes The myotatic

neg: Fly-by-wire the pilot in accordance with control parameters. Side-sticks, centre sticks, or conventional flight control yokes can be used to fly FBW aircraft. A pilot commands the flight control computer to make the aircraft perform a certain action, such as pitch the aircraft up, or roll to one side, by moving the control column or sidestick. The flight control computer then calculates what control surface movements will cause the plane to perform that action and issues those commands to the electronic controllers for each surface. The controllers at each surface receive these commands and then move actuators attached to the control

neg: Unitary psychosis commonly considered one of the founders of materialist psychiatry, in the 1845 text which established him as one of the leading scientific psychiatrists of his era, "Pathologie and Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten", he conceived of character, or "psychological tonus", as derived from the action of a postulated "psychic reflex action" ("psychische Reflexaktion") produced by the stimulus of the accumulated representations ("Vorstellungen") of the individual's life experience. The concept of psychic reflex action was drawn by analogy from the physiological reflex action of the nervous system in response to a stimulus and he argued that both forms of reflex had the

neg: Hoffmann's reflex finger flexor reflex and the plantar response. When both lower and upper neuron damage is indicated, it leads a physician to indicate a motor neuron illness, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Hoffmann's reflex In medicine, Hoffmann's reflex (Hoffmann's sign, sometimes simply "Hoffmann's") is a finding elicited by a reflex test which can help verify the presence or absence of issues arising from the corticospinal tract. It is named after neurologist Johann Hoffmann. Sometimes referred to as the finger flexor reflex, Hoffmann's sign is a finding elicited by a reflex action which verifies the presence – or absence – of problems

neg: Accommodation reflex Accommodation reflex The accommodation reflex (or accommodation-convergence reflex) is a reflex action of the eye, in response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa), comprising coordinated changes in vergence, lens shape and pupil size (accommodation). It is dependent on cranial nerve II (afferent limb of reflex), superior centers (interneuron) and cranial nerve III (efferent limb of reflex). The change in the shape of the lens is controlled by the ciliary muscles inside the eye. Changes in contraction of the ciliary muscles alter the focal distance of the eye, causing nearer or future

neg: Reflex Reflex A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex is made possible by neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an impulse before that impulse reaches the brain. The reflex is then an automatic response to a stimulus that does not receive or need conscious thought. Myotatic reflexes The myotatic reflexes (also known as "deep tendon reflexes"), provide information on the integrity of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Generally, decreased reflexes indicate a peripheral problem, and lively or exaggerated reflexes a central one. A

neg: Reflex arc In the case of peripheral muscle reflexes (patellar reflex, achilles reflex), brief stimulation to the muscle spindle results in contraction of the agonist or effector muscle. By contrast, in polysynaptic reflex pathways, one or more interneurons connect afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) signals. All but the most simple reflexes are polysynaptic, allowing processing or inhibition of polysynaptic reflexes within the brain. When the patellar tendon is tapped just below the knee, the tap initiates an action potential in a specialized structure known as a muscle spindle located within the quadriceps. This action potential travels to the L3 and L4 nerve

neg: Pharyngeal reflex larynx), and was therefore commonly checked for. However, in one study, 37% of healthy people did not have a gag reflex, yet all subjects except for one still retained an intact pharyngeal sensation. These results suggest that the muscles that control the gag reflex remain independent of those that control normal swallowing. Since this reflex is commonly not found in healthy people, its predictive value in determining the risk for swallowing disorders is severely limited. Pharyngeal sensation, on the other hand, as seen by this study, is rarely absent, and could prove better at predicting future problems with swallowing. Closely

neg: Plantar reflex by the deep peroneal nerve. Loss of normal adult descending pyramidal control of the reflex arc to suppress extensor withdrawal results in the upgoing toes in the plantar reflex known as Babinski's sign. The Hoffmann's reflex is sometimes described as the upper limb equivalent of the Babinski sign because both indicate upper motor neuron dysfunction. Mechanistically, they differ significantly; the finger flexor reflex is a simple monosynaptic spinal reflex involving the flexor digitorum profundus that is normally fully inhibited by upper motor neurons. The pathway producing the plantar response is more complicated, and is not monosynaptic. The plantar reflex can

neg: Bainbridge reflex nerve. The Bainbridge reflex and the baroreceptor reflex control heart rate. The baroreceptor reflex can correct for a change in arterial pressure by increasing or decreasing heart rate. In contrast, the Bainbridge reflex responds to changes in blood volume. The Bainbridge reflex is seen in dogs, but experiment has shown that it is not as significant in primates. There is evidence, however, that the Bainbridge reflex does occur in humans, as in after delivery of an infant when a large volume (up to 800 mL) of uteroplacental blood is put back into the mother's circulation, resulting in tachycardia. As venous

neg: MX vs. ATV Reflex MX vs. ATV Reflex MX vs. ATV Reflex is an off-road racing video game developed by Rainbow Studios and published by THQ. It is the third game in the "MX vs. ATV" series. The core focus of the game allows for the player to race motocross and supercross on motocross bikes or ATVs. The game also includes events such as omnicross, free ride, champion sport track, waypoint racing, and freestyle motocross. Although the game is part of the "MX vs. ATV" series, "Reflex" was built from the ground up featuring a new control scheme and physics engine. The new control

