query: what is the fluid part of the fluid mosaic model

pos: Fluid mosaic model Fluid mosaic model The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this model, there is a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded. The lipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found in cell membrane. The model, which was devised by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components. Such domains are defined by the existence of regions within the membrane with special lipid and protein composition

pos: Garth L. Nicolson . While working as Research Associate at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Nicolson collaborated with S.J. Singer at the University of California, San Diego. They made a seminal model for the structure of cell membranes, which they named the Fluid Mosaic Model, and published in a 12-page paper in the February 18, 1972 issue of "Science". It was the first model in cell biology to be based on thermodynamics properties. Earlier descriptions of the cell membrane had serious inconsistencies with observed properties of the lipid bilayer. According to the Fluid Mosaic Model, in contrast to other models, the cell

pos: Fluid mosaic model four components: Phospholipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Cholesterol. The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static. Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davidson-Danielli Tri-Layer model. These models had proteins present as sheets neighboring a lipid layer, rather than incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer. Other models described repeating, regular

pos: Fluid mosaic model described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function. There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by the formation of subdomains within the lipid bilayer. These subdomains arise by several processes "e.g." binding of membrane components to the extracellular matrix, nanometric membrane regions with a particular biochemical composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts and protein complexes mediated by protein-protein interactions. Furthermore, protein-cytoskeleton associations mediate the formation of “cytoskeletal fences”, corrals wherein

neg: Fluid mosaic model was lost. Lowering the temperature slowed the rate of this diffusion by causing the membrane phospholipids to transition from a fluid to a gel phase. Singer and Nicholson rationalized the results of these experiments using their fluid mosaic model. The fluid mosaic model explains changes in structure and behavior of cell membranes under different temperatures, as well as the association of membrane proteins with the membranes. While Singer and Nicolson had substantial evidence drawn from multiple subfields to support their model, recent advances in fluorescence microscopy and structural biology have validated the fluid mosaic nature of cell membranes. Additionally, the

neg: Fluid mosaic model that promote the formation of lipid rafts or protein and glycoprotein complexes. Another way to define membrane domains is the association of the lipid membrane with the cytoskeleton filaments and the extracellular matrix through membrane proteins. The current model describes important features relevant to many cellular processes, including: cell-cell signaling, apoptosis, cell division, membrane budding, and cell fusion. The fluid mosaic model is the most acceptable model of plasma membrane. Fluid mosaic model is proposed by SJ Singer and G Nicolson in 1972. Its main function is to give shape to the cell. Chemically a cell membrane is composed of

neg: Membrane models major one being that the proteins studied were mainly globular and couldn't therefore fit into the model's claim of thin protein sheets. These difficulties with the model stimulated new research in membrane organization and paved the way for the fluid mosaic model, which was proposed in 1972. In 1972, S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson developed new ideas for membrane structure. Their proposal was the "fluid mosaic model", which is the dominant model now. It has two key features—a mosaic of proteins embedded in the membrane, and the membrane being a fluid bi-layer of lipids. The lipid bi-layer suggestion agrees

neg: Fluid mosaic model to the extracellular matrix, they are unable to diffuse freely. Proteins with a long intracellular domain may collide with a fence formed by cytoskeleton filaments. Both processes restrict the diffusion of proteins and lipids directly involved, as well as of other interacting components of the cell membranes. Septins are a family of GTP-binding proteins highly conserved among eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring-like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds. Fluid mosaic model The fluid mosaic model

neg: Davson–Danielli model tension). The Davson–Danielli model predominated until Singer and Nicolson advanced the fluid mosaic model in 1972. The fluid mosaic model expanded on the Davson–Danielli model by including transmembrane proteins, and eliminated the previously-proposed flanking protein layers that were not well-supported by experimental evidence. Davson–Danielli model The Davson–Danielli model (or paucimolecular model) was a model of the plasma membrane of a cell, proposed in 1935 by Hugh Davson and James Danielli. The model describes a phospholipid bilayer that lies between two layers of globular proteins and It is trilaminar and lipoprotinious. The phospholipid bilayer had already been proposed by Gorter and

neg: Fences and pickets model of plasma membrane structure Fences and pickets model of plasma membrane structure The Fences and pickets model of plasma membrane is a concept of cell membrane structure suggesting that the fluid plasma membrane is compartmentalized by actin-based membrane-skeleton “fences” and anchored transmembrane protein “pickets”. This model differs from older cell membrane structure concepts such as the Singer-Nicolson fluid mosaic model and the Saffman-Delbrück two-dimensional continuum fluid model that view the membrane as more or less homogeneous. The fences and pickets model was proposed to explain observations of molecular traffic made due to recent advances in single molecule tracking techniques. The actin-based membrane skeleton (MSK)

neg: History of cell membrane theory were key in the development of the "fluid mosaic" model of the cell membrane by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. According to this model, biological membranes are composed largely of bare lipid bilayer with proteins penetrating either half way or all the way through the membrane. These proteins are visualized as freely floating within a completely liquid bilayer. This was not the first proposal of a heterogeneous membrane structure. Indeed, as early as 1904 Nathansohn proposed a “mosaic” of water permeable and impermeable regions. But the fluid mosaic model was the first to correctly incorporate fluidity, membrane channels and multiple

neg: History of cell membrane theory plasma membrane is “bare” lipid than previously thought and in fact much of the cell surface may be protein-associated. In spite of these limitations, the fluid mosaic model remains a popular and often referenced general notion for the structure of biological membranes. The modern mainstream consensus model of cellular membranes is based on the fluid-mosaic model that envisions a lipid bilayer separating the inside from the outside of cells with associated ion channels, pumps and transporters giving rise to the permeability processes of cells. Alternative hypotheses were developed in the past that have largely been rejected. One of these opposing

neg: Fluid mosaic model the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction. The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division. Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.

