query: where is the common site for obtaining a pulse rate

pos: Pulse Pulse In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by

pos: Pulse diagnosis dosha. The middle finger and ring finger are placed next to the index finger and represents consequently the Pitta and Kapha doshas of the patient. Pulse can be measured in the superficial, middle, and deep levels thus obtaining more information regarding energy imbalance of the patient. The main sites for pulse assessment are the radial arteries in the left and right wrists, where it overlays the styloid process of the radius, between the wrist crease and extending proximal, approximately 5 cm in length (or 1.9 cun, where the forearm is 12 cun). In traditional Chinese medicine, the pulse is divided

pos: Heart rate before the embryo reaches 25 mm in crown-rump length or 9.2 LMP weeks is: formula_1 There is no difference in male and female heart rates before birth. Heart rate is measured by finding the pulse of the heart. This pulse rate can be found at any point on the body where the artery's pulsation is transmitted to the surface by pressuring it with the index and middle fingers; often it is compressed against an underlying structure like bone. (A good area is on the neck, under the corner of the jaw.) The thumb should not be used for measuring another

pos: Prochlorperazine and extrapyramidal side effects are common and include restlessness, dystonic reactions, pseudoparkinsonism, and akathisia; the extrapyramidal symptoms can affect 2% of people at low doses, whereas higher doses may affect as many as 40% of people. Prochlorperazine can also cause a life-threatening condition called neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). Some symptoms of NMS include high fever, stiff muscles, neck muscle spasm, confusion, irregular pulse or blood pressure, fast heart rate (tachycardia), sweating, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). VA and FDA research show injection site reactions. Adverse effects are similar in children. Prochlorperazine is thought to exert its antipsychotic effects by blocking dopamine

pos: Pulse Pulse In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by

pos: Vital signs the arteries, recorded as beats per minute (bpm). It may also be called "heart rate". The pulse is commonly taken at the wrist (radial artery). Alternative sites include the elbow (brachial artery), the neck (carotid artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), or in the foot (dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries). The pulse rate can also be measured by listening directly to the heartbeat using a stethoscope. The pulse varies with age: a newborn or infant can have a heart rate of 130–150 bpm, a toddler of 100–120 bpm, an older child of 60–100 bpm, an adolescent of 80–100 bpm,

pos: Pre-hospital trauma assessment inside of the wrist toward the thumb. For unresponsive adult patients, checking pulse is performed by palpating the carotid artery in the neck. For infants and small children, the pulse is usually assessed in the brachial artery in the upper arm. After confirming that the pulse is present, the final step in the initial assessment for a trauma patient is to check for any gross bleeding and to control it. Should a pulse not be detected, or in the case of a child or infant is present but at a rate less than 60, cardiovascular resuscitation will be commenced. Steps:

neg: Symbol rate than sinewave tones. In this case, the baud rate is synonymous to the pulse rate in pulses/second. The maximum baud rate or pulse rate for a base band channel is called the Nyquist rate, and is double the bandwidth (double the cut-off frequency). The simplest digital communication links (such as individual wires on a motherboard or the RS-232 serial port/COM port) typically have a symbol rate equal to the gross bit rate. Common communication links such as 10 Mbit/s Ethernet (10Base-T), USB, and FireWire typically have a symbol rate slightly lower than the data bit rate, due to the overhead

neg: Doppler radar these quickly led to the development of frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar, which sweeps the transmitter frequency to encode and determine range. With the advent of digital techniques, Pulse-Doppler radars (PD) became light enough for aircraft use, and Doppler processors for coherent pulse radars became more common. That provides Look-down/shoot-down capability. The advantage of combining Doppler processing with pulse radars is to provide accurate velocity information. This velocity is called range-rate. It describes the rate that a target moves toward or away from the radar. A target with no range-rate reflects a frequency near the transmitter frequency and cannot

neg: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) Earth gravity (9.81 m/s) with this velocity transfer, then the pulse rate is one explosion every three seconds. The dimensions and performance of Dyson's vehicles are given in the table below Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved are a few percent of the speed of light (0.08-0.1c). An atomic (fission) Orion can achieve perhaps 9%-11% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by Fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would be similarly in the 10% range and pure Matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity

neg: Neurostimulation the approach of LGN stimulation for a visual prosthesis. Implantable pacemakers were proposed for the first time in 1959 and became more sophisticated since then. The therapeutic application of pacemakers consists of numerous rhythm disturbances including some forms of tachycardia (too fast a heart beat), heart failure, and even stroke. Early implantable pacemakers worked only a short time and needed periodic recharging by an inductive link. These implantable pacemakers needed a pulse generator to stimulate heart muscles with a certain rate in addition to electrodes. Today, modern pulse generators are programmed non-invasively by sophisticated computerized machines using RF, obtaining information

neg: Laser drilling phase, vapor phase and vapor-liquid interface, respectively. If the laser intensity is high and pulse duration is short, the so-called Knudsen layer is assumed to exist at the melt-vapor front where the state variables undergo discontinuous changes across the layer. By considering the discontinuity across the Knudsen layer, Yao, et al. (2001) simulated the surface recess velocity V distribution, along the radial direction at different times, which indicates the material ablation rate is changing significantly across the Knudsen layer. After obtaining the vapor pressure "p", the melt layer flow and melt expulsion can be modeled using hydrodynamic equations (Ganesh et

neg: Pulse repetition frequency difficult. Sonar and lidar systems also have PRFs, as does any pulsed system. In the case of sonar, the term pulse repetition rate (PRR) is more common, although it refers to the same concept. Electromagnetic (radio or sound) waves are conceptually pure single frequency phenomena while pulses may be mathematically thought of as composed of a number of pure frequencies that sum and nullify in interactions that create a pulse train of the specific amplitudes, PRRs, base frequencies, phase characteristics, et cetera (See Fourier Analysis). The first term (PRF) is more common in device technical literature (Electrical Engineering and some

neg: Laser jammer Laser jammer A laser jammer is an electronic device used by drivers to prevent users of a LIDAR (or 'laser) gun from obtaining speed readings of their vehicle. Laser jammers are not to be confused with radar jammers. To jam LIDAR, laser jammers first must detect the emitted light - normally infrared light on the 904 nm wavelength. After detecting the lidar gun's light, the jammer will send out light on the same wavelength at a higher intensity, effectively confusing the gun into returning no speed reading. Newer laser jammer models can detect the pulse rate (the rate at which

