query: the system of taxonomy used in biology and other life sciences is made possible because of

pos: Taxonomy (biology) Taxonomy (biology) Taxonomy () is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped together into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super-group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the father of taxonomy, as he developed a system

pos: Taxonomy (biology) Taxonomy (biology) Taxonomy () is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped together into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super-group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the father of taxonomy, as he developed a system

pos: Taxonomy (biology) modern science. Taxonomy (biology) Taxonomy () is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped together into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super-group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the father of taxonomy, as he developed

neg: Domain (biology) Domain (biology) In biological taxonomy, a domain [/də(ʊ)ˈmeɪn/] (Latin: "regio"), also superkingdom or empire, is the highest taxonomic rank of organisms in the three-domain system of taxonomy designed by Carl Woese. According to the Woese system, introduced in 1990, the tree of life consists of three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or single-celled organisms whose cells have no nucleus. All life that has a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, and multicellular organisms, is included in the Eukarya. The term "domain" was proposed by Woese et al. (1990) in his three-domain system. This term represents

neg: Taxonomy (biology) new information becomes available; however, comprehensive treatments of most or all life are rarer; two recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012, which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to the rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology, and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life, the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study

neg: Taxonomy (biology) proved to be an elegant solution to a chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower. Thus the Linnaean system was born, and is still used in essentially the same way today as it was in the 18th century. Currently, plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and

neg: Phycological Society of America Phycological Society of America The Phycological Society of America (PSA) is a professional society, founded in 1946, that is dedicated to the advancement of phycology, the study of algae. The PSA is responsible for the publication of "Journal of Phycology" and organizes annual conferences among other events that aid in the advancement of related algal sciences. Membership in the Phycological Society of America is open to anyone from any nation who is concerned with the physiology, taxonomy, molecular biology, experimental biology, cell biology, and developmental biology of related algal sciences. As of 2012, membership was approximately 2,000 from 63 countries.

neg: Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life is a college-level introductory biology textbook that helps students learn how to apply critical thinking and scientific methods to developing their understanding of basic concepts in molecular biology and biochemistry, genetics, biotechnology, reproduction and embryonic development, anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, evolution, taxonomy, and ecology. The book is designed to create in students a broad foundation of knowledge in biology and is frequently used in AP Biology classes in American high schools. Each book includes an interactive CD-ROM with links to additional instructional material.

neg: Taxonomy (biology) structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some

neg: Cavalier-Smith's system of classification Cavalier-Smith's system of classification The classification system of life introduced by British zoologist Thomas Cavalier-Smith involves systematic arrangements of all life forms on earth. Following and improving the classification systems introduced by Carl Linnaeus, Ernst Haeckel, Robert Whittaker, and Carl Woese, Cavalier-Smith's classification attempts to incorporate the latest developments in taxonomy. His classification has been a major foundation in modern taxonomy, particularly with revisions and reorganisations of kingdoms and phyla. Cavalier-Smith has published extensively on the classification of protists. One of his major contributions to biology was his proposal of a new kingdom of life: the Chromista, although the usefulness

neg: Hydrobiology Hydrobiology Hydrobiology is the science of life and life processes in water. Much of modern hydrobiology can be viewed as a sub-discipline of ecology but the sphere of hydrobiology includes taxonomy, economic biology, industrial biology, morphology, physiology etc. The one distinguishing aspect is that all relate to aquatic organisms. Much work is closely related to limnology and can be divided into lotic system ecology (flowing waters) and lentic system ecology (still waters). One of the significant areas of current research is eutrophication. Special attention is paid to biotic interactions in plankton assemblage including the microbial loop, the mechanism of influencing

neg: Conway's Game of Life fields, such as computer science, physics, biology, biochemistry, economics, mathematics, philosophy, and generative sciences have made use of the way that complex patterns can emerge from the implementation of the game's simple rules. The game can also serve as a didactic analogy, used to convey the somewhat counter-intuitive notion that design and organization can spontaneously emerge in the absence of a designer. For example, cognitive scientist Daniel Dennett has used the analogy of "Conway's Life" "universe" extensively to illustrate the possible evolution of complex philosophical constructs, such as consciousness and free will, from the relatively simple set of deterministic physical

neg: Formal science evolutionary biology, do not hold in all possible worlds, and may eventually turn out not to hold in this world as well. That is why formal sciences are applicable in all domains and useful in all empirical sciences. Because of their non-empirical nature, formal sciences are construed by outlining a set of axioms and definitions from which other statements (theorems) are deduced. In other words, theories in formal sciences contain no synthetic statements; all their statements are analytic. Formal science Formal sciences are formal language disciplines concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, robotics, information

neg: Life Sciences Institute insights into biology and disease, cancer, stem cell biology, evolutionary biology, autophagy and diseases of the nervous system. Life Sciences Institute The Life Sciences Institute (LSI) is a collaborative, independent research institution located on the campus of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. It encompasses 25 faculty-led teams from 13 schools and departments throughout U-M. The LSI bring together leading scientists from a variety of life science disciplines, working in a range of animal models and using a number of cutting-edge research tools, to accelerate breakthroughs and discoveries that will improve human health and lead to new treatments for

neg: Bibliography of biology Bibliography of biology This bibliography of biology is a list of notable works, organized by subdiscipline, on the subject of biology. Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Subdisciplines of biology are recognized on the basis of the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them. This section contains a list of works in anatomy, the study of the structure of living things. This section is a