neg: Cell membrane the fluid mosaic model has been modernized to detail contemporary discoveries, the basics have remained constant: the membrane is a lipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic exterior heads and a hydrophobic interior where proteins can interact with hydrophilic heads through polar interactions, but proteins that span the bilayer fully or partially have hydrophobic amino acids that interact with the non-polar lipid interior. The fluid mosaic model not only provided an accurate representation of membrane mechanics, it enhanced the study of hydrophobic forces, which would later develop into an essential descriptive limitation to describe biological macromolecules. For many centuries, the scientists cited

neg: Cell membrane expected for an oil–water interface, it was assumed that some substance was responsible for lowering the interfacial tensions in the surface of cells. It was suggested that a lipid bilayer was in between two thin protein layers. The paucimolecular model immediately became popular and it dominated cell membrane studies for the following 30 years, until it became rivaled by the fluid mosaic model of Singer and Nicolson (1972). Despite the numerous models of the cell membrane proposed prior to the fluid mosaic model, it remains the primary archetype for the cell membrane long after its inception in the 1970s. Although

neg: Seymour Jonathan Singer conformation of membrane proteins in 1965, resulting in the publication of two foundational papers (Lenard, John and Singer, S.J. Protein conformation in cell membrane preparations as studied by optical rotatory dispersion and circular dichroism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 56, 1828-1835, 1966; Lenard, John and Singer, S. J. Structure of membranes: Reaction of red cell membranes with phospholipase C. Science 159, 738, 1968). His seminal work on membrane proteins resulted in the development of the "Fluid Mosaic Model" of the cell membrane, published as "The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Structure of Cell Membranes", in "Science" in 1972.

neg: History of cell membrane theory two molecular layers of lipids—a lipid bilayer. New tools over the next few decades confirmed this theory, but controversy remained regarding the role of proteins in the cell membrane. Eventually the fluid mosaic model was composed in which proteins “float” in a fluid lipid bilayer "sea". Although simplistic and incomplete, this model is still widely referenced today. Since the invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century it has been known that plant and animal tissue is composed of cells : the cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. The plant cell wall was easily visible even with these early microscopes

neg: Fluid queue Fluid queue In queueing theory, a discipline within the mathematical theory of probability, a fluid queue (fluid model, fluid flow model or stochastic fluid model) is a mathematical model used to describe the fluid level in a reservoir subject to randomly determined periods of filling and emptying. The term dam theory was used in earlier literature for these models. The model has been used to approximate discrete models, model the spread of wildfires, in ruin theory and to model high speed data networks. The model applies the leaky bucket algorithm to a stochastic source. The model was first introduced by

neg: Fluid queue content is partitioned and the parameters depend on which partition the buffer content process is in. The ordered Schur factorization can be used to efficiently compute the stationary distribution of such a model. Second order fluid queues (sometimes called Markov modulated diffusion processes or fluid queues with Brownian noise) consider a reflected Brownian motion with parameters controlled by a Markov process. Two different types of boundary conditions are commonly considered: absorbing and reflecting. Fluid queue In queueing theory, a discipline within the mathematical theory of probability, a fluid queue (fluid model, fluid flow model or stochastic fluid model) is a

neg: Herschel–Bulkley fluid the fluid may experience before it yields and begins to flow. This non-Newtonian fluid model was introduced by Winslow Herschel and Ronald Bulkley in 1936. The constitutive equation of the Herschel-Bulkley model is commonly written as where formula_3 is the shear stress, formula_4 the shear rate, formula_5 the yield stress, formula_6 the consistency index, and formula_7 the flow index. If formula_8 the Herschel-Bulkley fluid behaves as a solid, otherwise it behaves as a fluid. For formula_9 the fluid is shear-thinning, whereas for formula_10 the fluid is shear-thickening. If formula_11 and formula_12, this model reduces to the Newtonian fluid. As a

neg: Fluid mosaic model units of protein and lipid. These models were not well supported by microscopy and thermodynamic data, and did not accommodate evidence for dynamic membrane properties. An important experiment that provided evidence supporting fluid and dynamic biological was performed by Frye and Edidin. They used Sendai virus to force human and mouse cells to fuse and form a heterokaryon. Using antibody staining, they were able to show that the mouse and human proteins remained segregated to separate halves of the heterokaryon a short time after cell fusion. However, the proteins eventually diffused and over time the border between the two halves

neg: CFD-DEM model CFD-DEM model A CFD-DEM model is suitable for the modeling or simulation of fluid-solids or fluid-particles systems. In a typical CFD-DEM model, the phase motion of discrete solids or particles is obtained by the Discrete Element Method (DEM) which applies Newton's laws of motion to every particle and the flow of continuum fluid is described by the local averaged Navier–Stokes equations that can be solved by the traditional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The model is first proposed by Tsuji et al. The interactions between the fluid phase and solids phase is better modeled according to Newton's third law. Open source

neg: Two-fluid model Two-fluid model Two-fluid model is a macroscopic traffic flow model to represent traffic in a town/city or metropolitan area, put forward in the 1970s by Ilya Prigogine and Robert Herman. There is also a two-fluid model which helps explain the behavior of superfluid helium. This model states that there will be two components in liquid helium below its lambda point (the temperature where superfluid forms). These components are a normal fluid and a superfluid component. Each liquid has a different density and together their sum makes the total density, which remains constant. The ratio of superfluid density to the total

neg: Two-fluid model density increases as the temperature approaches absolute zero. Two-fluid model Two-fluid model is a macroscopic traffic flow model to represent traffic in a town/city or metropolitan area, put forward in the 1970s by Ilya Prigogine and Robert Herman. There is also a two-fluid model which helps explain the behavior of superfluid helium. This model states that there will be two components in liquid helium below its lambda point (the temperature where superfluid forms). These components are a normal fluid and a superfluid component. Each liquid has a different density and together their sum makes the total density, which remains constant.

