query: president at time of first nuclear test in india

pos: Pokhran-II missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer. In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the "Prithvi" missiles. Successive governments in India decided to

neg: Nuclear Command Authority (India) Nuclear Command Authority (India) The Nuclear Command Authority (NCA) of India is the authority responsible for command, control and operational decisions regarding India's nuclear weapons programme. India's first Nuclear test was conducted on 18 May 1974 with the code name Smiling Buddha. Since then India has conducted another series of tests at the Pokhran test range in the state of Rajasthan in 1998, which included a thermonuclear test, code named Operation Shakti. India has an extensive civil and military nuclear program, which includes at least 10 nuclear reactors, uranium mining and milling sites, heavy water production facilities, a uranium enrichment

neg: Nuclear Command Authority (India) hotline on Sunday, June 20, 2004. The hotline was set up with the assistance of United States military officers. Nuclear Command Authority (India) The Nuclear Command Authority (NCA) of India is the authority responsible for command, control and operational decisions regarding India's nuclear weapons programme. India's first Nuclear test was conducted on 18 May 1974 with the code name Smiling Buddha. Since then India has conducted another series of tests at the Pokhran test range in the state of Rajasthan in 1998, which included a thermonuclear test, code named Operation Shakti. India has an extensive civil and military nuclear program,

neg: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement deal. The Arms Control Association said the agreement fails to make clear that an Indian nuclear test would prompt the U.S. to cease nuclear trade; however, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said that any nuclear test by India would result in the "most serious consequences," including automatic cut-off of U.S. cooperation as well as a number of other sanctions. After Senate approval, US President George W. Bush said the deal would "strengthen our global nuclear nonproliferation efforts, protect the environment, create jobs, and assist India in meeting its growing energy needs in a responsible manner." Then-US presidential candidates Barack Obama

neg: India–Pakistan relations militarisation and expanded the nuclear power infrastructure throughout the country. Decisions on the development of nuclear weapons were made by Indian political leaders after the Chinese invasion and territorial annexation of northern India. In 1967, India's nuclear program was aimed at the development of nuclear weapons, with Indira Gandhi carefully overseeing the development of weapons. In 1971, India gained military and political momentum over Pakistan, after a successful military campaign against Pakistan. Starting preparations for a nuclear test in 1972, India finally exploded its first nuclear bomb in Pokhran test range, codename "Smiling Buddha", in 1974. During the 1980s–90s, India

neg: Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme in the region, and in response to Pakistan's deployment of M-11 missiles bought from China, the Indian Government in August 1995 procured six batteries of Russian S-300 Surface-to-air missiles to protect New Delhi and other cities. In May 1998, India for the second time (since its first test in 1974) tested nuclear weapons ("see Pokhran-II"), followed by Pakistan ("see Chagai-I") with its first-ever nuclear test. With Pakistan's testing of nuclear weapons and missile delivery systems, this threat intensified. India has also developed and tested missile delivery systems ("see IGMDP"). In 1999, the Kargil War between India and Pakistan became the

neg: Intercontinental ballistic missile version of the Jericho III. India has a series of ballistic missiles called Agni. On 19 April 2012, India successfully test fired its first Agni-V, a three-stage solid fueled missile, with a strike range of more than . The missile was test-fired for the second time on 15 September 2013. On 31 January 2015, India conducted a third successful test flight of the Agni-V from the Wheeler Island facility. The test used a canisterised version of the missile, mounted over a Tatra truck. An anti-ballistic missile is a missile which can be deployed to counter an incoming nuclear or non-nuclear

neg: India and weapons of mass destruction tested from INS "Subhadra" and this time the results were reported successful. In December 2005 the missile was tested again, but this time from the destroyer INS "Rajput". The test was a success with the missile hitting the land based target. India is not a signatory to either the NPT or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), but did accede to the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in October 1963. India is a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and four of its 17 nuclear reactors are subject to IAEA safeguards. India announced its lack of intention to accede

neg: CIA activities in India in character — what is today known as `back channel diplomacy' — but RAW's special operations and SIGINT/IMINT unit, the Aviation Research Centre, received technical assistance from the U.S. in return for information on China. India's first nuclear test, on India's May 18, 1974, was a surprise to the Intelligence Community, although the overall nuclear program and incentives to build a bomb had been discussed. "India conducted an underground nuclear test at a site in the desert at Pokhran - making it the world's seventh nuclear power and the sixth to test (Israel having achieved nuclear status in 1966 without

neg: Homi Sethna Dulal Nagchaudhuri (head of the DRDO) received the Padma Vibhushan. Homi Sethna Homi Nusserwanji Sethna (24 August 1923 – 5 September 2010) was an Indian nuclear scientist and a chemical engineer, gaining international fame as the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (India) during the time when the first nuclear test, codename "Smiling Buddha" in Pokhran Test Range in 1974 was conducted. He was the primary and central figure in India's civilian nuclear program as well as the construction of nuclear power plants. He was awarded the second highest civilian award the Padma Vibhushan in 1975, by Government of India.

