query: where does endocrine cells release their secretion to

pos: Endocrine gland cretinism in infants and myxoedema in adults. Hyperparathyroidism results in hypercalcaemia and its effects and in extreme bone wasting. Hypoparathyroidism leads to hypocalcaemia, evidenced by tetany seizure and respiratory paralysis. Hyposecretion of insulin results in diabetes mellitus; cardinal signs are polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia. Endocrine gland Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.

pos: Neurosecretion Neurosecretion Neurosecretion is the storage, synthesis and release of hormones from neurons. These neurohormones, produced by neurosecretory cells, are normally secreted from nerve cells in the brain that then circulate into the blood. These neurohormones are similar to nonneural endocrine cells and glands in that they also regulate both endocrine and nonendocrine cells. Neurosecretion cells synthesize and package their product in vesicles and exocytose them at axon endings just as normal neurons do, but release their product farther from their target than normal neurons (which release their neurotransmitters short distances at synapses), typically releasing their neurohormones into the circulatory system

pos: Neurosecretion by neurosecretory granules. More is being discovered on the identification of granules in hormones and the linking of their development with the organism’s physiologic state. Neurosecretion Neurosecretion is the storage, synthesis and release of hormones from neurons. These neurohormones, produced by neurosecretory cells, are normally secreted from nerve cells in the brain that then circulate into the blood. These neurohormones are similar to nonneural endocrine cells and glands in that they also regulate both endocrine and nonendocrine cells. Neurosecretion cells synthesize and package their product in vesicles and exocytose them at axon endings just as normal neurons do, but release

pos: Connexon signaling. The secretion of hormones into the blood stream to target distant organs. However, endocrine signaling in the pancreas and liver operates along short distances in the cellular membrane by way of signaling pathways, ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and cell-to-cell contact. The gap junctions in these tissues supported by endocrine signaling arbitrate intracellular signals between cells and larger organ systems by connecting adjacent cells to each other in a tight fit. The Tight fit of the gap junction is such that cells in the tissue can communicate more efficiently and maintain homeostasis. Thus the purpose of the

pos: Head and neck anatomy speech (phonation). In addition to the teeth, other structures that aid chewing are the lips, cheeks, tongue, hard palate, soft palate, and floor of the mouth. Several glands of the endocrine system are found within the head and neck. Endocrine means that the secretion is used within the body. Endocrine glands are termed as ductless and release their secretions directly into the blood. The endocrine system is under the direct supervision of the nervous system, using the negative feedback principal of homeostasis, to create hormones which act as chemical instant messengers. The hypothalamus connects directly to the pituitary gland, both

pos: Endocrine gland and cortisol. It controls the behaviour during crisis and emotional situations. It stimulates the heart and its conducting tissues and metabolic processes. The pancreas, located in the abdomen, below and behind the stomach, is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland. The alpha and beta cells are the endocrine cells in the pancreatic islets that release insulin and glucagon and smaller amounts of other hormones into the blood. Insulin and glucagon influence blood sugar levels. Glucagon is released when blood glucose level is low, and stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood. Insulin increases the rate of glucose

pos: Insulin signal transduction pathway to them and thus stimulate glycogenolysis. Contrary to insulin, which is produced by pancreatic β-cells, glucagon is produced by pancreatic α-cells. It is also known that an increase in insulin suppresses glucagon secretion, and a decrease in insulin, along with low glucose levels, stimulates the secretion of glucagon. When blood-glucose levels are too low, the pancreas is signaled to release glucagon, which has essentially the opposite effect of insulin and therefore opposes the reduction of glucose in the blood. Glucagon is delivered directly to the liver, where it connects to the glucagon receptors on the membranes of the liver cells,

pos: Alkaline tide Alkaline tide Alkaline tide refers to a condition, normally encountered after eating a meal, where during the production of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach, the parietal cells secrete bicarbonate ions across their basolateral membranes and into the blood, causing a temporary increase in pH. During hydrochloric acid secretion in the stomach, the gastric parietal cells extract chloride anions, carbon dioxide, water and sodium cations from the blood plasma and in turn release bicarbonate back into the plasma after forming it from carbon dioxide and water constituents. This is to maintain the plasma's electrical balance, as the chloride

pos: Chromaffin cell the liver. In non-mammals, chromaffin cells are found in a variety of places, generally not organised as an individual organ, and may be without innervation, relying only on endocrine or paracrine signals for secretion. Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are innervated by the splanchnic nerve and secrete adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), some dopamine, enkephalin and enkephalin-containing peptides, and a few other hormones into the blood stream. The secreted adrenaline and noradrenaline play an important role in the sympathetic nervous system response, commonly called the fight-or-flight response. The enkephalins and enkephalin-containing peptides are related to, but distinct from endogenous peptides

pos: Neuroendocrine cell portal vessels to the pituitary cells where they may stimulate, inhibit, or maintain the function of a particular cell type. Neuroendocrine cell Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (hormones) to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration. An example of a neuroendocrine cell is a cell of the adrenal medulla (innermost part of the adrenal gland), which releases adrenaline to the blood. The

pos: Insulin cues from the beta cells, secrete glucagon into the blood in the opposite manner: increased secretion when blood glucose is low, and decreased secretion when glucose concentrations are high. Glucagon, through stimulating the liver to release glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, has the opposite effect of insulin. The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood in response to the blood glucose concentration is the primary mechanism of glucose homeostasis. If beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction, insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood. This results in type 1 diabetes mellitus, which is

pos: Neuroendocrinology hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the peripheral nervous system, regulating, for instance, digestion. The cells in the adrenal medulla that release adrenaline and noradrenaline proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for

neg: Regulation of gastric function Somatostatin inhibits gastrin release from G cells. Reduced gastrin secretion reduces acid secretion. 5-10% of gastric secretion occurs during this phase. The intestinal phase is a stage in which the duodenum responds to arriving chyme and moderates gastric activity through hormones and nervous reflexes. The duodenum initially enhances gastric secretion, but soon inhibits it. Presence of partially digested proteins and amino acids in the duodenum stimulates acid secretion in the stomach by three methods: 1.) Peptones stimulate duodenal G Cells to secrete gastrin. 2.) Peptones stimulate an unknown endocrine cell to release an additional humoral signal, "enterooxytonin". 3.) Amino Acids

