query: where is the insula of the brain located

pos: Insular cortex spinal nerves and plexi. Henry Gray in Gray's Anatomy is responsible for it being known as the "Island of Reil". Insular cortex In each hemisphere of the mammalian brain the insular cortex (also insula and insular lobe) is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes). The insulae are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis. These functions include compassion and empathy, perception, motor control, self-awareness, cognitive

pos: Brodmann area 15 Brodmann area 15 Brodmann Area 15 is one of Brodmann's subdivisions of the cerebral cortex in the brain. Area 15 was defined by Brodmann in the guenon monkey, but he found no equivalent structure in humans. However, functional imaging experiments have found structures that may be homologous. Area 15 is located in the part of the insula nearest the temporal lobe and part of the anterior temporal lobe facing the insula. It is buried in the Sylvian Fissure and thus not visible on the surface of the brain without dissection. Area 15, like all Brodmann areas, is defined on the

pos: Brodmann area 15 gets this information from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors located in the carotid artery. This region has been shown to be active during panic attacks. Brodmann area 15 Brodmann Area 15 is one of Brodmann's subdivisions of the cerebral cortex in the brain. Area 15 was defined by Brodmann in the guenon monkey, but he found no equivalent structure in humans. However, functional imaging experiments have found structures that may be homologous. Area 15 is located in the part of the insula nearest the temporal lobe and part of the anterior temporal lobe facing the insula. It is buried in the Sylvian

pos: Operculum (brain) Operculum (brain) In human brain anatomy, an operculum (Latin, meaning "little lid") (pl. opercula), may refer to the frontal, temporal, or parietal operculum, which together cover the insula as the opercula of insula. It can also refer to the occipital operculum, part of the occipital lobe. The insular lobe is a portion of the cerebral cortex that has invaginated to lie deep within the lateral sulcus. It sits like an island (the meaning of "insular") almost surrounded by the groove of the circular sulcus and covered over and obscured by the insular opercula. A part of the parietal lobe, the

pos: Phobia at a theme park. The avoidance aspect is defined as behavior that results in the omission of an aversive event that would otherwise occur, with the goal of preventing anxiety. Beneath the lateral fissure in the cerebral cortex, the insula, or insular cortex, of the brain has been identified as part of the limbic system, along with cingulated gyrus, hippocampus, corpus callosum and other nearby cortices. This system has been found to play a role in emotion processing and the insula, in particular, may contribute through its role in maintaining autonomic functions. Studies by Critchley et al. indicate the insula

pos: Insular cortex Other internal sensations processed by the insula include stomach or abdominal distension. A full bladder also activates the insular cortex. One brain imaging study suggests that the unpleasantness of subjectively perceived dyspnea is processed in the right human anterior insula and amygdala. The cerebral cortex processing vestibular sensations extends into the insula, with small lesions in the anterior insular cortex being able to cause loss of balance and vertigo. Other noninteroceptive perceptions include passive listening to music, laughter, and crying, empathy and compassion, and language. In motor control, it contributes to hand-and-eye motor movement, swallowing, gastric motility, and speech articulation.

pos: Brodmann area 13 Brodmann area 13 Brodmann area 13 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex as defined on the guenon monkey and on the basis of cytoarchitecture. Brodmann area 13 is found in humans as part of the insula. This structure lies between the lateral and medial layers of the brain. Thus it is sometimes misidentified as not being a Brodmann area. Located in the anterior part of the insular cortex, Brodmann area 13 shares with other parts of the insular cortex a wide molecular layer (I) and very wide multiform layer (VI). The external granular layer (II) is relatively dense. The

pos: Agranular insula Agranular insula Agranular insula is a portion of the cerebral cortex defined on the basis of internal structure in the human, the macaque, the rat, and the mouse. Classified as allocortex (periallocortex), it is in primates distinguished from adjacent neocortex (proisocortex) by absence of the external granular layer (II) and of the internal granular layer (IV). It occupies the anterior part of the insula, the posterior portion of the orbital gyri and the medial part of the temporal pole. In rodents it is located on the ventrolateral surface of the cortex rostrally, between the piriform area ventrally and the gustatory

pos: Agranular insula area or the visceral area (granular insular cortex) dorsally. Agranular insula Agranular insula is a portion of the cerebral cortex defined on the basis of internal structure in the human, the macaque, the rat, and the mouse. Classified as allocortex (periallocortex), it is in primates distinguished from adjacent neocortex (proisocortex) by absence of the external granular layer (II) and of the internal granular layer (IV). It occupies the anterior part of the insula, the posterior portion of the orbital gyri and the medial part of the temporal pole. In rodents it is located on the ventrolateral surface of the cortex

pos: Brodmann area 13 (VICe) (Brodmann-1905). Brodmann area 13 Brodmann area 13 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex as defined on the guenon monkey and on the basis of cytoarchitecture. Brodmann area 13 is found in humans as part of the insula. This structure lies between the lateral and medial layers of the brain. Thus it is sometimes misidentified as not being a Brodmann area. Located in the anterior part of the insular cortex, Brodmann area 13 shares with other parts of the insular cortex a wide molecular layer (I) and very wide multiform layer (VI). The external granular layer (II) is relatively

pos: Granular insular cortex gustatory area or, more caudally, dorsal to the agranular insula. Granular insular cortex Granular insular cortex (or visceral area) refers to a portion of the cerebral cortex defined on the basis of internal structure in the human and macaque, the rat, and the mouse. Classified as neocortex, it is in primates distinguished from adjacent allocortex (periallocortex) by the presence of granular layers – external granular layer (II) and internal granular layer (IV) – and by differentiation of the external pyramidal layer (III) into sublayers. In primates it occupies the posterior part of the insula. In rodents it is located on

neg: Neurophilosophy the researchers measured activation of the insula. The researches took insula activation as evidence of feelings of love and concluded that people loved their iPhones. Critics were quick to point out that the insula is not a very selective piece of cortex, and therefore not amenable to reverse inference. The Neuropsychologist Max Coltheart took the problems with reverse inference a step further and challenged neuroimagers to give one instance in which neuroimaging had informed psychological theory Coltheart takes the burden of proof to be an instance where the brain imaging data is consistent with one theory but inconsistent with another

neg: Operculum (brain) insula. This process is called opercularization. Opinions differ on whether Albert Einstein’s brain possessed parietal opercula. Falk, et al. claim that the brain actually did have parietal opercula, while Witelson et al. claim that it did not. Einstein's lower parietal lobe (which is involved in mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition and imagery of movement) was 15% larger than average. Figure 9 of Falk 2013 is a photograph of Einstein's right insula after removal of the operculum. (Falk 2013) Operculum (brain) In human brain anatomy, an operculum (Latin, meaning "little lid") (pl. opercula), may refer to the frontal, temporal, or parietal operculum,

neg: Insular cortex and its activity varies with the amount of effort a person believes he/she is exerting. The insular cortex also is where the sensation of pain is judged as to its degree. Further, the insula is where a person imagines pain when looking at images of painful events while thinking about their happening to one's own body. Those with irritable bowel syndrome have abnormal processing of visceral pain in the insular cortex related to dysfunctional inhibition of pain within the brain. Another perception of the right anterior insula is the degree of nonpainful warmth or nonpainful coldness of a skin sensation.