neg: Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences wide spectrum of plant sciences including molecular and cell biology, genetics, biochemistry, plant physiology, developmental biology, systematics and taxonomy, plant geography, ecology and pharmaceutical biology. Founding the "Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences" in June 2009 implemented a close and productive cooperation between these disciplines. The Berlin-Dahlem location was already the site of an internationally renowned plant science centre in the early 1900s. The centre is building on this historical foundation. Research aims to play its part in a comprehensive understanding of plant diversity, preserving that diversity and facilitating the sustainable use of plant resources. Since sustainability is also a main

neg: Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005) elucidate part of the tree of life, a phylogenetic tree. The Bouchet & Rocroi 2005 system of gastropod taxonomy was laid out in a book-length paper entitled "Classification and Nomenclator of Gastropod Families", which was published in the journal "Malacologia" and which was written in collaboration with J. Frýda, B. Hausdorf, W. Ponder, Á. Valdés and A. Warén. This system supersedes the system of Ponder and Lindberg from 1997. Subsequent revisions by other authors have been made since the publication of this paper. The taxonomy set out by Bouchet & Rocroi is an attempt to get one step closer to

neg: Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory peer-reviewed journals and made five discoveries including the specific Enterovirus 711 monoclonal antibodies which can be further developed as potential therapeutics. In 2012, TLL published 85 papers in peer-reviewed journals and made 11 discoveries, out of which five have been licensed. At Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory (TLL), 230 scientists from about 20 countries undertake basic and applied research in cellular,molecular, and genetic biology. The research efforts aim to address both the immediate and long-term needs of the life sciences industry with a particular focus on cell biology, developmental biology, genomes structural biology and molecular pathogenesis. Notable research methodology includes the

neg: Taxome organisms. Projects are now being set up to take advantage of information technology to document and make available the entire body of taxonomy on line. When this information becomes more complete, it should be possible to link this taxome information to all other information about biology. Taxome The taxome is the sum of all the described species and higher groups such as genera, families, phyla of all life, or the sum of all valid taxa. The documenting of all this biodiversity is still very incomplete. Many organisms have already been documented (it is guessed that around 1-2 million species have

neg: Taxonomy (biology) invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy: A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics, biosystematics, scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes the same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The

neg: Marine biology ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to create artificial reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbiotic zooxanthellae, tropical fish and many other organisms. Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El Niño weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the most severe mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal. Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the

neg: Taxonomy (biology) and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five and six-kingdom systems being the most common. Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of the three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria, previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera), with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus. A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method.

neg: Race (biology) local pathogen population can change geographically, seasonally, and by host plant. Classification of fungal races can be difficult because host plants' responses to particular populations of fungi can be affected by humidity, light, temperature, and other environmental factors; different host plants may not all respond to particular fungal populations or vice versa; and identification of genetic differences between populations thought to form distinct fungal races can be elusive. Race (biology) In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank in the taxonomic hierarchy, below the level of subspecies. It has been used as a higher rank than strain, with several strains

neg: Caliper Life Sciences Caliper has held a long standing position in laboratory automation starting with the introduction of the world’s first lab robotic system, the Zymark Zymate. To date, Caliper has a number of lab automation and liquid handling systems for the life sciences industry. In January 2009, the Zephyr Genomics Workstation was introduced which promises to deliver a benchtop solution for automating routine but critical processes for molecular biology such as nucleic acid purification, reaction setup and normalization. In addition to automating molecular biology, Caliper has many other robotic systems including the Zephyr SPE and RapidTrace SPE workstations to automate solid phase

neg: IEEE Life Sciences and events, including "BIO", "Bio-IT World", the "International Conference on System Biology", and "IEEE Smart Tech Metro Area Workshops". As part of the IEEE Life Sciences Initiative, IEEE societies, working groups, committees and sub-committees publish papers, manuscripts, journals and magazines, and other documents addressing a variety of topics. These publications touch nearly every aspect of the engineering, life sciences, and technology disciplines, and include titles like "IEEE Nanotechnology Magazine", "IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering", "IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine", and "IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering". In April 2012, IEEE unveiled the IEEE Life Sciences Newsletter,

neg: The central science physical chemistry, nuclear chemistry, and theoretical chemistry. Chemistry and biology intersect in the areas of biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, chemical biology, molecular genetics, and immunochemistry. Chemistry and the earth sciences intersect in areas like geochemistry and hydrology. The central science Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences, which include chemistry, with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering. The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics. The phrase was popularized by its use in a

neg: Tree of knowledge system a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these

neg: Tsinghua University 30 years. In June 1984, decisions were made about the reestablishment of the Department of Biology, and the department officially reopened in September. During the reestablishment the Department of Biology of Peking University, the Institute of Biophysics of Chinese Academy of Sciences, and many other institutes as well as biologists provided valuable support and help. The department changed its name to the current name in September 2009. As of 2013, structural biologist and foreign associate of National Academy of Sciences of United States Dr. Yigong Shi is the current dean of School of Life Sciences. The school currently has 38

neg: Essentialism that if we accept the idea that every beautiful thing or just action partakes of an essence to be beautiful or just, we must also accept the "existence of separate essences for hair, mud, and dirt" . In biology and other natural sciences, essentialism provided the rationale for taxonomy at least until the time of Charles Darwin; the role and importance of essentialism in biology is still a matter of debate. In gender studies the essentialist idea that men and women are fundamentally different continues to be a matter of contention. An "essence" characterizes a substance or a form, in

neg: Taxonomy (biology) of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy (pp. 365–366). Later authors have used the term in a different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher

