query: what countries had sphere of influence in china

pos: Sphere of influence are considered to have inherited culture from a previous sphere of influence, that while perhaps today halted, continues to share the same culture. Examples include the Anglosphere, Arab World, Eurosphere, Francophonie, Françafrique, Germanosphere, Indosphere, Latin Europe/Latin America, Lusophonie, Turkosphere, Chinese cultural sphere, Slavisphere, Hispanophone, Malay World, as well as many others. An example of spheres of influence was China in the late 19th and early 20th Century, when Britain, France, Germany, and Russia (later replaced by Japan) had de facto control over large swaths of territory. These were taken by means of military attacks or threats to force Chinese authorities

pos: Sphere of influence it turned out that the Soviets and the Western Allies had very different ideas concerning the administration and future development of the liberated regions and of Germany itself. During the Cold War the Baltic states, Central Europe, some countries in Eastern Europe, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and, until the Sino-Soviet split and Tito-Stalin split, the People's Republic of China and the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, among other countries at various times, were said to lie under the Soviet sphere of influence. Western Europe, Oceania, Japan, and South Korea, among other places, were often said to lie under the

pos: Battle of Pungdo Battle of Pungdo The Battle of Pungdo or Feng-tao (Japanese: ) was the first naval battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. It took place on 25 July 1894 off Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea, between cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy and components of the Chinese Beiyang Fleet. Both China and Japan had been intervening in Korea against the Donghak Peasant Revolution. While China tried to maintain her suzerain relationship with Korea, Japan wanted to increase her sphere of influence. Both countries had already sent troops to Korea as requested by different factions within the Korean government. Chinese troops from the Huai

pos: Sphere of influence United States as the region's preferred trade partner over other nations such as China. For another example, during the height of its existence in World War II, the Japanese Empire had quite a large sphere of influence. The Japanese government directly governed events in Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, and parts of Mainland China. The "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" could thus be quite easily drawn on a map of the Pacific Ocean as a large "bubble" surrounding the islands of Japan and the Asian and Pacific nations it controlled. According to a secret protocol attached to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939

pos: Sphere of influence not about spheres of influence. The difference is that these countries themselves opted to join". Following the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, Václav Havel and other former central and eastern European leaders signed an open letter stating that Russia had "violated the core principles of the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris... -all in the name of defending a sphere of influence on its borders." In April 2014, NATO stated that "Contrary to [the Founding Act], Russia now appears to be attempting to recreate a sphere of influence by seizing a part of Ukraine, maintaining large numbers of forces on its

pos: Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies Asian nation that had successfully transformed itself into a modern technological society at the end of the 19th century and it remained independent when most Asian countries had been under European or American power, and had beaten a European power, Russia, in war. Following its military campaign in China, Japan turned its attention to Southeast Asia, advocating to other Asians a 'Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere', which they described as a type of trade zone under Japanese leadership. The Japanese had gradually spread their influence through Asia in the first half of the 20th century and during the 1920s and

pos: Sik Kok Kwong Forum in Mainland China in 2004, a suggestion that won support from Buddhist circles in countries like Japan and the Republic of Korea. He also spearheaded two tours of relics of the Buddha in 1999 and in 2003. Kok Kwong's influence also spread toward the political sphere of Hong Kong, where he was appointed to positions as an adviser to the government following the handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China. Kok Kwong was one of the earliest defenders of the Hong Kong government; for instance in a 2004 interview with the "South China Morning Post", he

pos: Western world still wielded a large degree of influence throughout the world. During the Cold War, a new definition emerged. Earth was divided into three "worlds". The First World, analogous in this context to what was called "the West", was composed of NATO members and other countries aligned with the United States. The Second World was the Eastern bloc in the Soviet sphere of influence, including the Soviet Union (15 republics including presently independent Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Warsaw Pact countries like Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, East Germany (now united with Germany), Czechoslovakia (now split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia). The

pos: East Asian cultural sphere and design. China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam traditionally observe the same lunar new year. However, Japan has moved its New Year to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration while Korea later also moved to Western New Year since 1970s. Japan's textual scholarship had Chinese origin which made Japan one of Sinology birthplaces. The term Sinosphere is sometimes used as a synonym for the East Asian cultural sphere. The etymology of ' is from ' "China; Chinese" (cf. Sinophone) and "" in the sense of "sphere of influence", "area influenced by a country". The "CJKV" languages –

pos: East Asian cultural sphere Countries from the East Asian cultural sphere share a common architectural style stemming from the architecture of ancient China. Buddhism The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a history of Mahayana Buddhism. Taoism The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have been influenced by Taoism. The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview. Confucianism is a humanistic philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic

pos: The Next 100 Years: A Forecast for the 21st Century will annex Karelia, Romania will annex Moldova, Tibet will gain independence with help from India, Taiwan (ROC) will extend its influence into mainland China, while the United States, European powers, and Japan will re-create regional spheres of influence in mainland China. In the 2020s and 2030s, three main powers will emerge in Eurasia: Turkey, Poland, and Japan. Initially supported by the United States, Turkey will expand its sphere of influence and become a regional power, much as it was during the time of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish sphere of influence will extend into the Arab world, which will have

pos: Weihaiwei under British rule part, was inside Germany's (and after World War I Japan's) sphere of influence. It was normal practice for British colonies to be administered under the provisions of the British Settlements Act 1887. However, Weihaiwei was actually administered under the Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890 which was the law which granted extraterritorial powers over British subjects in China and other countries where Britain had extraterritorial rights. The reason for this was that as a leased territory, subject to rendition at any time, it was not considered appropriate to treat Weihaiwei as a full colony. In exchange for recognising British Weihaiwei, Germany demanded

pos: East Asia Korea and Taiwan as countries that constitute East Asia based on their geographic proximity as well as historical and modern cultural and economic ties, particularly with Japan and Korea having strong cultural influences that originated from China. Some scholars include Vietnam as part of East Asia as it has been considered part of the greater sphere of Chinese influence. Though Confucianism continues to play an important role in Vietnamese culture, Chinese characters are no longer used in its written language and many scholarly organizations classify Vietnam as a Southeast Asian country. Mongolia is geographically north of China yet Confucianism and