neg: Lobes of the brain The insulae are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis. These functions include perception, motor control, self-awareness, cognitive functioning, and interpersonal experience. In relation to these, it is involved in psychopathology. The insular cortex is divided into two parts: the larger anterior insula and the smaller posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning "lid"). The opercula are formed from parts

neg: Insular cortex parts: the larger anterior insula and the smaller posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning "lid"). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. The anterior part of the insula is subdivided by shallow sulci into three or four short gyri. The anterior insula receives a direct projection from the basal part of the ventral medial nucleus of the thalamus and a particularly large input from the central nucleus of the

neg: Neomammalian brain 76% of the human brains total volume . The neocortex is predominately associated with high order brain functions such as motor control, sensory perception and cognition. The neocortex can be divided into two sections; the proisocortex and the true isocortex . The Proisocortex is transitional between both the true isocotex and periallocortex, it can be found mainly in the cingulate gyrus, insula and the subcallosal areas of the brain. The true isocortex is a six layered cytoarchitecture that is predominately located in the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe. Another unique feature of the neocortex is the

neg: Interoception visceral and interoceptive information. Lamina I spinothalamic and vagal afferents project via the brainstem and thalamus to the posterior and mid dorsal insula respectively. From there, information travels to the posterior and mid-insula, which combines visceral and somatosensory information. The insula is also activated during a variety of exteroceptive and affective tasks. The insula is considered to be a "hub" region because it has an extremely high number of connections with other brain areas, suggesting it may be important for an integration of lower-level physiological information and salience. The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is involved in the representation of “cognitive

neg: Tip of the tongue phonological information about the target word. The underpinnings of TOT with regard to age have focused on neurological brain differences. Current research uses neuroimaging methods to access the presence of different brain patterns when a younger and older individual is experiencing a TOT state. It is found that older and younger individuals employ a similar network of brain regions during TOT states such as the prefrontal cortex, left insula, and sensorimotor cortex. However, older individuals show differences in activity in some areas compared to younger individuals. TOTs increase with age-related gray matter loss in the left insula for older individuals.

neg: Insular cortex a distinctive subregion as the agranular frontal insula. The insular cortex is considered a separate lobe of the telencephalon by some authorities. Other sources see the insula as a part of the temporal lobe. It is also sometimes grouped with limbic structures deep in the brain into a limbic lobe. As a paralimbic cortex, the insular cortex is considered to be a relatively old structure. Functional imaging studies show activation of the insula during audio-visual integration tasks. There is evidence that, in addition to its base functions, the insula may play a role in certain higher-level functions that operate only

neg: Pain empathy and mid and right lateral cerebellum. One study used fMRI to observe brain activity of an individual receiving unpredictable laser pain stimuli. This study showed that the primary and secondary sensorimotor cortex, posterior insula, and lateral thalamus are involved in processing aspects of nociceptive stimuli such as location and intensity. Several brain regions including the bilateral anterior insula (AI), rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), brainstem, and cerebellum were activated both in instances of first person painful experience and observed painful experience. The bilateral anterior insula (AI) and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are therefore hypothesized to take part in the

neg: Spindle neuron cortex, a region which appears to have undergone significant evolutionary adaptations in mankindperhaps as recently as 100,000 years ago. This fronto-insular cortex is closely connected to the insula, a region that is roughly the size of a thumb in each hemisphere of the human brain. The insula and fronto-insular cortex are part of the insular cortex, wherein the elaborate circuitry associated with spatial awareness are found, and where self-awareness and the complexities of emotion are thought to be generated and experienced. Moreover, this region of the right hemisphere is crucial to navigation and perception of three-dimensional rotations. The largest number

neg: Claustrum Claustrum The claustrum (Latin for: to close or shut) is a thin, bilateral structure which connects to cortical (ex. pre-frontal cortex) and subcortical regions (ex. thalamus) of the brain. It is located between the insula laterally and the putamen medially, separated by the extreme and external capsules respectively. The blood supply to the claustrum is fulfilled via the middle cerebral artery. It is considered to be the most densely connected structure in the brain allowing for integration of various cortical inputs (ex. colour, sound and touch) into one experience rather than singular events. The claustrum is difficult to study given

neg: Self in the brain, which is located below the neocortical surface of the brain, in the allocortex. It appears to be involved in self-reference (see insula). In addition, mirror neurons are neurons that fire both during the self performing a task and when watching someone else (other) executing the same task. The philosophy of self seeks to describe essential qualities that constitute a person's uniqueness or essential being. There have been various approaches to defining these qualities. The self can be considered that being which is the source of consciousness, the agent responsible for an individual's thoughts and actions, or the

neg: Lexical-gustatory synesthesia SC’s scans, two important regions of the brain were largely activated during her taste sensations: the left anterior insula and the left superior parietal lobe. The scans led researchers to speculate that the anterior insula may play a role in SC’s taste experiences while the superior parietal lobe binds together all of the sensory information for processing. Based off the findings of this study and others like it, it could be possible to determine the type of inducer that leads to synesthetic sensations based on the patterns of brain activity. PS is a 24-year-old synesthete who has a family history

neg: Insular cortex and other drugs, and would make this area of the brain a possible target for novel anti-addiction medication. In addition, this finding suggests that functions mediated by the insula, especially conscious feelings, may be particularly important for maintaining drug addiction, although this view is not represented in any modern research or reviews of the subject. A recent study in rats by Contreras et al. corroborates these findings by showing that reversible inactivation of the insula disrupts amphetamine conditioned place preference, an animal model of cue-induced drug craving. In this study, insula inactivation also disrupted "malaise" responses to lithium chloride injection,

