query: when did the ottoman empire take over egypt

pos: Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt covers two main periods of the history of Egypt from the 16th through early 20th centuries, when under the rule of or allied to the Ottoman Empire that was based in (present day) Turkey. The Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867) was established when the Egypt region came under the direct rule of the Ottoman Empire with their 1517 victory over the Mamluk Sultanate. The interruption of the Napoleon's French campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) allowed Muhammad Ali's seizure of power from Ottoman Hurshid Pasha, and the founding of the Muhammad Ali dynasty. The Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)

pos: Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt covers two main periods of the history of Egypt from the 16th through early 20th centuries, when under the rule of or allied to the Ottoman Empire that was based in (present day) Turkey. The Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867) was established when the Egypt region came under the direct rule of the Ottoman Empire with their 1517 victory over the Mamluk Sultanate. The interruption of the Napoleon's French campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) allowed Muhammad Ali's seizure of power from Ottoman Hurshid Pasha, and the founding of the Muhammad Ali dynasty. The Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)

pos: Sinai Peninsula he built a citadel on the island of Pharaoh in Taba known by his name 'Saladin's citadel'. The peninsula was governed as part of Egypt under the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt from 1260 until 1517, when the Ottoman Sultan, Selim the Grim, defeated the Egyptians at the Battles of Marj Dabiq and al-Raydaniyya, and incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. From then until 1906, Sinai was administered by the Ottoman provincial government of the "Pashalik" of Egypt, even following the establishment of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty's rule over the rest of Egypt in 1805. In 1906, the Ottoman Porte formally

pos: History of Africa Ain Jalut. Mamluk Egypt came to be viewed as a protector of Islam, and of Medina and Mecca. Eventually the "iqta" system declined and proved unreliable for providing an adequate military. The Mamluks started viewing their "iqta" as hereditary and became attuned to urban living. Farm production declined, and dams and canals lapsed into disrepair. Mamluk military skill and technology did not keep pace with new technology of handguns and cannons. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt was easily defeated. In 1517, at the end of an Ottoman–Mamluk War, Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Istanbul

pos: Egypt–Mongolia relations were forced to retire to Egypt, and only avoided defeat when Timur moved east in preparation for an attack on China, dying in 1405 before he could return to complete his conquest of the Middle East. This was the last time Egypt was threatened by the Mongols. After Egypt was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, it did not regain full independence until the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. It was during Nasser's presidency of Egypt that formal relations between the modern states of Egypt and Mongolia were established in 1964. In 2001, Mongolia sent

pos: Egypt Eyalet Egypt Eyalet The Eyalet of Egypt was the result of the conquest of Mamluk Egypt by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517) and the absorption of Syria into the Empire in 1516. Egypt was administered as an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire ( "") from 1517 until 1867, with an interruption during the French occupation of 1798 to 1801. Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. As such,

pos: History of Egypt the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo, absorbing Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. Egypt remained entirely Ottoman until 1867, except during French occupation from 1798 to 1801. Starting in 1867, Egypt became a nominally autonomous tributary state called the Khedivate of Egypt. However, Khedivate Egypt fell under British control in 1882 following the Anglo-Egyptian War. After the end of World War I and following the Egyptian revolution of 1919, the Kingdom of Egypt was established. While a "de jure" independent state, the United Kingdom retained control over foreign affairs, defense, and other matters. British occupation

pos: Khedivate of Egypt Khedivate of Egypt The Khedivate of Egypt (, ; "") was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, established and ruled by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte's forces which brought an end to the short-lived French occupation of Lower Egypt. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland invaded and took control in 1882. In 1914 the Ottoman Empire connection was ended and Britain established a protectorate called the Sultanate of Egypt. Upon the conquest of the Sultanate of Egypt by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, the country was governed as an

pos: Ottoman Empire Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire. However, the collapsing Ottoman

pos: Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491) Mamluks remained in stalemate during the beginning of the 16th century, until Mamluk power was dramatically challenged by the incursion of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean from 1505, thereby threatening Mamluk traditional trade routes and a major source of revenue, and leading to the catastrophic Portuguese-Mamluk War. The Ottoman Empire would ultimately take over the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517. Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491) An Ottoman-Mamluk war took place from 1485 to 1491, when the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate territories of Anatolia and Syria. This war was an essential event in the Ottoman

pos: Hayır Bey Egypt. However, after Ottoman sultan Selim I found out about Yunus Pasha's corruption in governing, consisting of bribery and extortion, Hayır Bey was entrusted with the governorship of Egypt. Hayır Bey Hayır Bey (sometimes spelled Kha'ir Bey or Kha'ir Beg; died 1522) ruled Egypt in the name of the Ottoman Empire from 1517 until his death in 1522. He was granted the position of governor by sultan Selim I of the Ottoman Empire for his help in the conquest of Egypt. Being of Abkhazian origin, he was the former Mamluk governor of Aleppo who contributed to the Ottoman victory at

pos: Egypt Eyalet until 5 November 1914, when it was declared a British protectorate in reaction to the decision of the Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire to join the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. After the conquest of Egypt in 1517, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I left the country. Grand Vizier Yunus Pasha was awarded the governorship of Egypt. However, the sultan soon discovered that Yunus Pasha had created an extortion and bribery syndicate, and gave the office to Hayır Bey, the former Mamluk governor of Aleppo, who had contributed to the Ottoman victory at the Battle

pos: Caliphate in Egypt. In 1258, the Mongol Empire sacked Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate, and in 1261 the Mamluks in Egypt re-established the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo. Though lacking in political power, the Abbasid dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt in 1517. The fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate, was established after their conquest of Mamluk Egypt in 1517. The conquest gave the Ottomans control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, previously controlled by the Mamluks. The Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the "de facto" leaders and representatives

pos: Egypt Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions. The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade. Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines. The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population. Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries.