pos: Reinhard Gehlen services. Meanwhile, as of 1946, when the Soviet consolidated their hegemony and sphere of influence in central, eastern, and south-eastern Europe as agreed at the Potsdam Conference of 1945 and demarcated with what became known as the Iron Curtain, the Western Allies of World War II, the U.S., Britain, France, had no sources of covert information within the countries where the occupying Red Army had vanquished the Wehrmacht. On 22 May 1945, Gehlen surrendered to the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC) of the U.S. Army in Bavaria and was taken to Camp King, near Oberursel, and there interrogated by Captain John

pos: Allies of World War II treaties, Bulgaria gained a small area near the Black Sea from Romania, making it the only former German ally to gain territory from WWII. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to protect its independence and to liberate Southern Mongolia from Japan and China. Mongolia had been a Soviet sphere of influence since the 1920s. By 1944, Poland entered the Soviet sphere of influence with the establishment of Władysław Gomułka's communist regime. Polish forces fought alongside Soviet forces against Germany. Romania had initially been a member of the

pos: Treaty of Shimonoseki hand Japan had been granted by the Treaty (of Shimonoseki) with respect to Korea and Taiwan was short-sighted of Russia with respect to its strategic goals; to get to and maintain a strong point in Port Arthur Russia would have to dominate and control many additional hundreds of miles of Eastern Manchuria (the Fengtian province of Imperial China, modern Jilin and Heilongjiang) up to Harbin. Japan had long considered the lands paralleling the whole Korean border as part of its strategic Sphere of Influence. By leasing "Liaodong" and railway concessions, Russia crashed its Sphere of Influence squarely into Japan's. This

pos: The Next 100 Years: A Forecast for the 21st Century increasingly fragmented by then, and north into Russia and other former Soviet countries. Israel will continue to be a powerful nation and will be the only country in the immediate region to remain outside the Turkish sphere of influence. However, Israel will be forced to come to an accommodation with Turkey due to Turkey's military and political power. Meanwhile, Japan will expand its economic influence to regions of coastal China, the Russian Far East, and many Pacific Islands. Friedman predicts that Japan will change its foreign policy during this time period, becoming more geopolitically aggressive, beginning a major military buildup.

pos: Sphere of influence focus was on Russia. Western nations implicitly treated the post-Soviet countries (besides the Baltic states) as Russia's sphere of influence." In 1997, NATO and Russia signed the "Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security", stating the "aim of creating in Europe a common space of security and stability, without dividing lines or spheres of influence limiting the sovereignty of any state." In 2009, Russia asserted that the European Union desires a sphere of influence and that the Eastern Partnership is "an attempt to extend" it. In March 2009, Sweden's foreign minister Carl Bildt stated that "The Eastern Partnership is

pos: Sphere of influence to sign unequal treaties and very long term "leases". In December 1897 German Kaiser Wilhelm II declared his intent to seize territory in China, precipitating the scramble to demarcate zones of influence in China. The German government acquired, in Shandong province, exclusive control over developmental loans, mining, and railway ownership, while Russia gained, in addition to the previous tax exemption for trade in Mongolia and Xinjiang, economic powers similar to Germany's over Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. France gained a sphere over Yunnan, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces, Japan over Fujian province, and the British Empire over the whole Yangtze River

pos: Tientsin incident Tientsin incident The was an international incident created by a blockade by the Imperial Japanese Army's Japanese Northern China Area Army of the British settlements in the north China treaty port of Tientsin (modern day Tianjin) in June 1939. Originating as a minor administrative dispute, it escalated into a major diplomatic incident. Starting in 1931 with the seizure of Manchuria, Japan had a policy of attempting to reduce Chinese independence with the ultimate aim of placing all of China within the Japanese sphere of influence. Britain's relations with China had not been particularly warm or close before the mid-1930s, but

pos: First East Asia Summit Australia and India to Japanese influence. The absence of the United States of America was seen by some commentators as symptomatic of what was said to be the USA's declining influence in Asia. Some view this as linked with what is perceived as Chinese influence rising. The difficulties in the relationship between the "Plus Three" members (i.e. Japan, China and South Korea) of ASEAN Plus three together with the positioning of parties due to the presence of the non-East Asian countries, India, Australia and New Zealand, resulted in limitations in what could be achieved at the inaugural EAS. The role

pos: History of the French Navy Britain a huge indemnity. This combined with the intervention in Vietnam set the stage for further French influence in China leading up to a sphere of influence over parts of Southern China. In 1866, French Navy troops made an attempt to colonize Korea, during the French Campaign against Korea. The French Navy also had a mild presence in Japan in 1867-1868, around the actions of French Military Mission to Japan, and the subsequent Boshin war. The French Navy was heavily involved in French intervention in Mexico (January 1862–March 1867). Napoleon, using as a pretext the Mexican Republic's refusal to pay

pos: Japanese invasion of Thailand Tanaka saw this outcome as resulting from the Emperor's moral leadership, Japanese nationalists used it in terms of freeing Asia from colonizing powers and establishing Japan as the leading influence in Asia. The concept became expressed in the . In 1940, the concept was expanded by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe, who sought to create the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, including Japan, Manchukuo, China, and parts of Southeast Asia. This would, according to imperial propaganda, establish a new international order seeking "co-prosperity" for Asian countries which would share prosperity and peace, free from Western colonialism and domination under the umbrella

pos: Anarchism in China its glorification of science and extreme disdain for Confucianism and traditional culture it extended critiques that had originated with the Paris group, and the proliferation of anarchist thought during this period can be seen as a confirmation of the influence anarchists had on the movement from its foundation on. The participants saw it as a conscious attempt to create a Chinese renaissance, and consciously sought to create and live the new culture that they espoused. Once the Bolsheviks in Russia had consolidated their power, they immediately sought to expand their sphere of influence. Their interpretation of Karl Marx's prediction that

pos: Leonid Petrov as a nuclear power. His views included that China has very limited influence in North Korea. China has a vested interest in preventing a collapse of the north Korean regime as this would mean a refugee crisis on its border and a potential for US troops at the doorsteps of China's borders. China is still North Korea's closet ally. Petrov mentioned Russia wants cooperation and stability in North Korea. If there is a collapse of the North Korean regime, there will be a power struggle between China, Russia and United States for influence in the North Asia sphere. Petro said