neg: Scientific method a larger body of observations than their predecessors. For example, the theory of evolution explains the diversity of life on Earth, how species adapt to their environments, and many other patterns observed in the natural world; its most recent major modification was unification with genetics to form the modern evolutionary synthesis. In subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as biochemistry and molecular biology. Scientific methodology often directs that hypotheses be tested in controlled conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other

neg: Fiji (software) for neuroscientists (and continues to be so), it accumulated enough functionality to attract scientists from a variety of fields, such as cell biology, parasitology, genetics, life sciences in general, material science, etc. As stated on the official website, the primary focus is "life sciences," although Fiji provides many tools helping with scientific image analysis in general. Fiji is most popular in the life sciences community, where the 3D Viewer helps visualizing data obtained through light microscopy, and for which Fiji provides registration, segmentation, and other advanced image processing algorithms. The Fiji component TrakEM2 was successfully used and enhanced to analyze

neg: IEEE Life Sciences and disciplines. Life sciences have historically been defined as the study of living organisms through disciplines such as biology, medicine, anthropology, and ecology, that describe living organisms and their organization, life processes, and their relationships to each other and their environment. By contrast, engineering is conventionally defined as the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems. Historically, life sciences and engineering did not intersect, however, the life sciences have now reached a point where engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, and clinical medicine are

neg: Conduit metaphor Mathematics is used to measure quantitatively how much the received signal narrows down the possible selections from stored alternatives. The similarity between the frameworks of information theory and the toolmakers paradigm is that This analogy has withstood information theory's utility in simple, technical applications, but in biology, the social sciences, human language and behavior, it has been historically less successful. These attempts foundered by misunderstanding the conceptual framework of the theory rather than its mathematics. Reliance on ordinary language has made the information theory's insights less clear. The negative impact of ordinary language on information theory's use in other fields

neg: Affinity (taxonomy) Affinity (taxonomy) Affinity (taxonomy) – mainly in life sciences or natural history – refers to resemblance suggesting a common descent, phylogenetic relationship, or type. The term does, however, have broader application, such as in geology (for example, in descriptive and theoretical works), and similarly in astronomy (for example, see "Centaur object" in the context of 2060 Chiron's close affinity with icy comet nuclei.) In taxonomy the basis of any particular type of classification is the "way in which objects in the domain resemble each other". A resemblance of a type that seems appropriate to the classification that we propose, we

neg: Wanda Wesołowska Wanda Wesołowska Wanda Wesołowska (born 1950) is a Polish zoologist known for her work with arachnids. Her research focuses on the taxonomy, biology and zoogeography of jumping spiders. Wesołowska started studying biology at the Faculty of Biology and Earth Sciences in Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań in 1968. Her original interest was ornithology. She achieved her MSc in Biology for her work "" (Observations of Wetland Birds on a Dam Reservoir on the Vistula River in Wloclawek during Migration) which was published in "Acta zooogica Cracoviensia" in 1973. After graduating, she took a role at what is now the University

neg: Taxonomy (biology) the 19th century. William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. … there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetical colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable … Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on

neg: Classical compound are the ordinary words for their referents. Some are prone to colloquial shortening; "rhinoceros" often becomes "rhino". The binomial nomenclature of taxonomy and biology is a major source for these items of vocabulary; for many unfamiliar species that lack a common English name, the name of the genus becomes the English word for that life form. In the metric system, prefixes that indicate multipliers are typically Greek in origin, such as "kilogram", while those that indicate divisors are Latin, as in "millimeter": the base roots resemble Greek words, but in truth are neologisms. These metric and other suffixes are added

neg: Taxonomy (biology) his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700, "Institutiones Rei Herbariae", included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it was the text he used as a young student. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works "Systema Naturae" 1st Edition in 1735, "Species Plantarum" in 1753, and "Systema Naturae" 10th Edition, he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which

neg: Silwood Park Research Council Institutes, and many connections through past and present students and academic visitors, means that work at Silwood Park maintains an international flavour. Support is obtained from Research Councils, other Government Bodies and Industry. In 2001, the Biology and Biochemistry Departments merged to form the Department of Biological Sciences within the Faculty of Life Sciences. In 2005, further restructuring occurred and the Centre for Environmental Policy, Cell and Molecular Biology, Molecular Biosciences and Biology were moved to the Faculty of Natural Sciences. In 2007 the Divisions of Biology, Cell and Molecular Biology and Molecular Biosciences were moved into the

neg: Marine biology Marine biology Marine biology is the scientific study of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. A large proportion of all life on Earth lives in the ocean. The exact size of this "large proportion" is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology

neg: Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research disease systems biology, proteomics, high throughput protein production and characterisation, chemical biology, disease biology, and protein therapeutics. The Center also contributes to the progress of translational research within medicine and provide fundamental insights which can be used to promote drug discovery and development. Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research was established at the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen, to promote basic and applied discovery research on human proteins of medical relevance. The establishment of the center (announced in April 2007) has been made possible by

neg: Genidentity (in which he includes chemistry) and biology (which he divides into organic biology and evolutionary history of life). A comparison of this kind presupposes that it is possible to find equivalent notions in both sciences. According to Lewin, the concept of "genidentity" in the various sciences meets this requirement. Lewin distinguishes between partial and total genidentity. This is due to the difficulty caused by parts of objects: for instance, an object might disintegrate into several pieces in the course of its development. As we follow such an object through time, only a small portion of it may remain. Lewin says