neg: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity and formula_2 and formula_3 are coefficients. See first-order fluid and second-order fluid. This is an empirical model that usually works for a limited range of temperatures. The model is based on the assumption that the fluid flow obeys the Arrhenius equation for molecular kinetics: where "T" is temperature, formula_2 is a coefficient, "E" is the activation energy and "R" is the universal gas constant. A first-order fluid is another name for a power-law fluid with exponential dependence of viscosity on temperature. The Williams-Landel-Ferry model, or WLF for short, is usually used for polymer melts or other fluids that have a

neg: Peniche (fluid dynamics) Peniche (fluid dynamics) A peniche (or stand-off) is material inserted between a half-model, often of an airplane, and the wall of a wind tunnel. "Péniche" is a French nautical term meaning barge. The purpose of the peniche is to remove or reduce the influence of the boundary layer on the half-model. The effect of the peniche itself in fluid dynamics is not fully understood. Half-models are used in wind-tunnel testing in aerodynamics, as larger scale half-models in constant pressure tunnels operate at increased Reynolds numbers closer to those of real aircraft. One trade-off is the interaction between the central part

neg: Viscosity models for mixtures at the molecular level of the fluid (also called the microstructure of the fluid). The 1996-model became the start of a period with high research activity where different models were put forward. The surviving model was presented by Allal et al. (2001b), and this model will be displayed below. The viscosity model is composed of a dilute gas contribution formula_53 (or formula_404 ) and a dense-fluid contribution formula_166 (or dense-state contribution formula_406 or formula_407). Allal et al. (2001b) showed that the dense-fluid contribution to viscosity can be related to the friction coefficient formula_14 of the sliding fluid surface, and Dulliens

neg: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model to a CM3 model in 2011. Improvement in modeling of biogeochemical cycles led to models ESM2M and ESM2G. A third approach was to increase the resolution of the CM2 model, which led to models CM2.5, CM26, FLOR and HiFLOR. Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model (GFDL CM2.5) is a coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States. It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for

neg: Barotropic fluid gas or an isentropic ideal gas. A fluid which is not barotropic is baroclinic, i. e., pressure is not the only factor to determine density. For a barotropic fluid or a barotropic flow (such as a barotropic atmosphere), the baroclinic vector is zero. Barotropic fluid In fluid dynamics, a barotropic fluid is a fluid whose density is a function of pressure only. The barotropic fluid is a useful model of fluid behavior in a wide variety of scientific fields, from meteorology to astrophysics. The density of most liquids is nearly constant (isopycnic), so it can be stated that their densities

neg: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model (GFDL CM2.5) is a coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States. It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for Climate Research, the Hadley Centre and the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Atmosphere The atmospheric component of the CM2.X models employs a 24-level atmosphere with horizontal resolution of 2° in east–west and 2.5° in north–south directions. This resolution is

neg: CFD-DEM model and non-commercial software: OpenMP has been shown to be more efficient in performing coupled CFD-DEM calculations in parallel framework as compared to MPI by Amritkar et al. CFD-DEM model A CFD-DEM model is suitable for the modeling or simulation of fluid-solids or fluid-particles systems. In a typical CFD-DEM model, the phase motion of discrete solids or particles is obtained by the Discrete Element Method (DEM) which applies Newton's laws of motion to every particle and the flow of continuum fluid is described by the local averaged Navier–Stokes equations that can be solved by the traditional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The

neg: Dark fluid with an effect similar to that of dark energy. Dark fluid goes beyond dark matter and dark energy in that it predicts a continuous range of attractive and repulsive qualities under various matter density cases. Indeed, special cases of various other gravitational theories are reproduced by dark fluid, e.g. inflation, quintessence, k-essence, f(R), Generalized Einstein-Aether f(K), MOND, TeVeS, BSTV, etc. Dark fluid theory also suggests new models, such as a certain f(K+R) model that suggests interesting corrections to MOND that depend on redshift and density. Dark fluid theory is not treated like a standard fluid mechanics model, because many of

neg: Plug flow Plug flow In fluid mechanics, plug flow is a simple model of the velocity profile of a fluid flowing in a pipe. In plug flow, the velocity of the fluid is assumed to be constant across any cross-section of the pipe perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. The plug flow model assumes there is no boundary layer adjacent to the inner wall of the pipe. The plug flow model has many practical applications. One example is in the design of chemical reactors. Essentially no back mixing is assumed with "plugs" of fluid passing through the reactor. This results in

neg: Membrane models of the modern membrane model. However, understanding of past membrane models elucidates present-day perception of membrane characteristics. Following intense experimental research, the membrane models of the preceding century gave way to the "fluid mosaic model" that is accepted today. Evert Gorter and François Grendel (Dutch physiologists) approached the discovery of our present model of the plasma membrane structure as a lipid bi-layer. They simply hypothesized that if the plasma membrane is a "bi-layer", then the surface area of the mono-layer of lipids measured would be double the surface area of the plasma membrane. To examine their hypothesis, they performed an

neg: Herschel–Bulkley fluid Herschel–Bulkley fluid The Herschel–Bulkley fluid is a generalized model of a non-Newtonian fluid, in which the strain experienced by the fluid is related to the stress in a complicated, non-linear way. Three parameters characterize this relationship: the consistency "k", the flow index "n", and the yield shear stress formula_1. The consistency is a simple constant of proportionality, while the flow index measures the degree to which the fluid is shear-thinning or shear-thickening. Ordinary paint is one example of a shear-thinning fluid, while oobleck provides one realization of a shear-thickening fluid. Finally, the yield stress quantifies the amount of stress that