neg: LOC105377021 to an Allen Brain Atlas probe. The temporal lobe, parietal lobe, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, and insula are five overarching regions of the seven brain tissues where expression was highlighted. The annotated figures below serve as fairly holistic representations of cranial expression in the context of LOC105377021. Light blue shaded regions posit more dense expression of LOC105377021, where as darker green and brighter red show less and least amounts of expression respectively. All seven expression areas, including the middle temporal gyrus, the short insular gyrus, the postcentral gyrus, the cingulate gyrus, the inferior temporal gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the

neg: Pain empathy stimuli or while observing someone else received a painful stimuli. The study group consisted of 16 couples since it was likely these individuals would have empathy for one another. One person would receive a painful stimulus via electrode to the back of their hand while their partner observed and brain activity was measured in both participants. The results from the fMRI are detailed below. The activated brain regions in the person experiencing the pain firsthand included: contralateral sensorimotor cortex, bilateral secondary sensorimotor cortex, contralateral posterior insula, bilateral mid and anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex, right ventrolateral and mediodorsal thalamus, brainstem,

neg: Islands of Calleja processing of incentives as well as addictions to drugs. Projections to and from the islands supplement this knowledge with their involvement in the reward pathways for both cocaine and amphetamines. The islands of Calleja are specifically located within the ventral and medial lining of the ventral striatum in the brain, meaning that they lie towards the front and middle of this region within the temporal lobe. The insula magna, or the major island, of these complexes is located in the medial border of the nucleus accumbens. The ventral group of the islands lies along the pial border of the basal

neg: Disgust of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), particularly in those with contamination preoccupations. In a study by Shapira & colleagues (2003), eight OCD subjects with contamination preoccupations and eight healthy volunteers viewed pictures from the International Affective Picture System during f-MRI scans. OCD subjects showed significantly greater neural responses to disgust-invoking images, specifically in the right insula. Furthermore, Sprengelmeyer (1997) found that the brain activation associated with disgust included the insula and part of the gustatory cortex that processes unpleasant tastes and smells. OCD subjects and healthy volunteers showed activation patterns in response to disgust pictures that differed significantly at the right insula.

neg: Aftertaste Aftertaste Aftertaste is the taste intensity of a food or beverage that is perceived immediately after that food or beverage is removed from the mouth. The aftertastes of different foods and beverages can vary by intensity and over time, but the unifying feature of aftertaste is that it is perceived "after" a food or beverage is either swallowed or spat out. The neurobiological mechanisms of taste (and aftertaste) signal transduction from the taste receptors in the mouth to the brain have not yet been fully understood. However, the primary taste processing area located in the insula has been observed to

neg: Social emotions money is better than no money. However, what these experiments tend to find is that the proposers tend to offer 40% of "x", and offers below 20% would get rejected by the responders. Using fMRI scans, researchers found that social emotions elicited by the offers may play a role in explaining the result. When offers are unfair as opposed to fair, three regions of the brain are active: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the insula. The insula is an area active in registering body discomfort. It is activated when people feel, among other things,

neg: Piriform cortex Piriform cortex The piriform cortex, or pyriform cortex, is a region in the brain, part of the rhinencephalon situated in the cerebrum. The function of the piriform cortex relates to the sense of smell. The piriform cortex is part of the rhinencephalon situated in the cerebrum. In human anatomy, the piriform cortex has been described as consisting of the cortical amygdala, uncus, and anterior parahippocampal gyrus. More specifically, the human piriform cortex is located between the insula and the temporal lobe, anteriorly and laterally of the amygdala. The function of the piriform cortex relates to olfaction, which is the perception

neg: Human brain subarachnoid space. They then enter the circle of Willis, with two branches, the anterior cerebral arteries emerging. These branches travel forward and then upward along the longitudinal fissure, and supply the front and midline parts of the brain. One or more small anterior communicating arteries join the two anterior cerebral arteries shortly after they emerge as branches. The internal carotid arteries continue forward as the middle cerebral arteries. They travel sideways along the sphenoid bone of the eye socket, then upwards through the insula cortex, where final branches arise. The middle cerebral arteries send branches along their length. The vertebral

neg: Mirror-touch synesthesia in SI and SII are significantly higher in synesthetes than in non-synesthetes. There is also a significantly higher activation in the premotor cortex. It is also suspected that there is an area of the brain that is only activated in mirror-touch synesthetes when observing touch, but not in non-synesthetes. Studies have shown that the anterior insula is actuated in mirror touch synesthetes, but it is not activated in non-synesthetes, when observing touch. The anterior insula is believed to mediate the conscious perception of touch and is involved with self-processing. The second theory proposes that the visual and somatosensory system in

neg: Disgust disgust, when being exposed to offensive tastes, and when viewing facial expressions of disgust. The research has supported that there are independent neural systems in the brain, each handling a specific basic emotion. Specifically, f-MRI studies have provided evidence for the activation of the insula in disgust recognition, as well as visceral changes in disgust reactions such as the feeling of nausea. The importance of disgust recognition and the visceral reaction of "feeling disgusted" is evident when considering the survival of organisms, and the evolutionary benefit of avoiding contamination. The insula (or insular cortex), is the main neural structure involved

neg: Claustrum were more likely to experience a loss of consciousness compared to those that presented with lesions outside of the claustrum. For example, a patient that was subjected to electrode stimulation at the claustrum stopped reading, stared blankly and was unresponsive. Once the electrode was removed, the patient resumed reading and could not remember the events of being dazed. Claustrum The claustrum (Latin for: to close or shut) is a thin, bilateral structure which connects to cortical (ex. pre-frontal cortex) and subcortical regions (ex. thalamus) of the brain. It is located between the insula laterally and the putamen medially, separated by

neg: Gustatory cortex Gustatory cortex The primary gustatory cortex is a brain structure responsible for the perception of taste. It consists of two substructures: the anterior insula on the insular lobe and the frontal operculum on the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe. Because of its composition the primary gustatory cortex is sometimes referred to in literature as the AI/FO(Anterior Insula/Frontal Operculum). By using extracellular unit recording techniques, scientists have elucidated that neurons in the AI/FO respond to sweetness, saltiness, bitterness, and sourness, and they code the intensity of the taste stimulus. Like the olfactory system, the taste system is defined by

neg: Meditation and pain and that after 5 months of training, the control also experienced decreased responses in those same areas. As a result, reduction in pain perception is attributed to a decrease in brain regions involving the pain network. A study using event-related potentials (ERP) showed that the meditation group exhibited decreased activation in the SI and posterior insula compared to a healthy control, which led to a reduction in pain perception. This is mediated by the fact that pain is a result of activation of the insula and SI, so a deactivation of these regions as a result of meditation reduces pain