neg: Pupillary light reflex eye only, left pupil constriction is a direct pupillary light reflex, and simultaneous right pupil constriction is a consensual pupillary light reflex. Therefore, light shone into one eye causes ipsilateral direct pupillary light reflex and contralateral consensual pupillary light reflex. On testing light reflex for each eye, several patterns are possible. For example, in a person with abnormal left direct reflex and abnormal right consensual reflex (with normal left consensual and normal right direct reflexes), which would produce a left Marcus Gunn pupil, or what is called afferent pupillary defect, by physical examination: Pupillary light reflex is modeled as a

neg: Reflex camera Reflex camera A reflex camera is a camera that permits the photographer to view the image that will be seen through the lens, and therefore to see exactly what will be captured, contrary to viewfinder cameras where the image could be significantly different from what will be captured. A single-lens reflex camera typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence "reflex", from the mirror's reflection) to accomplish this. The mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera achieves the same result by providing the photographer with a digitally captured image. The twin-lens reflex camera provides both a viewfinder image and the reflected image from the

neg: Reflex camera actual camera lens. Reflex camera A reflex camera is a camera that permits the photographer to view the image that will be seen through the lens, and therefore to see exactly what will be captured, contrary to viewfinder cameras where the image could be significantly different from what will be captured. A single-lens reflex camera typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence "reflex", from the mirror's reflection) to accomplish this. The mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera achieves the same result by providing the photographer with a digitally captured image. The twin-lens reflex camera provides both a viewfinder image and the reflected

neg: Free energy principle gain of prediction errors (c.f., Kalman gain). In neuronally plausible implementations of predictive coding, this corresponds to optimising the excitability superficial pyramidal cells and has been interpreted in terms of attentional gain. When gradient descent is applied to action formula_23, motor control can be understood in terms of classical reflex arcs that are engaged by descending (corticospinal) predictions. This provides a formalism that generalizes the equilibrium point solution – to the degrees of freedom problem – to movement trajectories. Active inference is related to optimal control by replacing value or cost-to-go functions with prior beliefs about state transitions or flow.

neg: Motor program Motor program A motor program is an abstract representation of movement that centrally organizes and controls the many degrees of freedom involved in performing an action. Signals transmitted through efferent and afferent pathways allow the central nervous system to anticipate, plan or guide movement. Evidence for the concept of motor programs include the following: This is not meant to underestimate the importance of feedback information, merely that another level of control beyond feedback is used: The response-chaining, or reflex-chaining hypothesis, proposed by William James (1890), was one of the earliest descriptions of movement control. This open-loop hypothesis postulated that movements

neg: Accommodation reflex by opposing the internal pressure within the elastic lens, keep it relatively flattened. Opposite of fixating on a near object, the ciliary muscle relaxes and the diameter of the lens increases to increase the lens’ size. The tension along the suspensory ligaments is increased to flatten the lens and decrease the curvature and achieve a lower refractive power. Three regions make up the accommodation neural circuit, the afferent limb, the efferent limb and the ocular motor neurons that are between the afferent and efferent limb. Accommodation reflex The accommodation reflex (or accommodation-convergence reflex) is a reflex action of the eye,

neg: Alpaero Choucas carrying 4° of dihedral. The aerofoil has reflex camber and a thickness/chord ratio of 17%. The wing leading edge is straight and unswept, and the centre section has almost constant chord, but outboard the trailing edge has marked forward sweep. The main spar is carbon fibre, supporting glass fibre reinforced styrofoam ribs with a plywood covered D-section box at the leading edge. The rest of the wing is Dacron covered. An option extends the span by 0.65 m to 15 m and includes winglets. Outboard ailerons provide lateral control and centre section moulded carbon fibre elevators, assisted by trim tabs,

neg: Stretch reflex then cause the muscle to contract; this particular reflex causes a contraction in the soleus-gastrocnemius group of muscles. Like the patellar reflex, this reflex can be enhanced by the Jendrassik maneuver. The central nervous system can influence the stretch reflex via the gamma motoneurons, which as described above control the sensitivity of the reflex. Inhibitory signals arrive at gamma neurons through the lateral reticulospinal tract from Brodmann area 6, the paleocerebellum and the red nucleus. Facilitatory signals arrive through the ventral reticulospinal tract from Brodmann area 4, the neocerebellum and the vestibular nucleus. The clasp-knife response is a stretch reflex

neg: Intelligent agent and capability: Simple reflex agents act only on the basis of the current percept, ignoring the rest of the percept history. The agent function is based on the "condition-action rule": if condition then action. This agent function only succeeds when the environment is fully observable. Some reflex agents can also contain information on their current state which allows them to disregard conditions whose actuators are already triggered. Infinite loops are often unavoidable for simple reflex agents operating in partially observable environments. Note: If the agent can randomize its actions, it may be possible to escape from infinite loops. A model-based

neg: Scratch reflex much else known about the specifics of supraspinal control of the scratch reflex. Scratch reflex The scratch reflex is a response to activation of sensory neurons whose peripheral terminals are located on the surface of the body. Some sensory neurons can be activated by stimulation with an external object such as a parasite on the body surface. Alternatively, some sensory neurons can respond to a chemical stimulus that produces an itch sensation. During a scratch reflex, a nearby limb reaches toward and rubs against the site on the body surface that has been stimulated. The scratch reflex has been extensively