neg: Pulse-amplitude modulation After accounting for error correcting codes and other overhead, the data rate in the signal is 19.39 Mbit/s. Pulse-amplitude modulation Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied according to the sample value of the message signal. Demodulation is performed by detecting the amplitude level of the carrier at every single period. There are two types of pulse amplitude modulation: Pulse-amplitude modulation is widely used

neg: Pulse oximetry monitors the oxygen saturation of a patient's blood (as opposed to measuring oxygen saturation directly through a blood sample) and changes in blood volume in the skin, producing a photoplethysmogram. The pulse oximeter may be incorporated into a multiparameter patient monitor. Most monitors also display the pulse rate. Portable, battery-operated pulse oximeters are also available for transport or home blood-oxygen monitoring. Pulse oximetry is particularly convenient for noninvasive continuous measurement of blood oxygen saturation. In contrast, blood gas levels must otherwise be determined in a laboratory on a drawn blood sample. Pulse oximetry is useful in any setting where a

neg: Radar reflective but do not direct the scattered energy back toward the source. The extent to which an object reflects or scatters radio waves is called its radar cross section. The power "P" returning to the receiving antenna is given by the equation: where In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, "R" = "R" and the term "R"² "R"² can be replaced by "R", where "R" is the range. This yields: As an example, a Doppler weather radar with a pulse rate of 2 kHz and transmit frequency of 1 GHz can reliably

neg: Servo control Generally, the minimal pulse will be about 1 ms wide, and the maximal pulse will be 2 ms wide. Servo control Servo control is achieved by sending a servo a PWM (pulse-width modulation) signal, a series of repeating pulses of variable width where either the width of the pulse (most common modern hobby servos) or the duty cycle of a pulse train (less common today) determines the position to be achieved by the servo. The PWM signal might come from a radio control receiver to the servo or from common microcontrollers such as the Arduino. Small hobby servos (often called

neg: Pulse-Doppler radar elevation measurement to gain speed. Pulse-Doppler antenna motion must be slow enough so that all the return signals from at least 3 different PRFs can be processed out to the maximum anticipated detection range. This is known as dwell time. Antenna motion for pulse-Doppler must be as slow as radar using MTI. Search radar that include pulse-Doppler are usually dual mode because best overall performance is achieved when pulse-Doppler is used for areas with high false alarm rates (horizon or below and weather), while conventional radar will scan faster in free-space where false alarm rate is low (above horizon with

neg: Vital signs needed is a thermometer, a sphygmomanometer, and a watch. Though a pulse can be taken by hand, a stethoscope may be required for a patient with a very weak pulse. Temperature recording gives an indication of core body temperature which is normally tightly controlled (thermoregulation) as it affects the rate of chemical reactions. Body temperature is maintained through a balance of the heat produced by the body and the heat lost from the body. Temperature can be recorded in order to establish a baseline for the individual's normal body temperature for the site and measuring conditions. The main reason for

neg: Internet 0 with a bit time that has another two pulses. In some variations, the stop bit-time is optional, and the dual-pulse bit times are treated as byte separators. The dual-pulse start and stop bit times permit a receiver to synchronize with the beginnings of bytes, and also measure the baud rate of a sender. Synchronizing on 8-bit bytes permits a 9600 baud internet-0 connection to easily translate to a standard, low-speed 19,200 baud TCP/IP serial port. The baud rate measurement permits senders and receivers to use inexpensive low-precision oscillators such as ceramic resonators or resistor-capacitor oscillators. The most common interface uses

neg: Symbol rate or pulses/second. (See Hartley's law). Modulation is used in passband filtered channels such as telephone lines, radio channels and other frequency division multiplex (FDM) channels. In a digital modulation method provided by a modem, each symbol is typically a sine wave tone with certain frequency, amplitude and phase. Symbol rate, baud rate, is the number of transmitted tones per second. One symbol can carry one or several bits of information. In voiceband modems for the telephone network, it is common for one symbol to carry up to 7 bits. Conveying more than one bit per symbol or bit per pulse

neg: Symbol rate "R", inclusive of channel coding overhead, the symbol rate can be calculated as: In that case "M" = 2 different symbols are used. In a modem, these may be sinewave tones with unique combinations of amplitude, phase and/or frequency. For example, in a 64QAM modem, "M" = 64. In a line code, these may be "M" different voltage levels. By taking information per pulse "N" in bit/pulse to be the base-2-logarithm of the number of distinct messages "M" that could be sent, Hartley constructed a measure of the gross bitrate "R" as: where "f" is the baud rate in symbols/second

neg: Flow measurement sensor for measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. Since the frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is calculated using the cross sectional area of the flow meter. The frequency is measured and the flow rate is calculated by the flowmeter electronics using the equation formula_13 where formula_14 is the frequency of the vortices, formula_15 the characteristic length of the bluff body, formula_16 is the velocity of the

neg: Laser peening be separated roughly into three primary groups, recognizing that there is some overlap between them: (1) high energy, low repetition rate lasers operating typically at 10–40 J per pulse with 8–25 ns pulse length at nominally 0.5–1 Hz rep rate, nominal spot sizes of 2 to 8 mm; (2) intermediate energy, intermediate repetition rate lasers operating at 3–10 J with 10–20 ns pulse width at 10 Hz rep rate, nominal spot sizes of 1–4 mm; (3) low energy, high repetition rate lasers operating at per pulse with ≤10 ns pulse length at 60+ Hz rep rate, spot size. The slab

neg: Servo control Servo control Servo control is achieved by sending a servo a PWM (pulse-width modulation) signal, a series of repeating pulses of variable width where either the width of the pulse (most common modern hobby servos) or the duty cycle of a pulse train (less common today) determines the position to be achieved by the servo. The PWM signal might come from a radio control receiver to the servo or from common microcontrollers such as the Arduino. Small hobby servos (often called radio control, or RC servos) are connected through a standard three-wire connection: two wires for a DC power supply

neg: Generation creates a repeating cycle that shapes the history of that society. Currently, the most prominent example of pulse-rate generational theory is the Strauss-Howe generational theory; however, Jose Ortega y Gasset and Julian Marias followed this approach before them. Social scientists tend to reject the pulse-rate hypothesis because, as Jaeger explains, "the concrete results of the theory of the universal pulse rate of history are, of course, very modest. With a few exceptions, the same goes for the partial pulse-rate theories. Since they generally gather data without any knowledge of statistical principles, the authors are often least likely to notice to