pos: Baltic–Soviet relations the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which included secret protocols dividing eastern Europe into "spheres of influence", with Latvia and Estonia falling within the Soviets' sphere. A later amendment to the secret protocols placed Lithuania within the Soviets' sphere. In June 1940, the Soviet Union invaded the Baltic countries and annexed those countries as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1941, as part of Operation Barbarossa, Germany invaded the Baltic countries, subsequently administered under Germany's Ostland until 1944. In 1944, the Soviet Union re-invaded the Baltic states. The territories of Baltic states remained under

pos: Triple Intervention expand into Asia and the Pacific. Russia had not expected that Japan would be victorious against China. Port Arthur falling into Japanese hands would undermine its own desperate need for a warm-water port in the East. France was obligated to join Russia under the 1892 treaty. Although French bankers did have financial interests in Russia (especially railroads), France had no territorial ambitions in Manchuria, since its sphere of influence was in southern China "(see Sino-French War)". The French actually had cordial relations with the Japanese: French military advisors had been sent to train the Imperial Japanese Army and a number

pos: Shandong dynasty, where it had a more expansive territory including the agricultural part of Liaoning. After the Ming-Qing Transition in 1644, Shandong acquired (more or less) its current borders. During the nineteenth century, China became increasingly exposed to Western influence, and Shandong, a coastal province, was especially affected. Qingdao was leased to Germany in 1897 and Weihai to Britain in 1898. The rest of Shandong was generally considered to be part of the German sphere of influence. As a result of foreign pressure from the Russian Empire, which had annexed Outer Manchuria by 1860, the Qing dynasty encouraged settlement of Shandong

pos: Empire of Japan Manchuria, and parts of northern China. The Japanese regarded this sphere of influence as a political and economic necessity, which prevented foreign states from strangling Japan by blocking its access to raw materials and crucial sea-lanes. Japan's large military force was regarded as essential to the empire's defense and prosperity by obtaining natural resources that the Japanese islands lacked. The First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895, revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty. Korea had traditionally been a tributary state of China's Qing Empire, which exerted large influence

pos: Dr Sun Yat-sen Museum Matheson. The firm had once dominated the opium trade and whose director, William Jardine, had been instrumental in the British Parliament launching the Opium War against China. The firm had given up opium in the 1860s due to its declining profitability, which was well before Ho Kom Tong became involved with the firm. However, Jardine Matheson was still very much a symbol of British commercial penetration into China in an era of high imperial ambition. Jardine's involvement, for instance, in the Kowloon-Canton Railway, a project designed to bring Canton into Britain's sphere of influence, was very much at cross purposes

pos: Sphere of influence sphere of influence of the United States. However, the level of control exerted in these spheres varied and was not absolute. For instance, France and the United Kingdom were able to act independently to invade (with Israel) the Suez Canal (they were later forced to withdraw by joint U.S. and Soviet pressure). Later, France was also able to withdraw from the military arm of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Cuba often took positions that put it at odds with its Soviet ally, including momentary alliances with the People's Republic of China, economic reorganizations, and providing support for insurgencies in

pos: Shandong people to what remained of northeast China. Shandong was one of the first places in which the Boxer Rebellion started and became one of the centers of the uprising. In 1899, the Qing general Yuan Shikai was appointed as governor of the province to suppress the uprising. He held the post for 3 years. As a consequence of the First World War, Germany lost Qingdao and its sphere of influence in Shandong. The Treaty of Versailles transferred the German concessions in Shandong to Japan instead of restoring Chinese sovereignty over the area. Popular dissatisfaction with this outcome, referred to as

pos: Year of Africa did, at a rate much faster than France anticipated. These countries remained within the French sphere of influence, particularly in economic terms. France also brokered political agreements with the Mali Federation and Madagascar, waiving the mandate that departure from the French Community would lead to the end of political ties (as it had for Guinea). French companies thus accepted the arrangement, because they would remain well-positioned to profit from the newly independent countries—which also continued to use colonial (CFA) francs. The new constitutions created by these countries use some ideas from the French Constitution, including values of democracy and universal

pos: Richard Fadden China was influencing electoral politics in foreign countries. Fadden was quoted as saying “What we’re seeing in Australia and New Zealand, I’ve seen no suggestion that [China is] not trying to do the same thing in every other country in the west, Canada included. Their intelligence organizations are fairly active here,” Fadden said. “I refuse to believe they’re not trying to the same thing in France, the U.K. and Germany. It’s just how they try to exert their influence. I’ve seen nothing to suggest we’re insulated from what we’re seeing in Australia and New Zealand. Nothing, nothing nothing. In 2017,

pos: 1956 Winter Olympics November and December of that year. The Cortina Games were the first Winter Olympics to be broadcast to a multi-national audience. Television as a mass communication technology was expanding rapidly in the 1950s. In the midst of the Cold War, Europe was a propaganda battlefield as countries relayed television signals across the Iron Curtain. By 1956, countries in the Soviet sphere of influence had achieved a technological advantage and were able to broadcast Communist television programmes into Finland, the eastern border regions and more isolated geographic areas of West Germany and Austria, where residents had coverage from an East German

pos: Russia–European Union relations security order at its core." Russia views some of the countries that applied to join the EU or NATO after the fall of the Iron Curtain as part of its sphere of influence. It has criticised their admission and frequently said that NATO is "moving its infrastructure closer to the Russian border". The expansion of NATO into the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia as well as the proposed ascension of Georgia and Ukraine are among Russia’s main claims to NATO’s encroachment of its sphere of influence. NATO Deputy Secretary General Alexander Vershbow responded that NATO's major military infrastructure

pos: Xiamen the Republic of China, the area around Xiamen was renamed Siming County. Xiamen's trade during the period was largely conducted through Taiwan, which had been seized by Japan during the First Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese subsequently claimed Fujian as their sphere of influence during the colonial squabbling over China. Japan occupied Xiamen Island from May 1938 to September 1945 during World War II. In the late phases of the Chinese Civil War that followed, the Communists captured Xiamen and Gulangyu in October 1949 but failed to capture Jinmen. The same year, Xiamen became a provincially administered city (). In 1955