neg: Tonic vibration reflex muscle to contract. The effects of sustained vibratory stimulation on muscle contraction, posture and kinesthetic perceptions are much more complex than merely contraction of the muscle being vibrated. Russian scientists Victor Gurfinkel, Mikhail Lebedev, Andrew Polyakov and Yuri Levick used vibratory stimulation to study human posture control and spectral characteristics of electromyographic (EMG) activity. Tonic vibration reflex Tonic vibration reflex is a sustained contraction of a muscle subjected to vibration. This reflex is caused by vibratory activation of muscle spindles — muscle receptors sensitive to stretch. Tonic vibration reflex is evoked by placing a vibrator — which in this case

neg: Hering–Breuer reflex reflex should not be confused with the deflation reflex discovered by the same individuals, Hering and Breuer. The majority of this page discusses the "inflation" reflex; the deflation reflex is considered separately at the end. Josef Breuer and Ewald Hering reported in 1868 that a maintained distention of the lungs of anesthetized animals decreased the frequency of the inspiratory effort or caused a transient apnea. The stimulus was therefore pulmonary inflation. The Hering-Breuer reflex, put simply, is what keeps the lungs from over-inflating with inspired air. The neural circuit that controls the Hering–Breuer inflation reflex involves several regions of the

neg: Jendrassik maneuver Jendrassik maneuver The Jendrassik maneuver is a medical maneuver wherein the patient clenches the teeth, flexes both sets of fingers into a hook-like form, and interlocks those sets of fingers together. The tendon below the patient's knee is then hit with a reflex hammer to elicit the patellar reflex. The elicited response is compared with the reflex result of the same action when the maneuver is not in use. Often a larger reflex response will be observed when the patient is occupied with the maneuver, as the maneuver may prevent the patient from consciously inhibiting or influencing his or her

neg: Motor control problem for the motor system and how this problem is resolved is an active area of study in motor control research. In some cases the coordination of motor components is hard-wired, consisting of fixed neuromuscular pathways that are called "reflexes". Reflexes are typically characterized as automatic and fixed motor responses, and they occur on a much faster time scale than what is possible for reactions that depend on perceptual processing. Reflexes play a fundamental role in stabilizing the motor system, providing almost immediate compensation for small perturbations and maintaining fixed execution patterns. Some reflex loops are routed solely through the

neg: Hering–Breuer reflex Hering–Breuer reflex The Hering–Breuer inflation reflex, named for Josef Breuer and Ewald Hering, is a reflex triggered to prevent over-inflation of the lung. Pulmonary stretch receptors present in the smooth muscle of the airways respond to excessive stretching of the lung during large inspirations. Once activated, they send action potentials through large myelinated fibers of the vagus nerve to the inspiratory area in the medulla and apneustic center of the pons. In response, the inspiratory area is inhibited directly and the apneustic center is inhibited from activating the inspiratory area. This inhibits inspiration, allowing expiration to occur. The Hering–Breuer inflation

neg: Photic sneeze reflex light-induced sneezing is a heritable, autosomal-dominant trait. A 2010 study demonstrated a correlation between photic sneezing and a single-nucleotide polymorphism on chromosome 2. Photic sneeze reflex The photic sneeze reflex (also known as, Autosomal Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst (ACHOO) syndrome and colloquially sun sneezing) is a condition that causes sneezing in response to numerous stimuli, such as looking at bright lights or periocular (surrounding the eyeball) injection. The condition affects 18-35% of the population in the United States, but its exact mechanism of action is not well understood. The photic sneeze reflex manifests itself in the form of uncontrollable sneezing in

neg: Photic sneeze reflex Photic sneeze reflex The photic sneeze reflex (also known as, Autosomal Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst (ACHOO) syndrome and colloquially sun sneezing) is a condition that causes sneezing in response to numerous stimuli, such as looking at bright lights or periocular (surrounding the eyeball) injection. The condition affects 18-35% of the population in the United States, but its exact mechanism of action is not well understood. The photic sneeze reflex manifests itself in the form of uncontrollable sneezing in response to a stimulus which would not produce a sneeze in people without the trait. The sneezes generally occur in bursts of 1

neg: Inflammatory reflex Inflammatory reflex The inflammatory reflex is a neural circuit that regulates the immune response to injury and invasion. All reflexes have an afferent and efferent arc. The Inflammatory reflex has a sensory, afferent arc, which is activated by cytokines, and a motor, or efferent arc, which transmits action potentials in the vagus nerve to suppress cytokine production. Increased signaling in the efferent arc inhibits inflammation and prevents organ damage. The molecular basis of cytokine-inhibiting signals requires the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and the Alpha-7 nicotinic receptor receptor expressed on cytokine-producing cells. The release of acetylcholine in spleen suppresses the production of TNF

neg: Inflammatory reflex prevent or reverse these diseases. It may be possible to implant nerve stimulators to replace anti-inflammatory drugs that target cytokine activity (e.g. anti-TNF and anti-IL-1 antibodies). Inflammatory reflex The inflammatory reflex is a neural circuit that regulates the immune response to injury and invasion. All reflexes have an afferent and efferent arc. The Inflammatory reflex has a sensory, afferent arc, which is activated by cytokines, and a motor, or efferent arc, which transmits action potentials in the vagus nerve to suppress cytokine production. Increased signaling in the efferent arc inhibits inflammation and prevents organ damage. The molecular basis of cytokine-inhibiting