neg: Cooperation that are generated in unfair situations by the anterior insula of the brain. It has been observed that image scoring promotes cooperative behavior in situations where direct reciprocity is unlikely. In situations where reputation and status are involved, humans tend to cooperate more. Cooperation is common in non-human animals. Besides cooperation with an immediate benefit for both actors, this behavior appears to occur mostly between relatives. Spending time and resources assisting a related individual may at first seem destructive to the organism’s chances of survival but is actually beneficial over the long-term. Since relatives share part of their genetic make-up,

neg: Biology of depression have a tendency to experience negative emotional states (scoring high on measures of neuroticism) show an increase in the right anterior insula during decision-making, even if the decision has already been made. This atypically high activity in the right anterior insula is thought to contribute to the experience of negative and worrisome feelings. In major depressive disorder, anxiety is often a part of the emotional state that characterizes depression. Biology of depression Scientific studies have found that numerous brain areas show altered activity in people with major depressive disorder, and this has encouraged advocates of various theories that seek to

neg: Dejerine–Roussy syndrome mechanisms. The insular cortex is often lesioned by a stroke. Particularly, the posterior insula has been mapped to correlate to pain experienced by an individual. In addition, it has been proven that the posterior insula receives a substantial amount of the inputs of the brain, and can be treated with visual, kinesthetic, and auditory inputs. Dejerine-Roussy is a rare pain syndrome. Individuals with emerging Dejerine–Roussy syndrome usually report they are experiencing unusual pain or sensitivity that can be allodynic in nature or triggered by seemingly unrelated stimuli (sounds, tastes). Symptoms are typically lateralized and may include vision loss or loss

neg: Salience network Salience network The salience network (SN) is a large scale brain network of the human brain that is primarily composed of the anterior insula (AI) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). It is involved in detecting and filtering salient stimuli, as well as in recruiting relevant functional networks. Together with its interconnected brain networks, the SN contributes to a variety of complex functions, including communication, social behavior, and self-awareness through the integration of sensory, emotional, and cognitive information. The network is detectable through independent component analysis of resting state fMRI images, as well as seed based functional connectivity analysis. In

neg: Interoception to the anterior insula and anterior cingulate—it has been suggested that PTSD patients experience reduced interoceptive awareness. The broad consensus of studies investigating the link between interoceptive awareness and anxiety disorders is that people with anxiety disorders experience heightened awareness of and accuracy in identifying interoceptive processes. Functional imaging studies provide evidence that people with anxiety disorders experience heightened interoceptive accuracy, suggested by hyperactivation in the anterior cingulate cortex—a region of the brain associated with interoception—in several different kinds of anxiety disorders. The insula has been suggested to be abnormal in a large scale study across anxiety disorders in general.

neg: Internet addiction disorder left posterior cingulate cortex, left insula, and left lingual gyrus" than adolescents in the control group, indicating the presence of brain structural changes in Internet addicts. Similar results have been confirmed by CB Weng and colleagues (2011) with a group of 17-year-olds who were diagnosed online game addiction (OGA) and another group without addiction. In their study, adolescents who were addicted had "lower gray matter volume in left orbitofrontal cortex, left medial prefrontal cortex, bilateral insula, left posterior cingulate cortex, and left supplementary motor area. The best-documented evidence of Internet addiction so far is time-disruption, which subsequently results in interference

neg: Biological basis of love such as functional magnetic resonance imaging have been used to investigate brain regions that seem to be involved in producing the human experience of love. In 2000, a study led by Semir Zeki and Andreas Bartels of University College London concluded that at least two areas of the brain become more active when in love. These were foci in the media insula, which the brain associates with instinct, and part of the anterior cingulate cortex, which is associated with feelings of euphoria. Ortigue et al. found that an unconscious prime of the name of a romantic partner activated similar brain

neg: Biology of depression parts of the brain. Several areas of the brain are implicated in studies seeking to more fully understand the biology of depression: Studies have shown that Brodmann area 25, also known as subgenual cingulate, is metabolically overactive in treatment-resistant depression. This region is extremely rich in serotonin transporters and is considered as a governor for a vast network involving areas like hypothalamus and brain stem, which influences changes in appetite and sleep; the amygdala and insula, which affect the mood and anxiety; the hippocampus, which plays an important role in memory formation; and some parts of the frontal cortex responsible

neg: Interoception brain with information regarding bodily information. This area of the brain is commonly engaged by gastrointestinal distension and nociceptive stimulation, but it likely plays a role in representing other interoceptive sensations as well. In one study, a patient with bilateral insula and ACC damage was given isoproterenol as a method of exciting the cardiovascular system. Despite damage to putative interoceptive areas of the brain, the patient was able to perceive his heartbeat with similar accuracy compared to healthy individuals; however, once lidocaine was applied to the patient's chest over the region of maximum cardiac sensation and the test was run

neg: Insular cortex the ventral striatum, and the orbitofrontal cortex, as well as to motor cortices. A study using magnetic resonance imaging found that the right anterior insula is significantly thicker in people that meditate. Other research into brain activity and meditation has shown an increase in grey matter in areas of the brain including the insular cortex. Another study using voxel-based morphometry and MRI on experienced Vipassana meditators was done to extend the findings of Lazar et al., which found increased grey matter concentrations in this and other areas of the brain in experienced meditators. The strongest evidence against a causative role

neg: Disgust in the emotion of disgust. The insula has been shown by several studies to be the main neural correlate of the feeling of disgust both in humans and in macaque monkeys. The insula is activated by unpleasant tastes, smells, and the visual recognition of disgust in conspecific organisms. The anterior insula is an olfactory and gustatory center that controls visceral sensations and the related autonomic responses. It also receives visual information from the anterior portion of the ventral superior temporal cortex, where cells have been found to respond to the sight of faces. The posterior insula is characterized by connections

neg: Aftertaste administered a solution of aspartame for a specific amount of time before being instructed to swallow the solution. Functional magnetic resonance images of the blood flow in the subjects' brains were recorded before and after they swallowed the aspartame solution. Before swallowing, the amygdala, somatosensory cortex, thalamus, and basal ganglia were all activated. After swallowing, only the insula remained activated and the response of the other brain regions was not evident. This suggests that the insula may be a primary region for aftertaste sensation because it was activated even after the aspartame solution was no longer present in the mouth.