neg: Membrane vesicle trafficking Membrane vesicle trafficking Membrane vesicle trafficking in "eukaryotic" animal cells involves movement of important biochemical signal molecules from synthesis-and-packaging locations in the Golgi body to specific 'release' locations on the inside of the plasma membrane of the secretory cell, in the form of Golgi membrane-bound micro-sized vesicles, termed "membrane vesicles" (MVs). In this process, the 'packed' cellular products are released/secreted outside the cell across its plasma membrane. However, this vesicular membrane is retained and recycled by the secretory cells. This phenomenon has key role in synaptic neurotransmission, endocrine secretion, mucous secretion, granular-product secretion by neutrophils, etc. The scientists behind this

neg: Enterochromaffin cell parietal cells to stimulate the release of gastric acid. The presence of ECL cells is critical in regulation of endocrine-induced gastric acid secretion. ECL cells histologically appear similar to EC cells and are hence named as such. They are however a different cell type and do not possess any serotonin synthesizing mechanisms. In developing chick embryos, EC cells have been found in biopsies of developing GIT tissue before the migration of neural crest cells. Whilst EC cells have neuroendocrine properties and are similar chemically and histologically to cells of the adrenal medulla they are not derivatives of the neural crest

neg: Pylorus duct or mouth. These tubes are wavy, and are about one-half the length of the duct. The duct is lined by columnar cells, continuous with the epithelium lining the surface of the mucous membrane of the stomach, the tubes by shorter and more cubical cell which are finely granular. The glands contain mucus cells and G cells that secrete gastrin. The pylorus also contains scattered parietal cells and neuroendocrine cells. These endocrine cells including D cells, which release somatostatin. (Somatostatin is responsible for shutting off acid secretion. There is a second hormone-sensitive population near the fundus.) Unstriated muscles which are

neg: Apelin very contradictory. Apelin is expressed and secreted by adipocytes, and its production is increased during adipocyte differentiation and is stimulated by insulin. Most obese people have elevated levels of insulin, which may therefore be the reason why obese people have been reported to also have elevated levels of apelin. Apelin receptor is expressed in several cell types of the gastro-intestinal tract : stomach enterochromaffine-like cells; unknown cells of endocrine pancreas, colon epithelial cells. In stomach, activation of receptors on enterochromaffine-like cells by apelin secreted by parietal cells can inhibit histamine release by enterochromaffine-like cells, which in turn decreases acid secretion

neg: Hormone (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei. Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs

neg: Incretin been developed. In 1932, Belgian physiologist Jean La Barre used the word "incretin" for a gut hormone, which stimulates the endocrine pancreas including insulin release. He also proposed that such incretins could be used as a treatment for diabetes mellitus. Incretin Incretins are a group of metabolic hormones that stimulate a decrease in blood glucose levels. Incretins are released after eating and augment the secretion of insulin released from pancreatic beta cells of the islets of Langerhans by a blood glucose-dependent mechanism. Incretins also inhibit glucagon release from the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans. In addition, they slow

neg: Vesicle fusion need to return to an endosome to refill, though it is not thoroughly understood by which mechanism it would refill. It should also be noted that this does not exclude full vesicle fusion, but only states that both mechanisms may operate in synaptic clefts. "Kiss and run" has been shown to occur in endocrine cells, though it has not been directly witnessed in synaptic gaps. Vesicle fusion Vesicle fusion is the merging of a vesicle with other vesicles or a part of a cell membrane. In the latter case, it is the end stage of secretion from secretory vesicles, where

neg: Psychopharmacology other central method through which drugs act is by affecting communications between cells through hormones. Neurotransmitters can usually only travel a microscopic distance before reaching their target at the other side of the synaptic cleft, while hormones can travel long distances before reaching target cells anywhere in the body. Thus, the endocrine system is a critical focus of psychopharmacology because 1) drugs can alter the secretion of many hormones; 2) hormones may alter the behavioral responses to drugs; 3) hormones themselves sometimes have psychoactive properties; and 4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the pituitary gland, is

neg: Somatostatinoma Somatostatinoma Somatostatinoma is a malignant tumor of the delta cells of the endocrine pancreas that produces somatostatin. Increased levels of somatostatin inhibit pancreatic hormones and gastrointestinal hormones. Thus somatostatinomas are associated with mild diabetes mellitus (due to inhibition of insulin release), steatorrhoea and gallstones (due to inhibition of cholecystokinin release), and achlorhydria (due to inhibition of gastrin release). Somatostatinomas are commonly found in head of pancreas. In a normal subject actions of somatostatin include: This explains how abnormally elevated somatostatin can cause diabetes mellitus, by inhibiting insulin secretion, steatorrhoea by inhibiting cholecystokinin and secretin, gall stones by inhibiting cholecystokinin which

neg: Endocrine gland uptake and metabolism by most body cells. Somatostatin is released by Delta cells and act as an Inhibitor of GH, Insulin and Glucagon. The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release two main hormones. Secretion of estrogens by the ovarian follicles begins at puberty under the influence of FSH. Estrogens stimulate maturation of the female reproductive system and development of the secondary sexual characteristics. Progesterone is released in response to high blood levels of LH. It works with estrogens in establishing the menstrual cycle. The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at puberty in response

neg: Pancreatic polypeptide Pancreatic polypeptide Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas predominantly in the head of the pancreas. It consists of 36 amino acids and has molecular weight about 4200 Da. The function of PP is to self-regulate pancreatic secretion activities (endocrine and exocrine); it also has effects on hepatic glycogen levels and gastrointestinal secretions. Its secretion in humans is increased after a protein meal, fasting, exercise, and acute hypoglycemia and is decreased by somatostatin and intravenous glucose. Plasma PP has been shown to be reduced in conditions associated with increased food intake and elevated

neg: Negative feedback resulting in diabetes. For hormone secretion regulated by the negative feedback loop: when gland X releases hormone X, this stimulates target cells to release hormone Y. When there is an excess of hormone Y, gland X "senses" this and inhibits its release of hormone X. As shown in the figure, most endocrine hormones are controlled by a physiologic negative feedback inhibition loop, such as the glucocorticoids secreted by the adrenal cortex. The hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which directs the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, such as

neg: Regulation of gastric function neurons and other enteric nervous system neurons release GRP which stimulates antral G cells to produce and release gastrin. Gastrin stimulates acid secretion by directly stimulating parietal cells as well as by promoting histamine secretion by ECL cells. 4.)In both the antrum and corpus, the vagus nerve inhibits D cells, thus reducing their release of somatostatin and reducing background inhibition of gastrin release. Gastric chief cells are primarily activated by ACh. However the decrease in pH caused by activation of parietal cells further activates gastric chief cells. Alternatively, acid in the duodenum can stimulate S cells to secrete secretin which