neg: Homi Sethna Homi Sethna Homi Nusserwanji Sethna (24 August 1923 – 5 September 2010) was an Indian nuclear scientist and a chemical engineer, gaining international fame as the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (India) during the time when the first nuclear test, codename "Smiling Buddha" in Pokhran Test Range in 1974 was conducted. He was the primary and central figure in India's civilian nuclear program as well as the construction of nuclear power plants. He was awarded the second highest civilian award the Padma Vibhushan in 1975, by Government of India. Earlier in his career, he had full technical responsibility for

neg: A. P. J. Abdul Kalam the "Missile Man of India" for his work on the development of ballistic missile and launch vehicle technology. He also played a pivotal organisational, technical, and political role in India's "Pokhran-II" nuclear tests in 1998, the first since the original nuclear test by India in 1974. Kalam was elected as the 11th President of India in 2002 with the support of both the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party and the then-opposition Indian National Congress. Widely referred to as the "People's President", he returned to his civilian life of education, writing and public service after a single term. He was a recipient

neg: Nuclear proliferation detonate a nuclear bomb. The United Kingdom first tested a nuclear weapon in October 1952. France first tested a nuclear weapon in 1960. The People's Republic of China detonated a nuclear weapon in 1964. India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974, which prompted Pakistan to develop its own nuclear program and, when India conducted a second series of nuclear tests in 1998, Pakistan followed with a series of tests of its own. In 2006, North Korea conducted its first nuclear test. Early efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation involved intense government secrecy, the wartime acquisition of known uranium stores (the

neg: Nuclear arms race test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", but according to independent sources, it was actually part of an accelerated covert nuclear program of India. This test generated great concern and doubts in Pakistan, with fear it would be at the mercy of its long–time arch rival. Pakistan had its own covert atomic bomb projects in 1972 which extended over many years since the first Indian weapon was detonated. After the 1974 test, Pakistan's atomic bomb program picked up a great speed and accelerated its atomic project to successfully build its own atomic weapons program. In the last few decades of the

neg: India economic ties with South America, Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security. China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons. India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the

neg: Noor Muhammad Butt was elected and became a President of Pakistan Nuclear Society (PNS). In 1996, Ishfaq Ahmad had promoted him as Director-general of the institute. The same year, when the Pakistani Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence(ISI) learnt that India was soon going to test its device, the Government of Pakistan ordered him to place and prepare the devices to be tested in the nuclear test sites. However, the decision was taken back as India had postponed its nuclear device tests. Butt was part of a team of scientists that visited European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) along with -PAEC Chairman Ishfaq Ahmad in

neg: Kargil War most recent examples of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain, which posed significant logistical problems for the combating sides. It is also one of the very few instances of direct, conventional warfare between nuclear states (i.e., those possessing nuclear weapons). India had conducted its first successful test in 1974; Pakistan, which had been developing its nuclear capability in secret since around the same time, conducted its first known tests in 1998, just two weeks after a second series of tests by India. Before the Partition of India in 1947, Kargil was a tehsil of the Ladakh district, a sparsely populated region

neg: Nuclear proliferation discussed in the context of "nuclear apartheid". India has consistently attempted to pass measures that would call for full international disarmament, however they have not succeeded due to protests from those states that already have nuclear weapons. In light of this, India viewed nuclear weapons as a necessary right for all nations as long as certain states were still in possession of nuclear weapons. India stated that nuclear issues were directly related to national security. Years before India's first underground nuclear test in 1998, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was passed. Some have argued that coercive language was used in an

neg: 2006 North Korean nuclear test of 20 kilotons of TNT, and the first nuclear device detonated by India in 1974, though of primitive design, had a yield in the region of 8 kilotons of TNT. If the North Korean nuclear test is less than even a kiloton in yield, it would be a historically small inaugural nuclear test. Even if it were as many as the reported intentional yield of 4 kt it would be the smallest nuclear test ever conducted by a state as a first test. Some advanced nuclear powers have produced very small tactical nuclear weapons in the low-kiloton range, but their

neg: Canada–India relations test of May 1974 when the Canadian government severed bilateral nuclear cooperation with both India and Pakistan in 1976 after claims that the fissionable material used to construct India's first nuclear device had been obtained from the Canadian-supplied CIRUS nuclear research reactor. Thereafter Canada resolved to engage in nuclear cooperation only with countries which signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), and which instituted full-scope safeguards on their nuclear energy programmes under the supervision of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). India and Pakistan are two nations that have both consistently

neg: Pokhran-II were carried out on 11 May 1998. It was officially signed by then-Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology. Pokhran-II The Pokhran-II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code-named "Smiling Buddha", was conducted in May 1974. "Pokhran-II" consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb

neg: Smiling Buddha Smiling Buddha Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the assigned code name of India's first successful nuclear bomb test on 18 May 1974. The bomb was detonated on the , Pokhran Test Range (PTR), in Rajasthan by the Indian Army under the supervision of several key . "Pokhran-I" was also the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Officially, the Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) claimed this test was a "peaceful nuclear explosion", but it was an accelerated nuclear programme. India started its own nuclear programme in

neg: Pokhran-II Pokhran-II The Pokhran-II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code-named "Smiling Buddha", was conducted in May 1974. "Pokhran-II" consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name "Operation Shakti", with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission

neg: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement civil nuclear deal as a precedent to alter Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) rules to construct its first nuclear power plant in the Negev desert, and is also pushing for its own trade exemptions. Brahma Chellaney, a Professor of Strategic Studies at the New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research, argued that the wording of the U.S. exemption sought to irrevocably tether New Delhi to the nuclear non-proliferation regime. He argued India would be brought under a wider non-proliferation net, with India being tied to compliance with the entire set of NSG rules. India would acquiesce to its unilateral test moratorium being

neg: Zahid Ali Akbar Khan in 1975, Col. Akbar was appointed to military secretary to then-President Fazl Illahi, and remained in this assignment until 1976 when he was promoted as one-star army general, Brigadier, only to be posted back at the Corps of Engineers. During this time, he aided to oversee in the matters of civil engineering of the Army GHQ at the vicinity of the JS HQ in Rawalpindi to President Illahi. In 1974, the program on producing the military-grade U started by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) under Munir Ahmad Khan after India announced of conducting of a surprised nuclear test at