neg: Neuroanatomy of intimacy be studied further in increased violent cases against partners, which are commonly due to male aggression. In males, the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, cingulate cortex, insula, hippocampus, thalamus, caudate, hypothalamus, and cerebellum were shown to be activated. In females, activations in the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum were noted. Male activations were greater in the precentral gyrus, insula, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum, while women shower greater activations in the visual cortex, angular gyrus, and thalamus. Regions in the female brain have been implicated in detection of

neg: Change deafness increased coupled responses in the ACC and the right insula, consistent with additional evidence that the anterior insula functions to mediate dynamic interactions between other brain networks involved in attention to external stimuli, forming a salience network with the ACC that identifies salient stimulus events and initiates additional processing. In absence of change detection, this salience network was not activated; however increased activity in other cortical areas suggests that undetected changes are still perceived on some level, but fail to trigger conscious change detection, thus producing the change deafness phenomenon. Additional studies of change deafness have generated evidence in support

neg: Loss aversion specific somatosensory and limbic structures. fMRI test measuring neural responses in striatal, limbic and somatosensory brain regions help track individual differences in loss aversion. Its limbic component involved the amygdala(associated with negative emotion and plays a role in the expression of fear) and putamen in the right hemisphere. The somatosensory component included the middle cingulate cortex, as well as the posterior insula and rolandic operculum bilaterally. The latter cluster partially overlaps with the right hemispheric one displaying the loss-oriented bidirectional response previously described, but, unlike that region, it mostly involved the posterior insula bilaterally. All these structures play a critical

neg: Affective sensation affectivity tends to be related to greater levels of social anxiety, anxious arousal, and anxiety sensitivity. Physical pathological sensation, as occurs in IBS, COPD, and other illnesses, is also influential in affective sensation and response. The emotional response to especially a chronic illness can be correlated with its severity. This has been shown in COPD, where emotionally-driven descriptions of sensation due to breathing impairments may reflect the severity of the illness and probability of long-term, responsal behavior changes. Additionally, in IBS patients, affective sensation and its correlative brain areas including the ACC, insula, and VMPFC demonstrated heightened fMRI activity in

neg: Reward system within the nucleus accumbens shell is located in the rostrodorsal quadrant of the medial shell, while the hedonic coldspot is located in a more posterior region. The posterior ventral pallidum also contains a hedonic hotspot, while the anterior ventral pallidum contains a hedonic coldspot. Microinjections of opioids, endocannabinoids, and orexin are capable of enhancing liking in these hotspots. The hedonic hotspots located in the anterior OFC and posterior insula have been demonstrated to respond to orexin and opioids, as has the overlapping hedonic coldspot in the anterior insula and posterior OFC. On the other hand, the parabrachial nucleus hotspot has

neg: Eating disorders and memory food. The regulation of eating is controlled by areas of the brain involved in behaviour reinforcement. The rewarding qualities of food, including taste and smell, activate regions of the brain that are impaired in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN), including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), anteromedial temporal, and the insula. Normally, eating is pleasant when an individual is hungry and less pleasant when an individual is full. Neuronal activation in the OFC decreases when an individual is full, however there is a disturbance in this pathway in individuals with AN and BN. Thus,

neg: Tactile hallucination Therefore, individuals with various psychiatric disorders are more prone to tactile hallucinations than normal individuals. Tactile hallucinations are especially possible due to faulty sensory integration of neuronal signals in the primary and secondary somatosensory system with neuronal signals in the parietal cortex, insular cortex and premotor cortex. Moreover, the posterior insula is responsible for mental body schema representation and can produce tactile hallucination if defected. Additionally, the regions of the brain involved in tactile hallucinations are similar to the regions of the brain involved in pain. Tactile hallucination Tactile hallucination is the false perception of tactile sensory input that creates

neg: Dysthymia dysthymia. There are several brain structures (corpus callosum and frontal lobe) that are different in women with dysthymia than in those without dysthymia. This may indicate that there is a developmental difference between these two groups. Another study, which used fMRI techniques to assess the differences between individuals with dysthymia and other people, found additional support for neurological indicators of the disorder. This study found several areas of the brain that function differently. The amygdala (associated with processing negative emotions such as fear) was more activated in dysthymia patients. The study also observed increased activity in the insula (which is

neg: Meditation and pain lower back pain patients before and after treatment to their healthy counterparts, patients with chronic pain exhibited thinner PFCs than the control. After treatment, chronic lower back patients showed increased thickness in the PFC which decreased pain perception and physical disability. Additional brain regions are involved in pain perception in what is referred to as the 'pain matrix'. The pain matrix includes the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), insula, ACC, and thalamus. Reduction of pain perception via mediation is mediated by the interconnected brain pathways between pain perception and meditation. These intersections are what contribute to the reduction in perceived pain

neg: Pain empathy control subjects watched video clips of a stranger being poked with a needle into the hands or feet. fMRI was used to measure the hemodynamic activity within the brain while viewing the painful stimuli. The fMRI revealed that brain areas involved in the pain matrix: somatosensory cortex, anterior insula, dorsal anterior cingulated nucleus (dACC), and the periaqueductal gray (PAG) were activated in the control subject population when viewing the needle penetration videos. The physicians had activation of higher order executive functioning in the brain as shown by activation of the dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex, both involved in self-regulation, and

neg: Mayda Insula been eroded from Mayda Insula and deposited elsewhere in the Kraken Mare basin. Mayda Insula features in Michael Carroll's novel "On the Shores of Titan's Farthest Sea: A Scientific Novel". The 39th chapter of the book is titled "The Hunchback of Mayda Insula". Mayda Insula Mayda Insula is an island in the Kraken Mare, a body of liquid composed primarily of methane, on Saturn's largest moon Titan. Mayda Insula is the first island (insula) to be named on a planet or moon other than Earth. Mayda Insula was discovered by the "Cassini–Huygens" mission to Saturn. Its name was approved by

neg: Homeostatic emotion and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act." Bud Craig argues that humans and anthropoid primates form an image of all of the body's unique homeostatic sensations in the brain's "primary interoceptive cortex" (located in the dorsal posterior insula). This image is mirrored ("re-represented") in the mid- and anterior insula, and the anterior insula's image (modulated by input from cognitive, affective and reward-related circuits) embodies conscious awareness of the whole body's homeostatic state. A sensation re-represented in the anterior insula and that sensation's related motivation hosted in the anterior cingulate cortex form a "homeostatic emotion". Antonio Damasio uses

neg: Apraxia of speech stress, intonation and rhythm errors, and inconsistency with articulation. Wertz et al., (1984) describe the following five speech characteristics that an individual with apraxia of speech may exhibit: Apraxia of speech can be caused by impairment to parts of the brain that control muscle movement and speech. However, identifying a particular region of the brain in which AOS always occurs has been controversial. Various patients with damage to left subcortical structures, regions of the insula, and Broca’s area have been diagnosed with AOS. Most commonly it is triggered by vascular lesions, but AOS can also arise due to tumors and