neg: Enteroendocrine cell with parasympathetic stimulation stimulating insulin secretion and inhibiting glucagon secretion and sympathetic stimulation having opposite effect. Other hormones produced include somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, amylin and ghrelin. Rare and slow growing carcinoid and non-carcinoid tumors develop from these cells. When a tumor arises it has the capacity to secrete large volumes of hormones. The very discovery of hormones occurred during studies of how the digestive system regulates its activities, as explained at "Secretin § Discovery". Enteroendocrine cell Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various

neg: Secretin digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Secretin also increases water and bicarbonate secretion from duodenal Brunner's glands to buffer the incoming protons of the acidic chyme, and also reduces acid secretion by parietal cells of the stomach. It does this through at least three mechanisms: 1) By stimulating release of somatostatin, 2) By inhibiting release of gastrin in the pyloric antrum, and 3) By direct downregulation of the parietal cell acid secretory mechanics. It counteracts blood glucose concentration spikes by triggering increased insulin release from pancreas, following oral glucose intake. Secretin modulates water and electrolyte transport in pancreatic duct cells,

neg: Acinus Acinus An acinus (; plural, acini; adjective, acinar or acinous) refers to any cluster of cells that resembles a many-lobed "berry", such as a raspberry ("acinus" is Latin for "berry"). The berry-shaped termination of an exocrine gland, where the secretion is produced, is acinar in form, as is the alveolar sac containing multiple alveoli in the lungs. Acinar exocrine glands are found in many organs, including: The thyroid follicles can also be considered of acinar formation but in this case the follicles, being part of an "endocrine" gland, act as a hormonal deposit rather than to facilitate secretion.<br> Mucous acini

neg: Hypothalamus in turn regulates various endocrine glands and organs. Releasing hormones (also called releasing factors) are produced in hypothalamic nuclei then transported along axons to either the median eminence or the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and released as needed. In the hypothalamic–adenohypophyseal axis, releasing hormones, also known as hypophysiotropic or hypothalamic hormones, are released from the median eminence, a prolongation of the hypothalamus, into the hypophyseal portal system, which carries them to the anterior pituitary where they exert their regulatory functions on the secretion of adenohypophyseal hormones. These hypophysiotropic hormones are stimulated by parvocellular neurosecretory cells located in the

neg: Dulaglutide with a personal or family history of medullary thyroid cancer or affected by multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 should not take dulaglutide, because it could increase the risk of these cancers. Dulaglutide binds to glucagon-like peptide 1 receptors, slowing gastric emptying and increases insulin secretion by pancreatic Beta cells. Simultaneously the compound reduces the elevated glucagon secretion by inhibiting alpha cells of the pancreas, which is known to be inappropriate in the diabetic patient. GLP-1 is normally secreted by L cells of the gastrointestinal mucosa in response to a meal. Dulaglutide Dulaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 agonist)

neg: Enteroendocrine cell in the duodenum and jejunum. I cells secrete cholecystokinin (CCK), and are located in the duodenum and jejunum. They modulate bile secretion, exocrine pancreas secretion, and satiety. Stomach enteroendocrine cells, which release gastrin, and stimulate gastric acid secretion. Enterochromaffin cells are enteroendocrine and neuroendocrine cells with a close similarity to adrenomedullary chromaffin cells secreting serotonin. Enterochromaffin-like cells or ECL cells are a type of neuroendocrine cell secreting histamine. Located in the jejunum, N cells release neurotensin, and control smooth muscle contraction. S cells secrete secretin from the duodenum and jejunum, and stimulate exocrine pancreatic secretion. also called Delta cells, secrete

neg: Artificial pancreas and appropriately provide insulin. Artificial pancreas The artificial pancreas is a technology in development to help people with diabetes, primarily type 1, automatically and continuously control their blood glucose level by providing the substitute endocrine functionality of a healthy pancreas. The endocrine functionality of the pancreas is provided by islet cells which produce the hormones insulin and glucagon. Artificial pancreatic technology mimics the secretion of these hormones into the bloodstream in response to the body's changing blood glucose levels. Maintaining balanced blood sugar levels is crucial to the function of the brain, liver, and kidneys. Therefore, for type 1 patients,

neg: Artificial pancreas Artificial pancreas The artificial pancreas is a technology in development to help people with diabetes, primarily type 1, automatically and continuously control their blood glucose level by providing the substitute endocrine functionality of a healthy pancreas. The endocrine functionality of the pancreas is provided by islet cells which produce the hormones insulin and glucagon. Artificial pancreatic technology mimics the secretion of these hormones into the bloodstream in response to the body's changing blood glucose levels. Maintaining balanced blood sugar levels is crucial to the function of the brain, liver, and kidneys. Therefore, for type 1 patients, it is necessary that

neg: Neuroendocrine differentiation gene-related peptide (CGRP) and katacalcin, which colocalize to the calcitonin-containing cells), bombesin/gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), thyroid stimulating hormone-like peptide, parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), alpha-human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), somatostatin, cholecystokinin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and adrenomedullin. The physiology of their secretion and its regulation is incompletely understood. Regulatory cues might come through endocrine, paracrine (from neighboring neuroendocrine cells), autocrine or neurocrine routes. The open type cells may in addition receive regulatory signals from luminal molecules The developmental origin of these cells is as yet unknown. They are thought to arise from a different precursor than

neg: Neurosecretion to reach their distant targets. In 1928, Ernst Scharrer hypothesized that neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus of teleost fish, Phoxinus laevis, had secretory activity similar to that of endocrine gland cells. As more became known about neurosecretory cells, the difference between the actions of nerve communication and endocrine hormone release become less clear. Like the average neuron, these cells conduct electrical impulses along the axon but unlike these neurons, neurosecretion produces neurohormones that are released into the body’s circulation. Combining the properties of the nervous and endocrine, these cells have the capacity to affect nerves through chemical messengers. Neurosecretion is

neg: L-type calcium channel L-type calcium channel The L-type calcium channel (also known as the dihydropyridine channel, or DHP channel) is part of the high-voltage activated family of voltage-dependent calcium channel. "L" stands for long-lasting referring to the length of activation. This channel has four subunits (Cav1.1, Cav1.2, Cav1.3, Cav1.4). L-type calcium channels are responsible for the excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal, smooth, cardiac muscle, and for aldosterone secretion in endocrine cells of the adrenal cortex. In cardiac myocytes, the L-type calcium channel passes inward Ca current and triggers calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum by activating ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) (calcium-induced-calcium-release). Phosphorylation of these