neg: Biology and political science Biology and political science The interdisciplinary study of biology and political science is the application of theories and methods from the biology toward the scientific understanding of political behavior. The field is sometimes called biopolitics, a term that will be used in this article as a synonym although it has other, less related meanings. More generally, the field has also been called "politics and the life sciences". The field can be said to originate with the 1968 manifesto of Albert Somit, "Towards a more Biologically Oriented Political Science", which appeared in the "Midwest Journal of Political Science". The term "biopolitics"

neg: Archives of Biological Sciences Archives of Biological Sciences The Archives of Biological Sciences is a multidisciplinary journal that covers original research in a wide range of subjects in life science, including biology, ecology, human biology and biomedical research. "The Archives of Biological Sciences" is a multidisciplinary journal that covers original research in a wide range of subjects in life science, including biology, ecology, human biology and biomedical research. The journal features articles in genetics, botany and zoology (including higher and lower terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals, prokaryote biology, algology, mycology, entomology, etc.); biological systematics; evolution; biochemistry; molecular biology; cell biology, including all aspects

neg: Taxonomy (biology) known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorization of organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With the advent of such fields of study as phylogenetics, cladistics, and systematics, the Linnaean system has progressed to a system of modern biological classification based on the evolutionary relationships between organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2),

neg: Australia Bioinformatics Resource Australia Bioinformatics Resource The Australia Bioinformatics Resource (EMBL-ABR) (formerly the Bioinformatics Resource Australia - EMBL (BRAEMBL)) is a distributed national research infrastructure providing bioinformatics support to life science researchers in Australia. The Resource was set up as a collaboration with the European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI) in order to maximise Australia’s bioinformatics capability. This close partnership is made possible in the context of Australia’s associate membership of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL). EMBL-ABR aims to: EMBL-ABR is supported by Bioplatforms Australia and the University of Melbourne. EMBL-ABR Hub is hosted at the Victorian Life Sciences Computation Initiative (VLSCI) at the

neg: Tree of knowledge system crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of "Psychological formalism" is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. "Human psychology" is considered to be

neg: Andrey A. Fedorov which criticised the activities of Lysenko and made an overall assessment of the state of biology in the Soviet Union. The letter was drafted by a large group of Soviet scientists and led eventually to the resignation of Lysenko as president of All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Andrey Fedorov was appointed in 1970 as a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. His main work was devoted to the taxonomy of flowering plants, to the flora of the USSR (especially the Caucasus, to the European part of the USSR, Siberia and the republics of Central Asia), flora

neg: Taxonomy (biology) new common (or apomorphic) traits. However, certain phenetic methods, such as neighbor joining, have found their way into cladistics, as a reasonable approximation of phylogeny when more advanced methods (such as Bayesian inference) are too computationally expensive. Modern taxonomy uses database technologies to search and catalogue classifications and their documentation. While there is no commonly used database, there are comprehensive databases such as the "Catalogue of Life", which attempts to list every documented species. The catalogue listed 1.64 million species for all kingdoms as of April 2016, claiming coverage of more than three quarters of the estimated species known to

neg: Jonathan Gressel Glass Ceilings: Transgenics for Crop Biodiversity", a careful, detailed, and passionate examination of the possible application of plant sciences such as molecular biology and transgenics to worldwide agricultural policies. He discusses the limitations and possible genetic modification of fourteen underutilised crops. He describes ways in which plant sciences could be used to expand biodiversity, address agricultural problems, and protect the environment. In 2008 Jonathan Gressel co-founded TransAlgae, with his son, Noam Gressel and others. His goal was to develop genetically modified algae for growth in customized indoor and outdoor reactors that would be resistant to colonization and take-over by other

neg: IEEE Life Sciences information from those societies and councils taking part in the IEEE Life Sciences Initiative. The IEEE Life Sciences Initiative is home to numerous societies, technical councils and communities, and other organizational units that are active in life sciences-related work. Among the disciplines or specialized fields of interest covered by these groups are electronic systems, medicine and biology engineering, and robotics. IEEE Life Sciences IEEE Life Sciences is an initiative launched by IEEE to promote the advancement of life sciences and supporting technologies, and to provide expertise and resources to individuals and enterprises involved in the various disciplines falling under the

neg: Archives of Biological Sciences in Scopus. "The Archives of Biological Sciences" is published quarterly. The journal is published in open access electronic format since 2002 (eISSN 1821-4339). Archives of Biological Sciences The Archives of Biological Sciences is a multidisciplinary journal that covers original research in a wide range of subjects in life science, including biology, ecology, human biology and biomedical research. "The Archives of Biological Sciences" is a multidisciplinary journal that covers original research in a wide range of subjects in life science, including biology, ecology, human biology and biomedical research. The journal features articles in genetics, botany and zoology (including higher and lower

neg: The Order of Things The Order of Things The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences () is a 1966 book by the French philosopher Michel Foucault. It was translated into English and published by Pantheon Books in 1970. (Foucault had preferred "L'Ordre des Choses" for the original French title, but changed the title because it had been used by two structuralist works published immediately prior to Foucault's). Foucault endeavours to "excavate" the origins of the human sciences, which have their root in "life, labour, and language", that is: biology, economics, and linguistics. The book opens with an extended discussion of Diego

neg: The Order of Things a paradigm. The Order of Things The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences () is a 1966 book by the French philosopher Michel Foucault. It was translated into English and published by Pantheon Books in 1970. (Foucault had preferred "L'Ordre des Choses" for the original French title, but changed the title because it had been used by two structuralist works published immediately prior to Foucault's). Foucault endeavours to "excavate" the origins of the human sciences, which have their root in "life, labour, and language", that is: biology, economics, and linguistics. The book opens with an extended discussion