pos: Ottoman architecture in Egypt Ottoman architecture in Egypt The Ottoman architecture in Egypt is the architecture that emerged in Egypt after its Ottoman conquest in 1517. While it continued traditions from the past like from Mamluk architecture it was heavily influenced by the architecture of the Ottoman court. It features the pencil Ottoman minaret, dome mosques, glazed tiles and other characteristics more from Ottoman architecture. For the construction of buildings in the Ottoman Empire often plans, but no elevations were sent to the provinces. This can be seen for instance in the combination of an Ottoman plan with a Cairene elevation in the Sinan

pos: Sultan of Egypt 1382. The Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 ended the Egyptian Sultanate, with Egypt henceforth a province of the Ottoman Empire. It also marked the end of the Abbassid Caliphate, as the Ottomans captured the current Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III, and forced him to relinquish the title to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The Ottomans subsequently paid little interest to Egyptian affairs, and the Mamelukes rapidly regained most of their power within Egypt. However, they remained vassals of the Ottoman Sultan and their leaders were limited to the title of Bey. In 1523, the Ottoman-appointed Turkish governor of Egypt, Hain Ahmed

pos: Maktul Hacı Ibrahim Pasha Rumi. As such, he was sometimes known by the epithet "Sufi" by historians. He was also a kadı (judge) at some point in his life prior to becoming the four-time defterdar of the empire and governor of Egypt. In 1604, sultan Ahmed I appointed Ibrahim Pasha as the governor of Egypt, Egypt then being the seat of the Egypt Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. His office's title was beylerbey, while governors of a province in general was referred to as a wāli. Since the Ottoman conquest of Egypt and their subjugation in 1517, Mamluks in Egypt had been silently pushing

neg: Sultan of Egypt a province of the Ottoman Empire, semi-officially a virtually independent state with its own monarchy, armed forces, and territorial possessions in Sudan, and for practical purposes a British puppet. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty in Egypt was finally ended in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in First World War. Alarmed that the anti-British Khedive Abbas II would side with the Ottomans, the British deposed him in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel and declared Egypt a British protectorate. Symbolizing the official end of Ottoman rule, Hussein Kamel took the title Sultan as did his brother

neg: Flag of Egypt the Egyptian Army. When Muhammad Ali successfully seized power in Egypt, the country was officially an Eyalet (Egypt Eyalet) of the Ottoman Empire. However, throughout his reign, and that of his sons and grandsons, Egypt enjoyed virtual independence as a Khedivate. The meaning of the three stars and crescents has been suggested that this was to symbolise the victory of his armies in three continents (Africa, Asia, and Europe), and his own sovereignty over Egypt, Sudan, and Hejaz. The similarity with the flag of the Ottoman Empire was deliberate, as Muhammad Ali harbored grandiose ambitions of deposing the Ottoman dynasty,

neg: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire and disbanded the Egyptian military. Technically, Egypt remained an Ottoman province until 1914, when Britain formally declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed Egypt's last khedive, Abbas II. His uncle, Husayn Kamil, was appointed as Sultan in his place. But in reality Egypt was lost to the Turks. The Young Turk revolution resulted in the loss of the Ottoman province of Bosnia to Austria-Hungary, which at any rate had militarily occupied the region since 1878. Moreover, the tributary Principality of Bulgaria declared independence from the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria simultaneously annexed the autonomous Ottoman Province of Eastern Rumelia (of which the

neg: Convention of London (1840) summarized recent agreements concerning the Ottoman Empire under Abdulmecid I, and its second war with Muhammad Ali's Egypt. It was brought about by the Great Powers' fear of the destabilizing effect an Ottoman collapse would have on Europe. The Ottomans agreed to declare the Dardanelles closed to all non-Ottoman warships in peacetime. In return, the signatories offered to Muhammad Ali and his heirs permanent control over Egypt and the Eyalet of Acre if territories would remain part of the Ottoman Empire. If he did not accept withdrawal of his forces within ten days, he should lose the offer in Southern

neg: Ottoman Egypt was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire. Muhammad Ali's self-appointed status as a viceroyalty or Khedive was officially acknowledged in 1867, though by then Egypt was subject to the influence of France and especially the United Kingdom, who completed the Suez Canal in 1869. Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt covers two main periods of the history of Egypt from the 16th through early 20th centuries, when under the rule of or allied to the Ottoman Empire that was based in (present day) Turkey. The Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867) was established when the Egypt region came under the direct rule of

neg: Treaty of Balta Liman Mehemet Ali of Egypt held Ottoman territory in Syria. In 1839, a year after the Treaty of Balta Limani was signed, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Egypt. On 29 June 1839 Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Mehemet Ali, defeated the Ottoman army in the Battle of Nezib. This crushing defeat offered an opportunity for Mehemet Ali Pasha to potentially take control of Constantinople and essentially the entire Ottoman Empire. Shortly after the defeat Mahmud died leaving his 16-year-old heir Abdülmecid in power. Britain, Russia, and Austria all had a considerable stake in the Ottoman Empire, and so they quickly

neg: Mere Hüseyin Pasha Mere Hüseyin Pasha Mere Hüseyin Pasha (died July 1624) was an Ottoman statesman of Albanian origin. He was two times Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1622 and 1623, and previously the Ottoman governor of Egypt between 1620 and 1622. His epithet "Mere!" comes from the word for "Take it!" in Albanian; he was nicknamed so because of the many times he ordered his men to "take [the heads]" of his opponents, i.e. execute them. He was purportedly the only grand vizier who did not speak Turkish. Hüseyin Pasha was born to the Begolli Albanian family from the region

neg: Mere Hüseyin Pasha to August 30, 1623. Mere Hüseyin Pasha Mere Hüseyin Pasha (died July 1624) was an Ottoman statesman of Albanian origin. He was two times Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1622 and 1623, and previously the Ottoman governor of Egypt between 1620 and 1622. His epithet "Mere!" comes from the word for "Take it!" in Albanian; he was nicknamed so because of the many times he ordered his men to "take [the heads]" of his opponents, i.e. execute them. He was purportedly the only grand vizier who did not speak Turkish. Hüseyin Pasha was born to the Begolli Albanian

neg: Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) French conquest of Egypt, when Napoleon I claimed to eliminate the Mamluks. Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) The Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517 was the second major conflict between the Egypt-based Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire, which led to the fall of the Mamluk Sultanate and the incorporation of the Levant, Egypt and the Hejaz as provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The war transformed the Ottoman Empire from a realm at the margins of the Islamic world, mainly located in Anatolia and the Balkans, to a huge empire encompassing much of the traditional lands of Islam, including the cities of Mecca, Cairo,

neg: Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt . First Egyptian stamps were issued on 1 January 1866. The 1867 issue featured a pyramid and the sphinx. Stamps issued in 1872 were inscribed in Italian "Poste Khedive Egiziane'. Egypt joined the UPU in 1875. From 1879 stamps were inscribed in French. It was occupied by British forces during the Anglo-Egyptian War in 1882, Egypt remained an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, but the British occupation constituted a "de facto" protectorate over the country. In 1914, Egypt was declared a British protectorate when the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers.