neg: Primitive reflexes it gradually comes under voluntary control. The rooting reflex assists in the act of breastfeeding. A newborn infant will turn its head toward anything that strokes its cheek or mouth, searching for the object by moving its head in steadily decreasing arcs until the object is found. After becoming familiar to responding in this way (if breastfed, approximately three weeks after birth), the infant will move directly to the object without searching. This is sometimes referred to as the startle reaction, startle response, startle reflex or embrace reflex. It is more commonly known as the Moro response or Moro reflex

neg: Primitive reflexes grasp of it may be able to support the child's weight, they may also release their grip suddenly and without warning. The reverse motion can be induced by stroking the back or side of the hand. A plantar reflex is a normal reflex that involves plantar flexion of the foot, which moves toes away from the shin and curls them down. An abnormal plantar reflex (aka Babinski Sign) occurs when upper motor neuron control over the flexion reflex circuit is interrupted. This results in a dorsiflexion of the foot (foot angles towards the shin, big toe curls up). This also

neg: Fauvel AV.2 on the wing were two fixed triangular fins, intended to reduce turbulence at each end of the unusual elevator designed by Peyret, mounted on the trailing edge of the centre section. It consisted of two geometrically similar surfaces, each of symmetrical section and joined to each other and to the wing without a gap. In plan the rear surface, though shorter, blended smoothly into the forward one. Together they formed a control surface with adjustable curvature, which could modify the profile of the centre section from symmetric to reflex. The pilot's controls were conventional; the airbrakes were controlled with a

neg: Single-lens reflex camera Single-lens reflex camera A single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence "reflex" from the mirror's reflection) that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the viewed image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button is pressed on most SLRs, the mirror flips out of the light path, allowing light to pass through to the light receptor and the image to be captured. Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras with

neg: Axon reflex Axon reflex regulates vasodilation, or the extra blood flow to target tissues. Axon reflex allows muscles to contract in the shortest amount of time possible by regulating the signal conduction in the neuromuscular junction. In dermal circulation, the axon reflex controls the temperature and circulation in the tissues through vasodilation. Small nerve fibers called thermoreceptors are sensitive to temperature and can act as sensors that initiate axon reflex mediated vasodilation. Neuromuscular diseases can be predicted early by the presence of abnormal muscle fiber reflexes and corresponding twitches. This arises because axons can generate their own action potentials when hyperexcited from

neg: MX vs. ATV Reflex scheme is labeled "reflex" which utilizes both analog sticks. The left analog controls the handlebars while the right analog stick controls the rider's body movement. The reflex system allows for unprecedented control and manipulation by allowing the player to 'ride' the motorcycle and other vehicles as they actually would. Tricks have been simplified from the previous games as the player only needs to hold the modifier button and use the right stick to make different combinations and flips. Also new to "Reflex" is real-time terrain deformation. Terrain deformation allows any of the different vehicles to literally carve into the earth

neg: Pholcodine States where it is classed as a Schedule I drug, the most highly controlled drug category, which includes the likes of heroin, LSD and ecstasy. It is a class B substance in the United Kingdom but can be purchased over-the-counter in most UK pharmacies. Pholcodine is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and freely crosses the blood–brain barrier. It acts primarily on the central nervous system (CNS), causing depression of the cough reflex, partly by a direct effect on the cough centre in the medulla. It is metabolized in the liver and its action may be prolonged in individuals with

neg: Reflex (game show) following a 2008 pilot. Both shows are created by Adam Adler from company Objective Productions. A non-broadcast pilot was filmed with Jake Humphrey as host in July 2012 at MediaCityUK in Salford. After being commissioned by the BBC, "Reflex" was filmed at Wembley's Fountain Studios during April 2013. "Reflex" relies heavily on the use of high-speed cameras to capture the action unfolding at great speed. Using a NAC/Ikegami Hi-Motion II Camera, the contestants are filmed competing in tasks at up to 1000 frames per second (fps), which, when played back at conventional television speeds of 25 fps, allows the action

neg: The Skank Reflex Analysis The Skank Reflex Analysis "The Skank Reflex Analysis" is the first episode of the fifth season of "The Big Bang Theory" that first aired on CBS on September 22, 2011. It is the 88th episode overall. The episode follows on from "The Roommate Transmogrification", where Raj and Penny slept together. When they emerged from Leonard's bedroom, the others saw them and Penny said "It's not what it looks like". The first scene takes place at lunch, with Sheldon wondering what Penny meant by her "brain teaser". After he comes up with the idea that Penny was checking Raj's anal region

neg: Single-lens reflex camera convenience, sales, and popularity at the start of 21st century. These cameras are currently the marketing favorite among advanced amateur and professional photographers. Film-based SLRs are still used by a niche market of enthusiasts and format lovers. Single-lens reflex camera A single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence "reflex" from the mirror's reflection) that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the viewed image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button

neg: Laser safety light, causing increased sensitivity (phototoxicity). Beyond the question of physical injury to the eye from a laser pointer, several other undesirable effects are possible. These include short-lived flash blindness if the beam is encountered in darkened surroundings, as when driving at night. This may result in momentary loss of vehicular control. Lasers pointed at aircraft are a hazard to aviation. A police officer seeing a red dot on his chest may conclude that a sniper is targeting him and take aggressive action. In addition, the startle reflex exhibited by some exposed unexpectedly to laser light of this sort has been