neg: Avrelija Cencič Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences and she was a Vice dean for research and was Vice dean for International Relations at the Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences at the University of Maribor. Multi language skills including English, German, French and Croatian. Avrelija Cencič Avrelija Cencič (pronounced Cen•cich) (19 October 1964 – 14 December 2012) was a Slovenian university professor, researcher in the fields of biochemistry, molecular biology and immunology, manager and educator in health and life sciences. In 2000 she made her PhD (with 1st class honours) from Biochemistry and Molecular biology of leukocytic and trophoblastic interferon gamma

neg: Family (biology) used for evolutionary, palaeontological and genetic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species. Compare: Family (biology) In Linnaean taxonomy, family (, plural ") is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks; it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named after one of its common members; for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, commonly known as the walnut family. What does or does not belong to

neg: Branches of science much as it involves a clearly biological aspect. While biology remains the centerpiece of life science, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and new, often interdisciplinary, fields. "Biology" is the branch of natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Zoology, occasionally spelled zoölogy, is the branch of science that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both

neg: Alastair Culham Alastair Culham Alastair Culham (born 1965) is an English botanist. He is a member of the staff of the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Reading and Curator of the University of Reading Herbarium (RNG). He specialises in plant taxonomy, biosystematics and applications of techniques from molecular biology, phytogeography and phylogenetics. He focuses on broad-based research in biodiversity and taxonomy. One aspect of his research concerns the effects of climate change on biodiversity. He has contributed to papers on the impacts of climate change on plant evolution as well as reviews of data source quality and computational approaches

neg: Prototype There are two likely replacements. One is a definition of the kilogram that will define another physical constant (likely either Planck's constant or the elementary charge) to a defined numerical value, thus obviating the need for the prototype and removing the possibility of the prototype (and thus the standard and definition of the kilogram) changing very slightly over the years because of loss or gain of atoms. The other definition is using a system that finds the amount of force needed to counteract the pull of earth's gravity on a one kilogram artifact. In many sciences, from pathology to taxonomy,

neg: Neuroscience Neuroscience Neuroscience (or neurobiology) is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a multidisciplinary branch of biology that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, mathematical modeling and psychology to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons and neural circuits. The understanding of the biological basis of learning, memory, behavior, perception, and consciousness has been described by Eric Kandel as the "ultimate challenge" of the biological sciences. The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales and the techniques used by neuroscientists have expanded

neg: Timeline a sense of change over time. Wars and social movements are often shown as timelines. Timelines are also useful for biographies. Examples include: Timelines are also used in the natural world and sciences, for subjects such as astronomy, biology, and geology: Another type of timeline is used for project management. In these cases, timelines are used to help team members to know what milestones need to be achieved and under what time schedule. For example, in the case of establishing a project timeline in the implementation phase of the life cycle of a computer system. Timeline A timeline is a

neg: Logo (programming language) sometimes used in environments other than Logo as an alternative to a strictly coordinate-addressed graphics system. For instance, the idea of turtle graphics is also useful in Lindenmayer system for generating fractals. Some modern derivatives of Logo allow thousands of independently moving turtles. There are two popular implementations: MIT's StarLogo and Northwestern University CCL's NetLogo. They allow for the exploration of emergent phenomena and come with many experiments in social studies, biology, physics, and other areas. NetLogo is widely used in agent-based simulation in the biological and social sciences. Although there is no single agreed-upon standard, there is a broad

neg: Virginia Tech security, sustainability, and a wide range of other engineering, scientific, social science, and creative fields. This research led to 36 patents and 17 license and option agreements in fiscal year 2013. The Fralin Life Science Institute is an expansion of the Fralin Biotechnology Center, which was established in 1991. Research at the institute is focused on the areas of vector-borne disease; infectious disease and microbial sciences; plant sciences; obesity; cancer biology; and ecology and organismal biology. The Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, formerly known as the Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, is a bioinformatics, computational biology, and systems biology research facility that

neg: Arie de Graaf of the Dutch defense budget. De Graaf was nicknamed "Arie de Vraag" because of the large number (357) of written information requests to the government that he posed during his tenure. He left the House of Representatives in 1981 and subsequently studied biology at Wageningen University, where he was a visiting scientist at the laboratory for plant taxonomy. From 1988 he taught at the Inholland University of Applied Sciences ("HEAO Alkmaar" at the time). The Aroid plant species, "Lagenandra dewitii", was described by de Graaf in honour of Hendrik de Wit. Arie de Graaf Arie de Graaf (born 4 August

neg: Barbara Pickersgill Barbara Pickersgill Barbara Pickersgill (born 1940) is a British botanist with a special interest in the domestication of crops, the genetics, taxonomy, and evolutionary biology of cultivated plants, and the preservation of crop diversity. Her 1966 dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from Indiana University concerned the taxonomy of "Capsicum chinense". In 2005 she retired from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Reading, to become an Honorary Research Associate. Her research projects include: In 1993 the Linnean Society of London presented Pickersgill with the Linnean Medal for her contribution to botany. In 2000 she was

neg: Barbara Pickersgill the president of the Society for Economic Botany. On 4 August 2006 the Linnean Society of London organised a one-day conference in honour of Pickersgill. Barbara Pickersgill Barbara Pickersgill (born 1940) is a British botanist with a special interest in the domestication of crops, the genetics, taxonomy, and evolutionary biology of cultivated plants, and the preservation of crop diversity. Her 1966 dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from Indiana University concerned the taxonomy of "Capsicum chinense". In 2005 she retired from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Reading, to become an Honorary Research Associate. Her