neg: Semipermeable membrane phospholipids (consisting of a phosphate head and two fatty acid tails) arranged into a double layer, the phospholipid bilayer is a semipermeable membrane that is very specific in its permeability. The hydrophilic phosphate heads are in the outside layer and exposed to the water content outside and within the cell. The hydrophobic tails are the layer hidden in the inside of the membrane. The phospholipid bilayer is most permeable to small, uncharged solutes. Protein channels float through the phospholipids, and, collectively, this model is known as the fluid mosaic model. The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane is

neg: CFD-DEM CFD-DEM The CFD-DEM model, or Computational Fluid Dynamics / Discrete Element Method model, is a process used to model or simulate systems combining fluids with solids or particles. In CFD-DEM, the motion of discrete solids or particles phase is obtained by the Discrete Element Method (DEM) which applies Newton's laws of motion to every particle, while the flow of continuum fluid is described by the local averaged Navier–Stokes equations that can be solved using the traditional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) approach. The interactions between the fluid phase and solids phase is modeled by use of Newton's third law. The direct

neg: Barotropic fluid Barotropic fluid In fluid dynamics, a barotropic fluid is a fluid whose density is a function of pressure only. The barotropic fluid is a useful model of fluid behavior in a wide variety of scientific fields, from meteorology to astrophysics. The density of most liquids is nearly constant (isopycnic), so it can be stated that their densities vary only weakly with pressure and temperature. Water, which varies only a few percent with temperature and salinity, may be approximated as barotropic. In general, air is not barotropic, as it is a function of temperature and pressure; but, under certain circumstances, the

neg: Garth L. Nicolson Garth L. Nicolson Garth L. Nicolson (born October 1, 1943) is an American biochemist who made a landmark scientific model for cell membrane, known as the Fluid Mosaic Model. He is the founder of The Institute for Molecular Medicine at California, and he serves as the President, Chief Scientific Officer and Emeritus Professor of Molecular Pathology. He is also Conjoint Professor in the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Newcastle, Australia. During the outbreak of the Gulf War syndrome, he was the leading authority on the study of the cause, treatment and prevention of the disease. He was appointed

neg: Carreau fluid infinite shear-rate viscosity formula_16, a Carreau fluid behaves as a Newtonian fluid again with viscosity formula_16. The model was first proposed by Pierre Carreau. Carreau fluid Carreau fluid is a type of generalized Newtonian fluid where viscosity, formula_1, depends upon the shear rate, formula_2, by the following equation: Where: formula_4, formula_5, formula_6 and formula_7 are material coefficients. formula_4 = viscosity at zero shear rate (Pa.s) formula_5 = viscosity at infinite shear rate (Pa.s) formula_6 = relaxation time (s) formula_7 = power index At low shear rate (formula_12) a Carreau fluid behaves as a Newtonian fluid with viscosity formula_13. At intermediate

neg: Multiphase particle-in-cell method by the governing equations, interpolation operators, and the particle stress model. The multiphase particle-in-cell method assumes an incompressible fluid phase with the corresponding continuity equation, where the formula_2 is the fluid volume fraction and formula_3 is the fluid velocity. Momentum transport is given by a variation of the Navier-Stokes equations where formula_4 is the fluid density, formula_5 is the fluid pressure, and formula_6 is the body force vector (gravity). The laminar fluid viscosity terms, not included in the fluid momentum equation, can be included if necessary but will have a negligible effect on dense particle flow. In the MP-PIC method,

neg: Perfect fluid fluids are used in general relativity to model idealized distributions of matter, such as the interior of a star or an isotropic universe. In the latter case, the equation of state of the perfect fluid may be used in Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker equations to describe the evolution of the universe. In general relativity, the expression for the stress–energy tensor of a perfect fluid is written as where "U" is the 4-velocity vector field of the fluid and where formula_10 is the metric, written with a space-positive signature. Perfect fluid In physics, a perfect fluid is a fluid that can be completely characterized

neg: Static spherically symmetric perfect fluid Static spherically symmetric perfect fluid In metric theories of gravitation, particularly general relativity, a static spherically symmetric perfect fluid solution (a term which is often abbreviated as ssspf) is a spacetime equipped with suitable tensor fields which models a static round ball of a fluid with isotropic pressure. Such solutions are often used as idealized models of stars, especially compact objects such as white dwarfs and especially neutron stars. In general relativity, a model of an "isolated" star (or other fluid ball) generally consists of a fluid-filled interior region, which is technically a perfect fluid solution of the Einstein field

neg: Mathematical geophysics Mathematical geophysics Mathematical geophysics is concerned with developing mathematical methods for use in geophysics. As such, it has application in many fields in geophysics, particularly geodynamics and seismology. Geophysical fluid dynamics develops the theory of fluid dynamics for the atmosphere, ocean and Earth's interior. Applications include geodynamics and the theory of the geodynamo. Geophysical inverse theory is concerned with analyzing geophysical data to get model parameters. It is concerned with the question: What can be known about the Earth's interior from measurements on the surface? Generally there are limits on what can be known even in the ideal limit of

neg: Hemorheology highest speed areas calling the famous representation of the Fåhræus–Lindqvist effect, aggregate or separate in sheath or plug flows described by Thurston. Typically, the Maxwell Model described below is uniformly considering the material (uniform blue color) as a perfect distributed particles fluid everywhere in the volume (in blue) but Thurston reveals that packs of red cells, plugs, are more present in the high speed region, if "y" is the height direction in the Maxwell model figure, ("y"~H) and there is a free cells layer in the lower speed area ("y"~0) what means the plasma fluid phase that deforms under Maxwell

neg: Plasma modeling distribution function must be assumed/chosen. But this assumption can lead to a failure of capturing some physics. Although the kinetic model describes the physics accurately, it is more complex (and in the case of numerical simulations, more computationally intensive) than the fluid model. The hybrid model is a combination of fluid and kinetic models, treating some components of the system as a fluid, and others kinetically. In the gyrokinetic model, which is appropriate to systems with a strong background magnetic field, the kinetic equations are averaged over the fast circular motion of the gyroradius. This model has been used extensively

neg: Similitude (model) strongly tied to dimensional analysis. Engineering models are used to study complex fluid dynamics problems where calculations and computer simulations aren't reliable. Models are usually smaller than the final design, but not always. Scale models allow testing of a design prior to building, and in many cases are a critical step in the development process. Construction of a scale model, however, must be accompanied by an analysis to determine what conditions it is tested under. While the geometry may be simply scaled, other parameters, such as pressure, temperature or the velocity and type of fluid may need to be altered.