neg: Thermonuclear weapon the necessary uranium, and physical device assembly. Charles de Gaulle returned to power and was elected France’s Fifth Republic’s first president in 1958. De Gaulle, a strong believer in the nuclear weapons program, approved the country’s first nuclear test to take place in one of the early months of 1960. The country’s first nuclear explosion took place on 13 February at Reggane Oasis in the Sahara Desert in French Algeria of the time. It was called "Gerboise Bleue", translating to "Blue jerboa". The first explosion was detonated at a tower height of 105 meters. The bomb used a plutonium implosion

neg: India between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth "de facto" nuclear weapons state. India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia, France, the United Kingdom, and Canada. The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 13.95 lakh (1.395 million) active troops, they compose the world's second-largest

neg: British nuclear testing in the United States British nuclear tests were conducted at the NTS. Preparations were under way for another test in 1992 when President George H. W. Bush announced a moratorium on testing, much to the surprise of both American and British personnel at the NTS. This moratorium was extended by his successor, President Bill Clinton. In 1996, the United States signed the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), but the US Senate failed to ratify it in 1999. The United Kingdom signed the CTBT in 1996, and ratified it in 1998 becoming, with France, the first two of the five declared nuclear-weapon states to

neg: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement way for operationalization of the deal between the two countries. July 18, 2005: President Bush and Prime Minister Singh first announce their intention to enter into a nuclear agreement in Washington. March 1, 2006: Bush visits India for the first time. March 3, 2006: Bush and Singh issue a joint statement on their growing strategic partnership, emphasising their agreement on civil nuclear cooperation. July 26, 2006: The US House of Representatives passes the 'Henry J Hyde United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act of 2006,' which stipulates that Washington will cooperate with New Delhi on nuclear issues and exempt it

neg: Smiling Buddha test and that it had no intentions of militarising its nuclear programme. However, according to independent monitors, this test was part of an accelerated Indian nuclear programme. In 1997 Raja Ramanna, speaking to the "Press Trust of India", maintained: While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation. The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India, but

neg: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement India. This U.S.-India deal took more than three years to come to fruition as it had to go through several complex stages, including amendment of U.S. domestic law, especially the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, a civil-military nuclear "Separation Plan" in India, an India-IAEA safeguards (inspections) agreement and the grant of an exemption for India by the Nuclear Suppliers Group, an export-control cartel that had been formed mainly in response to India's first nuclear test in 1974. In its final shape, the deal places under permanent safeguards those nuclear facilities that India has identified as "civil" and permits broad civil

neg: Arihant-class submarine the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74, led by the nuclear-powered into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India. In response, the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force. The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Following the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear test, the Director of Marine Engineering (DME) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system (Project 932). The Indian Navy's "Advanced

neg: Indira Gandhi The program became fully mature in 1974, when Dr. Raja Ramanna reported to Gandhi that India had the ability to test its first nuclear weapon. Gandhi gave verbal authorisation of this test, and preparations were made in a long-constructed army base, the Indian Army Pokhran Test Range. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test, unofficially code named as ""Smiling Buddha"", near the desert village of Pokhran in Rajasthan. As the world was quiet by this test, a vehement protest came forward from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan and its Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, described this

neg: Pokhran-II observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations. Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.

neg: Nuclear warfare world, had been living with the concept of mutual assured destruction (MAD) for about a decade, and it became deeply ingrained into the psyche and popular culture of those countries. On May 18, 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in the Pokhran test range. The name of the operation was Smiling Buddha, and India termed the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion". The Soviet Duga early warning over-the-horizon radar system was made operational in 1976. The extremely powerful radio transmissions needed for such a system led to much disruption of civilian shortwave broadcasts, earning it the nickname "Russian Woodpecker".

neg: Benazir Bhutto Bhutto and himself from office. In 1998, India tested its first nuclear weapon; Bhutto responded with an editorial for the "Los Angeles Times" in which she argued that the international community should go further than imposing economic sanctions on India, but should launch a preemptive bomb strike on India's nuclear facilities. She called on Sharif to retaliate with military tests of its own. After Sharif's government did so, Bhutto called for Pakistan to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and arrive at a bilateral agreement on nuclear proliferation with India. It was from Dubai that Bhutto observed her country wage the

neg: History of the Republic of India for the first time in 30 years. In July 2008, the United Progressive Alliance survived a vote of confidence brought after left-wing parties withdrew their support over the nuclear deal. After the vote, several left-wing and regional parties formed a new alliance to oppose the government, saying it had been tainted by corruption. Within three months, following approval by the U.S. Congress, George W. Bush signed into law a nuclear deal with India, which ended a three-decade ban on American nuclear trade with Delhi. In 2007, India got its first female President as Pratibha Patil was sworn in. Long associated

neg: Nuclear power in India with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the closed fuel cycle, which includes mining, preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, and reprocessing of spent fuel. After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008. During the December 2010 visit of the French President Nicolas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two third-generation EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal caters for the first

neg: Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country 1945, some states (most notably Germany) unsuccessfully attempted to build nuclear weapons. From the first nuclear test in 1945, worldwide nuclear testing increased rapidly until the 1970s, when it peaked. However, there was still a large amount of worldwide nuclear testing until the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. Afterwards, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was signed and ratified by the major nuclear weapons powers, and the number of worldwide nuclear tests decreased rapidly. India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in 1998, but afterwards only North Korea conducted nuclear tests--in 2006, 2009, 2013, twice in 2016, and

neg: 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement Similar custody arrangements were made for the Thor missiles supplied under Project Emily. The UK was able to carry out underground nuclear tests at the US Nevada Test Site, where the first British test took place on 1 March 1962. British nuclear testing continued there until abruptly halted by President George H. W. Bush in October 1992. Major subscritical nuclear tests continued to occur, most notably the Etna test in February 2002, and the Krakatau test in February 2006. Under the agreement 5.37 tonnes of UK-produced plutonium was sent to the US in exchange for 6.7 kg of tritium and