neg: Pancreas by Pax-6, produces beta cells (β-) and delta cells (δ-), which secrete insulin and somatostatin, respectively. Insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of fetal development. The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion of substances (collectively pancreatic juice) which help digestion. Classically, these are divided into an "endocrine" role, relating to the secretion of insulin and other substances within pancreatic islets and helping control blood sugar levels and metabolism within the body, and an "exocrine" role, relating to the

neg: Gastric acid secrete two stimulatory neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and gastrin-releasing peptide. Their action is both direct on parietal cells and mediated through the secretion of gastrin from G cells and histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells. Gastrin acts on parietal cells directly and indirectly too, by stimulating the release of histamine. The release of histamine is the most important positive regulation mechanism of the secretion of gastric acid in the stomach. Its release is stimulated by gastrin and acetylcholine and inhibited by somatostatin. In the duodenum, gastric acid is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid

neg: Somatostatinoma normally induce gallbladder myocytes to contract, and hypochlorhydria caused by inhibiting gastrin, which normally stimulate acid secretion. Somatostatinomas are associated with calcium deposits called psammoma bodies. Treatment is by chemotherapy with streptozocin, dacarbazine, doxorubicin or by 'watchful waiting' and surgical debulking via Whipple procedure and other resections of the gastrointestinal organs affected. Somatostatinoma Somatostatinoma is a malignant tumor of the delta cells of the endocrine pancreas that produces somatostatin. Increased levels of somatostatin inhibit pancreatic hormones and gastrointestinal hormones. Thus somatostatinomas are associated with mild diabetes mellitus (due to inhibition of insulin release), steatorrhoea and gallstones (due to inhibition of

neg: Non-tropic hormone Non-tropic hormone Non-tropic hormones are hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects. This differs from the tropic hormones, which act on another endocrine gland. Non-tropic hormones are those that act directly on targeted tissues or cells, and not on other endocrine gland to stimulate release of other hormones. Many hormones act in a chain reaction. Tropic hormones usually act in the beginning of the reaction stimulating other endocrine gland to eventually release non-tropic hormones. These are the ones that act in the end of the chain reaction on other cells that are not part of other endocrine gland.

neg: Growth hormone hormone (GH) secretion include: "Inhibitors" of GH secretion include: In addition to control by endogenous and stimulus processes, a number of foreign compounds (xenobiotics such as drugs and endocrine disruptors) are known to influence GH secretion and function. Effects of growth hormone on the tissues of the body can generally be described as anabolic (building up). Like most other protein hormones, GH acts by interacting with a specific receptor on the surface of cells. Increased height during childhood is the most widely known effect of GH. Height appears to be stimulated by at least two mechanisms: In addition to increasing

neg: Enteroendocrine cell somatostatin Gastric enteroendocrine cells are found in the gastric glands, mostly at their base. The G cells secrete gastrin, post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve can release gastrin-releasing peptide during parasympathetic stimulation to stimulate secretion. Enterochromaffin-like cells are enteroendocrine and neuroendocrine cells also known for their similarity to chromaffin cells secreting histamine, which stimulates G cells to secrete gastrin. Other hormones produced include cholecystokinin, somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, substance P, alpha and gamma-endorphin. Pancreatic enteroendocrine cells are located in the islets of Langerhans and produce most importantly the hormones insulin and glucagon. The autonomous nervous system strongly regulates their secretion,

neg: Endocrine gland hormones at target cells "Permissiveness" is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another hormone. "Synergism" occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are amplified. "Antagonism" occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone. The endocrine glands belong to the body's control system. The hormones which they produce help to regulate the functions of cells and tissues throughout the body. Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is important

neg: Pancreatic polypeptide administration of atropine, the vagotomy, blocks the PP's after-meal secretion. The excitation of the vagus nerve, the administration of gastrin, secretin or cholecystokinin induce PP secretion. The augmentation of PP secretion has been observed in hormonal-active pancreatic tumors (insulin, glucagon), in Verner-Morrison syndrome, and in gastrinomas. The PPY gene encodes an unusually short protein precursor that is cleaved to produce PP, as well as pancreatic icosapeptide and a 5- to 7- amino-acid oligopeptide. Pancreatic polypeptide Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas predominantly in the head of the pancreas. It consists of 36

neg: Enteroendocrine cell Enteroendocrine cell Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses. Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body. They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the endocrine system just as the enteric nervous system is a subset of the nervous system. In a sense they are known to

neg: Neuroendocrinology is regulated by afferent synaptic inputs from other brain regions. By contrast, the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin, and growth hormone) remains under the control of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary gland via "releasing factors" and "release-inhibiting factors"; these are blood-borne substances [author means via bloodstream and not by the lymphatic system nor air, nor any other modes of transport] released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels

neg: Secretion nonclassical pathways. At least four nonclassical (unconventional) protein secretion pathways have been described. They include 1) direct translocation of proteins across the plasma membrane likely through membrane transporters, 2) blebbing, 3) lysosomal secretion, and 4) release via exosomes derived from multivesicular bodies. In addition, proteins can be released from cells by mechanical or physiological wounding and through nonlethal, transient oncotic pores in the plasma membrane induced by washing cells with serum-free media or buffers. Many human cell types have the ability to be secretory cells. They have a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus to fulfill their function. Tissues in

neg: Myokine of exercise increased its expression and secretion in skeletal muscle in both mice and humans. Myokine A myokine is one of several hundred cytokines or other small proteins (~5–20 kDa) and proteoglycan peptides that are produced and released by muscle cells (myocytes) in response to muscular contractions. They have autocrine, paracrine and/or endocrine effects; their systemic effects occur at picomolar concentrations. Receptors for myokines are found on muscle, fat, liver, pancreas, bone, heart, immune, and brain cells. The location of these receptors reflect the fact that myokines have multiple functions. Foremost, they are involved in exercise-associated metabolic changes, as well

neg: Insulin signal transduction pathway to potentiate insulin release to compensate the increment need of insulin. It was found that the β-cells express free fatty acid receptors at their surface, through which fatty acids can impact the function of β-cells. Long-chain acyl-CoA and DAG are the metabolites resulting from the intracellular metabolism of fatty acids. Long-chain acyl-CoA has the ability to acylate proteins that are essential in the insulin granule fusion. On the other hand, DAG activates PKC that is involved in the insulin secretion. Several hormones can affect the insulin secretion. Estrogen is correlated with an increase of insulin secretion by depolarizing the β-cells