neg: Stretch reflex within the spindle. There are several theories as to what may trigger gamma motoneurons to increase the reflex's sensitivity. For example, "alpha-gamma co-activation" might keep the spindles taut when a muscle is contracted, preserving stretch reflex sensitivity even as the muscle fibers become shorter. Otherwise the spindles would become slack and the reflex would cease to function. This reflex has the shortest latency of all spinal reflexes including the Golgi tendon reflex and reflexes mediated by pain and cutaneous receptors. A person standing upright begins to lean to one side. The postural muscles that are closely connected to the vertebral

neg: Hirschberg test much prism is required to centre the reflex The Krimsky test is advisably used for patients with tropias, but not with phorias. The technique was developed by German ophthalmologist Julius Hirschberg who in 1886 used a candle to observe the light reflex in an eye with strabismus. Hirschberg test In the fields of optometry and ophthalmology, the Hirschberg test, also Hirschberg corneal reflex test, is a screening test that can be used to assess whether a person has strabismus (ocular misalignment). A photographic version of the Hirschberg is used to quantify strabismus. It is performed by shining a light in

neg: Cushing reflex is the third and final stage of the reflex. Commonly, in various pressor reflexes, the central chemoreceptors, which transform chemical signals into action potentials, and the baroreceptors, which sense pressure changes of the carotid sinuses, work together to increase or decrease blood pressure. However, chemoreceptors do not play a role in the Cushing reflex. Thus, even in the presence of sympathetic stimulation from the brain, which would normally produce tachycardia, there is in fact bradycardia. Raised intracranial pressure can ultimately result in the shifting or crushing of brain tissue, which is detrimental to the physiological well being of patients. As

neg: Rietveld refinement is The shape of a powder diffraction reflection is influenced by the characteristics of the beam, the experimental arrangement, and the sample size and shape. In the case of monochromatic neutron sources the convolution of the various effects has been found to result in a reflex almost exactly Gaussian in shape. If this distribution is assumed then the contribution of a given reflection to the profile y at position 2"θ" is: formula_2 where "H" is the full width at half peak height (full-width half-maximum), 2"θ" is the centre of the reflex, and I is the calculated intensity of the reflex

neg: Inflammatory reflex and other cytokines which cause damaging inflammation. Signaling in the efferent arc of the inflammatory reflex, termed the "Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway," provides a regulatory check on the innate immune system response to invasion and injury. The action potentials arising in the vagus nerve are transmitted to the spleen, where a subset of specialized T cells is activated to secrete acetylcholine. The net effect of the reflex is to prevent the damage caused by excessive cytokine production. Evidence from experimental disease models of arthritis, colitis, sepsis, hemorrhagic shock, and congestive heart failure indicate that electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve can

neg: Benign fasciculation syndrome The site of the fasciculations, for example, those in the calves versus abdomen, has not been shown to be discriminatory for a benign disorder. There is conflicting evidence as to whether the character of fasciculations differs neurophysiologically in MND". Another abnormality commonly found upon clinical examination is a brisk reflex action known as "hyperreflexia". Standard laboratory tests are unremarkable. According to neurologist John C. Kincaid: Some degree of control of the fasciculations may be achieved with the same medication used to treat essential tremor (beta-blockers and anti-seizure drugs). However, often the most effective approach to treatment is to treat any

neg: Francis Hutcheson (philosopher) judgement; and a reflex feeling of satisfaction at actions we consider good, and of dissatisfaction at those we consider bad. By the intellectual part of this process, we refer the action or habit to a certain class; but no sooner is the intellectual process complete than there is excited in us a feeling similar to what myriads of actions and habits of (apparently) the same class excited in us on former occasions. Even if the latter part of this process is instantaneous, uniform and exempt from error, the former is not. All mankind may approve of that which is virtuous

neg: Muscle spindle ions. This raises the resting potential of the endings, thereby increasing the probability of action potential firing, thus increasing the stretch-sensitivity of the muscle spindle afferents. How does the central nervous system control gamma fusimotor neurons? It has been difficult to record from gamma motoneurons during normal movement because they have very small axons. Several theories have been proposed, based on recordings from spindle afferents. It is also believed that muscle spindles play a critical role in sensorimotor development. After stroke or spinal cord injury in humans, spastic hypertonia (spastic paralysis) often develops, whereby the stretch reflex in flexor muscles

neg: Digital single-lens reflex camera in a DSLR shows an actual optical image via the reflex viewing system. An EVF image has lag time (that is, it reacts with a delay to view changes) and has a lower resolution than an optical viewfinder but achieves parallax-free viewing using less bulk and mechanical complexity than a DSLR with its reflex viewing system. Optical viewfinders tend to be more comfortable and efficient, especially for action photography and in low-light conditions. Compared with digital cameras with LCD electronic viewfinders, there is no time lag in the image: it is always correct as it is being "updated" at the