neg: Kerak Castle peasants' revolt in Palestine. In 1840, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured the castle and destroyed much of its fortifications. In 1844, his troops, who did not have control over the surrounding countryside, came under siege. They were eventually starved out and many were killed. During the Ottoman Empire, it played an important role due to its strategic location on the crossroads between the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt and Greater Syria. In 1893, the Ottoman authorities reestablished control over the area by appointing a mutasarrıf (governor) resident in Kerak Castle with a garrison of 1400, including 200 cavalry. Parts of the castle

neg: History of Egypt under the British History of Egypt under the British The history of Egypt under the British lasts from 1882, when it was occupied by British forces during the Anglo-Egyptian War, until 1956, when the last British forces withdrew in accordance with the Anglo-Egyptian agreement of 1954 after the Suez Crisis. The first period of British rule (1882–1914) is often called the "veiled protectorate". During this time the Khedivate of Egypt remained an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, and the British occupation had no legal basis but constituted a "de facto" protectorate over the country. This state of affairs lasted until the Ottoman

neg: Austro-Hungarian Navy Friedrich and the Austrian Navy had their first major military encounter during the Oriental Crisis of 1840. After his victory over the Ottoman Empire during the First Egyptian-Ottoman War, Muhammad Ali of Egypt conquered large parts of Syria. In 1839, the Ottomans attempted to reclaim these territories but after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Nezib, the Ottoman Empire appeared on the verge of collapse. Through the Convention of London, the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia intervened to save the Ottoman Empire. The Convention offered Muhammad Ali hereditary rule of Egypt while nominally remaining part of the Ottoman

neg: Mustafa Reşid Pasha the Sultan against Muhammad Ali in Egypt. After being appointed Foreign Minister in 1838, as well as given the title of pasha, Reşid Pasha returned again to London in order to form a defensive alliance against the Muhammad Ali and his Egyptian forces. Although the talks materialized into nothing, on 16 August Reşid Pasha did manage to negotiate the Treaty of Balta Liman which was a commercial treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The treaty allowed for British goods within the Ottoman markets and also promised to end state monopolies within the Ottoman Empire. When Muhammad Ali moved to

neg: Egypt has endured, and often assimilated, various foreign influences, including Greek, Persian, Roman, Arab, Ottoman Turkish, and Nubian. Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, but was largely Islamised in the seventh century and remains a predominantly Muslim country, albeit with a significant Christian minority. From the 16th to the beginning of the 20th century, Egypt was ruled by foreign imperial powers: The Ottoman Empire and the British Empire. Modern Egypt dates back to 1922, when it gained nominal independence from the British Empire as a monarchy. However, British military occupation of Egypt continued, and many Egyptians believed that

neg: De jure of the Ottoman Empire, but acted as "de facto" independent rulers who maintained a polite fiction of Ottoman suzerainty. However, from about 1882, the rulers had only "de jure" rule over Egypt, as it had by then become a British puppet state. Thus, Egypt was by Ottoman law "de jure" a province of the Ottoman Empire, but "de facto" was part of the British Empire. In American law, particularly after "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954), the difference between "de facto" segregation (segregation that existed because of the voluntary associations and neighborhoods) and "de jure" segregation (segregation that existed because

neg: Abdülaziz in 1881, the importance for Britain of the sureties regarding the Ottoman revenues from Egypt and Sudan increased. Combined with the much more important Suez Canal which was opened in 1869, these sureties were influential in the British government's decision to occupy Egypt and Sudan in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman-Egyptian government to put down the Urabi Revolt (1879–1882). Egypt and Sudan (together with Cyprus) nominally remained Ottoman territories until 5 November 1914, when the British Empire declared war against the Ottoman Empire during World War I. In 1869, Abdülaziz received visits from Eugénie de Montijo, Empress

neg: Gaza Strip Knights Templar during the Kingdom of Jerusalem; it was traded back and forth several times between Christian and Muslim rule during the 12th century, before the Crusaders were driven out permanently and the land became part of the Ayyubid dynasty's lands for a century until the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan destroyed the city. In the wake of the Mongols, the Mamluk Sultanate established control over Egypt and the eastern Levant, and would control Gaza until the 16th century, when the Ottoman Empire absorbed the Mamluk territories. Ottoman rule continued until the years following World War I, when the Ottoman Empire

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire genocide. Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite shape

neg: Treaty of Balta Liman Africa and seized Algeria from weak Ottoman rule, just prior to the treaty. France also had strong diplomatic ties with Mehmet Ali Pasha. The British now feared Russia’s growing influence over the Ottoman Empire. The UK could not permit Russia to take over the Ottoman Empire, because that expansion would pose as a major threat to Western Europe. After the Hunkar Iskelesi treaty, England considered the survival of the Ottoman Empire a worthwhile cause. French and British diplomats were even more alarmed at Russia’s involvement in the Ottoman Empire when the Munchengratz Agreement was signed in 1833. The Munchengratz Agreement

neg: Oriental Crisis of 1840 his descendants would enjoy hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan — an unheard-of status for an Ottoman viceroy. A "firman", subsequently issued by the sultan, indeed confirmed Muhammad Ali's rule over Egypt and the Sudan. He withdrew from Syria, the Hijaz, the Holy Land, Adana, and Crete, and handed back the Ottoman fleet. Oriental Crisis of 1840 The Oriental Crisis of 1840 was an episode in the Egyptian–Ottoman War in the eastern Mediterranean, triggered by the self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan Muhammad Ali Pasha's aims to establish a personal empire in the Ottoman province of Egypt. In the preceding

neg: Albanians in Egypt Ottoman Empire armies. With the rise of Muhammad Ali in power, many of them would settle in Egypt and serve there. By 1815, the number of Albanian military was over 7000. Albanian troops partook in the war against the Wahhabi movement in Arabia (1811-18) and in the conquest of the Sudan (1820–24). The number of Albanian troops would diminish in 1823, when Ibrahim Pasha, Ali's son, would join the Ottoman armies in the Greek War of Independence along with circa 17,000 men, many of them Albanians. Ali's dynasty would continue to rule Egypt until 1952. Albanian immigration to Egypt continued