neg: Servo control is in a range of 40 Hz to 200 Hz, the exact value of the refresh rate is irrelevant. The period of 20 ms (50 Hz) comes from the days where the signal was encoded in PPM (pulse-position modulation) format to be sent over the air. The PPM period was around 22.5 ms, and the conversion to PWM was trivial: the time of the PWM high state was the time position of the PPM pulse for that servo. Most RC receivers send pulses to the RC servo at some constant frame rate, changing only the high time. However, it is

neg: Modulation levels, by directly modulating the voltage or current on a cable or serial bus. Common examples are unipolar, non-return-to-zero (NRZ), Manchester and alternate mark inversion (AMI) codings. Pulse modulation schemes aim at transferring a narrowband analog signal over an analog baseband channel as a two-level signal by modulating a pulse wave. Some pulse modulation schemes also allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal (i.e., as a quantized discrete-time signal) with a fixed bit rate, which can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system, for example, some line code. These are not modulation schemes in

neg: Servo (radio control) electronics, or by microcontrollers such as the Arduino. This, together with their low-cost, has led to their wide adoption for robotics and physical computing. RC servos use a three-pin 0.1" spacing jack (female) which mates to standard 0.025" square pins. The most common order is signal, +voltage, ground. The standard voltage is 4.8 V DC, however 6 V and 12 V is also used on a few servos. The control signal is a digital PWM signal with a 50 Hz frame rate. Within each 20 ms timeframe, an active-high digital pulse controls the position. The pulse nominally ranges from 1.0

neg: Common minke whale Puerto Rico, while the same two calls as well as a "constant" call, were recorded in Massachusetts Bay. They differ in pulse rate, peak frequency, and duration. In the latter area, slow-down was the most commonly recorded type. Their peak frequencies ranged from 58 to 136 Hz and each pulse lasted from 0.07 to 0.12 seconds, together producing pulse trains of 12.4 to 39.8 seconds in duration. Detections of pulse trains peaked during August and September, with most calls being heard from mid-July to mid-November. None were recorded in January and February and few were detected from March to June.

neg: Symbol rate many symbols overcomes co-channel interference from other transmitters sharing the same frequency channel, including radio jamming, and is common in military radio and cell phones. Despite the fact that using more bandwidth to carry the same bit rate gives low channel spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz, it allows many simultaneous users, which results in high system spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz per unit of area. In these systems, the symbol rate of the physically transmitted high-frequency signal rate is called chip rate, which also is the pulse rate of the equivalent base band signal. However, in spread spectrum systems, the term symbol

neg: Rabi problem form and where Here, the frequency formula_34 is known as the generalized Rabi frequency, which gives the rate of precession of the pseudo-spin vector about the transformed "u' "-axis (given by the first coordinate transformation above). As an example, if the electric field (or laser) is exactly on resonance (such that formula_35), then the pseudo-spin vector will precess about the "u" axis at a rate of formula_36. If this (on-resonance) pulse is shone on a collection of atoms originally all in their ground state ("w = -1") for a time formula_37, then after the pulse, the atoms will now all

neg: Ultra-wideband circumstances, be able to share spectrum with other users. Regulatory settings by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States intend to provide an efficient use of radio bandwidth while enabling high-data-rate personal area network (PAN) wireless connectivity; longer-range, low-data-rate applications; and radar and imaging systems. Ultra-wideband was formerly known as "pulse radio", but the FCC and the International Telecommunication Union Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) currently define UWB as an antenna transmission for which emitted signal bandwidth exceeds the lesser of 500 MHz or 20% of the arithmetic center frequency. Thus, pulse-based systems—where each transmitted pulse occupies the UWB bandwidth

neg: Frequency-resolved optical gating nonlinear signal field formula_4 depends on the original pulse, formula_5, and the nonlinear process used, which can almost always be expressed as formula_6, such that formula_7. The most common nonlinearity is second harmonic generation, where formula_8. The expression for the trace in terms of the pulse field is then: There are many possible variations on this basic setup. If a well-known reference pulse is available, then it may be used as a gating pulse instead of a copy of the unknown pulse. This is referred to as cross-correlation FROG or XFROG. In addition, other non-linear effects besides second harmonic generation

neg: Servo control OFF time) but only by the width of the pulse. (This is different from the PWM used, for example, in some DC motor speed control). Most RC servos move to the same position when they receive a 1.5 ms pulse every 6 ms (a duty cycle of 25%) as when they receive a 1.5 ms pulse every 25 ms (a duty cycle of 6%) – in both cases, they turn to the central position (neutral position). With many RC servos, as long as the refresh rate (how many times per second the pulse is sent, aka the pulse repetition rate)

neg: Gray tree frog chrysoscelis" has a pulse rate of 34-60 pulses per second. Even though there is potential for overlap, because of the temperature dependence of the pulse frequency the two species are easily distinguished where they occur together. At a given temperature, the pulse frequency for "Hyla versicolor" is approximately 1/2 that of "Hyla chrysoscelis". The gray treefrog also has 48 chromosomes (4n), and is called tetraploid gray treefrog in scientific circles. The Cope's gray treefrog, or diploid gray treefrog, retained its 2n (24) original chromosome count. Hybridization between these species results in early mortality of many larvae, but some individuals survive

neg: Pulse oximetry oxygen and fluctuations in oxygen concentration can lead to vision impairment or blindness from retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Furthermore, obtaining an arterial blood gas from a neonatal patient is painful to the patient and a major cause of neonatal anemia. Motion artifact can be a significant limitation to pulse oximetry monitoring resulting in frequent false alarms and loss of data. The reason for this is that during motion and low peripheral perfusion, many pulse oximeters cannot distinguish between pulsating arterial blood and moving venous blood, leading to underestimation of oxygen saturation. Early studies of pulse oximetry performance during subject motion

neg: Pulse-position modulation technique that can be implemented non-coherently, such that the receiver does not need to use a phase-locked loop (PLL) to track the phase of the carrier. This makes it a suitable candidate for optical communications systems, where coherent phase modulation and detection are difficult and extremely expensive. The only other common "M"-ary non-coherent modulation technique is "M"-ary frequency-shift keying (M-FSK), which is the frequency-domain dual to PPM. PPM and M-FSK systems with the same bandwidth, average power, and transmission rate of M/T bits per second have identical performance in an "additive white Gaussian noise" (AWGN) channel. However, their performance differs

neg: Pulse oximetry oximetry monitoring market for equipment and sensors was over in 2011. In 2008, more than half of the major internationally exporting medical equipment manufacturers in China were producers of pulse oximeters. The Apple Watch uses this technology for its heart rate monitor. The accuracy of the heart rate monitor has been debated, as different tests have shown it to be 91% as accurate as chest strap monitors. Pleth variability index (PVI) is a measure of the variability of the plethysmographic waveform amplitude. Pulse oximetry Pulse oximetry is a noninvasive method for monitoring a person's oxygen saturation (S). Though its reading