neg: Numerical weather prediction (MOS). Starting in the 1990s, model ensemble forecasts have been used to help define the forecast uncertainty and to extend the window in which numerical weather forecasting is viable farther into the future than otherwise possible. The atmosphere is a fluid. As such, the idea of numerical weather prediction is to sample the state of the fluid at a given time and use the equations of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics to estimate the state of the fluid at some time in the future. The process of entering observation data into the model to generate initial conditions is called "initialization". On

neg: Fluid kinematics Fluid kinematics Fluid kinematics is a field of physics and mechanics concerned with the movement of fluids. Fluids tend to flow easily, which causes a net motion of molecules from one point in space to another point as a function of time. These fluids may be liquids or may be materials with fluid properties, including crowds of people or volumes of grains. Using the continuum hypothesis, fluids are classified into fluid particles, which are composed of numerous fluid molecules. These particles interact with one another and with the surroundings they are in. Using a Eulerian model (the continuum hypothesis), fluid

neg: Mixing length model Mixing length model In fluid dynamics, the mixing length model is a method attempting to describe momentum transfer by turbulence Reynolds stresses within a Newtonian fluid boundary layer by means of an eddy viscosity. The model was developed by Ludwig Prandtl in the early 20th century. Prandtl himself had reservations about the model, describing it as, "only a rough approximation," but it has been used in numerous fields ever since, including atmospheric science, oceanography and stellar structure. The mixing length is conceptually analogous to the concept of mean free path in thermodynamics: a fluid parcel will conserve its properties for

neg: Elasticity of cell membranes Elasticity of cell membranes A cell membrane defines a boundary between the living cell and its environment. The primary constituent of a membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that forms in a water-based environment due to the hydrophilic nature of the lipid head and the hydrophobic nature of the two tails. In addition there may be other lipids and proteins in the membrane, the latter typically in the form of isolated rafts. Of the numerous models that have been developed to describe the deformation of cell membranes, a widely accepted model is the fluid mosaic model proposed by Singer and Nicolson

neg: Garth L. Nicolson function and increased efficiency of the electron transport chain as the ways to reduced aging process and fatigue. He observed that the therapy had not only anti-aging effects, but had restorative potential for chronic muscle weakness (fatigue), and was beneficial to patients undergoing cancer treatments. Garth L. Nicolson Garth L. Nicolson (born October 1, 1943) is an American biochemist who made a landmark scientific model for cell membrane, known as the Fluid Mosaic Model. He is the founder of The Institute for Molecular Medicine at California, and he serves as the President, Chief Scientific Officer and Emeritus Professor of Molecular

neg: Fluid solution a fluid, a perfect fluid requires only two, and dusts and radiation fluids each require only one function. It is much easier to find such solutions than it is to find a general fluid solution. Among the perfect fluids other than dusts or radiation fluids, by far the most important special case is that of the static spherically symmetric perfect fluid solutions. These can always be matched to a Schwarzschild vacuum across a spherical surface, so they can be used as interior solutions in a stellar model. In such models, the sphere formula_14 where the fluid interior is matched to

neg: Herschel–Bulkley fluid is required, as the pressure drop is required to initiate the calculations as well as be the outcome of them. Viscosity Herschel–Bulkley fluid The Herschel–Bulkley fluid is a generalized model of a non-Newtonian fluid, in which the strain experienced by the fluid is related to the stress in a complicated, non-linear way. Three parameters characterize this relationship: the consistency "k", the flow index "n", and the yield shear stress formula_1. The consistency is a simple constant of proportionality, while the flow index measures the degree to which the fluid is shear-thinning or shear-thickening. Ordinary paint is one example of a

neg: Magnetorheological fluid ER), the fluid actually assumes properties comparable to a solid when in the activated ("on") state, up until a point of yield (the shear stress above which shearing occurs). This yield stress (commonly referred to as apparent yield stress) is dependent on the magnetic field applied to the fluid, but will reach a maximum point after which increases in magnetic flux density have no further effect, as the fluid is then magnetically saturated. The behavior of a MR fluid can thus be considered similar to a Bingham plastic, a material model which has been well-investigated. However, a MR fluid does

neg: Plasma (physics) plasma physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions, of which there are two main types: Fluid models describe plasmas in terms of smoothed quantities, like density and averaged velocity around each position (see Plasma parameters). One simple fluid model, magnetohydrodynamics, treats the plasma as a single fluid governed by a combination of Maxwell's equations and the Navier–Stokes equations. A more general description is the two-fluid plasma picture, where the ions and electrons are described separately. Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. Because fluid models usually describe

neg: Viscosity models for mixtures [molefractions]: Liquid phase of n mole in two-phase region where the liquid composition is formula_35 [molefractions]: where Since nearly all input to this viscosity model is provided by the EOS and the equilibrium calculations, this SS model (or TS model) for viscosity should be very simple to use for fluid mixtures. The viscosity model also have some empirical parameters that can be used as tuning parameters to compensate for imperfect EOS models and secure high accuracy also for fluid mixtures. Viscosity models for mixtures The shear viscosity (short viscosity) of a fluid is a material property that describes the friction