neg: Taxonomy (biology) in the Great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius, Timotheos of Gaza, Demetrios Pepagomenos, and Thomas Aquinas. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. During the Renaissance, the Age of Reason, and the Enlightenment, categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap

neg: OS Fund operating system,” said the OS Fund will invest in companies challenging traditional approaches to medicine, healthcare, transportation, life sciences, and other areas. In September 2015, OS Fund published the methodology it uses to evaluate investments in the field of synthetic biology. Johnson said the fund publicly released the "playbook" on its website to encourage others to invest in emerging sciences. Johnson is the fund’s general partner. Jeff Klunzinger, formerly the chief financial officer of West Family Investments, is the fund’s managing director. The impetus for OS Fund came after Johnson spent two years living in impoverished Ecuadorian communities. After returning

neg: Marine life but of a different kind from vertebrates). He divided animals with blood into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ("animals without blood") he divided into insects, crustacea (further divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In contemporary times, marine life is a field of study both in marine biology and in biological oceanography. In biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land. Marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. For this reason marine biology encompasses not only

neg: Integrative bioinformatics across databases are not possible. The major advantage to this approach is that it allows for the generation of new hypotheses to test. Integrative bioinformatics Integrative bioinformatics is a discipline of bioinformatics that focuses on problems of data integration for the life sciences. With the rise of high-throughput (HTP) technologies in the life sciences, particularly in molecular biology, the amount of collected data has grown in an exponential fashion. Furthermore, the data are scattered over a plethora of both public and private repositories, and are stored using a large number of different formats. This situation makes searching these data and

neg: Level of support for evolution fully account for observations in the fields of biology, paleontology, molecular biology, genetics, anthropology, and others. A 1991 Gallup poll found that about 5% of American scientists (including those with training outside biology) identified themselves as creationists. Additionally, the scientific community considers intelligent design, a neo-creationist offshoot, to be unscientific, pseudoscience, or junk science. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that intelligent design "and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life" are not science because they cannot be tested by experiment, do not generate any predictions, and propose no new hypotheses of their own. In

neg: Translation (biology) in all other positions. Example: Condensed translation table for the Standard Genetic Code (from the NCBI Taxonomy webpage). Even when working with ordinary eukaryotic sequences such as the Yeast genome, it is often desired to be able to use alternative translation tables—namely for translation of the mitochondrial genes. Currently the following translation tables are defined by the NCBI Taxonomy Group for the translation of the sequences in GenBank: Translation (biology) In molecular biology and genetics, translation is the process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the

neg: BioUML collaborative research, the makers of BioUML have developed a new hardware/software system in partnership with Valex LLC. This version of BioUML is called Biodatomics. BioUML BioUML is an open-source software platform for the analysis of data from omics sciences research and other advanced computational biology developed by scientists from the Institute of Systems Biology in Novosibirsk, Russia. The platform is freely available online and used in research labs - mostly in academic institutions - for the discovery of disease origins and prevention. The current release of BioUML is version 0.9.3 released in October 2010 and includes 3 versions; BioUML Server

neg: Biology use in answering more general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics. In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology after its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. Phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy are related fields often considered part of evolutionary biology. Multiple speciation events create a tree structured system of relationships between species. The role of systematics is to study these relationships and thus

neg: Nomenclature Nomenclature Nomenclature is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terms used in scientific and any other disciplines. Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name

neg: Sanford I. Weill the Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology at Cornell, housed in a new life science building named Weill Hall. On September 10, 2013, Joan and Sandy Weill and the Weill Family Foundation announced a $100 million gift to Weill Cornell. Weill is Chairman of the Board of Overseers of Weill Cornell Medical College and Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, having joined the board in 1982 and becoming chair in 1995. Weill Cornell established the first American medical school overseas in Doha, Qatar, in 2001. This was made possible through a special partnership between Weill Cornell and the

neg: Xenopus a popular model system for a wide variety of biological studies. This animal is used because of its powerful combination of experimental tractability and close evolutionary relationship with humans, at least compared to many model organisms. "Xenopus" has long been an important tool for "in vivo studies" in molecular, cell, and developmental biology of vertebrate animals. However, the wide breadth of "Xenopus" research stems from the additional fact that cell-free extracts made from "Xenopus" are a premier "in vitro "system for studies of fundamental aspects of cell and molecular biology. Thus, "Xenopus" is the only vertebrate model system that allows

neg: Pre-health sciences chemistry and organic chemistry, often earning a minor in chemistry, mathematics, often up to basic calculus, general biology with overviews of genetics and taxonomy, and calculus or trigonometry-based physics. The requirements beyond the sciences are often light, many schools require a human sciences or psychology course. No schools actually require anatomy or diagnostic courses as these are universally regarded as first year medical courses. Pre-health sciences Pre-Health Sciences are the undergraduate courses that prepare American college students for admission in medical, dentistry, pharmacy, optometry, veterinary, and physical therapy schools, and for training as a physician assistant. In the United States,

neg: Flynn's taxonomy the other nodes which all run a second program. Those other nodes then return their results directly to the manager. An example of this would be the Sony PlayStation 3 game console, with its SPU/PPU processor. Flynn's taxonomy Flynn's taxonomy is a classification of computer architectures, proposed by Michael J. Flynn in 1966. The classification system has stuck, and has been used as a tool in design of modern processors and their functionalities. Since the rise of multiprocessing central processing units (CPUs), a multiprogramming context has evolved as an extension of the classification system. The four classifications defined by Flynn