pos: Vladimir Zhirinovsky Turkey and Iran. The great Russian language and Russian ruble would wield Near Eastern and Central Asian peoples into one Russian citizenship. Along the Russia southern sphere from India to Bosporus, other spheres of influence will stretch from north to south in the forthcoming world order, Latin America would be in the American sphere, Africa in the European sphere. and Japan and China will rule Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Australia. Everywhere "the direction is the same—north-south." Geopolitically, it is logical. "Hence, the distribution along such a geopolitical formula would be very beneficent for the whole of humanity, and all over

pos: Kirishitan and spiritual benefits for both Portugal and Spain. Indeed, Pope Alexander VI's Bulls of Donation (1493) commanded the Catholic Monarchs to take such steps. Wherever Spain and Portugal attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. Although, at the time of the demarcation, neither nation had any direct contact with Japan, that nation fell into the sphere of the Portuguese. The countries disputed the attribution of Japan. Since neither could colonize it, the exclusive right

pos: Soviet Union in World War II stated that the Soviets would join the Axis if Germany foreclosed acting in the Soviet's sphere of influence. Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret internal directive related to his plan to invade the Soviet Union. In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Japan. Since the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia had been competing with Japan for spheres of influence in the Far East, where there was a power vacuum with the collapse of Imperial China. Although similar to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with the Third Reich, that

pos: Western imperialism in Asia of influence": Germany dominated Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay, Shandong, and the Yellow River valley; Russia dominated the Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria; the United Kingdom dominated Weihaiwei and the Yangtze Valley; and France dominated the Guangzhou Bay and several other southern provinces. China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed

pos: Japanese entry into World War I Japanese entry into World War I Japan entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 August 1914, seizing the opportunity of Imperial Germany's distraction with the European War to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. There was minimal fighting. The Japanese Empire already had a military alliance with Britain, but that did not obligate it to enter the war. It joined the Allies in order to make territorial gains. It acquired Germany's scattered small holdings in the Pacific and on the China coast. The other Allies pushed back hard against Japan's efforts to

pos: Japanese entry into World War I independent political force With its own plans on how to deal with Manchuria, China, and Russia regardless of civilian decision-makers. Japanese entry into World War I Japan entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 August 1914, seizing the opportunity of Imperial Germany's distraction with the European War to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. There was minimal fighting. The Japanese Empire already had a military alliance with Britain, but that did not obligate it to enter the war. It joined the Allies in order to make territorial gains. It acquired Germany's scattered

pos: History of the Catholic Church in Japan But religion was also an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits for both Portugal and Spain. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the Treaty of Tordesillas, the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. Although at the time of the demarcation, neither nation had any direct contact with Japan, that nation fell into the sphere of the Portuguese. The countries disputed the attribution of Japan. Since neither could colonize it, the exclusive right

pos: History of the Yuan dynasty had crushed the last Song resistance at the Battle of Yamen, which marked the end of the Southern Song and the onset of a united China under the Yuan. The Yuan dynasty is traditionally given credit for reuniting China after several hundred years of fragmentation following the fall of the Tang dynasty. After the founding of the dynasty, Kublai Khan was put under pressure by many of his advisers to further expand the sphere of influence of the Yuan through the traditional Sinocentric tributary system. However, the attempts to establish such tributary relationships were rebuffed and expeditions to Japan (twice),

pos: Triple Intervention Triple Intervention The "' was a diplomatic intervention by Russia, Germany, and France on 23 April 1895 over the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki signed between Japan and Qing Dynasty China that ended the First Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese reaction against the Triple Intervention was one of the underlying causes of the subsequent Russo-Japanese War. Per the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan was awarded the Liaodong Peninsula including the harbor city of Port Arthur, which it had conquered from China. Immediately after the terms of the treaty became public, Russia—with its own designs and sphere of influence

pos: Unification of Germany system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. The principal architects of this convention, Metternich, Castlereagh, and Tsar Alexander (with his foreign secretary Count Karl Nesselrode), had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four "great powers": Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria, with each power having a geographic sphere of influence. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. Russia's included the eastern regions of Central Europe and a balancing influence in the Balkans. Austria's sphere expanded throughout much of the Central European territories formerly held by the

pos: Enlargement of the European Union Central and Eastern Europe had emerged from dictatorships and wanted to consolidate their democracies. They also wanted to join the project of European integration and ensure they did not fall back into the Russian sphere of influence. The EU and NATO offered a guarantee of this, and the EU was also seen as vital to ensuring the economic success of those countries. However, the EU's desire to accept these countries' membership applications was less than rapid. The collapse of communism came quickly and was not anticipated. The EU struggled to deal with the sudden reunification of Germany with the addition

pos: First Sino-Japanese War the Chinese cultural sphere. Although China had been defeated by European powers in the 19th century, defeat at the hands of an Asian power and a former tributary state was a bitter psychological blow. Anti-foreign sentiment and agitation grew, which would later culminate in the form of the Boxer Rebellion five years later. The Manchu population was devastated by the fighting during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion, with massive casualties sustained during the wars and subsequently being driven into extreme suffering and hardship in Beijing and northeast China. Although Japan had achieved what it had set out

neg: Jacques Foccart led by Jean-Marie Le Pen. In 1995, Jacques Foccart was part of president Jacques Chirac's visit to Morocco, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire and Gabon, all countries led by friends of the "Françafrique". Such had been his influence on French colonial and post colonial policy that when he died on March 19, 1997, "For those involved with what has come to be known nowadays as "Françafrique", denoting the special French sphere of influence in Africa, many, along with Albert Bourgi of "Jeune Afrique", saw Foccart's death as 'the end of an epoch.' " The publication of his memoirs under the format of

neg: Suez Crisis needs had seen the force shrink to 3,378 by 1967. The Soviet Union, after long peering through the keyhole of a closed door on what it considered a Western sphere of influence, now found itself invited over the threshold as a friend of the Arabs. Shortly after it reopened, the canal was traversed by the first Soviet warships since World War I. The Soviets' burgeoning influence in the Middle East, although it was not to last, included acquiring Mediterranean bases, introducing multipurpose projects, supporting the budding Palestinian liberation movement and penetrating the Arab countries. Nasser claimed to be the defender