neg: Ovarian cancer the bowel wall, and omentum, forming new tumor growths before cancer is even suspected. The five-year survival rate for all stages of ovarian cancer is 46%; the one-year survival rate is 72% and the ten-year survival rate is 35%. For cases where a diagnosis is made early in the disease, when the cancer is still confined to the primary site, the five-year survival rate is 92.7%. About 70% of women with advanced disease respond to initial treatment, most of whom attain complete remission, but half of these women experience a recurrence 1–4 years after treatment. Brain metastasis is more common

neg: Björn Borg was legendary and unrivalled. He could outlast most of his opponents under the most grueling conditions. Contrary to popular belief, however, this wasn't due to his exceptionally low resting heart rate, often reported to be near 35 beats per minute. In his introduction to Borg's autobiography "My Life and Game", Eugene Scott relates that this rumor arose from a medical exam the 18-year-old Borg once took for military service, where his pulse was recorded as 38. Scott goes on to reveal Borg's true pulse rate as "about 50 when he wakes up and around 60 in the afternoon." Borg is

neg: Bit rate case, the gross bit rate is equal to the symbol rate or pulse rate of 125 megabaud, due to the NRZI line code. In communications technologies without forward error correction and other physical layer protocol overhead, there is no distinction between gross bit rate and physical layer net bit rate. For example, the net as well as gross bit rate of Ethernet 10Base-T is 10 Mbit/s. Due to the Manchester line code, each bit is represented by two pulses, resulting in a pulse rate of 20 megabaud. The "connection speed" of a V.92 voiceband modem typically refers to the gross

neg: Arterial blood gas test can be determined. Such information is vital when caring for patients with critical illnesses or respiratory disease. Therefore, the ABG test is one of the most common tests performed on patients in intensive-care units. In other levels of care, pulse oximetry plus transcutaneous carbon-dioxide measurement is a less invasive, alternative method of obtaining similar information. An ABG test can also measure the level of bicarbonate in the blood. Many blood-gas analyzers will also report concentrations of lactate, hemoglobin, several electrolytes, oxyhemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, and methemoglobin. ABG testing is mainly used in pulmonology and critical-care medicine to determine gas exchange across the

neg: Fuel gauge increased failure rate with the incremental additions of alcohol in automotive gasoline fuel. Alcohol increases the corrosion rate at the potentiometer, as it is capable of carrying current like water. Potentiometer applications for alcohol fuel use a pulse-and-hold methodology, with a periodic signal being sent to determine fuel level decreasing the corrosion potential. Therefore, demand for another safer, non-contact method for fuel level is desired. Magnetoresistance type fuel level sensors, now becoming common in small aircraft applications, offer a potential alternative for automotive use. These fuel level sensors work similar to the potentiometer example, however a sealed detector at the

neg: Pulse-density modulation the only step required in the decoding process. Notably, one of the ways animal nervous systems represent sensory and other information is through rate coding whereby the magnitude of the signal is related to the rate of firing of the sensory neuron. In direct analogy, each neural event – called an action potential – represents one bit (pulse), with the rate of firing of the neuron representing the pulse density. A digital model of pulse-density modulation can be obtained from a digital model of the delta-sigma modulator. Consider a signal formula_2 in the discrete time domain as the input to

neg: Slow-scan television corresponding to the intensity (brightness) of the color component. The modulation is analog, so even though the horizontal resolution is often defined as 256 or 320 pixels, they can be sampled using any rate. The image aspect ratio is conventionally 4:3. Lines usually end in a 1200 Hz horizontal synchronization pulse of 5 milliseconds (after all color components of the line have been sent); in some modes, the synchronization pulse lies in the middle of the line. Below is a table of some of the most common SSTV modes and their differences. These modes share many properties, such as synchronization

neg: Excimer laser lasers are usually operated with a pulse repetition rate of around 100 Hz and a pulse duration of ~10 ns, although some operate at pulse repetition rates as high as 8 kHz and some have pulse length as large as 30 ns. For electron-beam pumped lasers typical pulse length can be as large as 100 ns and a repetition rate usually limited to a single shot within several minutes, although some operate at pulse repetition rates as high as 10 Hz . Excimer lasers are widely used in high-resolution photolithography machines, one of the critical technologies required for microelectronic chip

neg: Heart rate person's heart rate, as its strong pulse may interfere with the correct perception of the target pulse. The radial artery is the easiest to use to check the heart rate. However, in emergency situations the most reliable arteries to measure heart rate are carotid arteries. This is important mainly in patients with atrial fibrillation, in whom heart beats are irregular and stroke volume is largely different from one beat to another. In those beats following a shorter diastolic interval left ventricle doesn't fill properly, stroke volume is lower and pulse wave is not strong enough to be detected by palpation

neg: Pulse dialing such pulse trains is the rotary dial of the telephone, lending the technology another name, rotary dialing. The pulse repetition rate was historically determined based on the response time needed for electromechanical switching systems to operate reliably. Most telephone systems used the nominal rate of ten pulses per second, but operator dialing within and between central offices often used pulse rates up to twenty per second. Automatic telephone exchange systems were developed in the late 19th and early 20th century. For identification, telephone subscribers were assigned a telephone number unique to each circuit. Various methods evolved to signal the desired

neg: Tail-pulse generator PMT outputs. The precision tail-pulse generators can test linearity, stability and resolution. Tail-pulse generator Tail pulse generators simulate the outputs of radiation detectors, photomultiplier tubes (PMT's) and their electronics. They in turn test systems and components for linearity, stability, resolution, pile-up and count rate effects. Tail pulse generators are differentiated from standard logic pulse generators in that the rise and fall times are exponential. These simulate the outputs of Germanium detectors, plastic scintillators and their PMT's, NaI scintillators and their PMT's and LaBr3/LaCl3 scintillators and their PMT's. The random tail-pulse generators can test for pile-up and count rate effects. The

neg: Tail-pulse generator Tail-pulse generator Tail pulse generators simulate the outputs of radiation detectors, photomultiplier tubes (PMT's) and their electronics. They in turn test systems and components for linearity, stability, resolution, pile-up and count rate effects. Tail pulse generators are differentiated from standard logic pulse generators in that the rise and fall times are exponential. These simulate the outputs of Germanium detectors, plastic scintillators and their PMT's, NaI scintillators and their PMT's and LaBr3/LaCl3 scintillators and their PMT's. The random tail-pulse generators can test for pile-up and count rate effects. The fast tail-pulse generators can simulate the 5 ns FWHM pulses of faster