neg: Perivascular space have been observed most commonly in the basal ganglia, specifically on the lenticulostriate arteries. They have also been observed along the paramedial mesencephalothalamic artery and the substantia nigra in the mesencephalon, the brain region below the insula, the dentate nucleus in the cerebellum, and the corpus callosum, as well as the brain region directly above it, the cingulate gyrus. Upon the clinical application of MRI, it was shown in several studies that perivascular space dilation and lacunar strokes are the most commonly observed histological correlates of signaling abnormalities. Dilation is most commonly and closely associated with aging. Dilation of perivascular

neg: Aftertaste these regions have been identified as the primary zones for taste processing in the brain, other cortical areas are also activated during eating, as other sensory inputs are being signaled to the cortex. For aftertaste, much is unclear about the cortical processing related to its perception. The first neuroimaging study to evaluate the temporal taste profile of aspartame, an artificial sweetener, in humans was published in 2009. In it, the insula was observed to be activated for a longer period of time than other sensory processing areas in the brain when the aftertaste profile of aspartame was measured. Subjects were

neg: Human brain able to describe it verbally, but when the picture is shown on the left, are unable to describe it, but may be able to give an indication with the left hand of the nature of the object shown. Emotions are generally defined as two-step multicomponent processes involving elicitation, followed by psychological feelings, appraisal, expression, autonomic responses, and action tendencies. Attempts to localize basic emotions to certain brain regions have been controversial, with some research finding no evidence for specific locations corresponding to emotions, and instead circuitry involved in general emotional processes. The amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, mid and anterior insula cortex

neg: Bimodal bilingualism the cortex must be more finely tuned, which results in a "neural reserve" that then has neuroprotective benefits. Gray matter volume (GMV) has been shown to be significantly preserved in bimodal bilinguals as compared to monolinguals in multiple brain areas, including the hippocampus, amygdala, anterior temporal lobes, and left insula. Similarly, neuroimaging studies that have compared monolinguals, unimodal bilinguals, and bimodal bilinguals provide evidence that deaf signers exhibit brain activation in patterns different than those of hearing signers, especially in regards to the left superior temporal sulcus. In deaf signers, activation of the superior temporal sulcus is highly lateralized to

neg: Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation for generating emotions. Mindfulness meditation is believed to be able to regulate negative thoughts and decrease emotional reactivity through these regions of the brain. Emotion regulation deficits have been noted in disorders such as borderline personality disorder and depression. These deficits have been associated with reduced prefrontal activation and increased amygdala activity, which mindfulness meditation might be able to attenuate. Pain is known to activate the following regions of the brain: the anterior cingulate cortex, anterior/posterior insula, primary/secondary somatosensory cortices, and the thalamus. Mindfulness meditation may provide several methods by which a person can consciously regulate pain. Brown and Jones

neg: Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems There is also evidence of an inverse relationship between activation in the dPFC areas and activation in emotionally activated brain areas. The ventral stream primarily involves the vlPFC and mPFC. Signals of expected outcomes trigger the mPFC to update stimulus associations through exchanges with the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens. When a response change is needed, the mPFC interacts with the vlPFC. Then, the vlPFC modulates the emotional response to stimuli through interactions with the dorsal striatum. Preliminary findings indicate that the vlPFC may also modulate activity in the nucleus accumbens, temporal cortex, anterior insula and amygdala. The dorsal stream

neg: Oppositional defiant disorder inhibition system (BIS). The BAS stimulates behavior in response to signals of reward or nonpunishment. The BIS produces anxiety and inhibits ongoing behavior in the presence of novel events, innate fear stimuli, and signals of nonreward or punishment. Neuroimaging studies have also identified structural and functional brain abnormalities in several brain regions in youths with conduct disorders. These brain regions are the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and insula, as well as interconnected regions. As many as 40 percent of boys and 25 percent of girls with persistent conduct problems display significant social-cognitive impairments. Some of these deficits include immature

neg: Sense of balance in pons. SVN, MVN, and IVN ascend within medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF). LVN descend the spinal cord within the lateral vestibulospinal tract and end at sacrum. MVN also descend the spinal cord, within the medial vestibulospinal tract, ending at lumbar 1. Thalamic reticular nucleus distributes information to various other thalamic nuclei, regulating the flow of information. It is speculatively able to stop signals, ending transmission of unimportant info. The thalamus relays info between pons (cerebellum link), motor cortices, and insula. Insula is also heavily connected to motor cortices; insula is likely where balance is likely brought into perception. The oculomotor

neg: Posttraumatic stress disorder have elevated levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone, lower basal cortisol levels, and enhanced negative feedback suppression of the HPA axis by dexamethasone. A meta-analysis of structural MRI studies found an association with reduced total brain volume, intracranial volume, and volumes of the hippocampus, insula cortex, and anterior cingulate. Much of this research stems from PTSD in those exposed to the Vietnam War. People with PTSD have decreased brain activity in the dorsal and rostral anterior cingulate cortices and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, areas linked to the experience and regulation of emotion. The amygdala is strongly involved in forming emotional memories, especially

neg: Autonomous sensory meridian response concluded that "the brain regions found most active during the tingling sensations were the nucleus accumbens, mPFC, insula and secondary somatosensory cortex", and suggested that these were similar to "activation of brain regions previously observed during experiences like social bonding and musical frisson". A number of scientists have published or made public their reaction to and opinions of ASMR. On 12 March 2012, Steven Novella, Director of General Neurology at the Yale School of Medicine, published a post about ASMR on his blog "Neurologica". Regarding the question of whether ASMR is a real phenomeonon, Novella said "in this case, I

neg: Vladimir Hachinski by the right hemisphere and the rest and digest (parasympathetic) response being controlled by the left hemisphere and damage to one key component (the insula) can lead to heart irregularities and sudden death. This discovery adds fundamental knowledge to our understanding of how the brain controls the heart and blood pressure and lays the foundation for helping prevent sudden death. Hachinski has held many prominent positions in the global neurology community, including editor-in-chief of the journal "Stroke" the leading publication in the field and president of the World Federation of Neurology and founder of World Brain Alliance. He is a