neg: Human penis sperm cells or spermatozoa, from the penis. It is usually the result of sexual stimulation, which may include prostate stimulation. Rarely, it is due to prostatic disease. Ejaculation may occur spontaneously during sleep (known as a nocturnal emission or wet dream). Anejaculation is the condition of being unable to ejaculate. Ejaculation has two phases: "emission" and "ejaculation proper". The emission phase of the ejaculatory reflex is under control of the sympathetic nervous system, while the ejaculatory phase is under control of a spinal reflex at the level of the spinal nerves S2–4 via the pudendal nerve. A refractory period succeeds

neg: Emlyn Hughes International Soccer had been enhanced. At the time of its release "EHIS" faced heavy competition from titles such as "Match Day II" (1987), "Kick Off" (1989) and "Microprose Soccer". However, what made "EHIS" different from the other games of its time was the fine balance between playability and simulation - it was not as slow as "Match Day II", nor as reflex-driven as "Kick Off" and "Sensible Soccer". As a result, the appeal of EHIS was strongest among those who preferred skillful, tactical football to frantic arcade action. Despite limited graphics, and a side view of the action (whereas "Kick Off" had

neg: Urination development of denervation hypersensitization even though the neurons interrupted are preganglionic rather than postganglionic. During spinal shock, the bladder is flaccid and unresponsive. It becomes overfilled, and urine dribbles through the sphincters (overflow incontinence). After spinal shock has passed, a spinally mediated voiding reflex ensues, although there is no voluntary control and no inhibition or facilitation from higher centers. Some paraplegic patients train themselves to initiate voiding by pinching or stroking their thighs, provoking a mild mass reflex. In some instances, the voiding reflex becomes hyperactive. Bladder capacity is reduced and the wall becomes hypertrophied. This type of bladder is

neg: Plantar reflex of infection control regulation this is no longer recommended. Either a single use device or the thumb nail should be used. There are three responses possible: As the lesion responsible for the sign expands, so does the area from which the afferent Babinski response may be elicited. The Babinski response is also normal while asleep and after a long period of walking. The Babinski sign can indicate upper motor neuron lesion constituting damage to the corticospinal tract. Occasionally, a pathological plantar reflex is the first and only indication of a serious disease process and a clearly abnormal plantar reflex often

neg: Reflex receiver and causing feedback. The capacitor C" provides more protection against feedback, blocking the pulses of RF from the diode, but is usually not needed since the transformer's winding T" normally has enough parasitic capacitance. The audio signal is applied to the grid of the tube and amplified. The amplified audio signal from the plate passes easily through the low inductance RF primary winding L" and is applied to the earphones T. The rheostat R" controlled the filament current, and in these early sets was used as a volume control. Reflex receiver A reflex radio receiver, occasionally called a reflectional receiver,

neg: Urination muscle to contract and the internal urethral sphincter to relax. The external urethral sphincter (sphincter urethrae) is under somatic control and is consciously relaxed during micturition. In infants, voiding occurs involuntarily (as a reflex). The ability to voluntarily inhibit micturition develops by the age of 2–3 years, as control at higher levels of the central nervous system develops. In the adult, the volume of urine in the bladder that normally initiates a reflex contraction is about . During storage, bladder pressure stays low, because of the bladder's highly compliant nature. A plot of bladder (intravesical) pressure against the depressant of

neg: BNCR mount Newsreel Camera Reflex", which meant that it is a 35 mm camera originally intended for news reporting but included a blimp housing for sound stage shooting plus a reflex viewer to allow the camera operator to view the action through the lens while filming. The reflex option was only added in 1967, while the blimp option (thereby converting an NC, "Newsreel Camera", into a BNC, "Blimped Newsreel Camera") was available at the camera's introduction in 1934, but only a few BNC examples were made before the onset of WW-II, during which manufacture of "production" cameras was suspended. The lens mount

neg: Orienting response identifying it. This orienting reflex seems to be present early in development, as babies will turn their head toward an environmental change{Cowan, 1995}. From an evolutionary perspective, this mechanism is useful in reacting quickly to events that call for immediate action. Sokolov's investigation of OR was primarily motivated in understanding habituation. Provided the first introduction of a novel stimulus, defined in Sokolovian terms as any change from the "currently active neuronal model" (what the individual is currently focused on), results in OR. However, with repeated introduction of the same stimulus, the orienting response will decrease in intensity and eventually cease.

neg: Roland Clark Davis Columbia, Davis was mentored by Robert Sessions Woodworth and Albert Poffenberger. In his 1930 dissertation, “Factors Affecting the Galvanic Reflex,” Davis reviewed hundreds of published articles on the galvanic skin response (GSR), producing an extensive and systematic review of GSR. Davis was the first to use a vacuum tube as a way to control the electrical current during measurement of the GSR. Davis also developed a device that provided an uninterrupted measurement of arterial blood pressure that would not interfere with the subject’s true blood pressure, and he is credited with introducing the cathode-ray oscilloscope technique for measuring muscle action

neg: Retinal ganglion cell own photopigment, melanopsin, which makes them respond directly to light even in the absence of rods and cones. They project to, among other areas, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) via the retinohypothalamic tract for setting and maintaining circadian rhythms. Other retinal ganglion cells projecting to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) include cells making connections with the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EW), for control of the pupillary light reflex, and [[giant retinal ganglion cells Most mature ganglion cells are able to fire action potentials at a high frequency because of their expression of K3 potassium channels. Below is a very quick summary. For a