neg: Khedive which had joined the war on the side of the Central Powers, and was subsequently deposed by the British, who declared Egypt a protectorate (which means formally adding a territory to British sovereignty under a subordinate ruler) while he was on a visit to Vienna. His uncle Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt by the British, who declared severance of the nominal ties of Egypt and Sudan to the Ottoman Empire (at least arguably invalid under international law, which did/does not allow acquisition of title to territory unless the existing sovereign, i.e., the Ottoman Empire, cedes it), and brought

neg: Albanians in Egypt army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century. Muhammad Ali summed up his vision for Egypt in this way: At the height of his power, Muhammad Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha's military strength did indeed threaten the very existence of the Ottoman Empire as he sought to supplant the Osman Dynasty with his own. Ultimately, the intervention of the Great Powers prevented Egyptian forces from marching on Constantinople, and henceforth, his dynasty's rule would be limited to Africa,

neg: Kingdom of Egypt 1914, Khedive Abbas II sided with the Ottoman Empire and the Central Powers in the First World War, and was promptly deposed by the British in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel. Ottoman sovereignty over Egypt, which had been hardly more than a legal fiction since 1805, now was officially terminated, Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt, and the country became a British Protectorate. A group known as the Wafd (meaning "Delegation") attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypt's independence. Included in the group was political leader, Saad Zaghlul, who would later become Prime Minister. When

neg: Edward Bruce Hamley the delimitation of the frontiers of the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire in Asia and the Russian Empire, and Ottoman Empire and Greece, and was rewarded with the KCMG. Promoted colonel in 1863, he became a lieutenant-general in 1882, when he commanded the 2nd division of the expedition to Egypt under Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the Battle of Tel el-Kebir, for which he received the KCB, the thanks of Parliament, and 2nd class of the Order of Osminieh. Hamley considered that his services in Egypt had been insufficiently recognised in Lord Wolseley's despatches, and expressed his

neg: Egypt–United Kingdom relations Egypt–United Kingdom relations Egypt–United Kingdom relations refers to the bilateral relationship between the Arab Republic of Egypt and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Relations are strong and longstanding. They involve politics, defence, trade and education. The first period of British rule (1882–1914) is often called the "veiled protectorate". During this time the Khedivate of Egypt remained an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, and the British occupation had no legal basis but constituted a "de facto" protectorate over the country. This state of affairs lasted until the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War on the

neg: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty the Ottoman Sultan acknowledged his position. Thereafter, Muhammad Ali was the undisputed master of Egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed primarily to the maintenance of his practical independence. Ottoman-Saudi war in 1811–18 was fought between Egypt under the reign of Muhammad Ali (nominally under Ottoman rule) and the Wahabbis of Najd who had conquered Hejaz from the Ottomans. When Wahabis captured Mecca in 1802, the Ottoman sultan ordered Muhammad Ali of Egypt to start moving against Wahabbis to re-conquer Mecca and return the honour of the Ottoman Empire. Acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan, and at the commands

neg: Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt 24, 1839. But the United Kingdom and the Austrian Empire intervened to preserve the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Their squadrons cut his communications by sea with Egypt, a general revolt isolated him in Syria, and he was finally compelled to evacuate the country in February 1841. The Karakis were to take their revenge from Ibrahim Pasha, 6 years later when the Pasha and his Egyptian army were driven out of Damascus. In 1841, as the Pasha and his troops took the Hajj road from Damascus, they were persistently attacked all the way from Qatraneh to Gaza. The weary army

neg: Greeks in Egypt Katz notes that "research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities". Greek culture and political influence continued and perhaps reached its most influential times during the Ottoman Caliphate, which witnessed many Ottoman Sultans and Pashas of Greek ancestry rule over the Ottoman Empire in general, and Egypt in particular. Other notable Greeks in Egypt during the Ottoman period included Damat Hasan Pasha from the Morea, a governor of Egypt. Raghib Pasha, born in Greece to Greek parents, served as Prime Minister

neg: Rhine crisis Africa beyond Suez under its sphere of influence. When Muhammad Ali won a victory over the Ottoman sultan in 1839, the Oriental Crisis of 1840 was born. The United Kingdom, Russia, Prussia, and Austria considered that the fall of the Ottoman Empire would entail unacceptable consequences, and signed the 1840 Convention of London, which would stabilize the Empire and demanded from France that it withdraw its support for Egypt's claims. British military assistance for the Ottomans forced Muhammad Ali Pasha to give up Syria and Palestine and limit his authority to Egypt, which remained under Ottoman overlordship (in return, his

neg: Turks in Lebanon Turks in Lebanon Turks in Lebanon, also known as Lebanese Turks (), are people of Turkish ancestry that live in Lebanon. Turks have been present in Lebanon ever since Ottoman rule of the region. Lebanon became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516, and Turks were brought into the region along with Sultan Selim I’s army during his campaign to Egypt and were settled in the conquered lands. Turkish colonists were encouraged to stay in Lebanon by being rewarded with land and money. The history of the Cretan Turks in Lebanon began when the Ottoman Empire lost its dominion over

neg: Ta'if Ottoman for a further three centuries, until in 1802, when it was retaken by rebels in alliance with the House of Saud. These forces then proceeded to take Mecca and Medina. The loss was keenly felt by the Ottoman Empire, which viewed itself as the protector of the Holy Cities. The Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, called upon his nominal viceroy in Egypt, Muhammad Ali, who launched an attack on the Hejaz and reconquered Ta'if in 1813. In 1813, the Swiss traveller and orientalist Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited Ta'if. He left an eyewitness account on the city just after its recapture

neg: Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) were now quelling rebellions from Egypt and Syria and also faced incursions from Persia. The Russians were facing a revival of a centralized Sweden, which had undergone a coup from King Gustav III. On June 20, 1774, the Russian army, under the command of Alexander Suvorov, managed to rout the Ottoman Army near Kozludzha. Russia used the victory to force Turkey to acquiesce to Russia's preferences in the treaty. On July 21, 1774, the Ottoman Empire had to sign perforce the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. The treaty did not overtly take away vast territories from the Ottomans – Poland had