neg: A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China of relations were partially the result of Henry Kissinger's desire to push then Secretary of State William P. Rogers out of the sphere of influence on China policy. Tyler covers the personal infighting in great detail but notes that the outcome was generally positive for both countries. Tyler is more critical of the Carter and Reagan administrations, noting specifically that the ambiguity which Kissinger and Nixon allowed to foment regarding Taiwan was beneficial to both nations, allowing China and the United States to "disagree while insisting that they didn't". However, Tyler reserves a great deal of criticism for the Clinton

neg: Sphere of influence Africa and the Americas without prior approval from the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc fell apart, effectively ending the Soviet sphere of influence. Then in 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed, replaced by the Russian Federation and several other ex-Soviet Republics who became independent states. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the countries of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia that became independent were often portrayed as part of the Russian Federation's "sphere of influence". According to Ulrich Speck, writing for "Carnegie Europe", "After the breakup of the Soviet Union, the West's

neg: Public sphere public sphere involves what is the basic theoretical structure of the public sphere, how information is deliberated in the public sphere, and what influence the public sphere has over society. What does it mean that something is "public"? Jürgen Habermas says, "We call events and occasions 'public' when they are open to all, in contrast to closed or exclusive affairs". This notion of the public becomes evident in terms such as public health, public education, public opinion or public ownership. They are opposed to the notions of private health, private education, private opinion, and private ownership. The notion of the

neg: Third gender in Sri Lanka transgendered states and individuals – the man-like woman ("vepurisikā"), sexual indistinctness ("sambhinna"), one having the characteristics of both genders ("ubhatovyañjanaka"), etc.". Peter Jackson of the Australian National University felt that the Pali Canon had significant influence on the third gender cultures of Sri Lanka and similar countries such as Thailand; "Never the less, what makes accounts of sex and gender in these ancient Indian texts especially fascinating is their contemporary relevance in Thailand, which together with Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos and Cambodia forms part of the Asian cultural sphere in which Therava da Buddhism remains a vital cultural institution.". They

neg: Hoppus Hoppus The hoppus cubic foot (or ‘hoppus cube’ or ‘h cu ft’) was the standard volume measurement used for timber in the British Empire and countries in the British sphere of influence before the introduction of metric units. It is still used in the hardwood trade of some countries. This volume measurement was developed to estimate what volume of a round log would be usable timber after processing, in effect attempting to ‘square’ the log and allow for waste. The hoppus ton (HT) was also a traditionally used unit of volume in British forestry. One hoppus ton is equal to

neg: Danyang, Jiangsu of Danyang reached 35.7 billion yuan ($4.7 billion USD) and 44,242 yuan ($6,061 USD) respectively. Danyang's economy was 16th in a 2010 ranking of China's top county-level cities. Businesses from 32 countries and regions have invested in Danyang with accumulated paid-in capital of $1 billion USD. As a developing city within the Shanghai economic sphere of influence, Danyang has attracted domestic and foreign businesses. The main industries in Danyang are prescription eyewear, tools and hardware, and automobile parts. "The Spectacles City", located in Danyang, is one of the largest eyeglass merchandise centers in China. Built in 1986, the market center's

neg: Sino-Soviet split against the local Chinese populaces; moreover, politically inconvenient exhibits were removed from museums, and vandals covered with cement the Jurchen-script stele, about the Jin Dynasty, in the Khabarovsk Museum. After Mao Zedong broke relations with the Soviet Union in 1956, he launched a world-wide rivalry for leadership of world communism. In the countries of the PRC's sphere of influence, Mao established a network of pro–Chinese, anti–Soviet political parties and communist-front organisations that directly challenged pro–Soviet organisations. By 1970, Sino–Soviet ideological rivalry extended to Africa and the Middle East, where the Soviet Union and China funded and supported opposed political parties,

neg: Giedroyc Doctrine the "ULB doctrine", where "ULB" stands for "Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus"). Initially it was addressing the attitude of the post-World War II Polish emigres, especially around the Polish government-in-exile in London, and basically calling for the recognition of the post-war "status quo". Later it was adapted towards the goal of the moving of Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania away from the Soviet and later Russian sphere of influence. The doctrine supported the European Union and aimed at removing East-Central and East European countries from the Soviet sphere of influence. After Poland regained its independence from Soviet influence following the fall of communism

neg: China–Vietnam relations over the South Vietnamese-controlled portions of the Spratly Islands. The unified Vietnam then canceled its earlier renunciation of its claim to the Paracels, while both China and Vietnam claim control over all the Spratlys, while both controlling portions of the island group. In the wake of the Vietnam War, the Cambodian–Vietnamese War provoked tensions with China, which had allied itself with the Democratic Kampuchea. This, and Vietnam's close ties to the Soviet Union, made China consider it a threat to its regional sphere of influence. Tensions were furthermore heightened in the 1970s by the Vietnamese government's oppression of the Hoa

neg: East Asian cultural sphere East Asian cultural sphere The "East Asian cultural sphere" or "Sinosphere", refers to a grouping of countries and regions in East Asia that were historically influenced by the Chinese culture. Other names for the concept include the Sinic world, the Confucian world, the Taoist world, and the Chinese cultural sphere, though the last is also used to refer particularly to the Sinophone world: the areas which speak varieties of Chinese. The East Asian cultural sphere shares a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, Taoism and, historically, a common writing system. The core regions of the East Asian cultural sphere are Greater China,

neg: Fashoda syndrome Patriotic Front (RPF), a coalition of Tutsi exiles and those advocating democratic reform. Many of the RPF had grown up in Tutsi refugee camps in formerly British-controlled Uganda and had learned to fight in the Ugandan army, and Uganda was seen by Paris as being, at that time, within the British sphere of influence. The Fashoda complex has been used in connection with foreign policies of other countries, particularly Egypt and Sudan. Fashoda syndrome Fashoda syndrome, or a 'Fashoda complex', is the name given to a tendency within French foreign policy in Africa, giving importance to asserting French influence in