neg: Expressive language disorder smaller left hemispheric pars triangularis (Broca's area) and asymmetry of dominance of language structures, as opposed to the more typical left hemisphere dominance. Scientists are beginning to elucidate differences in activation patterns in children with SLIs using neuroimaging techniques to capture brain activity while performing different cognitive tasks. A major observation is lack of left hemisphere lateralization in major language structures such as the inferior frontal gyrus-opercularis, inferior frontal gyrus-triangularis, supramarginal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus. The same study reported hypoactivation and hyper activation of other brain regions - the supramarginal junction and anterior insula, respectively. Other in-depth imaging studies

neg: Aging brain expression in cortical circuits. Advances in MRI technology have provided the ability to see the brain structure in great detail in an easy, non-invasive manner in vivo. Bartzokis "et al.", has noted that there is a decrease in grey matter volume between adulthood and old age, whereas white matter volume was found to increase from age 19-40, and decline after this age. Studies using Voxel-based morphometry have identified areas such as the insula and superior parietal gyri as being especially vulnerable to age-related losses in grey matter of older adults. Sowell "et al.", reported that the first 6 decades of

neg: Mayda Insula Mayda Insula Mayda Insula is an island in the Kraken Mare, a body of liquid composed primarily of methane, on Saturn's largest moon Titan. Mayda Insula is the first island (insula) to be named on a planet or moon other than Earth. Mayda Insula was discovered by the "Cassini–Huygens" mission to Saturn. Its name was approved by the International Astronomical Union Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature on April 11, 2008, becoming the first named island on a planetary body other than earth, and the largest. NASA notes, however, that the possibility Mayda Insula is actually peninsular (i.e., connected to

neg: Sensory nervous system and tactile information. The gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures: the anterior insula, located on the insular lobe, and the frontal operculum, located on the frontal lobe. Similarly to the olfactory cortex, the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms. Peripheral taste receptors, located on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus, transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla, or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. The signal is then transmitted to the thalamus, which in turn projects the

neg: Capernaum homes, called by the Franciscan excavators the "sacra insula" or "holy insula" ("insula" refers to a block of homes around a courtyard) was found to have a complex history. Located between the synagogue and the lake shore, it was found near the front of a labyrinth of houses from many different periods. Three principal layers have been identified: The excavators concluded that one house in the village was venerated as the house of Peter the fisherman as early as the mid-1st century, with two churches having been constructed over it (Loffreda, 1984). The city's basalt houses are grouped around two

neg: Operculum (brain) frontoparietal operculum, covers the upper part of the insular lobe from the front to the back. The opercula lie on the precentral and postcentral gyri (on either side of the central sulcus). The part of the parietal operculum that forms the ceiling of the lateral sulcus functions as the secondary somatosensory cortex. Normally, the insular opercula begin to develop between the 20th and the 22nd weeks of pregnancy. At weeks 14 to 16 of fetal development, the insula begins to invaginate from the surface of the immature cerebrum of the brain, until at full term, the opercula completely cover the

neg: Putamen putamen may play a role in the so-called "hate circuit" of the brain. A recent study was done in London by the department of cell and developmental biology at University College London. An fMRI was done on patients while they viewed a picture of people they hated and people who were "neutral". During the experiment, a "hate score" was recorded for each picture. The activity in sub-cortical areas of the brain implied that the "hate circuit" involves the putamen and the insula. It has been theorized that the "putamen plays a role in the perception of contempt and disgust, and

neg: Sam Harris belief (sentences judged as either true or false) were associated with increased activation of ventromedial prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain involved in emotional judgment, processing uncertainty, assessing rewards and thinking about oneself. A "comparison of all religious trials to all nonreligious trials produced a wide range of signal differences throughout the brain," and the processing of religious belief and empirical belief differed in significant ways. The regions associated with increased activation in response to religious stimuli included the anterior insula, the ventral striatum, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the posterior medial cortex. In another study published in 2016,

neg: Social connection connection, has been found to influence cognition, emotion, and behavior. While it appears that social isolation triggers a "neural alarm system" of threat-related regions of the brain (including the amygdala, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), anterior insula, and periaqueductal gray (PAG)), separate regions may process social connection. Two brain areas that are part of the brain's reward system are also involved in processing social connection and attention to loved ones: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), a region that also responds to safety and inhibits threat responding, and the ventral striatum (VS) and septal area (SA), part of a neural system

neg: Neuroscience of music vPMC, as of 2011, experiments have begun to shed light on how these interactions are needed for musical performance. Results point to a broader involvement of the dPMC and other motor areas. Certain aspects of language and melody have been shown to be processed in near identical functional brain areas. Brown, Martinez and Parsons (2006) examined the neurological structural similarities between music and language. Utilizing positron emission tomography (PET), the findings showed that both linguistic and melodic phrases produced activation in almost identical functional brain areas. These areas included the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, Broca's area, anterior insula,

neg: Conduct disorder that reflect the behaviors and mental anomalies associated in conduct disorder. Compared to normal controls, youths with early and adolescent onset of conduct disorder displayed reduced responses in brain regions associated with social behavior (i.e., amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, insula, and orbitofrontal cortex). In addition, youths with conduct disorder also demonstrated less responsiveness in the orbitofrontal regions of the brain during a stimulus-reinforcement and reward task. This provides a neural explanation for why youths with conduct disorder may be more likely to repeat poor decision making patterns. Lastly, youths with conduct disorder display a reduction in grey matter volume in

neg: Social cue left temporal and occipital regions would be activated and when emblematic gestures were involved the temporal poles would be activated. When it came to abstract speech and gestures, the left frontal gyrus would be activated according to Straube et al. After conducting an experiment on how body position, speech and gestures affected activation in different areas of the brain Straube et al. came to the following conclusions: The amygdala, fusiform gyrus, insula, and superior and middle temporal regions have been identified as areas in the brain that play a role in visual emotional cues. It was found that there was

neg: Reduced affect display be considered a psychological response to PTSD as a way to combat overwhelming anxiety that the patients feel. In blunted affect, there are abnormalities in circuits that also include the prefrontal cortex. Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show different regional brain activity in fMRI scans when presented with emotional stimuli compared to individuals with schizophrenia without blunted affect. Individuals with schizophrenia without blunted affect show activation in the following brain areas when shown emotionally negative pictures: midbrain, pons, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex, anterior temporal pole, amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and extrastriate visual cortex. Individuals with schizophrenia