neg: Bacterial taxonomy several additions are still used today. While the three domain system is widely accepted, some authors have opposed it for various reasons. One prominent scientist who opposes the three domain system is Thomas Cavalier-Smith, who proposed that the "Archaea" and the "Eukaryotes" (the "Neomura") stem from Gram positive bacteria ("Posibacteria"), which in turn derive from gram negative bacteria ("Negibacteria") based on several logical arguments, which are highly controversial and generally disregarded by the molecular biology community ("c.f." reviewers' comments on, "e.g." Eric Bapteste is "agnostic" regarding the conclusions) and are often not mentioned in reviews ("e.g".) due to the subjective

neg: Catherine Forster have found and described from Madagascar. Catherine Forster Catherine Ann Forster is an American paleontologist, taxonomist and expert in ornithopod evolution and "Triceratops" taxonomy. She is a Professor in the Geological Sciences Program and the Department of Biological Sciences at George Washington University. She obtained a B.A. and B.S. from the University of Minnesota in 1982, followed by an M.Sc. in 1985 and a Ph.D. in 1990 from the University of Pennsylvania. She then completed post-doctoral work at the University of Chicago between 1990 and 1994 in their department of Organismal Biology . She is known in part for unique

neg: Catherine Forster Catherine Forster Catherine Ann Forster is an American paleontologist, taxonomist and expert in ornithopod evolution and "Triceratops" taxonomy. She is a Professor in the Geological Sciences Program and the Department of Biological Sciences at George Washington University. She obtained a B.A. and B.S. from the University of Minnesota in 1982, followed by an M.Sc. in 1985 and a Ph.D. in 1990 from the University of Pennsylvania. She then completed post-doctoral work at the University of Chicago between 1990 and 1994 in their department of Organismal Biology . She is known in part for unique bird fossils she and her colleagues

neg: Caminalcules second using them to compare methods in numerical taxonomy. They have been used in biology education to teach the principles of systematics and evolution. Caminalcules Caminalcules (from Camin and animalcule) are a fictive group of animal-like life forms invented by Professor Joseph H. Camin (University of Kansas) as a tool for understanding phylogenetics. Interested in how taxonomists group species, he designed these creatures to show an evolutionary pattern of divergence and diversification in morphology. There are 29 recent 'species' of Caminalcules and 48 fossil forms. The Caminalcules first appeared in print in the journal "Systematic Zoology" (now "Systematic Biology") in

neg: Automatic taxonomy construction such as "kingdom", "phylum", "genus", and "species". Taxonomies are often represented as "is-a" hierarchies where each level is more specific (in mathematical language "a subset of") the level above it. For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as "mammal", which is a subset of "animal", and "dogs" and "cats", which are subsets of "mammal". This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because the specific objects are considered instances of a concept. For example, "Fido" is-a instance of the concept "dog" and "Fluffy" is-a "cat". In linguistics, is-a relations are called hyponymy. Words that describe categories

neg: Molecular evolution or taxonomy from the point of view of evolutionary biology. Molecular systematics has been made possible by the availability of techniques for DNA sequencing, which allow the determination of the exact sequence of nucleotides or "bases" in either DNA or RNA. At present it is still a long and expensive process to sequence the entire genome of an organism, and this has been done for only a few species. However, it is quite feasible to determine the sequence of a defined area of a particular chromosome. Typical molecular systematic analyses require the sequencing of around 1000 base pairs. Depending on

neg: Terence McKenna establish a symbiotic relationship with human beings. He postulated that "intelligence, not life, but intelligence may have come here [to Earth] in this spore-bearing life form". He said, "I think that theory will probably be vindicated. I think in a hundred years if people do biology they will think it quite silly that people once thought that spores could not be blown from one star system to another by cosmic radiation pressure," and also believed that "few people are in a position to judge its extraterrestrial potential, because few people in the orthodox sciences have ever experienced the full spectrum

neg: Load bank 75 kVAr of inductive load is provided. Other ratios are possible to obtain other power factor ratings. An inductive load is used to simulate a real-life mixed commercial loads consisting of lighting, heating, motors, transformers, etc. With a resistive-inductive load bank, full power system testing is possible, because the provided impedance supplies currents out of phase with voltage and allows for performance evaluation of generators, voltage regulators, load tap changers, conductors, switchgear and other equipment. A capacitive load bank or capacitor bank is similar to an inductive load bank in rating and purpose, except leading power factor loads are created,

neg: Taxonomy (biology) been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus's system of sexual classification. Later came systems based on a more complete

neg: Howard Ensign Evans University and Colorado State University. Evans's passions included field biology, writing, teaching, the American West, backpacking, fishing, classical music, environmental conservation, and his family. Howard and Mary Alice Evans raised three children. Numbered among his accomplishments in hymenopteran taxonomy was the novel family Scolebythidae in addition to 31 genera and almost 800 species. In addition to taxonomy, Evans produced important work on insect behavior and evolution. A fellow at the National Academy of Sciences, he received a number of honors, including the William J. Walker Prize of the Boston Museum of Science (1967) and the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from