neg: Citroën DS fluid, which is "red" and hygroscopic to prevent internal rust. This completely different fluid, used in aircraft applications – the technically superior "green" LHM (Liquide Hydraulique Mineral) – took NHTSA two years to analyze for automotive use. Approval finally came in January 1969, so half the U.S. cars of the 1969 model year use "red" fluid and half use "green" fluid. In 1965 a luxury upgrade, the "DS Pallas" (after Greek goddess Pallas), was introduced. This included comfort features such as better noise insulation, a more luxurious (and optional leather) upholstery and external trim embellishments. From 1966 the Pallas model

neg: Kinematic similarity We can also change the velocity of the fluid to maintain the same dynamic characteristics. So, the above equation can be written for artery as, And for the scaled-up model, At the condition of Kinematic Similarity, That means, or, Substituting variables by provided values will provide important characteristics data for the fluid and flow characteristics for the scaled-up model. A similar approach can be taken for the scaled-down model (i.e. oil refinery scaled-down model) as well. Kinematic similarity In the field of fluid mechanics, kinematic similarity means, when the velocity at any point in the model flow is proportional by

neg: Secondary flow Secondary flow In fluid dynamics, a secondary flow is a relatively minor flow superimposed on the primary flow, where the primary flow usually matches very closely the flow pattern predicted using simple analytical techniques that assume the fluid is inviscid. (An inviscid fluid is a theoretical fluid having zero viscosity.) The primary flow of a fluid, particularly in the majority of the flow field remote from solid surfaces immersed in the fluid, is usually very similar to what would be predicted using the basic principles of physics, and assuming the fluid is inviscid. However, in real flow situations, there are

neg: Viscosity models for mixtures Viscosity models for mixtures The shear viscosity (short viscosity) of a fluid is a material property that describes the friction between internal neighboring fluid surfaces (or sheets) flowing with different fluid velocities. This friction is the effect of (linear) momentum exchange caused by molecules with sufficient energy to move (or "to jump") between these fluid sheets due to fluctuations in their motion. The viscosity is not a material constant, but a material property that depends on temperature, pressure, fluid mixture composition, local velocity variations. This functional relationship is described by a mathematical viscosity model called a constitutive equation which is

neg: Smart fluid Smart fluid A smart fluid is a fluid whose properties (for example the viscosity) can be changed by applying an electric field or a magnetic field. The most developed smart fluids today are fluids whose viscosity increases when a magnetic field is applied. Small magnetic dipoles are suspended in a non-magnetic fluid, and the applied magnetic field causes these small magnets to line up and form strings that increase the viscosity. These magnetorheological or MR fluids are being used in the suspension of the 2002 model of the Cadillac Seville STS automobile and more recently, in the suspension of the

neg: Smart fluid limitations of smart fluids which have yet to be overcome. Smart fluid A smart fluid is a fluid whose properties (for example the viscosity) can be changed by applying an electric field or a magnetic field. The most developed smart fluids today are fluids whose viscosity increases when a magnetic field is applied. Small magnetic dipoles are suspended in a non-magnetic fluid, and the applied magnetic field causes these small magnets to line up and form strings that increase the viscosity. These magnetorheological or MR fluids are being used in the suspension of the 2002 model of the Cadillac Seville

neg: Weyl's postulate of the fluid particles in a stirred cup of coffee. (Nonzero vorticity model is presented in https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1210/1210.4091.pdf or Nurgaliev I.S. «Singularities Are Averted by Vortices». Gravitation and Cosmology, 2010, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 313–315.) Weyl's postulate In relativistic cosmology, Weyl's postulate stipulates that in a fluid cosmological model, the world lines of the fluid particles, which act as the source of the gravitational field and which are often taken to model galaxies, should be "hypersurface orthogonal". That is, the world lines should be everywhere orthogonal to a family of spatial hyperslices. Sometimes, the additional hypothesis is added that the

neg: Fluid queue Pat Moran in 1954 where a discrete-time model was considered. Fluid queues allow arrivals to be continuous rather than discrete, as in models like the M/M/1 and M/G/1 queues. Fluid queues have been used to model the performance of a network switch, a router, the IEEE 802.11 protocol, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (the intended technology for B-ISDN), peer-to-peer file sharing, optical burst switching, and has applications in civil engineering when designing dams. The process is closely connected to quasi-birth–death processes, for which efficient solution methods are known. A fluid queue can be viewed as a large tank, typically assumed to be

neg: Dark fluid the fluid mechanics equations are too difficult to solve completely. A formalized fluid mechanical approach, like the generalized Chaplygin gas model, would be an ideal method for modeling this theory, but it currently requires too many observational data points to be computationally feasible, and not enough such data points are available to cosmologists yet. A simplification step was undertaken by modeling the theory through scalar field models instead, as is done in other alternative approaches to dark energy and dark matter. Dark fluid In astronomy and cosmology, dark fluid is an alternative theory to both dark matter and dark energy

neg: Two-dimensional point vortex gas Two-dimensional point vortex gas The two-dimensional point vortex gas is a discrete particle model used to study turbulence in two-dimensional ideal fluids. The two-dimensional guiding-center plasma is a completely equivalent model used in plasma physics. The model is a Hamiltonian system of "N" points in the two-dimensional plane executing the motion In the point-vortex gas interpretation, the particles represent either point vortices in a two-dimensional fluid, or parallel line vortices in a three-dimensional fluid. The constant "k" is the circulation of the fluid around the "i"th vortex. The Hamiltonian "H" is the interaction term of the fluid's integrated kinetic energy;