neg: Folliculostellate cell (NO), is reported to be a key modulator of endocrine cell function and has been shown that FS cells (and some endocrine cells) contain neuronal NO synthase, a key NO production enzyme which is responsible for the production of NO from L-arginine. It is thought that FS cells modulate NO production in adjacent endocrine cells via paracrine mechanisms. Interferon-gamma is a cytokine that acts to inhibit the release of various hormones from the anterior pituitary, FS cells are thought to be vital in mediating this process. This facilitating role of FS cells was identified when studying the anterior pituitary glands

neg: Spermatocyte leads to the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) produced by the anterior pituitary gland (Figure 4). The release of FSH into the testes will enhance spermatogenesis and lead to the development of sertoli cells, which act as nursing cells where spermatids will go to mature after Meiosis II. LH promotes leydig cell secretion of testosterone into the testes and blood, which induce spermatogenesis and aid the formation of secondary sex characteristics. From this point on, the secretion of FSH and LH (inducing production of testosterone) will stimulate spermatogenesis until the male dies. Increasing the hormones FSH

neg: Prostaglandin prostaglandin to stimulate a reaction in one tissue and inhibit the same reaction in another tissue is determined by the type of receptor to which the prostaglandin binds. They act as autocrine or paracrine factors with their target cells present in the immediate vicinity of the site of their secretion. Prostaglandins differ from endocrine hormones in that they are not produced at a specific site but in many places throughout the human body. Prostaglandins are powerful locally acting vasodilators and inhibit the aggregation of blood platelets. Through their role in vasodilation, prostaglandins are also involved in inflammation. They are synthesized

neg: Periventricular nucleus nucleus does not have an effective blood–brain barrier. This nucleus has been shown to affect the release of GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) in several ways. One way is its expression of neuropeptide Y, which has an impact on the hypothalamic pathway responsible for GnRH secretion. The periventricular nucleus has also been shown to have many neurons that express kisspeptin, which generates a surge in LH, which ultimately leads to the release of GnRH. In female rats, there is a greater expression of estrogen receptor beta in the periventricular nuclear cells, which is thought to lead to different levels of LH secretion

neg: Pituitary gland Rathke's pouch. This contrasts with the posterior pituitary, which originates from neuroectoderm. Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by parvocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamic capillaries leading to infundibular blood vessels, which in turn lead to a second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This vascular relationship constitutes the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system. Diffusing out of the second capillary bed, the hypothalamic releasing hormones then bind to anterior pituitary endocrine cells, upregulating or downregulating their release of hormones. The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the pars tuberalis (pars glandularis) and pars

neg: Fatty acid metabolism have different and even opposite effects in different tissues. The ability of the same prostaglandin to stimulate a reaction in one tissue and inhibit the same reaction in another tissue is determined by the type of receptor to which the prostaglandin binds. They act as autocrine or paracrine factors with their target cells present in the immediate vicinity of the site of their secretion. Prostaglandins differ from endocrine hormones in that they are not produced at a specific site but in many places throughout the human body. Prostaglandins have two derivatives: prostacyclins and thromboxanes. Prostacyclins are powerful locally acting vasodilators

neg: Gastric inhibitory polypeptide of the gastrointestinal tract. Like all endocrine hormones, it is transported by blood. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptors are seven-transmembrane proteins found on beta-cells in the pancreas. It has traditionally been named "gastrointestinal inhibitory peptide" or "gastric inhibitory peptide" and was found to decrease the secretion of stomach acid to protect the small intestine from acid damage, reduce the rate at which food is transferred through the stomach, and inhibit the GI motility and secretion of acid. However, this is incorrect, as it was discovered that these effects are achieved only with higher-than-normal physiological level, and that these results naturally occur

neg: BK channel coordination and function. Furthermore, BK channels play a role in modulating the activity of dendrites as well as astrocytes and microglia. They not only play a role in the CNS (central nervous system) but also in smooth muscle contractions, the secretion of endocrine cells, and the proliferation of cells. Various γ subunits during early brain development are involved in neuronal excitability and in non-excitable cells they often are responsible as a driving force of calcium. Therefore, these subunits can be targets for therapeutic treatments as BK channel activators. There is further evidence that inhibiting BK channels would prevent the efflux

neg: Anterior pituitary anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell, and they are defined by the hormones they secrete: somatotropes (GH); Lactotropes (PRL); gonadotropes (LH and FSH); corticotropes (ACTH) and thyrotropes (TSH). It also contains non-endocrine folliculostellate cells which are thought to stimulate and support the endocrine cell populations. Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones (Greek: trophe, “nourishment”) and tropic hormones. "Trophic hormones" directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating. "Tropic hormones" are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones, causing numerous

neg: Folliculostellate cell cell properties of FS cells. Folliculostellate cell A Folliculostellate (FS) cell is a type of non-endocrine cell found in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Rinehart and Farquhar first discovered FS cells through electron microscopy of the anterior pituitary gland. Vila-Porcile named these non-endocrine cells "folliculo-stellate" cells in 1972 due to their stellate (star) shape, and their location lining the lumen of small follicules in the anterior pituitary. Unlike the majority of cells in the anterior pituitary, they are non-endocrine and agranular. They have long cytoplasmic processes which interlock to form a mesh, within which the endocrine cells reside.

neg: Autoregulation by the macula densa cells at the end of the ascending limb. When sodium levels are moderately increased, the macula densa releases ATP and reduces prostaglandin E2 release to the juxtaglomerular cells nearby. The juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent arteriole constrict, and juxtaglomerular cells in both the afferent and efferent arteriole decrease their renin secretion. These actions function to lower GFR. Further increase in sodium concentration leads to the release of nitric oxide, a vasodilating substance, to prevent excessive vasoconstriction. In the opposite case, juxtaglomerular cells are stimulated to release more renin, which stimulates the renin–angiotensin system, producing angiotensin I

neg: Calcium channel blocker these cells receive a certain signal, the channels open, letting calcium rush into the cell. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium has different effects in different types of cells. Calcium channel blockers prevent or reduce the opening of these channels and thereby reduce these effects. Several types of calcium channels occur, with a number of classes of blockers, but almost all of them preferentially or exclusively block the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel. Voltage-dependent calcium channels are responsible for excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle and for regulating aldosterone and cortisol secretion in endocrine cells of the adrenal cortex.

neg: Regulation of gastric function fall excessively low. Gastric secretion is stimulated chiefly by three chemicals: acetylcholine (ACh), histamine, and gastrin. ACh is secreted by parasympathetic nerve fibers of both the short and long reflex .ml; pathways. Histamine is a paracrine secretion from the enteroendocrine cells in the gastric glands. Gastrin is a hormone produced by enteroendocrine G cells in the pyloric glands. All three of these stimulate parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor. The chief cells secrete pepsinogen in response to gastrin and especially Ach, and ACh also stimulates mucus secretion. Low intragastric pH stimulates antral D cells to release somatostatin.