neg: Pulse technique has been commonly used in intensive care since the 1970s. The rate of the pulse is observed and measured by tactile or visual means on the outside of an artery and is recorded as beats per minute or BPM. The pulse may be further indirectly observed under light absorbances of varying wavelengths with assigned and inexpensively reproduced mathematical ratios. Applied capture of variances of light signal from the blood component hemoglobin under oxygenated vs. deoxygenated conditions allows the technology of pulse oximetry. Normal pulse rates at rest, in beats per minute (BPM): The pulse rate can be used to

neg: Integrated Pulmonary Index with an algorithm to produce the IPI score. The IPI score is not intended to replace current patient respiratory parameters, but to provide an additional integrated score or index of the patient ventilation status to the caregiver. The IPI incorporates four patient parameters (end-tidal CO and respiratory rate measured by capnography, as well as pulse rate and blood oxygenation SpO as measured by pulse oximetry) into a single index value. The IPI value on the patient monitor indicates the patient ventilatory status, where a score of 10 is normal, indicating optimal pulmonary status, and a score of 1 or 2

neg: Frequency comb frequency in the spectrum must be at least twice the lowest frequency. One of three techniques may be used: These processes generate new frequencies "on the same comb" for similar reasons as discussed above. An increasing offset between the optical phase and the maximum of the wave envelope of an optical pulse can be seen on the right. Each line is displaced from a harmonic of the repetition rate by the carrier–envelope offset frequency. The carrier–envelope offset frequency is the rate at which the peak of the carrier frequency slips from the peak of the pulse envelope on a pulse-to-pulse

neg: Bounce rate for on the entry page. This type of behavior is common on web portals and referential content sites. For example, a visitor looking for the definition of a particular word may enter an online dictionary site on that word's definition page. Similarly, a visitor who wants to read about a specific news story may enter a news site on an article written for that story. These example entry pages could have a bounce rate above 80% (thereby increasing the site-wide average), however they may still be considered successful. Bounce rate Bounce rate is an Internet marketing term used in web

neg: Pulse generator Pulse generator A pulse generator is either an electronic circuit "or" a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate rectangular pulses. Pulse generators are used primarily for working with digital circuits, related function generators are used primarily for analog circuits. Simple bench pulse generators usually allow control of the pulse repetition rate (frequency), pulse width, delay with respect to an internal or external trigger and the high- and low-voltage levels of the pulses. More-sophisticated pulse generators may allow control over the rise time and fall time of the pulses. Pulse generators are available for generating output pulses having widths

neg: Base station subsystem the voice channel coding between the coding used in the mobile network, and the coding used by the world's terrestrial circuit-switched network, the Public Switched Telephone Network. Specifically, GSM uses a regular pulse excited-long term prediction (RPE-LTP) coder for voice data between the mobile device and the BSS, but pulse code modulation (A-law or μ-law standardized in ITU G.711) upstream of the BSS. RPE-LPC coding results in a data rate for voice of 13 kbit/s where standard PCM coding results in 64 kbit/s. Because of this change in data rate "for the same voice call", the transcoder also has a

neg: Blood pressure measurement Along with body temperature, respiratory rate, and pulse rate, blood pressure is one of the four main vital signs routinely monitored by medical professionals and healthcare providers. Measuring pressure invasively, by penetrating the arterial wall to take the measurement, is much less common and usually restricted to a hospital setting. The non-invasive auscultatory and oscillometric measurements are simpler and quicker than invasive measurements, require less expertise, have virtually no complications, are less unpleasant and less painful for the patient. However, non-invasive methods may yield somewhat lower accuracy and small systematic differences in numerical results. Non-invasive measurement methods are more commonly

neg: Pulsus paradoxus Pulsus paradoxus Pulsus paradoxus, also paradoxic pulse or paradoxical pulse, is an abnormally large decrease in stroke volume, systolic blood pressure and pulse wave amplitude during inspiration. The normal fall in pressure is less than 10 mmHg. When the drop is more than 10 mmHg, it is referred to as pulsus paradoxus. Pulsus paradoxus is not related to pulse rate or heart rate and it is not a paradoxical rise in systolic pressure. The normal variation of blood pressure during breathing/respiration is a decline in blood pressure during inhalation and an increase during exhalation. Pulsus paradoxus is a sign that

neg: Barrage jamming be jammed during certain periods, but if the rate is increased to offset this, the amount of noise in any one pulse period is reduced. More complex jammers can scan only the bands it sees being used, improving its effectiveness. Barrage jamming was extremely effective against 1950s radars, to the point where there was some belief that the carcinotron might render ground-based radars useless, especially in the early warning radar role. By the 1960s a number of techniques had been introduced to combat barrage jamming. Frequency agile radars, which change their frequency from pulse to pulse, force the jammer spread

neg: Pulsed radiofrequency pulse rate) with a gated pulse width of 42 µs. The pulse packet frequency in this example is 27.125 megahertz (MHz) of RF energy. The duty cycle for a pulsed radio frequency is the percent time the RF packet is on, 4.2% for this example ([0.042 ms X 1000 pulses divided by 1000 ms/s] X 100). The pulse packet form can be a square, triangle, sawtooth or sine wave. In several applications of pulse radio frequency, such as radar, times between pulses can be modulated. The best understood and applied use of pulse radio frequency electromagnetic energy is their use

neg: C-UWB to randomize the occurrences of ones and zeros. The pulses are sent contiguously as a continuous stream, hence the bit rate can equal the pulse rate. C-UWB systems were demonstrated in 2008 at channel pulse rates in excess of 1.3 giga-pulses per second, supporting forward error correction encoded data rates in excess of 675 Mbit/s. Continuous pulse UWB technology was the basis of one of the physical layers specified by the IEEE 802.15.4a standard. C-UWB C-UWB is an acronym for continuous pulse ultra-wideband (UWB) technology. C-UWB derives its bandwidth by virtue of the short time duration of the individual pulses.