neg: Maelstrom (Battlestar Galactica) its hydraulic fluid and says all the birds leak fluid. She angrily demands that he fix the problem, but Tyrol says the seals are worn and replacements are scarce. He promises that the problem is minor and her Viper will fly, but Starbuck does not believe him. Apollo arrives and takes Starbuck aside to cool her temper. The end scene where Adama smashes up his model sailing ship was improvised by Edward James Olmos and was not part of the original script. Olmos was unaware that the model was not an inexpensive prop built for the production. According to Ron

neg: Dynamic fluid film equations orders of magnitude variations in thickness from nanometers to millimeters. Thus, a fluid film can simultaneously display nanoscale and macroscale phenomena. In the study of the dynamics of free fluid films, such as soap films, it is common to model the film as two dimensional manifolds. Then the variable thickness of the film is captured by the two dimensional density formula_1. The dynamics of fluid films can be described by the following system of exact nonlinear Hamiltonian equations which, in that respect, are a complete analogue of Euler's inviscid equations of fluid dynamics. In fact, these equations reduce to Euler's

neg: Garth L. Nicolson membrane is composed of a single lipid bilayer which is associated with two groups of proteins. Peripheral proteins are located on the surface, while integral proteins are embedded the lipid layer. The proteins are highly varied, thus, creating a mosaic pattern. Majority of the membrane is composed of phospholipids, which exhibit fluidity like oil. The phospholids are not just stationary, but are able to move, and the proteins can move in the fluid lipid layer. These properties give the membrane flexibility. The model turned out to be the foundation of modern understanding of cell membrane structure and functions. Although its

neg: Nuclear structure Nuclear structure Understanding the structure of the atomic nucleus is one of the central challenges in nuclear physics. The liquid drop model is one of the first models of nuclear structure, proposed by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker in 1935. It describes the nucleus as a semiclassical fluid made up of neutrons and protons, with an internal repulsive electrostatic force proportional to the number of protons. The quantum mechanical nature of these particles appears via the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two nucleons of the same kind can be at the same state. Thus the fluid is actually what

neg: Gassmann's equation logs, but might also come from a theoretical model. Step 1: Extract the dynamic bulk and shear moduli from formula_4, formula_5, and formula_3: Step 2: Apply Gassmann's relation, of the following form, to transform the saturated bulk modulus: where formula_10 and formula_11 are the rock bulk moduli saturated with fluid 1 and fluid 2, and formula_12 and formula_13 are the bulk moduli of the fluids themselves. Step 3: Leave the shear modulus unchanged (rigidity is independent of fluid type): Step 4: Correct the bulk density for the change in fluid: Step 5: recompute the fluid substituted velocities Given Let and

neg: Fluid mosaic model two leaflets of biological membranes are asymmetric and divided into subdomains composed of specific proteins or lipids, allowing spatial segregation of biological processes associated with membranes. Cholesterol and cholesterol-interacting proteins can concentrate into lipid rafts and constrain cell signaling processes to only these rafts. Another form of asymmetry was shown by the work of Mouritsen and Bloom in 1984, where they proposed a Mattress Model of lipid-protein interactions to address the biophysical evidence that the membrane can range in thickness and hydrophobicity of proteins. The existence of non-bilayer lipid formations with important biological functions was confirmed subsequent to publication of

neg: Pleural effusion Pleural effusion A pleural effusion is excess fluid that accumulates in the pleural cavity, the fluid-filled space that surrounds the lungs. This excess fluid can impair breathing by limiting the expansion of the lungs. Various kinds of pleural effusion, depending on the nature of the fluid and what caused its entry into the pleural space, are hydrothorax (serous fluid), hemothorax (blood), urinothorax (urine), chylothorax (chyle), or pyothorax (pus). A pneumothorax is the accumulation of air in the pleural space, and is commonly called a "collapsed lung". Various methods can be used to classify pleural fluid. By the origin of the

neg: Pleural effusion undergoes a spontaneous pleurodesis. Pleural effusion A pleural effusion is excess fluid that accumulates in the pleural cavity, the fluid-filled space that surrounds the lungs. This excess fluid can impair breathing by limiting the expansion of the lungs. Various kinds of pleural effusion, depending on the nature of the fluid and what caused its entry into the pleural space, are hydrothorax (serous fluid), hemothorax (blood), urinothorax (urine), chylothorax (chyle), or pyothorax (pus). A pneumothorax is the accumulation of air in the pleural space, and is commonly called a "collapsed lung". Various methods can be used to classify pleural fluid. By

neg: Magnetorheological fluid option code) as part of the driver selectable "Magnetic Selective Ride Control (MSRC)" system in model year 2003. Other manufacturers have paid for the use of it in their own vehicles, for example Audi and Ferrari offer the MagneRide on various models. General Motors and other automotive companies are seeking to develop a magnetorheological fluid based clutch system for push-button four wheel drive systems. This clutch system would use electromagnets to solidify the fluid which would lock the driveshaft into the drive train. Porsche has introduced magnetorheological engine mounts in the 2010 Porsche GT3 and GT2. At high engine revolutions,

neg: Amniotic fluid index Amniotic fluid index Amniotic fluid index (AFI) is a quantitative estimate of amniotic fluid and an indicator of fetal well-being. It is a part of the biophysical profile. Leaking or rupture of membranes may be caused by a gush of fluid or a slow constant trickle of fluid. This is due to a tear in the membrane. Premature rupture of membranes can also result in low amniotic fluid levels. Placental problems may cause low amniotic fluid. If the placenta is not providing enough blood and nutrients to the baby, then the baby may stop recycling fluid. Birth defects may occur