neg: Folliculostellate cell Folliculostellate cell A Folliculostellate (FS) cell is a type of non-endocrine cell found in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Rinehart and Farquhar first discovered FS cells through electron microscopy of the anterior pituitary gland. Vila-Porcile named these non-endocrine cells "folliculo-stellate" cells in 1972 due to their stellate (star) shape, and their location lining the lumen of small follicules in the anterior pituitary. Unlike the majority of cells in the anterior pituitary, they are non-endocrine and agranular. They have long cytoplasmic processes which interlock to form a mesh, within which the endocrine cells reside. They typically have a large

neg: Regulation of gastric function secretion (via parietal and G cells). Sensory stimuli from food activate dorsal motor nucleus of vagus nerve in the medulla (activating the parasympathetic nervous system). Insulin induced hypoglycemia also stimulates the vagus nerve. This results in four distinct physiological events. 1.) In the body of the stomach, the vagal postganglionic muscarinic nerves release acetylcholine(ACh) which stimulates parietal cell H+ secretion. 2.) In the lamina propria of the body of the stomach the ACh released from the vagal endings triggers histamine secretion from ECL cells. Histamine also stimulates H+ secretion from parietal cells. 3.) In the antrum, peptidergic postganglionic parasympathetic vagal

neg: Tetrabromobisphenol A to TBBPA from house dust is unlikely to raise a health concern”. Some studies suggest that TBBPA may be an endocrine disruptor and immunotoxicant. As an endocrine disruptor, TBBPA may interfere with both estrogens and androgens. Further, TBBPA structurally mimics the thyroid hormone thyroxin (T) and can bind more strongly to the transport protein transthyretin than T does, likely interfering with normal T activity. TBBPA likely also suppresses immune responses by inhibiting expression of CD25 receptors on T cells, preventing their activation, and by reducing natural killer cell activity. A 2013 literature review on TBBPA concludes that TBBPA does not

neg: Secretion cholera toxin in pathogenic bacteria for example "Vibrio cholerae") from across the interior (cytoplasm or cytosol) of a bacterial cell to its exterior. Secretion is a very important mechanism in bacterial functioning and operation in their natural surrounding environment for adaptation and survival. Eukaryotic cells, including human cells, have a highly evolved process of secretion. Proteins targeted for the outside are synthesized by ribosomes docked to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). As they are synthesized, these proteins translocate into the ER lumen, where they are glycosylated and where molecular chaperones aid protein folding. Misfolded proteins are usually identified here and

neg: Bombus morio pair of thick, big tubular structures. They cause the distal portion more dilated and corn shaped. The glands were evolved though protein synthesis, as RNA of the cytoplasm and nucleoli can be observed. Analysis has discovered that the gland secretion is very complex, as proteins, neutral polysaccharide, as well as lipids are released by these glands. The midgut of the "Bombus morio" is made up of three cell types that play crucial roles in the digestion, absorption, and hormone production. The differences in the three types of cells, digestive, regenerative, and endocrine cells, can be seen by the difference in

neg: Lacritin autophagic mediator ATG7. In the absence of lacritin, no coupling is observed. Thus acetylation alone is likely insufficient for FOXO1-ATG7 ligation, unlike an initial claim. Lacritin also restores oxidative phosphorylation and other metabolic events to rescue cells from stress. Lacritin stimulated secretion of tear proteins lipocalin and lactoferrin from monkey lacrimal acinar cells does not appear to be mediated by Ca, unlike the agonist carbachol. When monkey lacrimal acinar cells are stressed with inflammatory cytokines (as occurs in dry eye), carbachol loses its capacity to promote the secretion of lipocalin. However, lacritin stimulates lipocalin secretion even in the presence of

neg: Angiotensin angiotensin II. Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II (AII) through removal of two C-terminal residues by the enzyme "angiotensin-converting enzyme" (ACE), primarily through ACE within the lung (but also present in endothelial cells, kidney epithelial cells, and the brain). Angiotensin II acts on the CNS to increase vasopressin production, and also acts on venous and arterial smooth muscle to cause vasoconstriction. Angiotensin II also increases aldosterone secretion, therefore, it acts as an endocrine, autocrine/paracrine, and intracrine hormone. ACE is a target of ACE inhibitor drugs, which decrease the rate of angiotensin II production. Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by

neg: Folliculostellate cell functionality of hormone-secreting endocrine cells via gap junctions. FS cells form homologous gap junctions with their adjacent counterparts, but also heterologous gap junctions with hormone-secreting endocrine cells. The gap junctions that exist between adjacent FS cells are used to propagate calcium-mediated signals throughout the pituitary to coordinate the function of excitable endocrine cells distributed throughout the gland. The endocrine-FS cell gap junctions, alongside the FS-FS gap junctions form a cell network that allows information about the physiological environment to be transferred around the pituitary to coordinate its secretory function. Studies in various small mammals have demonstrated that the number of

neg: Gastric glands in a plentiful supply, and so from their positions in the walls, their secretory networks of fine channels called canaliculi can project and ingress into all the regions of the gastric-pit lumen. Another important secretion of the parietal cells is intrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein essential for the absorption of vitamin B12. The parietal cells also produce and release bicarbonate ions in response to histamine release from the nearby ECLs, and so serve a crucial role in the pH buffering system. The enterochromaffin-like cells store and release histamine when the pH of the stomach becomes too high. The

neg: Nivalenol NF-κB inhibitor, IL-8 secretion was lowered. Another important factor influenced by nivalenol is MCP-1/CCL2, this cytokine plays a role in the mobility regulation of mononuclear leukocyte cells. Nivalenol causes CCL2 secretion to be lowered, and thus the mobility of monocytes to be reduced. This explains part of the immunosuppressive nature of nivalenol. Again, this effect is reduced by NF-κB inhibition which shows, that nivalenol and NF-κB interact to influence the cell. It was shown that while deoxynivalenol induces the secretion of chemokines, which are also immunorelevant messenger molecules, nivalenol does inhibit their secretion. Nivalenol also upregulates the expression of proinflammatory