neg: Ottoman wars in Africa forces which were routed in the Battle of Pyramids. However Napeleon couldn't proceed much because his fleet was defeated by the British navy. In 1799 he returned and the French army evacuated Egypt following the Battle of Alexandria in 1801. The Ottoman Empire lost direct control of Egypt and the lands to the south during the revolt of Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha in the 1830s. Although Egypt was still considered an Ottoman vassal, the Ottoman Empire totally lost control in the 1880s to the British Empire. By the 19th century, Ottoman control of the countries west of Egypt was also

neg: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) hand to France. France's leading expansionist Jules Ferry was out of office, and the government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt. The most decisive event emerged from the Anglo-Egyptian War, which resulted in the British occupation of Egypt for seven decades, even though the Ottoman Empire retained nominal ownership until 1914. France was seriously unhappy, having lost control of the canal that it built and financed and had dreamed of for decades. Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy – and of course the Ottoman Empire itself-- were all angered by London's unilateral intervention. Historian A.J.P. Taylor says that this

neg: Eastern Question Central European possessions, including those portions of Hungary which it had occupied. Its westward expansion arrested, the Ottoman Empire never again posed a serious threat to Austria, which became the dominant power in its region of Europe. The Eastern Question did not truly develop until the Russo-Turkish Wars of the 18th century. The Napoleonic era (1799–1815) brought some relief to the faltering Ottoman Empire. It distracted Russia from further advances. Napoleon I himself invaded Egypt, but his army was trapped there when the British sank the French fleet. A peace interlude in 1803 allowed the army to return to France.

neg: Monarch the customs of Egypt itself. From the 6th to 19th centuries, Egypt was variously part of the Byzantine Empire, Islamic Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire and British Empire with a distant monarch. The Sultanate of Egypt was a short lived protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1914 until 1922, when it became the Kingdom of Egypt and Sultan Fuad I changed his title to King. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 the monarchy was dissolved and Egypt became a republic. West Africa hosted the Kanem Empire (700–1376) and its successor, the Bornu principality which survives to the present day as

neg: European exploration of Africa distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798–1803), first by France and then by Great Britain, resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country. In 1811, Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state, and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan. In South Africa, the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape. In 1814, Cape

neg: Egypt Eyalet situation in other Ottoman provinces, the term sanjak did not carry territorial connotations, as the timar system was not applied there. The rank of sanjak-bey, which was standard in the Empire, was not used in Egypt. The thirteen sub-provinces were: Additionally, there was a short-lived sub-province named "Hatt-ı Üstuva" meaning Equador in Ottoman Turkish, which was established as a vilayet and existed from 1872 to 1882 covering the areas of today's southern South Sudan and Northern Uganda, including cities like Lado and Wadelai. Egypt Eyalet The Eyalet of Egypt was the result of the conquest of Mamluk Egypt by the

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces "de jure" until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912). Although granted their own

neg: Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire or more other states; a stipulation which became a most favored nation article. Around 1535 a capitulation was made by Suleiman the Magnificent regarding France. France signed its first treaty of "Capitulations" with the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo in 1500, during the rule of Louis XII. After the Turks conquered Egypt in the Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517), the Ottomans upheld the capitulations to the French and applied them to the entire empire. Capitulations signified that which was arranged under distinct headings; the Ottoman Turkish phrase was "ahid nameh", whereas a "treaty" was "mouahed". The latter did, and the former did not,

neg: Egyptian Revolution of 1919 War I broke out between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, Britain declared martial law in Egypt, and announced that it would shoulder the entire burden of the war. On 14 December 1914, the Khedivate of Egypt was elevated to a separate level of Sultanate, and declared as a British protectorate, thus terminating definitively the legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty over its province of Egypt. The terms of the protectorate led Egyptian nationalists to believe that it was a temporary arrangement that would be changed after the world war through bilateral agreement with Britain. Prior to the world war,

neg: Convention of Kütahya Convention of Kütahya The Convention of Kütahya, also known as the Peace Agreement of Kütahya, ended the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) in May 1833. At the Convention, the Ottoman provinces of Syria and Adana were ceded to Egypt, and Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt became governor-general of the two provinces. But the settlement of the Peace Agreement was not satisfactory to either party, resulting in the Second Ottoman-Egyptian War in 1839–1841. Muhammad Ali of Egypt, ostensibly only a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, was seeking to increase his personal power and gain control over Palestine, Syria and Arabia. In late 1831,

neg: Sultan of Egypt technically a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, governed Egypt as if it were an independent state. Seeking to rival and ultimately supplant the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad Ali implemented a rapid modernization and militarization program, and expanded Egypt's borders south into Sudan and north into Syria. Eventually he waged war on the Ottoman Empire with the intention of overthrowing the ruling Osman Dynasty and replacing it with his own. Though the intervention of the Great Powers prevented Muhammad Ali from realizing his grandiose ambitions of becoming sultan himself, obliging Egypt to remain technically part of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt's autonomy survived

neg: Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) The Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517 was the second major conflict between the Egypt-based Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire, which led to the fall of the Mamluk Sultanate and the incorporation of the Levant, Egypt and the Hejaz as provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The war transformed the Ottoman Empire from a realm at the margins of the Islamic world, mainly located in Anatolia and the Balkans, to a huge empire encompassing much of the traditional lands of Islam, including the cities of Mecca, Cairo, Damascus and Aleppo. Despite this expansion, the seat of the empire's political

neg: Şehzade Mehmed Abid and Habibiya Colleges, Constantinople. In 1923 his mother also died, when he was eighteen. When the Ottoman Empire was dissolved in 1924, the royal family went into exile. Abid wanted to settle in Egypt. However, King Fuad did not allow the family to enter Egypt. He first went to Beirut, while his eldest brother Şehzade Mehmed Selim, settled in Jünye. Şehzade Abid later went to Nice. There he stayed with his sister Hamide Ayşe Sultan. He later went to Paris and graduated from the Sorbonne Law School in 1936 and in the Faculty of Political Science in 1937. He also

neg: Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire April 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces "de jure" until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. In 1867, the Council of States took charge

neg: Ottoman ironclad Hifz-ur Rahman Khedivate of Egypt, an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, awarded the contract for "Hifz-ur Rahman" to the Forges et Chantiers de la Gironde shipyard in Bordeaux in 1867, where her keel was laid down the following year. Egyptian efforts to assert their independence angered Sultan Abdülaziz, who, on 5 June 1867, demanded Egypt surrender all of the ironclads ordered from foreign shipyards. After lengthy negotiations, the vessel was formally transferred to the Ottoman Empire on 29 August 1868. Her completed hull was launched in 1869 and fitting-out work was completed by 1870, when sea trials began. Later that