neg: Pokhran-II the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965. After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974. Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India's nuclear program. The world's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet

neg: Smiling Buddha any agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the Tarapur reactor. France sent a congratulatory telegram to India but later withdrew it. Despite many proposals, India did not carry out further nuclear tests until 1998. After the 1998 general elections, Operation Shakti (also known as Pokhran-II) was carried out at the Pokhran test site, using devices designed and built over the preceding two decades. Smiling Buddha Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the assigned code name of India's first successful nuclear bomb test on 18 May 1974. The bomb was detonated on the , Pokhran

neg: India–Pakistan relations began development of space and nuclear rockets, which marked Pakistan's efforts to engage in the space race with India. Pakistan's own program developed space and nuclear missiles and began unmanned flight tests of its space vehicles in the mid-1990s, which continues in the present. After the defeat in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, Pakistan launched its own nuclear bomb program in 1972, and accelerated its efforts in 1974, after India exploded its first nuclear bomb in Pokhran test range, codename "Smiling Buddha". This large-scale nuclear bomb program was directly in response to India's nuclear program. In 1983, Pakistan achieved a

neg: India and weapons of mass destruction three multilateral export control regimes — the Missile Technology Control Regime, Wassenaar Arrangement and Australia Group. It has signed and ratified the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. India is also a subscribing state to the Hague Code of Conduct. India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory. India previously possessed chemical weapons, but voluntarily destroyed its entire stockpile in 2009 — the only country to meet OPCW deadline. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and has developed a nuclear triad capability as a

neg: Science and technology in India develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran. India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and development in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007. However, according to former Indian science and technology minister Kapil Sibal, India is lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries. India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States. India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology

neg: Operation Brasstacks it." When Singh asked Noorani whether this implied an [atomic] attack on Bombay, Noorani replied: "it might be so". The situation could have potentially lead to a war between a "de facto" nuclear weapon state (India—who had already conducted a nuclear test in 1974 codename "Smiling Buddha") and a state, although nuclear power, was believed to be developing nuclear weapons at that time (Pakistan). On January 1987, Pakistan had put its entire nuclear installations on ""high-alert"", and the crisis atmosphere was heightened. During this time, Abdul Qadeer Khan gave an interview to Indian diplomat, Kuldip Nayar in which he made

neg: Operation Hardtack I extensive nuclear test series held at the Nevada Test Site. President Eisenhower was very cautious in approving Plumbbob due to public concern. Consequently, the AEC held brief but fruitless discussions of moving some of the tests in the Plumbbob series to the next planned Pacific Ocean series, Operation Hardtack I, to minimize radioactive fallout in and around the Nevada Test Site. When Operation Plumbbob began in 1957 during the Spring, the planning process of Operation Hardtack I was well underway and the number of nuclear detonations planned were more than those in the Plumbbob series. At the same time, radiation

neg: Bhagavad Gita President of India, despite being a Muslim, used to read Bhagavad Gita and recite mantras. J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project, learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the "Bhagavad Gita" in the original form, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Oppenheimer later recalled that, while witnessing the explosion of the Trinity nuclear test, he thought of verses from the "Bhagavad Gita" (XI,12): Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time: Ralph Waldo Emerson, remarked the following after

neg: India–United States relations successful". Lavoy stated, "I can tell you quite definitively that due to our partnerships, several terrorism plots were foiled. Indian lives and American lives were saved because of this partnership." In late September 2001, President Bush lifted sanctions imposed under the terms of the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act following India's nuclear tests in May 1998. A succession of non-proliferation dialogues bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries. In December 2006, the US Congress passed the historic Henry J. Hyde US–India Peaceful Atomic Cooperation Act, which allows direct civilian nuclear commerce with India for the first time

neg: Project-706 Salam, a senior scientist and Ahmadi, left Pakistan for Great Britain in protest. After the departure of Salam Munir Ahmad Khan continued the organizations. The Nuclear Engineering Division, under Bashiruddin Mahmood set up a U production facility and the construction began under Munir Ahmad Khan's direction. On 22 May 1974, three years after Pakistan's defeat in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani conflict, India carried out its first nuclear test, code named Smiling Buddha, near Pakistan's Eastern Border of Sindh. The nuclear test came as a surprise and caused a great alarm at the Government of Pakistan. On 19 May 1974, in a

neg: Munir Ahmad Khan plant, which were to be under IAEA safeguards. None of the agreements were made feasible and further abrogated by each states when India conducted its surprise nuclear test in 1974 and Pakistan's stance on refusing the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In 1972, the development efforts were directed to a plutonium-implosion type weapon, called "Kirana-I". On 18 May 1974, Khan was in Peshawar for laying the foundations of an agriculture center at Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA), when India surprisingly conducted a nuclear test; therefore, Khan cancelled the meeting despite civil engineer Farhatullah Babar's recommendation and flew to Islamabad

neg: India–United States relations conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, which was opposed by the US, however it also concluded that the test did not violate any agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the Tarapur reactor. In the late 1970s, with the anti-Soviet Janata Party leader Morarji Desai becoming the Prime Minister, India improved its relations with the US, now led by Jimmy Carter, despite the latter signing an order in 1978 barring nuclear material from being exported to India due to India's non-proliferation record. Despite the return of Indira Gandhi to power in 1980, the relations

neg: Raja Ramanna CDO of BARC, began to take initiate to develop the first nuclear weapon. At BARC, the initial designing of nuclear weapon was completed under his guidance and the necessary nuclear weapons' explosive material for this weapon was completed under Ramanna by 1970. As the first nuclear device was completed and developed under his guidance, Ramanna went to Indian Prime Minister's Office, where he had notified Indian premier Indira Gandhi about the successful development of the nuclear device. In 1974, Ramanna and other officials of the BARC verbally notified Indira Gandhi that India was ready to conduct the test of its