neg: Wang Jingwei regime The Beijing administration (East Yi Anti-Communist Autonomous Administration) was under the commander-in-chief of the Japanese Northern China Area Army until the Yellow River area fell inside the sphere of influence of the Japanese Central China Area Army. During this same period the area from middle Zhejiang to Guangdong was administered by the Japanese North China Area Army. These small, largely independent fiefdoms had local money and local leaders, and frequently squabbled. Wang Jingwei traveled to Tokyo in 1941 for meetings. In Tokyo the Reorganized National Government Vice President Zhou Fohai commented to the "Asahi Shimbun" newspaper that the Japanese establishment

neg: Dispersal of ownership dispersed media ownership contributes to sound democratic society. Media conglomerates influence public opinion and may try to control influence over the public sphere. Dispersed ownership can prevent such abuse of power --- the "Berlusconi effect.". The existence of the consolidated media power within the public sphere is a real danger. Democratic society cannot accept this risk of power abuse. Many countries have experienced abuse of the concentrated power implicit in conglomerate media ownership. In fact, in past, German media conglomerate allowed and even supported the rise of Hitler. Simply, dispersal media ownership results in putting more people and organizations into

neg: Nanyang (region) This has resulted in Myanmar being increasingly drawn into the Chinese sphere of influence. This relationship is unsettling since it can draw Myanmar away from a democratic path, while also allowing China easier access into the Indian Ocean; an important factor for Chinese power projection over the Nanyang region. The third wave of migration, in particular, has helped Chinese influence to proliferate amongst its nearby neighbors. China has established close economic and military ties with both Myanmar and Laos. Its trade with Thailand is booming significantly and so are their political exchanges. China is Cambodia's closest foreign ally, and a

neg: Networked advocacy are increasingly shaped and decided in the communication field." As communicators and activists continue to gain access to advanced, powerful technological tools, then, they will benefit from the skilled use of these tools to spread their messages and be able to facilitate more expansive, successful movements. Much of what has been discussed about new technologies and its influence on collective action in a global public sphere refers mainly to developed countries and social classes that have these technologies readily available to them; media systems and social technologies in the developing world have yet to experience much of this phenomenon. Collin

neg: Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnage to the CIA that de Gaulle had broken off, and in 1975 the SDECE worked with the CIA and the government of Zaire to support the National Liberation Front of Angola during the Angolan Civil War. At same time, the SDECE continued with its traditional work of ensuring that the countries in "Françafrique" stayed in the French sphere of influence. Ali Soilih, the president of the Comoros had proven hostile to French influence after taking power in a 1975 coup, and in 1978 the SDECE hired Bob Denard to stage a coup. On the night of 13 May 1978, Denard

neg: Georges Rolland the railway project. The Minister of War appointed a committee on the question in April 1890, which stated that the railway would be feasible and profitable, as well as necessary from a military standpoint. In 1890 Rolland published a coloured map entitled "French Africa, what it is, what it must be." The purpose was to show that a railroad across the Sahara from Algeria to the Sudan had great strategic value. The map showed darker-shaded areas of French possessions, protectorates and zones of influence, and lighter shaded "regions that must be considered as entering into our sphere of influence". The

neg: Structural adjustment their sphere of influence by providing relief to countries experiencing economic problems due to natural disasters or economic mismanagement. Since their inception, SAPs have been adopted by a number of other international financial institutions. Structural adjustment programs implemented neoliberal policies that had numerous effects on the economic institutions of countries that underwent them. After the Second World War, a Structuralist model of development relying on Import Substitutions Industrialization (ISI) had become the ubiquitous paradigm. It entailed the substitution of foreign imports by goods produced by national industries with the help of state intervention. State intervention included providing the infrastructure required

neg: Czechoslovakia–Poland relations and was rewarded with Teschen, a slice of Czechoslovakia that had a Polish majority. In a lead-up to WWII, parts of the disputed territories (Zaolzie) were annexed by Poland in 1938 following the Munich Agreement. Both countries joined the Allies during World War II, and there were even talks of a confederation between the two countries; those plans were however opposed by the Soviet Union, which eventually gained other Allies' support in derailing the Czech-Polish talks. After World War II, both countries fell into the Soviet sphere of influence (the Eastern Bloc). A brief series of border conflicts erupted again,

neg: Harry D. Felt to have been the British, who greatly resented American intrusion into what they considered to be their exclusive sphere of influence. Returning to the Navy Department in October, Felt worked for Rear Admiral Arleigh Burke as assistant director of the Strategic Plans Division. He was Commander Carrier Division 15 in 1953–54, practicing anti-submarine warfare from the escort carrier "Rendova"; Commander Carrier Division Three in the spring of 1954, operating attack carriers "Essex" and "Philippine Sea" in the South China Sea; and assistant chief of naval operations (fleet readiness) from 1954 to 1956. Promoted to vice admiral in 1956, Felt commanded

neg: China–United States relations are among the attempts by both the US and China to increase their influence over the Asia-Pacific by strengthening their economic ties within the region. According to an article published on Jura Gentium, Journal of Philosophy of International Law and Global Politics, there is a "new Sphere of Influence 2" shaped mainly by China and the US. Even on social media, if the Western, Japanese and South Korean events and daily life are linked through Facebook, Chinese and American habits and customs are disconnected lacking in social media sharing. This strategy to avoid American influences through social networks is preserved

neg: Core sphere approximately 30% of the total product. Long before the Industrial Revolution, the core sphere was the entire economy. Families and communities provided for themselves by hunting and gathering. Then with industrialization came a market of competitive men working for wages and along with it what historians call the cult of domesticity. The core sphere became regarded not as part of the market sphere of the economy but more as emotional and altruistic behavior. Therefore, activities in the core sphere were not considered economic because they do not directly influence the market economy. As time has progressed towards the present, organizations

neg: Lao people Lanxang, the "Land of One Million Elephants", began in 1354 AD, when Somdej Phra Chao Fa Ngum (1354 - 1373 AD) returned to Mueang Sua (, เมืองซวา), thence renamed "Xieng Thong" (, เชียงทอง) and now known as Luang Prabang. From this base Lan Xang extended its sphere of influence to all of modern-day Laos and the Khorat Plateau of Thailand as well as parts of Sipsongbanna in southern China, Sip Song Chau Tai in northwestern Vietnam, Kengtung in Burma, and Stung Treng in Cambodia. The powerful Kingdom of Lan Xang had wealth and influence due to the location of its