neg: Arturia MiniBrute his website, HackABrute, to encourage users to modify their machines. He has also included proposed modifications that have been tested. However, making modifications to the internal system, including those listed on the site, voids Arturia's product warranty. The MiniBrute's single oscillator can be set to sawtooth, pulse (modulatable width), triangle, white noise, or any combination of these. The three waveforms each have options for additional wave shaping. Although pulse-width modulation is common for analog synthesizers, the shaping options for the sawtooth and triangle are unique to the MiniBrute. The MiniBrute also includes a sub-oscillator and external signal processing. The oscillator

neg: Shannon–Hartley theorem a measure of the line rate "R" as: where "f" is the pulse rate, also known as the symbol rate, in symbols/second or baud. Hartley then combined the above quantification with Nyquist's observation that the number of independent pulses that could be put through a channel of bandwidth "B" hertz was 2"B" pulses per second, to arrive at his quantitative measure for achievable line rate. Hartley's law is sometimes quoted as just a proportionality between the analog bandwidth, "B", in Hertz and what today is called the digital bandwidth, "R", in bit/s. Other times it is quoted in this more

neg: T-carrier become entrenched. The most common legacy of this system is the line rate speeds. ""T1"" now means any data circuit that runs at the original 1.544 Mbit/s line rate. Originally the T1 format carried 24 pulse-code modulated, time-division multiplexed speech signals each encoded in 64 kbit/s streams, leaving 8 kbit/s of framing information which facilitates the synchronization and demultiplexing at the receiver. The T2 and T3 circuit channels carry multiple T1 channels multiplexed, resulting in transmission rates of 6.312 and 44.736 Mbit/s, respectively. A T3 line comprises 28 T1 lines, each operating at total signaling rate of 1.544 Mbit/s. It

neg: Synodontis macrostoma males of the same age. In the wild, the species favors fast-flowing, rocky stretches of river, where it is fairly common. As a whole, species of "Synodontis" are omnivores, consuming insect larvae, algae, gastropods, bivalves, sponges, crustaceans, and the eggs of other fishes. The reproductive habits of most of the species of "Synodontis" are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning. The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

neg: Mass flow sensor two common types of mass airflow sensors in use on automotive engines. These are the vane meter and the hot wire. Neither design employs technology that measures air mass directly. However, with additional sensors and inputs, an engine's ECU can determine the mass flow rate of intake air. Both approaches are used almost exclusively on electronic fuel injection (EFI) engines. Both sensor designs output a 0.0–5.0 volt or a pulse-width modulation (PWM) signal that is proportional to the air mass flow rate, and both sensors have an intake air temperature (IAT) sensor incorporated into their housings for most post on-board

neg: ICESat-2 in a pair is separated by along the beam track. The laser array is rotated 2 degrees from the satellite's ground track so that a beam pair track is separated by about . The laser pulse rate combined with satellite speed results in ATLAS taking an elevation measurement every along the satellite's ground path. The laser fires at a rate of 10 kHz. Each pulse sends out about 200 trillion photons, almost all of which are dispersed or deflected as the pulse travels to Earth's surface and bounces back to the satellite. About a dozen photons from each pulse return

neg: Adrenergic receptor of circulating epinephrine (physiologic epinephrine secretion), β-adrenoreceptor stimulation dominates since epinephrine has a higher affinity for the β adrenoreceptor than the α adrenoreceptor, producing vasodilation followed by decrease of peripheral vascular resistance. Smooth muscle behavior is variable depending on anatomical location. Smooth muscle contraction/relaxation is generalized below. One important note is the differential effects of increased cAMP in smooth muscle compared to cardiac muscle. Increased cAMP will promote relaxation in smooth muscle, while promoting increased contractility and pulse rate in cardiac muscle. α receptors have actions in common, but also individual effects. Common (or still receptor unspecified) actions include: Subtype

neg: Laser rangefinder Laser rangefinder A laser rangefinder is a rangefinder that uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object. The most common form of laser rangefinder operates on the time of flight principle by sending a laser pulse in a narrow beam towards the object and measuring the time taken by the pulse to be reflected off the target and returned to the sender. Due to the high speed of light, this technique is not appropriate for high precision sub-millimeter measurements, where triangulation and other techniques are often used. The pulse may be coded to reduce the chance that

neg: Pulse dialing Pulse dialing Pulse dialing is a signaling technology in telecommunications in which a direct current local loop circuit is interrupted according to a defined coding system for each signal transmitted, usually a digit. This lends the method the often used name loop disconnect dialing. In the most common variant of pulse dialing, decadic dialing, each of the ten Arabic numerals are encoded in a sequence of up to ten pulses. The most common version decodes the digits 1 through 9, as one to nine pulses, respectively, and the digit 0 as ten pulses. Historically, the most common device to produce

neg: Telephone exchange see any of these in use today. Some signalling communicated dialed digits. An early form called Panel Call Indicator Pulsing used quaternary pulses to set up calls between a panel switch and a manual switchboard. Probably the most common form of communicating dialed digits between electromechanical switches was sending dial pulses, equivalent to a rotary dial's pulsing, but sent over trunk circuits between switches. In Bell System trunks, it was common to use 20 pulse-per-second between crossbar switches and crossbar tandems. This was twice the rate of Western Electric/Bell System telephone dials. Using the faster pulsing rate made trunk utilization

neg: Pulse-width modulation harmonic content of the PWM signal. There is much research on eliminating unwanted harmonics and improving the fundamental strength, some of which involves using a modified carrier signal instead of a classic sawtooth signal in order to decrease power losses and improve efficiency. Another common application is in robotics where PWM signals are used to control the speed of the robot by controlling the motors. Pulse-width modulation Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a way of describing a digital (binary/discrete) signal that was created through a modulation technique, which involves encoding a message into a pulsing signal. Although

neg: Q-switching even faster. Ideally, this brings the absorber into a state with low losses to allow efficient extraction of the stored energy by the laser pulse. After the pulse, the absorber recovers to its high-loss state before the gain recovers, so that the next pulse is delayed until the energy in the gain medium is fully replenished. The pulse repetition rate can only indirectly be controlled, e.g. by varying the laser's pump power and the amount of saturable absorber in the cavity. Direct control of the repetition rate can be achieved by using a pulsed pump source as well as passive

neg: Lesser wax moth male's pulse rate increases and the female's acceptance threshold for rates increases. These changes most likely occur due to physiological effects, but the increase in pulse rate and acceptance threshold may also be used to avoid predation. Additionally, the increase in female acceptance threshold allows them to continue choosing the most attractive male by not mistaking a low-quality male for high-quality due to his new, faster pulse rate. Although pheromones alone do not cause a female to move towards a male for mating, odor, signal location, and male-male interactions may play a role in male attractiveness. Females mainly select males