neg: Urodilatin is cardiodilatin/atrial natriuretic peptide (CDD/ANP). The endocrine heart is composed of specific myoendocrine cells that synthesize and secrete the natriuretic peptide hormones which exhibit diuretic, and vasorelaxant properties; secretion is the basis for a paracrine system regulating water and sodium reabsorption. Research efforts since the early 1980s have studied their effects on electrolyte homeostasis. When administered intravenously, URO induces strong diuresis and natriuresis with tolerable hemodynamic side effects. Urodilatin is localized in the kidney, differentially processed (involved in the regulation of body fluid volume and water-electrolyte excretion, while circulating), and secreted into the urine. As a consequence, urodilatin is involved

neg: Somatostatin is then carried to the anterior pituitary gland, where it inhibits the secretion of growth hormone from somatotrope cells. The somatostatin neurons in the periventricular nucleus mediate negative feedback effects of growth hormone on its own release; the somatostatin neurons respond to high circulating concentrations of growth hormone and somatomedins by increasing the release of somatostatin, so reducing the rate of secretion of growth hormone. Somatostatin is also produced by several other populations that project centrally, i.e., to other areas of the brain, and somatostatin receptors are expressed at many different sites in the brain. In particular, populations of somatostatin

neg: Cellular communication (biology) within their vicinity at the same time. This process of local signaling within animal cells is known as paracrine signaling. Hormones are used by both plant and animal cells for long-distance signaling. In animal cells, specialized cells release these hormones and send them through the circulatory system to other parts of the body. They then reach target cells, which can recognize and respond to the hormones and produce a result. This is also known as endocrine signaling. Plant growth regulators, or plant hormones, move through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas to reach their targets. There

neg: James Rothman Professor-in-Residence at the Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies of ShanghaiTech University. In 1995, Rothman joined the Amersham plc scientific advisory board. When Amersham was acquired by GE Healthcare in 2003, Rothman was appointed as the Chief Science Advisor to GE Healthcare. Rothman's research details how vesicles—tiny sac-like structures that transport hormones, growth factors, and other molecules within cells—know how to reach their correct destination and where and when to release their contents. This cellular trafficking underlies many critical physiological functions, including the propagation of the cell itself in division, communication between nerve cells in the brain, secretion of insulin

neg: Delta cell Delta cell Delta cells (δ-cells or D cells) are somatostatin-producing cells. They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the pancreatic islets. In rodents, delta-cells are located in the periphery of the islets; in humans the islet architecture is generally less organized and delta-cells are frequently observed inside the islets as well. In both species, the peptide hormone Urocortin3 (Ucn3) is a major local signal that is released from beta cells (and alpha cells in primates) to induce the local secretion of somatostatin. Ghrelin can also strongly stimulate somatostatin secretion, thus indirectly inhibiting insulin release. Viewed under an electron

neg: Stingray due to the mixture of venomous tissue secretions cells and mucous membrane cell products that occurs upon secretion from the spinal blade. Stingrays can have anywhere between 1-3 blades. The spine is covered with the epidermal skin layer. During secretion, the venom punctures through the epidermis and mixes with the mucus to release the venom on its victim. Typically, other venomous organisms create and store their venom in a gland. The stingray is notable in that it stores its venom within tissue cells. The toxins that have been confirmed to be within the venom are cystatins, peroxiredoxin, and galectin. Galectin

neg: Digestion gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin. The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about

neg: Mammary gland further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and tight junction function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1 integrin on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process. Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts. Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby. During weaning,

neg: Prolactin and a large number of cytokine receptors. Pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by endocrine neurons in the hypothalamus. The most important of these are the neurosecretory tuberoinfundibulum (TIDA) neurons of the arcuate nucleus that secrete dopamine (aka Prolactin Inhibitory Hormone) to act on the D receptors of lactotrophs, causing inhibition of prolactin secretion. Thyrotropin-releasing factor (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) has a stimulatory effect on prolactin release, however prolactin is the only adenohypophyseal hormone whose principal control is inhibitory. Several variants and forms are known per species. Many fish have variants "prolactin A" and "prolactin B". Most vertebrates including humans also have the

neg: Digestive enzyme system) activates the ENS, in turn leading to the release of acetylcholine. Once present, acetylcholine activates G cells and parietal cells. Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function. Two of the population of cells in the pancreatic parenchyma make up its

neg: Insulin oscillation oscillations. The insulin oscillations are generated by pulsatile release of the hormone from the pancreas. Insulin originates from beta cells located in the islets of Langerhans. Since each islet contains up to 2000 beta cells and there are one million islets in the pancreas it is apparent that pulsatile secretion requires sophisticated synchronization both within and among the islets of Langerhans. Pulsatile insulin secretion from individual beta cells is driven by oscillation of the calcium concentration in the cells. In beta cells lacking contact, the periodicity of these oscillations is rather variable (2-10 min). However, within an islet of Langerhans

neg: Pancreatic progenitor cell progenitor rather than allow the formation of a hepatic progenitor. Pancreatic progenitor cells have the ability to differentiate into both endocrine and exocrine precursors. The endocrine precursors are a committed group of progenitors that develop into all of the endocrine cells in the pancreas. Endocrine lineages develop into Delta cells, PP-cells, Epsilon cells, Beta cells and Alpha cells. Alpha cells produce glucagon and beta cells produce insulin. Insulin and glucagon antagonistically regulate the glucose homeostasis in the mammalian body. PP-cells produce pancreatic polypeptide which is a regulator of endocrine and exocrine secretions in the pancreas and gut. Delta cells which

neg: Motilin Motilin Motilin is a 22-amino acid polypeptide hormone in the motilin family that, in humans, is encoded by the "MLN" gene. Motilin is secreted by endocrine Mo cells (or M cells, these are not the same as the Microfold cells (M cells) that are in Peyer's patches) that are numerous in crypts of the small intestine, especially in the duodenum and jejunum. It is released into the general circulation in humans at about 100-min intervals during the inter-digestive state and is the most important factor in controlling the inter-digestive migrating contractions; and it also stimulates endogenous release of the endocrine

neg: Juxtaglomerular cell the distal convoluted tubule, and stimulate juxtaglomerular cells to release renin when they detect a drop in sodium concentration in tubular fluid. Together, juxtaglomerular cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells and macula densa cells comprise the juxtaglomerular apparatus. In appropriately stained tissue sections, juxtaglomerular cells are distinguished by their granulated cytoplasm. The juxtaglomerular cell is a cell that is located near the glomerulus, hence its name. Similar to cardiac tissue, juxtaglomerular cells harbor β1 adrenergic receptors. When stimulated by epinephrine or norepinephrine, these receptors induce the secretion of renin. These cells also respond directly to a decrease in systemic blood pressure which