neg: Sino-Soviet split relations. Chairman Mao criticized Premier Khrushchev for withdrawing from the Cuban missile crisis (1962), that "Khrushchev has moved from adventurism to capitulationism". Khrushchev replied that Mao's confrontational policies would lead to a nuclear war. At the same time, the USSR supported India against the Chinese invasion of the Indian north east in the Sino-Indian War (1962). The aftermath of the Cuban missile crisis placed nuclear disarmament at foremost in 20th-century geopolitics. To limit production of nuclear weapons by other nations, the USSR, the UK, and the US signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty (5 August 1963). In that time, the

neg: Sawai Mansingh Stadium which has 28 appointed rooms, a gym, a restaurant, 2 conference halls and a swimming pool. New facilities: The first ODI, played at Sawai Mansingh stadium, kicked off with a contest between India and Pakistan in 1983, in which, India won by four wickets. The 1987 Test between India and Pakistan proved to be an instrument of peace, when Pakistan President General Zia-ul-Haq came over to witness the second day's play as part of his "Cricket for Peace" initiative. The game, which saw Sunil Gavaskar being dismissed to the first ball of a Test match for the third time in

neg: Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project is a proposed nuclear power plant in India. If built, it would be the largest nuclear power generating station in the world by net generation capacity, at 9,900 MW. The power project is proposed by Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) and would be built at Madban village of Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra. On 6 December 2010 agreement was signed for the construction of a first set of two third-generation European Pressurized Reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years in the presence of French president Nicolas Sarkozy and Indian

neg: British nuclear testing in the United States on 8 February 1962, Seaborg announced, specifically referencing the MDA, that there would be a UK nuclear test at the NTS. This developed into a procedure for approval of a British nuclear test. The director of the British Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) would lodge a request with the chairman of the AEC, who would then make a recommendation to the president through the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defence. Every test had to be approved by the president and the National Security Council. A Joint Working Group (JOWOG) was set up to coordinate the British tests. Test

neg: Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri (6 September 1917 – 25 June 2006) was an Indian physicist and academic, and a scientific advisor to the Government of India. He is known as one of the pioneers of nuclear physics in India and for building the nation's first cyclotron at the University of Calcutta. In the early 1970s, as the Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence and chair of the Cabinet Committee on Science and Technology, Nagchaudhuri played an influential role in Smiling Buddha, India's first nuclear test. He also initiated the first feasibility studies on India's ballistic missile program.

neg: Agni-III nuclear deterrence as the missile can accurately hit targets at distance more than 3000 km away". Already the most powerful and capable in India's missile inventory, the Agni-III is capable of carrying a variety of warheads, including nuclear warheads and can be launched from various platforms giving India intermediate range ballistic missile firepower and greatly extending India's power projection in the region. Agni III was test fired successfully for third time on 7 May 2008. The missile was launched from Balasore, Odisha. After a flight of roughly 15 minutes defence scientists confirmed that the test fire was successful and that

neg: Pokhran-II years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana-I). Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments in Chagai. The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted "Resolution 1172" condemning the test and that of Pakistan's. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia. Overall, the

neg: Libya–Pakistan relations Bhutto were given asylum by Gaddafi in the 1980s, despite the agitation of President Zia. During this time, Libya suspected attempted to make a deal to share knowledge of nuclear projects with senior scientists working in atomic deterrence projects; all efforts were thwarted by ISI. In 1983–85, Libya restored its ties with India and acceded with a nuclear treaty with India as opposed to Pakistan. After President Zia's death and state funeral, the foreign relations began to normalized. The general elections held in 1988 resulted in left-wing coming to power and appointing Benazir Bhutto as Pakistan's first female Prime minister.

neg: India–United States relations Taylor advised the president to use nuclear weapons should the Americans intervene in such a situation. Kennedy insisted that Washington defend India as it would any ally, saying, "We "should" defend India, and therefore we "will" defend India." Kennedy's ambassador to India was the noted liberal economist John Kenneth Galbraith, who was considered close to India. While in India, Galbraith helped establish one of the first Indian computer science departments, at the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. As an economist, he also presided over the (at the time) largest US foreign aid program to any country. Following

neg: Foreign relations of India minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear programme was necessary as it provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001. India has categorically stated that it will never use weapons first but will defend if attacked. The economic sanctions imposed by the United States in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage Indo-American relations. President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging sanctions pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act. US sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to

neg: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries. The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents of arms control denounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to

neg: Indian Armed Forces in possession of nuclear weapons since 1974. Its most recent nuclear test took place on 11 May 1998, when Operation Shakti (Pokhran-II) was initiated with the detonation of one fusion and three fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated. However, India maintains a "no-first use" and a nuclear deterrence policy against nuclear adversaries. Its nuclear doctrine envisages building a credible minimum deterrent for maintaining a "second strike capability" which would be massive and designed to induce unacceptable damage on the enemy. India is one of only four nations in the world to possess a Nuclear

neg: Arihant-class submarine Technology Vessel" project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s. Then Defence Minister George Fernandes confirmed the project in 1998. The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear-powered fast attack submarines, though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at Pokhran Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use, the project was re-aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India's nuclear triad. The "Arihant"-class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the "Advanced Technology Vessel" (ATV) project. They will be the first

neg: Qian Xuesen to China, but he was detained at Terminal Island, near Los Angeles. After spending five years under virtual house arrest, he was released in 1955 in exchange for the repatriation of American pilots who had been captured during the Korean War. He left the United States in September 1955 on the American President Lines passenger liner "SS President Cleveland", arriving in China via Hong Kong. Upon his return, he helped lead the Chinese nuclear weapons program. This effort ultimately led to China's first successful atomic bomb test and hydrogen bomb test, making China the fifth nuclear weapons state, and achieving