neg: Aimpoint CompM4 battery compartment & power control knob mounted near the bottom of the sight instead of near the top. Aimpoint CompM4 The Aimpoint CompM4 is a non-magnified red dot style gun sight adopted by the U.S. Armed Forces. It is produced by the Swedish company Aimpoint AB and is the successor to the earlier Aimpoint CompM2. The Aimpoint CompM4 is a "tubed" style reflector (reflex) sight that uses a red light-emitting diode (LED) at the focus of a mirror type optical collimator to produce an aligned red aiming spot (what is commonly called a "red dot sight"). There are a total

neg: Motor control spinal cord. These loops may include cortical regions of the brain as well, and are thus slower than their monosynaptic counterparts due to the greater travel time. However, actions controlled by polysynaptic reflex loops are still faster than actions which require perceptual processing. While the actions of short-loop reflexes are fixed, polysynaptic reflexes can often be regulated by instruction or prior experience. A common example of a long loop reflex is the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex observed in infants. A motor "synergy" is a neural organization of a multi-element system that (1) organizes sharing of a task among a set

neg: Developmental psychology For example, the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view. Other reflexes, such as the walking reflex appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different. It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the moro and walking reflexes) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development. Primitive reflexes reappear

neg: Orienting response Orienting response The orienting response (OR), also called "orienting reflex", is an organism's immediate response to a change in its environment, when that change is not sudden enough to elicit the startle reflex. The phenomenon was first described by Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov in his 1863 book "Reflexes of the Brain", and the term ('ориентировочный рефлекс' in Russian) was coined by Ivan Pavlov, who also referred to it as the "Shto takoye?" (Что такое? or "What is it?") reflex. The orienting response is a reaction to novel or significant stimuli. In the 1950s the orienting response was studied systematically by

neg: Righting reflex orientation. During the VOR, the semicircular canals send information to the brain and correct eye movements in the direction opposite head movement by sending excitatory signals to motor neurons on the side opposite to the head rotation. Neurons in the otoliths control not only these signals for control of eye movements, but also signals for head movement correction through the neck muscles. The righting reflex utilizes the VOR and VCR as it brings the body back into position. Visual information under the control of these reflexes creates greater stability for more accurate postural correction. Vestibular function can be tested through

neg: Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex reflex. Together they form a reflex pattern with short latency which protects the animals gill and siphon to potentially threatening stimuli. Both central ganglia and peripheral neurons are often involved in the neural control of behavior in molluscs. In molluscs such as "Aplysia californica" the peripheral motor neurons are more extensive, as opposed to vertebrates, and innervate somatic (locomotor and appendageal) muscles. Central pathways are activated by weak stimuli applied at some distance from the target effector structure and peripheral pathways are activated when the stimuli is applied at a distance or directly on the target effector structure. A stimulus

neg: Righting reflex and somatosensory inputs to make postural adjustments when the body becomes displaced from its normal vertical position. These inputs are used to create what is called an efference copy. This means that the brain makes comparisons in the cerebellum between expected posture and perceived posture, and corrects for the difference. The reflex takes 6 or 7 weeks to perfect, but can be affected by various types of balance disorders. The righting reflex has also been studied in cats and other non-human mammals. The vestibular system is composed of inner ear organs forming the "labyrinth": the semicircular canals, the otoliths, and

neg: Efonidipine these CCBs (Benedipine,Clinidipine,efonidipine ) are not approved in USA or Europe. No major guideline has supported these newer CCBs. Clinical trials under which claims are made mostly from the pharma industry sponsored . 1. Better renoprotection by: 2. Preferred in angina with hypertension due to negative chronotropic action 3. Better control of reflex tachycardia 4. Reduces cardiac remodelling, arterial stiffness and prevents atherogenesis 5. More useful in patients with diabetes & nephropathy 6. Better protection against cardiac hypertrophy by significant reduction in LVMI 7. Less adverse effects compared to Amlodipine 8. Reduces endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress(anti-oxidant property) 1. Strong

neg: The Skank Reflex Analysis a B+. Jenna Busch of IGN rated it 9/10 and wrote that "for me, the strongest scenes were between Amy Farrah Fowler and Penny." The Skank Reflex Analysis "The Skank Reflex Analysis" is the first episode of the fifth season of "The Big Bang Theory" that first aired on CBS on September 22, 2011. It is the 88th episode overall. The episode follows on from "The Roommate Transmogrification", where Raj and Penny slept together. When they emerged from Leonard's bedroom, the others saw them and Penny said "It's not what it looks like". The first scene takes place at lunch,

neg: Neuroimmune system protects an organism from harmful stimuli. This reflex occurs when noxious stimuli activate nociceptors that send an action potential to nerves in the spine, which then innervate effector muscles and cause a sudden jerk to move the organism away from the dangerous stimuli. The withdrawal reflex involves both the nervous and immune systems. When the action potential travels back down the spinal nerve network, another impulse travels to peripheral sensory neurons that secrete amino acids and neuropeptides like calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and Substance P. These chemicals act by increasing the redness, swelling of damaged tissues, and attachment of immune