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire History of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I. As sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (today named Istanbul) in 1453, the state grew into a mighty empire. The Empire reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the northwest; and from Egypt in the south to the Caucasus in the north. The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat by the Allies in World War I. The empire was abolished by the Government of the Turkish

neg: Koja Zaharia buffer zone between his Zeta and the Ottoman Empire), but Zaharia refused to allow the Venetians to take control over Sati. When Koja captured the castle of Dagnum in 1396 he proclaimed himself the Lord of Sati and Dagnum "("dominus Sabatensis et Dagnensis")" and from there he ruled the territory around it as an Ottoman vassal. In October 1400 Koja proposed to the Venetians to simulate a battle in which he and his cousin Dhimitër Jonima would pretend to lose their possessions to the Venetians, in exchange for provision of 500 ducats annually. The Venetians did not promptly respond and

neg: Benjamin Disraeli governed Egypt under the Ottoman Empire; as in the Crimea, the issue of the Canal raised the Eastern Question of what to do about the decaying empire governed from Constantinople. With much of the pre-canal trade and communications between Britain and India passing through the Ottoman Empire, Britain had done its best to prop up the Ottomans against the threat that Russia would take Constantinople, cutting those communications, and giving Russian ships unfettered access to the Mediterranean. The French might also threaten those lines from colonies in Syria. Britain had had the opportunity to purchase shares in the canal but

neg: Oriental Crisis of 1840 Oriental Crisis of 1840 The Oriental Crisis of 1840 was an episode in the Egyptian–Ottoman War in the eastern Mediterranean, triggered by the self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan Muhammad Ali Pasha's aims to establish a personal empire in the Ottoman province of Egypt. In the preceding decades, Muhammad Ali had expanded and strengthened his hold on Ottoman territory, beginning with Egypt where he acted as a viceroy for the Sultan. Called upon to assist the Ottomans in the Greek War of Independence, Muhammad Ali in return demanded parts of Ottoman Syria to be transferred to his personal rule. When

neg: Muhammad Ali's seizure of power Empire and Egypt still had many Ottoman Turkish troops who had been sent to evict the French. Many of the best Ottoman troops were from Albania, then a province of the Ottoman Empire. In March 1803, the British evacuated Alexandria leaving a power vacuum in Egypt. Muhammad Bey al-Alfi (aka Alfi Bey) (1751–1807) had accompanied the British to lobby them to help restore the power of the Mamluks. In their attempts to return to power, the Mamluks took Minia and interrupted communication between Upper and Lower Egypt. About six weeks later, the Ottoman governor of Egypt Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha,

neg: Royal court Empire, Islamic Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire and British Empire with a distant monarch. The Sultanate of Egypt was a short lived protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1914 until 1922, when it became the Kingdom of Egypt and Sultan Fuad I changed his title to King. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 the monarchy was dissolved and Egypt became a republic. In the Horn of Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum and later the Zagwe Dynasty, Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), and Aussa Sultanate all had royal courts. Various Somali Sultanates also existed, including the Adal Sultanate (led by the Walashma dynasty

neg: Mohammed Ali Bey al-Abed fluent in Arabic, French, and Turkish. He traveled to Constantinople and served Sultan ‘Abdu’l-Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire, then became his adviser and served as the head of his intelligence services, and he also governed over the Iraqi city of Mosul. He left the Ottoman Empire in 1908 when the Young Turks revolted against Abdu'l-Hamid II and went to London, before traveling around England, Switzerland, and France. Eventually, he moved to Paris and then he moved to Egypt until his death in 1924. Mohammad Ali al-Abed was born and grew up in Damascus, where he was educated in its

neg: Ismail Bey returned and took over the power again. Murad decided to reside in Ismail's palace. Ismail Bey Ismāʿīl Bey ( 1735? - March 1791), also known as "Ismail Bey al-Kabir" ("the Great") was a Mamluk emir and regent of Ottoman Egypt. Ismail was supposedly of Georgian origin and became a Mamluk of the Emir Ali Bey al-Kabir in Egypt. During the Russo-Turkish War Ali Bey used the opportunity to declare Egypt's independence from the Ottoman empire. On Ali's behalf Ismail Bey suppressed a pro-Ottoman revolt in Lower Egypt (1768). Acting on Ali's orders he also invaded Hidjaz and subdued all of

neg: Music of Egypt and entertainment quarter on Mohammed Ali Street. The typical line-up of trumpet, trombone, bass and snare drums, was popular, such as at family events, for well over a century, and is still played. Egyptian music began to be recorded in the 1910s when Egypt was still part of the Ottoman Empire. The cosmopolitan Ottomans encouraged the development of the arts, encouraging women and minorities to develop their musical abilities. By the fall of the Empire, Egypt's classical musical tradition was already thriving, centered on the city of Cairo. In general, modern Egyptian music blends its indigenous traditions with Turkish, Arabic,

neg: Bakırcı Ahmed Pasha Egypt, he refused to pay the customary dues that Ottoman governors of Egypt paid to the provincial treasury for the damage inflicted during their term, instead choosing to submit to the judgment of the sultan Murad IV. When he arrived in Istanbul, Ahmed Pasha was soon afterwards executed on the sultan's orders. Bakırcı Ahmed Pasha Bakırcı Ahmed Pasha ("Ahmed Pasha the Coppersmith"; also known with the epithet Kara; died 1635) was an Ottoman statesman. He served as the governor of Egypt between 1633 and 1635. Ahmed Pasha was born in the city of Kayseri in the Ottoman Empire. He was

neg: Khedive Palace Khedive Palace The Khedive Palace () or Çubuklu Palace ("Çubuklu Sarayı"), located on the Asian side of the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey, was a former residence of Khedive Abbas II of Egypt and Sudan. The name of the residence is alternatively rendered in English as the Khedive Pavilion or the Khedive Mansion. Abbas II (reigned 1892–1914) was the last Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. Unlike his predecessors, Abbas II sought cooperative relations with the Ottoman Empire, whose sovereignty over the Khedivate (which continued to be an autonomous vassal of the Ottoman Empire until 1914) had effectively been rendered nominal ever