neg: North Korea and weapons of mass destruction reactivated, and that spent fuel reprocessing for arms-grade plutonium has been restored. On May 25, 2009, North Korea conducted its second underground nuclear test. The U.S. Geological Survey calculated its origin in proximity of the site of the first nuclear test. The test was more powerful than the previous test, estimated at 2 to 7 kilotons. The same day, a successful short range missile test was also conducted. In May 2010, the North Korean government claimed to have successfully performed nuclear fusion. Although the claim was largely dismissed at the time, a 2012 analysis of radioisotopes suggested that North Korea

neg: Abdul Sattar (diplomat) adoption of nuclear ambiguity on Pakistan's nuclear deterrence programme. About the nuclear weapons quantity, Sattar notably quoted to media that the "minimum cannot be defined in static numbers" and the "size of Pakistan's arsenals and deployment patterns have to be adjusted to ward off dangers of the preemptive and inception. In 1995, Sattar maintained that, India and Pakistan's "attainment of nuclear weapons has promoted stability and prevented dangers of war despite the crises that has risen time and time...". In 1999, he provided his expertise to Government of Pakistan for negotiating the terms Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and Nuclear Non-Proliferation

neg: Atal Bihari Vajpayee again dissolved and fresh elections were held. In May 1998, India conducted five underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran desert in Rajasthan, 24 years after its first nuclear test (Smiling Buddha) in 1974. Two weeks later, Pakistan responded with its own nuclear tests making it the newest nation with declared nuclear capability. While some nations, such as France, endorsed India's right to defensive nuclear power, others including the United States, Canada, Japan, Britain and the European Union imposed sanctions on information, resources and technology to India. In spite of intense international criticism and steady decline in foreign investment and trade,

neg: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty favorable for a solution of the major problems of our time, including disarmament," Khrushchev said. As the nuclear powers pursued a test ban agreement, they also sought to contend with a rising communist China, which at the time was pursuing its own nuclear program. In 1955, Mao Zedong expressed to the Soviet Union his belief that China could withstand a first nuclear strike and more than 100 million casualties. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union assisted the Chinese nuclear program, but stopped short of providing China with an actual nuclear bomb, which was followed by increasingly tense relations in the

neg: Nuclear weapons testing pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing; the treaty has not yet entered into force because of failure to be ratified by eight countries. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998. North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017. The most recent confirmed nuclear test in September 2017 in North Korea. Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. Another way to classify nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test. The treaty definition of a salvo test is: In

neg: 2013 North Korean nuclear test of Baengnyeongdo. On 22 April 2014, South Korea reported that North Korea had stepped up its activity at its main nuclear test site, meaning they may be preparing for their fourth underground nuclear test. The United States urged North Korea to refrain from testing. On January 6th, 2016 North Korea says it has successfully carried out a hydrogen bomb test, which if confirmed, will be a first for the reclusive regime and a significant advancement for its military ambitions. The test took place at 10 a.m. local time, the regime said in a televised statement. The seismic event, which measured

neg: Vela Incident that India had signed and ratified the Limited Test Ban Treaty or LTBT in 1963, and had complied with it even in its first test, and that India was not hiding its nuclear weapons capability). An interagency intelligence memorandum requested by the United States National Security Council and entitled "The 22 September 1979 Event" analyzed the possibility of Pakistan wanting to prove its nuclear explosive technology in secret. Since the "double flash", if one existed, could have occurred not very far to the west of the French-owned Kerguelen Islands, it is possible that the French were testing a small neutron

neg: India and weapons of mass destruction he founded the nuclear research centre, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. India's loss of territory to China in a brief Himalayan border war in October 1962, provided the New Delhi government impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression. India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named "Smiling Buddha"), under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, which it called a "peaceful nuclear explosion." The test used plutonium produced in the Canadian-supplied CIRUS reactor, and raised concerns that nuclear technology supplied for peaceful purposes could be diverted to weapons purposes. This also stimulated the early work

neg: Pakistan–United States relations and arm race between the Soviet Union and the United States heightened. [[File:Meeting with the President of Pakistan in the Oval Office - NARA - 194749.tif|left|290px|thumb|[[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Bhutto]] meeting with [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] in 1972.]] In 1974, with India carried out the test of nuclear weapons near the Pakistan's eastern border, codename "[[Smiling Buddha]]", Bhutto sought the United States to impose economic sanctions in India. Though it was unsuccessful approach, in a meeting of Pakistan's Ambassador to the United States with Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]], Kissinger told Pakistan's ambassador to Washington that the test is "a fait accompli and that

neg: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement on September 28, 2008. Two days later, India and France inked a similar nuclear pact making France the first country to have such an agreement with India. On October 1, 2008 the U.S. Senate also approved the civilian nuclear agreement allowing India to purchase nuclear fuel and technology from—and sell them to—the United States. U.S. President, George W. Bush, signed the legislation on the Indo-US nuclear deal, approved by the U.S. Congress, into law, now called the United States-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Non-proliferation Enhancement Act, on October 8, 2008. The agreement was signed by then Indian External Affairs Minister

neg: Nuclear weapon design it reported as its first "two-stage thermo-nuclear weapon" test. According to Dr. Theodore Taylor, after reviewing leaked photographs of disassembled weapons components taken before 1986, Israel possessed boosted weapons and would require supercomputers of that era to advance further toward full two-stage weapons in the megaton range without nuclear test detonations. The other nuclear-armed nations, India and Pakistan, probably have single-stage weapons, possibly boosted. In a two-stage thermonuclear weapon the energy from the primary impacts the secondary. An essential energy transfer modulator called the interstage, between the primary and the secondary, protects the secondary's fusion fuel from heating too quickly,