neg: Conquest of the Canary Islands coalesced with these expeditions. La Gomera and El Hierro are depicted in the 1367 portolan of the brothers Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano. The Catalan Atlas of 1375 shows the Canaries almost completely and accurately mapped (only La Palma is missing). The eleven islands are named in the Catalan Atlas (from east to west) as "Graciosa" (La Graciosa),"laregranza" (Alegranza), "rocho" (Roque), "Insula de lanzaroto maloxelo" (Lanzarote), "insula de li vegi marin" (Lobos), "forteventura" (Fuerteventura), "Insula de Canaria" (Gran Canaria), "Insula del infernio" (Tenerife), "insula de gomera" (La Gomera), "insula de lo fero" (El Hierro). The name 'tenerefiz' is first given alongside

neg: Empathy short videos of facial expressions of pain. The participants in the high-psychopathy group exhibited significantly less activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala and periaqueductal gray parts of the brain, but more activity in the striatum and the insula when compared to control participants. In a second study, individuals with psychopathy exhibited a strong response in pain-affective brain regions when taking an imagine-self perspective, but failed to recruit the neural circuits that were activated in controls during an imagine-other perspective—in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala—which may contribute to their lack of empathic concern. It was predicted that people

neg: Autobiographical memory active regions in a quarter to a third of imaging studies on autobiographical memory. Regions of the brain that are reported infrequently, in less than a quarter of autobiographical memory imaging studies, include the frontal eye fields, motor cortex, medial and lateral parietal cortices, fusiform gyrus, superior and inferior lateral temporal cortices, insula, basal ganglia and brain stem. These widespread activation patterns suggest that a number of varying domain-specific processes unique to re-experiencing phenomena, such as emotional and perceptual processes, and domain-general processes, such as attention and memory, are necessary for successful autobiographical memory retrieval. Autobiographical memories are initially constructed

neg: Compassion requirements: People must feel that troubles that evoke their feelings are serious, the understanding that sufferers' troubles are not self-inflicted, and ability to picture oneself with the same problems in a non-blaming and non-shaming manner. In a 2009 small fMRI experiment, Mary Helen Immordino-Yang and colleagues at the Brain and Creativity Institute studied strong feelings of compassion for social and physical pain in others. Both feelings involved an expected change in activity in the anterior insula, anterior cingulate, hypothalamus, and midbrain, but they also found a previously undescribed pattern of cortical activity on the posterior medial surface of each brain

neg: Neuroscience of multilingualism cortex), and in the insula. There also appears to be activation in the right hemisphere during most language tasks. Language-related areas are dedicated to certain components of language processing (e.g. lexical semantics). These areas are functionally characterized by linguistically pertinent systems, such as phonology, syntax, and lexical semantics—and not in speaking, reading, and listening. In the normal human brain, areas associated with linguistic processing are less rigid than previously thought. For example, increased familiarity with a language has been found to lead to decreases in brain activation in left dorsolateral frontal cortex (Brodmann areas, 9, 10, 46). Bilingualism involves the

neg: Insula Magica Insula Magica Insula Magica is a musical collective from Novosibirsk, Russia. The ensemble recreates early music. In 1981, a group of students of the Novosibirsk Conservatory founded the musical collective. They were united by the idea of reconstruction of early music. Since 1991, Insula Magica has officially become a collective of the Novosibirsk Philharmonic. Insula Magica has participated in various festivals in Russia, France, Japan, England, Denmark and other countries. In September 2009, the ensemble represented Russian culture in Stockholm at the 'Vox Pacis' International Festival. In October 2009, the Insula Magica and the Swedish ensemble Laude Novella conducted tour

neg: Insula (building) in real estate and owned numerous "insulae" in the city. When one collapsed from poor construction, Cicero purportedly stated that Crassus was happy that he could charge higher rents for a new building than the collapsed one. Living quarters were typically smallest in the building's uppermost floors, with the largest and most expensive apartments being located on the bottom floors. The "insulae" could be up to six or seven stories high, and despite height restrictions in the Imperial era, a few reached eight or nine stories. The notably large "Insula Felicles" or "Felicula" was located near the Flaminian Circus in

neg: Ancient Roman architecture others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked off by four roads was called an "insula," the Roman equivalent of a modern city block. Each insula was square, with the land within it divided. As the city developed, each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae

neg: Auditory imagery is also involved in image generation and encodes motor processes to do, while the right thalamus is hypothesized to be a part of auditory image retrieval. The activation of the supplementary motor area is also relevant since it is a portion of the brain that is involved when a motor task is imagined as opposed to overly executed. This shows that developing an auditory image is partially a motor task. During auditory verbal imagery, the inferior frontal cortex and the insula were activated as well as the supplementary motor area, left superior temporal/inferior parietal region, the right posterior cerebellar cortex,

neg: Mysticism dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in interoception, self-reflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal representations of the world by "anticipation of resolution of uncertainty or risk". A philosophical issue in the study of mysticism is the relation of mysticism to morality. Albert Schweitzer presented the classic account of mysticism and morality being incompatible. Arthur Danto also argued that morality is at least incompatible with Indian mystical beliefs. Walter Stace, on the other hand, argued not only are mysticism and morality compatible, but that mysticism is the source and justification of morality.

neg: Insular cortex Fabienne Picard proposes a neurological explanation for this subjective certainty, based on clinical research of epilepsy. According to Picard, this feeling of certainty may be caused by a dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in interoception, self-reflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal representations of the world by "anticipation of resolution of uncertainty or risk". This avoidance of uncertainty functions through the comparison between predicted states and actual states, that is, "signaling that we do not understand, i.e., that there is ambiguity." Picard notes that "the concept of insight is very close

neg: Insular cortex amygdala. In addition, the anterior insula itself projects to the amygdala. One study on rhesus monkeys revealed widespread reciprocal connections between the insular cortex and almost all subnuclei of the amygdaloid complex. The posterior insula projects predominantly to the dorsal aspect of the lateral and to the central amygdaloid nuclei. In contrast, the anterior insula projects to the anterior amygdaloid area as well as the medial, the cortical, the accessory basal magnocellular, the medial basal, and the lateral amygdaloid nuclei. The posterior part of the insula is formed by a long gyrus. The posterior insula connects reciprocally with the secondary

neg: Interoception information about proprioception and discriminative touch to the brain through different receptors in the skin. The thalamus receives signals from sympathetic and parasympathetic afferents during interoceptive processing. The ventromedial posterior nucleus (VMpo) is a subregion of the thalamus which receives sympathetic information from lamina I spinothalamic neurons. The human VMpo is much larger than that of primates and sub-primates and is important for processing of nociceptive, thermoregulatory, and visceral sensations. The ventromedial basal nucleus (VMb) receives parasympathetic information from visceral and gustatory systems. "See also: Insular Cortex" The insula is critically involved in the processing, integration, and cortical representation of