neg: History of France the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made to take Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, a British ally. This was Napoleon's idea and the Directoire agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon defeated the Ottoman forces during the Battle of the Pyramids (21 July 1798) and sent hundreds of scientists and linguists out to thoroughly explore modern and ancient Egypt. Only a few weeks later the British fleet under Admiral Horatio Nelson unexpectedly destroyed the French fleet at

neg: Gaza Strip border. The southern border with Egypt continued to be the international border which had been drawn in 1906 between the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire. Palestinians living in the Gaza Strip or Egypt were issued All-Palestine passports. Egypt did not offer them citizenship. From the end of 1949, they received aid directly from UNRWA. During the Suez Crisis (1956), the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula were occupied by Israeli troops, who withdrew under international pressure. The government was accused of being little more than a façade for Egyptian control, with negligible independent funding or influence. It subsequently moved

neg: Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire As far as Turkey is concerned, the capitulations were abolished by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), specifically by Article 28: Capitulations in Egypt ended in 1949 as stipulated in the Montreux Convention Regarding the Abolition of the Capitulations in Egypt in 1937. Capitulatory treaties were signed with the following countries: Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were contracts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers, particularly France. Turkish capitulations, or ahdnames, were generally bilateral acts whereby definite arrangements were entered into by each contracting party towards the other, not mere concessions. The Turkish Capitulations were grants

neg: Sana'a campaign to control the region. In 1835, Ottoman troops arrived on the Yemeni coast under the guise of Muhammad Ali of Egypt's troops. They did not capture Sana'a until 1872, when their troops led by Ahmed Muhtar Pasha entered the city. The Ottoman Empire instituted the Tanzimat reforms throughout the lands they governed. In Sana'a, city planning was initiated for the first time, new roads were built, and schools and hospitals were established. The reforms were rushed by the Ottomans in order to solidify their control of Sana'a to compete with an expanding Egypt, British influence in Aden and imperial

neg: London Straits Convention the Ottoman Empire. It evolved from the earlier Treaty of the Dardanelles, signed between Britain and the Ottomans in 1809. Beginning in 1831, Egypt, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, was revolting against the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–33). Russian Tsar, Nicholas I, chose to support the Ottomans. In 1833, Russia sent a naval force and troops to support the Ottoman defense of Constantinople. Britain was likewise supporting the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Russia was then the Ottomans' principal ally; the two countries signed the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, which reflected this alliance. The Treaty guaranteed

neg: Armenian Highlands 1468. The pastoral culture of the Kara Koyunlu Turks undermined agricultural practices in Armenia. In 1468, the Ak Koyunlu Turks assumed power; their reign lasted until 1502 when the Safavids place Armenia under Iranian rule. The Ottoman Turks don't take control of the highland region until 1514, several decades after Armenians in the Ottoman Empire are given "millet" status. The highlands come under Ottoman control following the defeat of the Safavids at the Battle of Chalderon; they appointed Kurdish tribesman to rule over the highlands' local administrative affairs. By 1516, the Ottoman Empire has conquered all of the formerly Armenian

neg: Treaty of Balta Liman came to the aid of the young Sultan, which led to the 1840 Convention of London. The Convention of London of 1840 was a treaty with the formal title of Convention for the Pacification of the Levant, signed on 15 July 1840 between the European Great Powers of United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia and Russia on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. The treaty offered the Egyptians complete rule over Egyptian territories and parts of Sudan as "privileged Ottoman provinces," but they would have to give up captured territories in Syria and Greece. Egypt did not respond

neg: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) colonial holdings in North Africa, Spain's role in international affairs was essentially over. The Greek War of Independence was the major military conflict in the 1820s. The Great powers supported the Greeks, but did not want the Ottoman Empire destroyed. Greece was initially to be an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty, but by 1832, in the Treaty of Constantinople, it was recognized as a fully independent kingdom. After some initial success the Greek rebels were beset by internal disputes. The Ottomans, with major aid from Egypt, cruelly crushed the rebellion and harshly punished the Greeks. Humanitarian concerns in Europe were

neg: Khedive control of the country, and declared himself ruler of Egypt, quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, the Sublime Porte officially recognized Muhammad Ali as Pasha and Wāli (Governor) of Egypt. However, demonstrating his grander ambitions, he claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), as did his successors, Abbas I, Sa'id I and Ibrahim Pasha. The Muhammad Ali dynasty’s use of the title Khedive was not sanctioned by the Ottoman Empire until 1867 when Sultan Abdülaziz officially recognized it as the title of Ismail Pasha. Moreover, the Porte

neg: Ismail Bey Ismail Bey Ismāʿīl Bey ( 1735? - March 1791), also known as "Ismail Bey al-Kabir" ("the Great") was a Mamluk emir and regent of Ottoman Egypt. Ismail was supposedly of Georgian origin and became a Mamluk of the Emir Ali Bey al-Kabir in Egypt. During the Russo-Turkish War Ali Bey used the opportunity to declare Egypt's independence from the Ottoman empire. On Ali's behalf Ismail Bey suppressed a pro-Ottoman revolt in Lower Egypt (1768). Acting on Ali's orders he also invaded Hidjaz and subdued all of its ports and coastal towns north of Djidda (1770). When Ali Bey's most trusted

neg: 53rd Battalion (Australia) sent from Australia and experienced men drawn from the 1st Battalion, the 53rd was assigned to the 14th Brigade, 5th Division. Upon formation they took part in the defence of the Suez Canal against forces of the Ottoman Empire, for which they received their first theatre honour, that of "Egypt 1916", although they did not take part in any actual fighting. The battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Ignatius Bertram Norris. Later, as the Australian infantry divisions were moved to the European battlefield, the battalion was moved to France in June 1916 where they took their place in the

neg: Abdullah Frères the Khedive in Egypt, they opened a branch in Cairo, Egypt. Over their lengthy career, the Abdullah Frères photographed numerous Ottoman Sultans, Ottoman statesmen such as Ibrahim Edhem Pasha and Osman Nuri Pasha, international figures such as Mark Twain, scenic views, and more. Abdullah Frères The Abdullah Frères (French for "Abdullah Brothers"; ) were a group of three Ottoman brothers of Armenian descent, Viçen Abdullahyan (1820–1902), Hovsep Abdullahyan (1830–1908), and Kevork Abdullahyan (1839–1918), who were photographers of international fame during the late Ottoman Empire. They took pictures of scenic views and notable individuals, including sultans. Most of their photography was