neg: Chagan (nuclear test) Chagan (nuclear test) Chagan () was a Soviet underground nuclear test conducted at the Semipalatinsk Test Site on January 15, 1965. Chagan was the first and largest of the 124 detonations in the Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy program, designed to produce peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs) for earth-moving purposes. The concept of using PNEs to create artificial lakes, harbors and canals was modeled after a United States program, Operation Plowshare, which conducted the first peaceful nuclear explosion (the 104 kt Sedan shallow cratering test) at the Nevada Test Site in July 1962. Described as a "near clone" of the

neg: 4950th Test Group 4950th Test Group (Nuclear) to serve as a permanent USAF Air Task Group for atmospheric nuclear testing. Throughout the remainder of the 1950s, the 4950th Test Group (Nuclear)—as the representative of the USAF—supported the various Nevada and Pacific test series. Nuclear tests supported by the group were: In 1958 a voluntary nuclear test moratorium was being considered, spurred by worldwide concern about the fallout of radionuclides from clouds blown around the Earth after atmospheric tests. In January, the ARDC began a study to determine the effects of a test moratorium on the USAF nuclear capabilities. In August, President Dwight D.

neg: Chagan (nuclear test) glassy substance. Chagan (nuclear test) Chagan () was a Soviet underground nuclear test conducted at the Semipalatinsk Test Site on January 15, 1965. Chagan was the first and largest of the 124 detonations in the Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy program, designed to produce peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs) for earth-moving purposes. The concept of using PNEs to create artificial lakes, harbors and canals was modeled after a United States program, Operation Plowshare, which conducted the first peaceful nuclear explosion (the 104 kt Sedan shallow cratering test) at the Nevada Test Site in July 1962. Described as a "near clone"

neg: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Final Document, which included among other things "practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as the Thirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India. At the time, British columnist George Monbiot argued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT

neg: Indian Armed Forces Triad. India's nuclear missiles include the Prithvi, the Agni the Shaurya, the Sagarika, the Dhanush, and others. India conducted its first test with the Agni-V in April 2012 and a second test in September 2013. With its range, it can carry a nuclear warhead to the east to include all of China, and to the west deep into Europe. Agni-VI, with a perceived range of is also under development with features like multiple independently targetable re-entry warheads (MIRVs). India also has bomber aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-142 as well as fighter jets like the Sukhoi Su-30MKI, the Dassault Mirage

neg: Nuclear arms race 20th century, India and Pakistan began to develop nuclear-capable rockets and nuclear military technologies. Finally, in 1998 India, under Atal Bihari Vajpayee government, test detonated 5 more nuclear weapons. While the international response to the detonation was muted, domestic pressure within Pakistan began to build steam and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif ordered the test, detonated 6 nuclear war weapons (Chagai-I and Chagai-II) in a tit-for-tat fashion and to act as a deterrent. From the beginning of the Cold War, The United States, Russia, and other nations have all attempted to develop Anti-ballistic missiles. The United States developed the LIM-49 Nike

neg: Nuclear fallout U.S. President John F. Kennedy to sign the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty with the United Kingdom and Soviet Union, which ended the above-ground nuclear weapons testing that created the greatest amounts of atmospheric nuclear fallout. The baby tooth survey was a "campaign [that] effectively employed a variety of media advocacy strategies" to alarm the public and "galvanized" support against atmospheric nuclear testing, with putting an end to such testing being commonly viewed as a positive outcome for a myriad of other reasons. The survey could not show then at the time, nor in the decades that have elapsed, that

neg: Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission bomb designs, whilst it engineered plants and funded facilities for production of highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium. In 1976, the possible test sites were decided by the PAEC and construction on test sites were completed in 1979. In 1983, PAEC's efforts reached to a milestone when it had conducted a first subcritical test on a weapon design; such testing continued until the early 1990s under codename: Kirana-I. Following nuclear tests by India earlier in the month, on 28 May 1998, PAEC led the final preparations and conducted Pakistan's first nuclear tests (Codename: Chagai-I), which was followed by Chagai-II in

neg: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse shielded because Enrico Fermi expected the electromagnetic pulse. The official technical history for that first nuclear test states, "All signal lines were completely shielded, in many cases doubly shielded. In spite of this many records were lost because of spurious pickup at the time of the explosion that paralyzed the recording equipment." During British nuclear testing in 1952–1953 instrumentation failures were attributed to "radioflash", which was their term for EMP. The first openly reported observation of the unique aspects of high-altitude nuclear EMP occurred during the helium balloon lofted Yucca nuclear test of the Hardtack I series on 28 April

neg: India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement should at a minimum "make clear that nuclear trade with India shall be terminated if it resumes testing for any reason. If India cannot agree to such terms, it suggests that India is not serious about its nuclear test moratorium pledge." After India was granted the waiver on September 6, the United Kingdom said that the NSG's decision would make a "significant contribution" to global energy and climate security. U.S. National Security Council spokesman Gordon Johndroe said, "this is a historic achievement that strengthens global non-proliferation principles while assisting India to meet its energy requirements in an environmentally friendly manner.

neg: Military history of India United States, Russia, and Israel. India is the fourth country in the world to develop a successful missile defence shield, the Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program. In 1974, India tested a nuclear weapon with a yield of up to 15 kilotons. The test was codenamed Smiling Buddha. On 11 and 13 May 1998, India conducted a total of five underground nuclear tests and declared itself a nuclear state. The Indian military ranks second in terms of number of troops after China. The paramilitary unit of the Republic of India is the world's largest paramilitary force at over one million strong.