neg: Saturable absorption for a saturable absorber are its wavelength range (where it absorbs), its dynamic response (how fast it recovers), and its saturation intensity and fluence (at what intensity or pulse energy it saturates). They are commonly used for passive Q-switching. Within the simple model of saturated absorption, the relaxation rate of excitations does not depend on the intensity. Then, for the continuous-wave operation, the absorption rate (or simply absorption) formula_1 is determined by intensity formula_2: where formula_4 is linear absorption, and formula_5 is saturation intensity. These parameters are related with the concentration formula_6 of the active centers in the medium, the

neg: Servo control and one for control, carrying the control pulses. The parameters for the pulses are the minimal pulse width, the maximal pulse width, and the repetition rate. Given the rotation constraints of the servo, neutral is defined to be the center of rotation. Different servos will have different constraints on their rotation, but the neutral position is always around 1.5 milliseconds (ms) pulse width. In modern RC servos the angle of mechanical rotation is determined by the width of an electrical pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is a form of pulse-width modulation. The typical RC servo expects

neg: Code-division multiple access codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined by bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread-spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of formula_1 (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of formula_2 (chip period). (Note: bandwidth is proportional to formula_3, where formula_4 = bit time.) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is formula_5 and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is formula_6. Since formula_2 is much smaller

neg: Abortion in the United States 2007, 15.8% in 2008, 17.1% in 2009 (25.2% of those at less than 9 weeks gestation). Medical abortions accounted for 32% of first-trimester abortions at Planned Parenthood clinics in the United States in 2008. Abortion is common among religiously identified women. According to the Guttmacher Institute, "more than 7 in 10 U.S. women obtaining an abortion report a religious affiliation (37% protestant, 28% Catholic, and 7% other), and 25% attend religious services at least once a month. The abortion rate for protestant women is 15 per 1,000 women, while Catholic women have a slightly higher rate, 22 per 1,000." Abortion

neg: Pulse~Link Pulse~Link Pulse~LINK is a privately held fabless integrated circuit semiconductor corporation headquartered in Carlsbad, California, located just north of San Diego California, in the United States. Pulse~LINK commercializes ultra-wideband (UWB) technology, for both wireless and wired networks. Pulse~Link developed a UWB technology based on continuous pulsed UWB (C-UWB) for whole-home distribution of interactive high data rate multimedia content over wired, wireless and hybrid networks. One implementation of the technology is designed to coexist with existing home-CATV signals over existing coax. Pulse~LINK's CWave implementation of C-UWB provides data rates up to a Gigabit per second over coaxial cable and wireless networks.

neg: Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing Intel Core Duo at 3.0 GHz does it in . One key principle of OFDM is that since low symbol rate modulation schemes (i.e., where the symbols are relatively long compared to the channel time characteristics) suffer less from intersymbol interference caused by multipath propagation, it is advantageous to transmit a number of low-rate streams in parallel instead of a single high-rate stream. Since the duration of each symbol is long, it is feasible to insert a guard interval between the OFDM symbols, thus eliminating the intersymbol interference. The guard interval also eliminates the need for a pulse-shaping filter, and

neg: Pulse-Doppler signal processing Detection processing for pulse-Doppler produces an ambiguous range and ambiguous velocity corresponding to one of the FFT outputs from one of the range samples. The reflections fall into filters corresponding to different frequencies that separate weather phenomenon, terrain, and aircraft into different velocity zones at each range. Multiple simultaneous criteria are required before a signal can qualify as a detection. Constant false alarm rate processing is used to examine each FFT output to detect signals. This is an adaptive process that adjusts automatically to background noise and environmental influences. There is a cell under test, where the surrounding cells are

neg: Fuel injection costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980-1995, and in some European cars in the early and mid-1990s. In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable flow rate. This is in contrast to most fuel injection systems, which provide fuel during short pulses of varying duration, with a constant rate of flow during each pulse. Continuous injection systems can be multi-point or single-point, but not direct. The most common automotive continuous injection system is Bosch's K-Jetronic, introduced in 1974. K-Jetronic

neg: Radiative transfer equation and diffusion theory for photon transport in biological tissue infinite homogeneous medium is presented in this section. The source term in the diffusion equation becomes formula_50, where formula_2 is the position at which fluence rate is measured and formula_52 is the position of the source. The pulse peaks at time formula_53. The diffusion equation is solved for fluence rate to yield The term formula_55 represents the exponential decay in fluence rate due to absorption in accordance with Beer's law. The other terms represent broadening due to scattering. Given the above solution, an arbitrary source can be characterized as a superposition of short-pulsed point sources. Taking time variation out of

neg: John W. Turk Jr. Coal Plant disposed of at an on-site landfill lined with a synthetic material. Emissions controls at the plant include selective catalytic reduction for nitrous oxide, flue-gas desulfurization for sulfur dioxide, activated carbon injection for mercury and pulse-jet fabric filter baghouse for particulate matter. According to data reported to the EPA, the plant released 3.4 million metric tons of greenhouse gases in 2016. The emissions in metric tons comprised: POWER Magazine awarded the plant its 2013 Plant of the Year Award. In 2015, Peabody Energy recognized the plant for the lowest nitrous oxide emission rate and lowest heat rate among U.S. coal-fired power

neg: Pulse~Link chip solution, and is undergoing field trials on existing in-home coaxial cable system, to allow extending home networks without additional wiring. Pulse~Link Pulse~LINK is a privately held fabless integrated circuit semiconductor corporation headquartered in Carlsbad, California, located just north of San Diego California, in the United States. Pulse~LINK commercializes ultra-wideband (UWB) technology, for both wireless and wired networks. Pulse~Link developed a UWB technology based on continuous pulsed UWB (C-UWB) for whole-home distribution of interactive high data rate multimedia content over wired, wireless and hybrid networks. One implementation of the technology is designed to coexist with existing home-CATV signals over existing

neg: Meltwater pulse 1A on during the end of the last ice age. Several researchers have narrowed the period of the pulse to between 13,500 and 14,700 calendar years ago with its peak at about 13,800 calendar years ago. The start of this meltwater event coincides with or closely follows the abrupt onset of the Bølling-Allerød (B-A) interstadial and warming in the NorthGRIP ice core in Greenland at 14,600 calendar years ago. During meltwater pulse 1A, sea level is estimated to have risen at a rate of /yr. This rate of sea level rise was much larger than the rate of current sea level

neg: Pulse oximetry absorption of pulsating components at the measuring site. Susumu Nakajima, a surgeon, and his associates first tested the device in patients, reporting it in 1975. It was commercialized by Biox in 1980. By 1987, the standard of care for the administration of a general anesthetic in the U.S. included pulse oximetry. From the operating room, the use of pulse oximetry rapidly spread throughout the hospital, first to the recovery room, and then into the various intensive care units. Pulse oximetry was of particular value in the neonatal unit where the patients do not thrive with inadequate oxygenation, but too much