neg: Excretory system and is typically 5-10 microns in diameter. The duct is the part of the sweat gland that connects dermis cells to the epidermis. It is composed by two layers of cells and is between 10 and 20 microns in diameter. The gland does the actual secretion and it lies deep within the dermis. The cells that make up the gland are larger in size than the duct cells and its lumen is around 20 microns in diameter. After bile is produced in the liver, it is stored in the gall bladder. It is then secreted within the small intestine where

neg: Bhanu Pratap Jena cellular structure the Porosome in the mid 1990s. The Porosome are permanent supramolecular structures at the cell Plasma membrane, where secretory Vesicle (biology and chemistry) dock and fuse to release intravesicular contents to the outside of the cell. This discovery was a major breakthrough in our understanding of cell secretion. The Porosome, has been determined as the universal secretory machinery in cells, from exocrine cells of the pancreas, to neuroendocrine cells, and neurons. Jena and his research team has determined the structure and dynamics of the Porosome in live cells, at nm resolution and in real time. The structure of

neg: Somatomedin negative feedback through the intermediates of somatostatin and growth hormone. Somatomedins are produced in many tissues and have autocrine and paracrine actions in addition to their endocrine action. The liver is thought to be the predominant source of circulating somatomedins. Three forms include: Somatomedin Somatomedins are a group of proteins produced predominantly by the liver when growth hormones act on target tissue. Somatomedins inhibit the release of growth hormones by acting directly on anterior pituitary and by stimulating the secretion of somatostatin from the hypothalamus. Somatomedins are a group of proteins that promote cell growth and division in response to

neg: GnRH Neuron GnRH Neuron GnRH neurons, or Gonadotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons, are the cells in the brain that control the release of reproductive hormones from the pituitary. These brain cells control reproduction by secreting GnRH into the hypophyseal portal capillary bloodstream, so are sometimes referred to as “sex neurons”. This small capillary network carries GnRH to the anterior pituitary, causing release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) into the wider bloodstream. When GnRH neurons change their pattern of release from the juvenile to the adult pattern of GnRH secretion, puberty is initiated. Failure of GnRH neurons to form the

neg: Activin and inhibin inhibits FSH production. Inhibin does not inhibit the secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus. However, the overall mechanism differs between the sexes: Inhibin is produced in the gonads, pituitary gland, placenta, corpus luteum and other organs. FSH stimulates the secretion of inhibin from the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles in the ovaries. In turn, inhibin suppresses FSH. Inhibin secretion is diminished by GnRH, and enhanced by insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). It is secreted from the Sertoli cells, located in the seminiferous tubules inside the testes. Androgens stimulate inhibin production; this protein may also help to locally regulate spermatogenesis. As

neg: Endocrine system possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm. Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by misregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result

neg: HLA-F open conformers, but it does not bind peptide complexes. The expression patterns of HLA-F in T cells suggest that HLA-F is involved in the communication pathway between T reg and activated T cells, where HLA-F signals that the immune response has been activated. During this communication, either HLA-F invokes secretion of inhibitory cytokines by the regulatory T cells or it provides a simple inhibitory signal to the regulatory T cells, allowing a normal immune response to proceed. Viral proteins and other exogenous antigens decrease surface HLA-F expression because the exogenous proteins interact with HLA class I molecules at the same

neg: Cytokine Cytokine Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. Their release has an effect on the behavior of cells around them. It can be said that cytokines are involved in autocrine signaling, paracrine signaling and endocrine signaling as immunomodulating agents. Their definite distinction from hormones is still part of ongoing research. Cytokines may include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumour necrosis factors but generally not hormones or growth factors (despite some overlap in the terminology). Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B

neg: G cell stomach, stimulates the release of gastrin from the G cells. Gastrin stimulates enterochromaffin-like cells to secrete histamine. Gastrin also targets parietal cells by increasing the amount of histamine and the direct stimulation by gastrin, causing the parietal cells to increase HCl secretion in the stomach. G cells have a distinctive microscopic appearance that allows one to separate them from other cells in the gastric antrum; their nuclei are centrally located in the cell. They are found in the middle portion of the gastric glands. G cell In anatomy, the G cell (or γ-cell) is a type of cell in the

neg: Pancreas as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. A perforation of the pancreas, which may lead to the secretion of digestive enzymes such as lipase and amylase into the abdominal cavity as well as subsequent pancreatic self-digestion and digestion and damage to organs within the abdomen, generally requires prompt and experienced medical intervention. It is possible for one to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood

neg: Pancreatic disease Pancreatic disease Pancreatic diseases include: Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. There are two forms of pancreatitis, which are different in causes and symptoms, and require different treatment: The pancreas is central in the pathophysiology of both major types of diabetes mellitus. In type 1 diabetes mellitus, there is direct damage to the endocrine pancreas that results in insufficient insulin synthesis and secretion. Type 2 diabetes mellitus, which begins with insulin resistance, is characterized by the ultimate failure of pancreatic β cells to match insulin production with insulin demand. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food

neg: Endocrine gland called colloid, containing thyroglobulin, a precursor to other thyroid hormones, which are manufactured within the colloid. The thyroid hormones increase the rate of cellular metabolism, and include thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Secretion is stimulated by the hormone TSH, secreted by the anterior pituitary. When thyroid levels are high, there is negative feedback that decreases the amount of TSH secreted. Most T4 is converted to T3 (a more active form) in the target tissues. Calcitonin, produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in response to rising blood calcium levels, depresses blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone matrix resorption

neg: Diffuse chemosensory system Some of them have an apical tuft of rigid microvilli (brush cells). Other elements have secretory exocrine granules and others may have endocrine differentiation. Often these elements are innervated. To date, the functional role for the DCS is unknown also if several hypotheses have been advanced. Questions remain about the role of the diffuse chemosensory system in control of complex functions (e.g. airway surface liquid secretion) and about the involvement of chemoreceptors in respiratory diseases. The chemoreceptive capacity of the DCS seems to protect against exogenous substances. Diffuse chemosensory system The diffuse chemosensory system (DCS) is an anatomical structure composed

neg: Growth hormone which is the truncated part of the growth hormone receptor, and an acid-labile subunit (ALS). Secretion of growth hormone (GH) in the pituitary is regulated by the neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus. These cells release the peptides Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH or "somatocrinin") and Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH or "somatostatin") into the hypophyseal portal venous blood surrounding the pituitary. GH release in the pituitary is primarily determined by the balance of these two peptides, which in turn is affected by many physiological stimulators (e.g., exercise, nutrition, sleep) and inhibitors (e.g., free fatty acids) of GH secretion. Somatotropic cells in the