neg: Tang Xiaowei work includes nuclear test and the invention of nuclear detector. In 1952, Tang was graduated from Tsinghua University and assigned to Chinese Academy of Science. His team at the Ninth Academy invented China's first nuclear detector. At that time, Chinese geologists were finding uranium mines all over China. Tang's detector made great contribution to this researching activity. In 1958, he was sent to Dubna Union Nuclear Institute. In 1960, he received an order and came back to China. He was made a team leader and was responsible for the nuclear test. August, 1977, Professor Ding Zhaozhong, who is known as

neg: Robert Blackwill nuclear deal with India because he will not have the same sunk costs in the agreement as President Bush. "If I may be characteristically blunt, the next American president will not have the same sunk costs in the US-India civil nuclear agreement that this president (George W Bush) and the top of the administration has," Blackwill said. "India will pay a substantial price in its future energy policy, and its lack of civil nuclear assistance from the outside world." Blackwill added that the next US President would not go back to lecturing India about its nuclear program. "They (Indians) did

neg: Smiling Buddha in 2008 it waived this restriction on nuclear trade with India as part of the Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement. Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", and cancelled talks scheduled for 10 June on normalisation of relations. Pakistan's Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto vowed in June 1974 that he would never succumb to "nuclear blackmail" or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the subcontinent". The chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmed Khan, said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb. Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, stated in

neg: Chagai-I Chagai-I Chagai-I is the code name of five simultaneous underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15 hrs PST on 28 May 1998. The tests were performed at Ras Koh Hills in the Chagai District of Balochistan Province. Chagai-I was Pakistan's first public test of nuclear weapons. Its timing was a direct response to India's second nuclear tests, on 11 and 13 May 1998. These tests by Pakistan and India resulted in United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172 and economic sanctions on both states by a number of major powers, particularly the United States and Japan. By testing nuclear devices,

neg: Nuclear Suppliers Group backing for India's inclusion in Nuclear Suppliers Group. The United Kingdom has for a long time been a supporter of India's inclusion in the Nuclear Suppliers Group. During Republic Day visit of India in January 2015, Obama said that India was ready for NSG membership. Russian president Vladimir Putin has also offered unconditional support to India's entry into NSG. Switzerland also announced its backing on India's Membership in 48 member group on 6 June 2016 during PM Modi's visit to Geneva, President Obama reiterated U.S. support for India's NSG membership on 8 June 2016 during PM Modi's visit to Washington

neg: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty weapon states were prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, and acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament. However, India, Pakistan, and Israel have declined to sign the NPT on grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory as it places limitations on states that do not have nuclear weapons while making no efforts to curb weapons development by declared nuclear weapons states. In 1974, a step towards a comprehensive test ban was made with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), ratified by the US and Soviet

neg: Keshrim Boztayev for the creation of an expert medical and social assessment commission and conference were given. Based on the initiative of Boztayev, the first All Soviet Union “Health of the population and ecological situation in Semipalatinsk region” Conference was conducted 17–19 July 1989 in Semipaltinsk; it revealed to the world for the first time the consequences of nuclear tests. It was at this conference that the Resolution for closing Semipalatinsk nuclear test site was adopted. Boztayev is an author and initiator of the “Social protection of citizens who suffered as a result of nuclear tests conducted in Semipalatinsk nuclear test site”

neg: National Atomic Testing Museum Nevada Test Site license plates issued by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles. On December 31, 2011, President Barack Obama signed a military spending bill which included designating the museum as a national museum affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution. The National Atomic Testing Museum is one of 37 national museums in the U.S. The museum covers the period from the first test at NTS on January 27, 1951, to the present. Among its exhibits covering American nuclear history is a "Ground Zero Theater" which simulates the experience of observing an atmospheric nuclear test. Other exhibits include Geiger counters, radio badges

neg: Raja Ramanna to India, where he joined the senior technical staff of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), where he worked under Homi J. Bhabha in classified nuclear weapons projects. While Bhaba dedicated to develop this programme, Ramanna inducted by to choose the preferable nuclear test site to carry out the weapon-testing experiments. The exact dates are unknown, but Ramanna chose and began the underground construction of nuclear test site at an Indian Army base, the Pokhran Test Range (PTR). After the disastrous death of Homi Bhaba, Ramanna was immediately elevated to become the directing officer of this programme. Ramanna, serving as the

neg: South Africa successfully developed nuclear weapons. It became the first country (followed by Ukraine) with nuclear capability to voluntarily renounce and dismantle its programme and in the process signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons programme in the 1970s According to former state president FW de Klerk, the decision to build a "nuclear deterrent" was taken "as early as 1974 against a backdrop of a Soviet expansionist threat." South Africa is alleged to have conducted a nuclear test over the Atlantic in 1979, although this is officially denied. Former president, FW de Klerk, maintained that South

neg: Reactor-grade plutonium are to be found in the "reactor grade plutonium" from a Magnox reactor. The reactor grade plutonium nuclear test was a "low-yield (under 20 kilotons)" underground nuclear test using non-weapons-grade plutonium conducted at the US Nevada Test Site in 1962. Some information regarding this test was declassified in July 1977, under instructions from President Jimmy Carter, as background to his decision to prohibit nuclear reprocessing in the USA. The plutonium used for the US-UK 1962 device was apparently sourced from the military magnox reactors at Calder Hall or Chapelcross in the United Kingdom, and provided to the US under the

neg: Setsuo Yamada letter of protest to Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, protesting the first Indian nuclear test. He continued to approach the US government on matters of nuclear disarmament, and on June 19, 1974, addressed a cable to US President Richard Nixon as follows: "On the occasion of the summit meeting with Soviet leader Brezhnev in Moscow late this month, I have learnt you two world leaders would deliberate Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. In the light of the fact of a series of recent atmospheric nuclear tests by France and China, I on behalf of Hiroshima citizens strongly beseech your Excellency and