neg: Tientsin incident sphere of influence would mean the effective end of British influence in Asia as a Sino-Japanese combination would be a colossus that would dominate Asia, and that from the British viewpoint China could not be allowed to lose, which thus ruled out any possibility of the "Gaimusho" effecting any change in British policy. Unlike the International Settlement in Shanghai, which belonged jointly to the United States and the United Kingdom, the British Concession in Tientsin was just that, which was why the Japanese had already decided to blockade it in early 1939 as it would mean avoiding a confrontation with

neg: Pax Americana acquisition of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam, the United States had gained a colonial empire. By ejecting Spain from the Americas, the United States shifted its position to an uncontested regional power, and extended its influence into Southeast Asia and Oceania. Although U.S. capital investments within the Philippines and Puerto Rico were relatively small, these colonies were strategic outposts for expanding trade with Latin America and Asia, particularly China. In the Caribbean area, the United States established a sphere of influence in line with the Monroe Doctrine, not explicitly defined as such, but recognized in effect by other

neg: 1996 United States campaign finance controversy relationship [with Taiwan]" and the Clinton Administration's acquiescence to the Congressional resolutions led China to conclude that the influence of Congress over foreign policy was more significant than it had previously determined. When formulating the so-called plan, Chinese officials acknowledged that, compared to other countries, it had little knowledge of, or influence over, policy decisions made in Congress, which had a sizeable pro-Taiwan faction under the influence of a more established "China Lobby" run by the Kuomintang. The plan, according to the Senate report, instructed Chinese officials in the U.S. to improve their knowledge about members of Congress and increase

neg: Sufism known to and practiced by a succession of sages including the mysterious ancient Hermes of Egypt.", and that Ibn al-Farid "stresses that Sufism lies behind and before systematization; that 'our wine existed before what you call the grape and the vine' (the school and the system)..." Shah's views have however been rejected by modern scholars. Such modern trends of neo-Sufis in Western countries allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path", not without opposition by Muslims who consider such instruction outside the sphere of Islam. Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. There is evidence that Sufism did influence

neg: Sphere of influence Valley and Tibet. Only Italy's request for Zhejiang province was declined by the Chinese government. These do not include the lease and concession territories where the foreign powers had full authority. In 1902, Winston Churchill gave a speech regarding the division of China by the great powers, where he declared that "we shall have to take the Chinese in hand and regulate them", "I believe in the ultimate partition of China" and "the Aryan stock is bound to triumph". The Russian government militarily occupied their zone, imposed their law and schools, seized mining and logging privileges, settled their citizens, and

neg: Korea under Japanese rule the authority of the emperor, and military intervention "could not be postponed". The debate concerned Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing China, which certain elements in the Japanese government sought to separate from Chinese influence and establish as a puppet state. Those in favor also saw the issue as an opportunity to find meaningful employment for the thousands of out-of-work samurai, who had lost most of their income and social standing in the new Meiji socioeconomic order. Further, the acquisition of Korea would provide both a foothold on the Asian continent for Japanese expansion and a rich

neg: Malek Bennabi which were still within the sphere of influence of the superpowers, arms and oil revenues were no longer sufficient to support that influence. The world had, therefore, entered a stage at which most of its problems could be solved only by certain systems of ideas. Therefore, the Arabs and other Muslim countries, especially those that did not possess a great deal of material power, should give more weight to the issue of ideas. He later criticised the Muslim society for frequently falling into an apologetic state. Muslims tended to dig up past treasures instead of seeking to progress with new

neg: Baltic Entente two powers laid out in the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact assigned the Baltic countries into Soviet "sphere of influence". In 1940 all three countries were occupied and soon annexed into the Soviet Union. The idea of setting up a Baltic Union started gaining momentum between 1914 and 1918 and became a direct consequence of people's hopes for independence. The concept of uniting Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania originated in the minds of the numerous refugees, who had no other choice than to flee to the west to escape the tyranny at home. They pooled their efforts in the struggle to achieve freedom

neg: Consequences of Nazism under the "Soviet sphere of influence" (as agreed upon at the Yalta Conference). Immediately following the war, Soviet style totalitarian regimes were established in all of these countries and any forms of liberal democracy that existed before the war were erased. For the countries of Central Europe installation of Stalinist dictatorships meant the decline of their economies and more significantly, a loss of national sovereignty and unique global identity until the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1989 (see also "the Velvet Revolution"). More than 26 million Soviet citizens had been killed as a result of the Nazi invasion of

neg: History of China limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in 109 BC.

neg: Networked advocacy within advocacy networks. Traditionally, the media was what organized the civil society's wishes in the public sphere, expressing its desires to influence the state. This means that digital communication networks form our public sphere. <Castells> “However, if the concept of the public sphere has heuristic value, it is because it is inseparable from two other key dimensions of the institutional construction of modern societies: civil society and the state. The public sphere is not just the media or the sociospatial sites of public interaction. It is the cultural/informational repository of the ideas and projects that feed public debate.” If there

neg: British expedition to Tibet Dalai Lama intended to place Tibet firmly within a sphere of Russian influence and end its neutrality. In 1903, Lord Curzon sent a request to the governments of China and Tibet for negotiations, to be held at Khampa Dzong, a tiny Tibetan village north of Sikkim to establish trade agreements. The Chinese were willing, and ordered the thirteenth Dalai Lama to attend. However, the Dalai Lama refused, and also refused to provide transport to enable the amban, You Tai, to attend. Curzon concluded that China had no power or authority to compel the Tibetan government, and gained approval from London

neg: Sphere of influence (black hole) Sphere of influence (black hole) The sphere of influence is a region around a supermassive black hole in which the gravitational potential of the black hole dominates the gravitational potential of the host galaxy. The radius of the sphere of influence is called the "(gravitational) influence radius". There are two definitions in common use for the radius of the sphere of influence. The first is given by formula_1 where M is the mass of the black hole, "σ" is the stellar velocity dispersion of the host bulge, and "G" is the gravitational constant. The second definition is the radius at