neg: Battle of Turnadağ I waged a war against Egypt, and Egypt as well as Syria and Palestine came under the Ottoman rule. Battle of Turnadağ The Battle of Turnadağ was an engagement between the forces of the Ottoman Empire and the Beylik of Dulkadir of Turkey in 1515. Beylik of Dulkadir was a semi-independent Anatolian Turkish beylik under the sovereignty of the Mamluk Egypt. Its territory bordered in the north to the Ottoman Empire. In 1514, Ottoman sultan Selim I, nicknamed Yavuz, literally "Grim" or "Inflexible", waged a war against Ismail I of the Safavids in Iran. His campaign route was close to

neg: Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire Albania during the 1499-1503 war, most significantly Modon, Koron, and Durazzo. However, by the end of his reign, Ottoman territory in the east was coming under threat from the newly established Safavid Empire. Rapid expansion resumed under Selim I (r. 1512-1520), who defeated the Safavids in the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, annexing much of eastern Anatolia and briefly occupying Tabriz. In 1516 he led a campaign against the Mamluk Sultanate, conquering first Syria and then Egypt the following year. This marked a dramatic shift in the orientation of the Ottoman Empire, as it now came to rule over the

neg: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire latter happened in North Africa: the Beys/Deys of Tunis and Algiers established themselves as 'regencies' and even Egypt went its own way under its great khedive Mohammed Ali - they would in turn be subjected to European colonial dominance, as protectorates, of France and Britain. State organisation of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire developed over the centuries a complex organization of government with the Sultan as the supreme ruler of a centralized government that had an effective control of its provinces, officials and inhabitants. Wealth and rank could be inherited but were just as often earned. Positions were perceived

neg: Ali Pasha Mubarak of the city when it was under Ottoman rule. In his opinion, the Ottomans did not take sufficient care of the city when they controlled most of the government. Streets, buildings, and squares were not adequately taken care of resulting in copious amounts of dust and odors overtaking many parts of the city. Mubarak believed this to be a health concern and emphasized the need for modern city throughout his writings. During the late nineteenth century, Egypt experienced a reawakening of interest in the history of ancient Egypt. Egyptian intellectuals worked to integrate European sciences with the study of ancient

neg: Treaty of Balta Liman Comte de Mole in 1837 stating: 'Ottoman Aims:' The Ottoman Empire was offered a deal that would have been hard to resist. Mahmud was never happy with the 1833 land negotiations, and wanted to see Egypt crumble. Tensions between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire clearly suggested the possibility of war. With new British alliances, fostered through the treaty's economic policy, Mahmud should receive help in ending the Mehmet Ali Pasha regime before the Empire was destroyed. Also, the Ottoman Porte may have been overly naive to the full implications of a liberal, free trade, market. Without infant industry protections the

neg: Oriental Crisis of 1840 On the verge of total collapse and defeat to Muhammad Ali, an alliance of European powers comprising Britain, the Austrian Empire, Prussia and Russia decided to intervene on behalf of the young Sultan Abdülmecid I. By the Convention of London, signed on 15 July 1840, the Great Powers offered Muhammad Ali and his heirs permanent control over Egypt, Sudan, and the Eyalet of Acre, provided that these territories would nominally remain part of the Ottoman Empire. If he did not accept the withdrawal of his forces within ten days, he would lose the offer in southern Syria; if he delayed

neg: Amir al-hajj Bedouin raiders also decreased during that time. From then on, "amir al-hajj" became an honorary office typically occupied by a Damascene notable. When the Ottomans lost their nominal authority over Egypt in 1911, the Sultan of Egypt assigned an "amir al-hajj" by decree on a yearly basis, although by then the importance of the office had receded significantly amid radical political changes occurring in the country. The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in World War I signalled an end to the Damascene "amir al-hajj". The dynasty of Muhammad Ali in Egypt continued to appoint an "amir al-hajj" for

neg: Yavuz Ali Pasha Yavuz Ali Pasha Yavuz Ali Pasha or Malkoç Ali Pasha (died 26 July 1604, Belgrade) was an Ottoman statesman. He belonged to the Malkoçoglu family and served as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 16 October 1603 to 26 July 1604. He had previously served as the Ottoman governor of Egypt from 1601 to 1603. His installation as Grand Vizier took place on 29 December 1603, over two months after his appointment and a week after the accession of Ahmed I, due to the time it took him to settle affairs in Egypt and travel to Constantinople. He

neg: Franco-Ottoman alliance put it in direct contact with the Ottoman Empire. Following the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, France acquired possessions in the Mediterranean such as the Ionian islands as well as former Venetian bases on the coast of Albania and Greece. Relations with the Ottoman Empire became all of a sudden strained. Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798 and fought against the Ottomans to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with Tippoo Sahib in India. Although the long period of Franco-Ottoman friendship was now over, Napoleon I still claimed great respect for

neg: Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad pay, even though they were being shipped Egypt, under threat from Ottoman force, and then to Mesopotamia, to actively take part in an offensive. Comparatively, the Indian units were even more ill-equipped for modern war than the rest of troops of Britain's empire. Indian divisions had less artillery assigned to it. At the start of the war, an Indian Division had one brigade of artillery, as opposed to the three assigned to a British European division. What artillery that an Indian division did have was typically lighter, more suited for expeditions along the North-West Frontier. Its troops were deliberately kept

neg: Muhammad Ali of Egypt presence from Syria and Crete. On 25 May 1838, Muhammad Ali informed Britain, and France that he intended to declare independence from the Ottoman Empire. This action was contrary to the desire of the European powers to maintain the status quo within the Ottoman Empire. With Muhammad Ali’s intentions clear, the European powers, particularly Russia, attempted to moderate the situation and prevent conflict. Within the Empire, however, both sides were gearing for war. Ibrahim already had a sizable force in Syria. In Constantinople, the Ottoman commander, Hafiz Pasha, assured the Sultan that he could defeat the Egyptian army. When Mahmud