neg: Brute-force attack be used when it is not possible to take advantage of other weaknesses in an encryption system (if any exist) that would make the task easier. When password-guessing, this method is very fast when used to check all short passwords, but for longer passwords other methods such as the dictionary attack are used because a brute-force search takes too long. Longer passwords, passphrases and keys have more possible values, making them exponentially more difficult to crack than shorter ones. Brute-force attacks can be made less effective by obfuscating the data to be encoded making it more difficult for an attacker

neg: Sonic Adventure form, but this was abandoned because of the technological constraints of the Dreamcast. According to Iizuka, the team tried to include as much content as possible. One addition was the Chao-raising system, which Iizuka conceived to take advantage of the VMU. Sonic Team had used a similar virtual pet system, the "A-Life", in "Nights into Dreams"; Iizuka used the A-Life as a base, while improving it with the VMU and the option to improve its skills. Iizuka hoped it would be made into a character players could touch and raise. It was also designed to appeal to casual gamers not

neg: Numerical taxonomy the estimated evolutionary history of the taxa. Although intended as an objective method, in practice the choice and implicit or explicit weighting of characteristics is influenced by available data and research interests of the investigator. What was made objective was the introduction of explicit steps to be used to create dendrograms and cladograms using numerical methods rather than subjective synthesis of data. Numerical taxonomy Numerical taxonomy is a classification system in biological systematics which deals with the grouping by numerical methods of taxonomic units based on their character states. It aims to create a taxonomy using numeric algorithms like cluster

neg: Computational biology biology, bioinformatics and mathematical biology are all interdisciplinary approaches to the life sciences that draw from quantitative disciplines such as mathematics and information science. The NIH describes computational/mathematical biology as the use of computational/mathematical approaches to address theoretical and experimental questions in biology and, by contrast, bioinformatics as the application of information science to understand complex life-sciences data. Specifically, the NIH defines While each field is distinct, there may be significant overlap at their interface. Computational biology Computational biology involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological,

neg:
6-digit UNESCO nomenclature 2303 Inorganic chemistry (see 3303)
 2304 Macromolecular chemistry
 2305 Nuclear chemistry
 2306 Organic chemistry
 2307 Physical chemistry (see 2210)
 2399 Other chemical specialities
 24 Life Sciences
 2401 Animal Biology (Zoology) (see 3109)
 2402 Anthropology (physical) (see 51)
 2403 Biochemistry (see 2302)
 2404 Biomathematics
 2405 Biometrics
 2406 Biophysics
 2407 Cell biology
 2408 Ethology
 2409 Genetics
 2410 Human biology (see 32)
 2411 Human physiology
 2412 Immunology
 2413 Insect Biology (Entomology)
 2414 Microbiology
 2415 Molecular biology
 2416 Palaeontology
 2417 Plant Biology (Botany) (see 3103)
 2418 Radiobiology
 2419 Symbiosis
 2420 Virology
 2499 Other biological specialities
 25 Earth and Space Science
 2501 Atmospheric sciences (see

neg: Race (biology) Race (biology) In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank in the taxonomic hierarchy, below the level of subspecies. It has been used as a higher rank than strain, with several strains making up one race. Various definitions exist. Races may be genetically distinct populations of individuals within the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete, but genetic differences may have accumulated that are not (yet) sufficient to separate species. The term is recognized by some, but not governed by any, of the formal codes of

neg: Dundee Cell Products proteomics, molecular biology and cell biology focused on the needs of research scientists in academic institutions as well as those in biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies. Dundee Cell Products Dundee Cell Products (DCP) is a biotechnology company headquartered in Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom. The company is a bioreagents and life sciences services company which commercialises research tools for biochemistry, molecular biology and cell biology research, and provides services in these areas to the life sciences community. The company’s key business activities include research and development of new innovative products and services, commercialization of products in-licensed from academic institutions, distribution of life

neg: Guy D. Smith for the U.S. government. While working for the USDA, Guy was tasked with developing a method for classifying soils. He produced the 1st of seven iterations of what would eventually become a soil taxonomy system used worldwide. Creating a way to classify soils was important because soils are a valuable global resource that we needed to better understand in order to utilize and improve upon. Guy collaborated with European soil scientists in developing Soil Taxonomy. For this and other research publications, Guy received international recognition for his outstanding efforts in soil science. For his contributions to pedology, Guy received many

neg: Science education in England science is delivered in two parts: "life and environmental sciences" AND "physical sciences". Unlike trilogy, each of the two parts in the synergy specification document is broken down into ‘areas’ that enable biology, chemistry and physics to sit together. The synergy GCSE exam itself is made up of four papers (each one hour and forty-five minutes): two for life and environmental sciences and two for physical sciences. Like AQA combined science, following recent changes, a student can go for one of two routes if taking OCR combined science; in this case either "combined science A" or "combined science B". In

neg: Marine life organisms that live only in a marine environment, but also other organisms whose lives revolve around the sea. Biological oceanography is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. Biological oceanography mostly focuses on the microorganisms within the ocean; looking at how they are affected by their environment and how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem. Biological oceanography is similar to marine biology, but is different because of the perspective used to study the ocean. Biological oceanography takes a bottom up approach (in terms of the food

neg: Fish measurement Fish measurement Fish measurement is the measuring of the length of individual fish and of various parts of their anatomy. These data are used in many areas of ichthyology, including taxonomy and fisheries biology. Standard length measurements are used with Teleostei (most bony fish), while total length measurements are used with Myxini (hagfish), Petromyzontiformes (lampreys), and (usually) Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays), as well as some other fishes. Total length measurements are used in slot limit and minimum landing size regulations. In addition, fishery biologists often use a third measure in fishes with forked tails: Other measurements that may be taken