neg: International Monetary Fund the international economic system; its design allowed the system to balance the rebuilding of international capitalism with the maximisation of national economic sovereignty and human welfare, also known as embedded liberalism. The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The increase reflected in particular the attainment of political independence by many African countries and more recently the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union because most countries in the Soviet sphere of influence did not join the IMF. The Bretton Woods system prevailed until 1971, when the United States government suspended the convertibility of the

neg: Sphere of influence (astrodynamics) case that one mass dominates the other, say formula_41, it is possible to approximate the separating surface. In such a case this surface must be close to the mass formula_21, denote formula_43 as the distance from formula_21 to the separating surface. The distance to the sphere of influence must thus satisfy formula_45 and so formula_46 is the radius of the sphere of influence of body formula_21 Sphere of influence (astrodynamics) A sphere of influence (SOI) in astrodynamics and astronomy is the oblate-spheroid-shaped region around a celestial body where the primary gravitational influence on an orbiting object is that body. This

neg: United States and state terrorism reports by Amnesty International and other human rights organizations of a new global "epidemic" of state torture and murder. Chomsky and Herman argued that terror was concentrated in the U.S. sphere of influence in developing countries, and documented human rights abuses carried out by U.S. client states in Latin America. They argued that of ten Latin American countries that had death squads, all were US client states. Worldwide they claimed that 74% of regimes that used torture on an administrative basis were U.S. client states, receiving military and other support from the U.S. to retain power. They concluded that the

neg: Saudi Arabia–Tunisia relations Saudi Arabia–Tunisia relations Saudi Arabia–Tunisia relations refers to the bilateral relations between Saudi Arabia and Tunisia. Two countries share historical commons, as both are majority Sunni Muslims and their Arabic cultural heritages. Despite of this, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia nonetheless have political differences. Saudi Arabia is a conservative Kingdom while Tunisia is a liberal Republic. However, two countries have engaged in larger cooperations in order to exert Saudi influence. Saudi Arabia has en embassy in Tunis, whilst Tunisia maintains embassy in Riyadh and a consulate in Jeddah. The Arab conquest at 7th century had brought Tunisia into an Islamic sphere.

neg: Ming treasure voyages defeated the forces of the Semudera pretender Sekandar in northern Sumatra. The Chinese maritime exploits brought many foreign countries into the nation's tributary system and sphere of influence through both military and political supremacy, thus incorporating the states into the greater Chinese world order under Ming suzerainty. Moreover, the Chinese structured and established control over an expansive maritime network in which the region became integrated and its countries became interconnected on an economic and political level. The treasure voyages were commanded and overseen by the eunuch establishment whose political influence was heavily dependent on imperial favor. However, within Ming China's

neg: Sixth East Asia Summit and added layer of complexity. China sees the United State bringing the territorial dispute in the summit as a containment policy to counter China's growing economic and political influence within the region. China has continued to emphasize its peaceful rise and endeavors to work with neighbouring countries to reach agreements on maritime disputes. The concerns of smaller countries about the growing influence of its northern neighbour has allowed the United States to become more involved in the region and coincide with some of their interests to counterbalance China. This also has the effect of countries having stronger individual voices to

neg: Makololo Chiefs (Malawi) and attacks from Afro-Portuguese chikunda raiding for slaves left the Lundu state with little real power over what had become a loose confederation of local chiefdoms. In the early 1860s, members of Livingstone's expedition or UCMA missionaries described the Mang'anja as being ruled by a hierarchy of chiefs and headmen of varying power and influence. In theory, the Lundu was still the paramount ruler with the power to appoint local chiefs, but his influence was limited. Several major chiefs within the Lundu sphere had more real power the than the Lundu himself, although their inability to defend their people against

neg: China–European Union relations to USD45.6 billion in 1994. However political and security co-operation was hampered with China seeing little chance of headway there. Europe was leading the desire for NATO expansion and intervention in Kosovo, which China opposed as it saw them as extending US influence. However, by 2001 China moderated its anti-US stance in the hopes that Europe would cancel its arms embargo but pressure from the US led to the embargo remaining in place. Due to this, China saw the EU as being too weak, divided and dependent on the US to be a significant power. Even in the economic sphere,

neg: Foreign relations of China paved roads in the world. Pakistani and Chinese authorities collaborated on everything from nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology, where Pakistan helped China get hold of western technology which it could otherwise not acquire. A common quotation referred to Pak-China Friendship is, "A Friendship Higher than the Heights of Himalayas and deeper than the depths of Arabian Sea". China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent sphere of influence. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind

neg: Koreans in China emigrants to enlarge their sphere of influence in Northeast China, the views of Chinese government and people towards Korean emigrants changed after the mid of 1920, especially after the exposure of Tanaka Memorial and the Wanpaoshan Incident. Korean emigrants used to be considered as independent activists in China, but now they were generally considered as the vanguard of Japanese invasion. Relationship between local Chinese and Korean emigrants became tense. After the Chinese government signed the treaty with the Japanese government on 11 June 1925 to assist the Japanese get rid of Korean independent activists in Northeast China, the Fengtian clique

neg: Stephen Walt with China. In 2011 Walt argued that China will seek to gain regional hegemony and a broad sphere of influence in Asia which was comparable in size to the USA's position in the western hemisphere. If this happens, he predicts that China would be secure enough on the mainland to give added attention to shaping events to its favour in far flung areas. Given that China is resource poor, the nation will likely aim to safeguard vital sea lanes in areas such as the Persian Gulf. In a December 2012 interview, Walt said that "the United States does not help

neg: East Asian cultural sphere the Sinic world. These countries are centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in Northern China, and compared the relationship between Northern China and East Asia to that of Greco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin had functioned in Europe. The American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington considered the Sinic world as one of many civilizations in his "The Clash of Civilizations". He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a

neg: Su Bingqi the view of Li Feng of Columbia University, although the theory "does little more than synthesize what had already been revealed by the extensive archaeological work" of the recent past, it was a powerful tool for analyzing prehistoric development in Neolithic China. According to archaeologist Kwang-chih Chang of Harvard University, Su's theory legitimized a view of ancient China that had been regarded as heresy. Based on Su's model, Chang developed the model of "Chinese Interaction Sphere" in 1986. Their theories have since been widely accepted in academia. Su Bingqi Su Bingqi (; 1909 – 30 June 1997) was a Chinese