neg: Robotron: 2084 retrospect, DeMar felt players continued to play the game because the control scheme offered a high level of precision. Jarvis's contributions to the game's development are often cited among his accolades. Vince considered him as one of the originators of "high-action" and "reflex-based" arcade games, citing "Robotron: 2084"s gameplay among other games designed by Jarvis. In 2007, IGN listed Eugene Jarvis as a top game designer whose titles ("Defender", "Robotron 2084", and "Smash TV") have influenced the video game industry. "GamesTM" referred to the game as the pinnacle of his career. Shane R. Monroe of RetroGaming Radio called "Robotron" "...the

neg: Operation Flavius found that the soldiers' "reflex action" in resorting to lethal force was excessive, but that the soldiers' actions did not—in their own right—give rise to a violation of Article 2. The court held that the soldiers' use of force based on an honestly held belief (that the suspects were armed or in possession of a remote detonator) could be justified, even if that belief was later found to be mistaken. To hold otherwise would, in the court's opinion, place too great a burden on law-enforcement personnel. It also dismissed all other allegations, except that regarding the planning and control of

neg: Digital single-lens reflex camera lengths they are manufactured with, except for what is available from attachments. Manufacturers have attempted (with increasing success) to overcome this disadvantage by offering extreme ranges of focal length on models known as superzooms, some of which offer far longer focal lengths than readily available DSLR lenses. There are now available perspective-correcting (PC) lenses for DSLR cameras, providing some of the attributes of view cameras. Nikon introduced the first PC lens, fully manual, in 1961. Recently, however, some manufacturers have introduced advanced lenses that both shift and tilt and are operated with automatic aperture control. However, since the introduction of

neg: Gender mainstreaming in mine action la Paix in Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD), Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP), and Small Arms Survey (SAS). Like many criticisms of the gender mainstreaming movement in general, gender mainstreaming in mine action has faced similar problems such as ineffective results, poor implementation, those using it to hinder progress, and being primarily western dominated. Asa Massleberg, for the Gender and Mine Action Programme, wrote that the common measurements of success in mine action, such as meters squared of land cleared of mines and number of people

neg: Control (management) the case of the speaker who requested that all of the people who could not hear what he was saying should raise their hands), or that improper information may be communicated. Importance of control Control (management) Control, or controlling, is one of the managerial functions like "planning", "organizing", "staffing" and "directing". It is an important function because it helps to check the errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standards are minimized and stated goals of the organization are achieved in a desired manner. According to modern concepts, control is a foreseeing action whereas earlier concept

neg: Optic tract does not get transmitted to both hemispheres. For instance, a split-brain patient shown an image in the left visual field will be unable to vocally name what has been seen as the speech-control center is in the left hemisphere of the brain. Pupillary reflexes, particularly the pupillary light reflex, are a powerful diagnostic tool often employed in clinical and emergency medical practice. A lack of equal consensual pupillary constriction to a light stimulus, especially a Marcus Gunn pupil, can be indicative of optic nerve damage, brainstem death, or optic tract damage in between. Optic tract The optic tract (from the

neg: Pain in fish First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a reflex response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective "feeling" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced. The second component is the experience of "pain" itself, or suffering – the internal, emotional interpretation of

neg: Fenoldopam action (4 minutes) and short duration of action (< 10 minutes) and a linear dose response relationship at usual clinical doses. Adverse effects include headache, flushing, nausea, hypotension, reflex tachycardia, and increased intraocular pressure. Fenoldopam mesylate contains sodium metabisulfite, a sulfite that may rarely cause allergic-type reactions including anaphylactic symptoms and asthma in susceptible people. Fenoldopam mesylate administration should be undertaken with caution to patients with glaucoma or raised intraocular pressure as fenoldopam raises intraocular pressure. Concomitant use of fenoldopam with a beta-blocker should be avoided if possible, as unexpected hypotension can result from beta-blocker inhibition of sympathetic-mediated reflex tachycardia

neg: Keratoconus instrument's measuring ability. A further indication can be provided by retinoscopy, in which a light beam is focused on the person's retina and the reflection, or reflex, observed as the examiner tilts the light source back and forth. Keratoconus is amongst the ophthalmic conditions that exhibit a scissor reflex action of two bands moving toward and away from each other like the blades of a pair of scissors. If keratoconus is suspected, the ophthalmologist or optometrist will search for other characteristic findings of the disease by means of slit lamp examination of the cornea. An advanced case is usually readily

neg: Clasp-knife response that joint, which is an extensor muscle that becomes stretched. In upper motor neuron lesions, muscle tonus may increase and resistance of muscle to stretch increases. However, if sufficient force is applied, limb resistance suddenly decreases. This reflex is observed in patients with upper motor neuron lesions. It is frequently attributed to the action of the golgi tendon organ, likely because of early studies showing that tendon organs are activated by strong muscle stretch and inhibit motoroneurons of the stretched muscle. It was thought that this was a protective reflex, preventing application of so much force that muscles become damaged.

neg: Hiccup it is said that hiccups occur when the person experiencing them is being talked about by someone not present. Hiccup A hiccup (also spelled hiccough) is an involuntary contraction (myoclonic jerk) of the diaphragm that may repeat several times per minute. The hiccup is an involuntary action involving a reflex arc. Once triggered, the reflex causes a strong contraction of the diaphragm followed about 0.25 second later by closure of the vocal cords, which results in the classic "hic" sound. Hiccups may occur individually, or they may occur in bouts. The rhythm of the hiccup, or the time between hiccups,