neg: Photoplethysmogram In this case, a PPG can be obtained from a pulse oximeter on the head, with the most common sites being the ear, nasal septum, and forehead. PPG can also be configured as multi-site photoplethysmography (MPPG), e.g. making simultaneous measurements from the right and left ear lobes, index fingers and great toes, and offering further opportunities for the assessment of patients with suspected peripheral arterial disease, autonomic dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, and arterial stiffness. MPPG also offers significant potential for data mining, e.g. using deep learning, as well as a range of other innovative pulse wave analysis techniques. PPGs can also

neg: Pulse shaping Pulse shaping In electronics and telecommunications, pulse shaping is the process of changing the waveform of transmitted pulses. Its purpose is to make the transmitted signal better suited to its purpose or the communication channel, typically by limiting the effective bandwidth of the transmission. By filtering the transmitted pulses this way, the intersymbol interference caused by the channel can be kept in control. In RF communication, pulse shaping is essential for making the signal fit in its frequency band. Typically pulse shaping occurs after line coding and modulation. Transmitting a signal at high modulation rate through a band-limited channel can

neg: Pulse dialing (URI) for addressing, instead of digits alone. Pulse dialing Pulse dialing is a signaling technology in telecommunications in which a direct current local loop circuit is interrupted according to a defined coding system for each signal transmitted, usually a digit. This lends the method the often used name loop disconnect dialing. In the most common variant of pulse dialing, decadic dialing, each of the ten Arabic numerals are encoded in a sequence of up to ten pulses. The most common version decodes the digits 1 through 9, as one to nine pulses, respectively, and the digit 0 as ten pulses.

neg: Pulse repetition frequency and sound transmissions. PRF is crucial for systems and devices that measure distance. Different PRF allow systems to perform very different functions. A radar system uses a radio frequency electromagnetic signal reflected from a target to determine information about that target. PRF is required for radar operation. This is the rate at which transmitter pulses are sent into air or space. A radar system determines range through the time delay between pulse transmission and reception by the relation: For accurate range determination a pulse must be transmitted and reflected before the next pulse is transmitted. This gives rise to the

neg: Prism compressor pulse compression, can be calculated exactly using the multiple-prism dispersion theory. In particular, the dispersion, its first derivative, and its second derivative, are given by where Angular quantities are defined in the article for the multiple-prism dispersion theory and higher derivatives are given by Duarte. The most common other pulse compressor is based on gratings (see Chirped pulse amplification), which can easily create a much larger negative dispersion than a prism compressor (centimeters rather than tenths of millimeters). However, a grating compressor has losses of at least 30% due to higher-order diffraction and absorption losses in the metallic coating of

neg: Delta modulation Delta modulation A delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) is an analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal conversion technique used for transmission of voice information where quality is not of primary importance. DM is the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) where the difference between successive samples are encoded into n-bit data streams. In delta modulation, the transmitted data are reduced to a 1-bit data stream. Its main features are: To achieve high signal-to-noise ratio, delta modulation must use oversampling techniques, that is, the analog signal is sampled at a rate several times higher than the Nyquist rate. Derived forms of delta

neg: Alternate-Phase Return-to-Zero 67%, at least in the standard form of CSRZ). APRZ can be used to generate specific optical modulation formats, for example, APRZ-OOK, in which data is coded on the intensity of the signal using a binary scheme (light on=1, light off=0). APRZ is often used to designate APRZ-OOK. The characteristic properties of an APRZ signal are those to have a spectrum similar to that of an RZ signal, except that frequency peaks at a spacing of "B"/2 as opposed to "B" are observed (where "B" is the bit rate). APRZ-OOK is considered to be more tolerant to pulse-to-pulse (intra-channel) non-linear

neg: History of radar a preliminary system was designed and built at the RRS by the team. Their existing transmitter had a peak power of about 1 kW, and Wilkins had estimated that 100 kW would be needed. Edward George Bowen was added to the team to design and build such a transmitter. Bowens’ transmitter operated at 6 MHz (50 m), had a pulse-repetition rate of 25 Hz, a pulse width of 25 μs, and approached the desired power. Orfordness, a narrow peninsula in Suffolk along the coast of the North Sea, was selected as the test site. Here the equipment would be openly

neg: Pulse-position modulation Pulse-position modulation Pulse-position modulation (PPM) is a form of signal modulation in which "M" message bits are encoded by transmitting a single pulse in one of formula_1 possible required time shifts. This is repeated every "T" seconds, such that the transmitted bit rate is formula_2 bits per second. It is primarily useful for optical communications systems, which tend to have little or no multipath interference. An ancient use of pulse-position modulation was the Greek hydraulic semaphore system invented by Aeneas Stymphalus around 350 B.C. that used the water clock principle to time signals. In this system, the draining of water

neg: Ultrafast laser spectroscopy biased to early arriving photons, the photon count rate is kept low (usually less than 1% of excitation rate). This electrical pulse comes after the second laser pulse excites the molecule to a higher energy state, and a photon is eventually emitted from a single molecule upon returning to its original state. Thus, the longer a molecule takes to emit a photon, the higher the voltage of the resulting pulse. The central concept of this technique is that only a single photon is needed to discharge the capacitor. Thus, this experiment must be repeated many times to gather the full

neg: Spinal cord stimulator Other complications include rotation of the pulse generator, haematomas (subcutaneous or epidural), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak, post dural puncture headache, discomfort at pulse generator site, seroma and transient paraplegia. Some people find the tingling sensation caused by SPS to be unpleasant. The most common hardware related complication is lead migration, in which the implanted electrodes move from their original placement. With this complication, recapturing paraesthesia coverage can be attempted with reprogramming. In circumstances involving major lead migration a reoperation may be required to reset the lead placement. Studies differ greatly in reporting the percentage of people who have lead migration

neg: Pulse generator (duration) ranging from minutes down to under 1 picosecond. Pulse generators are generally voltage sources, with true current pulse generators being available only from a few suppliers. Pulse generators may use digital techniques, analog techniques, or a combination of both techniques to form the output pulses. For example, the pulse repetition rate and duration may be digitally controlled but the pulse amplitude and rise and fall times may be determined by analog circuitry in the output stage of the pulse generator. With correct adjustment, pulse generators can also produce a 50% duty cycle square wave. Pulse generators are generally single-channel