neg: Cell membrane organelles. Bacterial cells provide numerous examples of the diverse ways in which prokaryotic cell membranes are adapted with structures that suit the organism’s niche. For example, proteins on the surface of certain bacterial cells aid in their gliding motion. Many gram-negative bacteria have cell membranes which contain ATP-driven protein exporting systems. According to the fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson (1972), which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily. Although the lipid bilayers that

neg: Dark fluid possible to alter the equations of gravity in regions of low space-time curvature such that the dynamics of the space-time causes what we assign to the presence of dark matter and dark energy. Dark fluid theory hypothesizes that the dark fluid is a specific kind of fluid whose attractive and repulsive behaviors depend on the local energy density. In this theory, the dark fluid behaves like dark matter in the regions of space where the baryon density is high. The idea is that when the dark fluid is in the presence of matter, it slows down and coagulates around it;

neg: Acura RL to both 2005–2008 Acura RL and 2004–2008 Acura TL models. In December 2010, certain 2005–2007 model Acura RLs were subject to a safety recall for potential leaking of the brake master cylinder seal. A seal in the brake master cylinder may be susceptible to damage following the use of brake fluid other than the recommended Acura or (Honda) Genuine DOT3 brake fluid. If the seal is damaged, it can result in a brake fluid leak under certain conditions. If a leak should occur, the driver might see a low brake fluid indicator light or a BRAKE FLUID LOW or CHECK

neg: Electrorheological fluid This chain structure means the ER fluid has become a solid. The electrostatic theory assumes just a two phase system, with dielectric particles forming chains aligned with an electric field in an analogous way to how magnetorheological fluid (MR) fluids work. An ER fluid has been constructed with the solid phase made from a conductor coated in an insulator. This ER fluid clearly cannot work by the water bridge model. However, although demonstrating that some ER fluids work by the electrostatic effect, it does not prove that all ER fluids do so. The advantage of having an ER fluid which

neg: Instanton fluid Instanton fluid In quantum chromodynamics, the instanton fluid model is a model of Wick rotated Euclidean quantum chromodynamics. If we examine the path integral of the action, we find that it has infinitely many local minima, corresponding to varying instanton numbers. It turns out that the dominant contribution to the path integral comes from configurations consisting of a pool of instantons and antiinstantons. The exponential suppression coming from the increased action is compensated by the increased phase space factor coming from all the instantons. In other words, the "Euclidean" free energy is minimized by a pool of instantons. We also

neg: Entrainment (hydrodynamics) Entrainment (hydrodynamics) Entrainment is the transport of fluid across an interface between two bodies of fluid by a shear induced turbulent flux. The entrainment hypothesis was first used as a model for flow in plumes by G. I. Taylor when studying the use of oil drum fires to clear fog from aeroplane runways during World War II. It has gone on to be a common model of turbulence closure used in environmental and geophysical fluid mechanics. Entrainment is important in turbulent jets, plumes and gravity currents and is a topic of current research. Eductors or eductor-jet pumps are an example

neg: Entrainment (hydrodynamics) phenomenon is used in steam jet air ejectors to maintain condenser vacuum by removing non-condensible gases from the condenser. Entrainment (hydrodynamics) Entrainment is the transport of fluid across an interface between two bodies of fluid by a shear induced turbulent flux. The entrainment hypothesis was first used as a model for flow in plumes by G. I. Taylor when studying the use of oil drum fires to clear fog from aeroplane runways during World War II. It has gone on to be a common model of turbulence closure used in environmental and geophysical fluid mechanics. Entrainment is important in turbulent

neg: Fluid mosaic model lipid and membrane proteins can diffuse freely, but that they can seldom leave. Restriction on lateral diffusion rates of membrane components is very important because it allows the functional specialization of particular regions within the cell membranes. Lipid rafts are membrane nanometric platforms with a particular lipid and protein composition that laterally diffuse, navigating on the liquid bilipid layer. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are important building blocks of the lipid rafts. Cell membrane proteins and glycoproteins do not exist as single elements of the lipid membrane, as first proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. Rather, they occur as diffusing complexes

neg: Cell membrane outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane" and "lateral (side) membrane", which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent

neg: Numerical modeling (geology) means no empty space can be found in the object. This equation is commonly used in numerical modeling in geology. One example is the continuity equation of mass of fluid. Based on the law of "conservation of mass", for a fluid with density formula_1 at position formula_2 in a fixed volume formula_3 of fluid, the rate of change of mass is equal to the outward fluid flow across the boundary formula_4: formula_5 where formula_6 is the volume element and formula_7 is the velocity at formula_2. In Lagrangian form: formula_9 In Eulerian form: formula_10 This equation is useful when the model

neg: Citroën DS and requiring expensive maintenance. The difficulty with hygroscopic hydraulic fluid was exacerbated in the DS/ID due to the extreme rise and fall in the fluid level in the reservoir, which went from nearly full to nearly empty when the suspension extended to maximum height and the six accumulators in the system filled with fluid. With every "inhalation" of fresh moisture- (and dust-) laden air, the fluid absorbed more water. For the 1967 model year, Citroën introduced a new mineral oil-based fluid LHM ("Liquide Hydraulique Minéral"). This fluid was much less harsh on the system. LHM required completely different materials for

neg: Viscosity models for mixtures also very common to scale the dense fluid viscosity by the critical viscosity, or by an estimate of the critical viscosity, which is a characteristic point far into the dense fluid region. The simplest model of the dense fluid viscosity is a (trunkated) power series of reduced mole density or pressure. Jossi et al. (1962) presented such a model based on reduced mole density, but its most widespread form is the version proposed by Lohrenz et al. (1964) which is displayed below. The LBC-function is then expanded in a (truncated) power series with empirical coefficients as displayed below. The final

neg: Nanofluid Nanofluids in solar collectors is another application where nanofluids are employed for their tunable optical properties. There are four thermophysical properties related to fluid, which are namely viscosity, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and density. Pak and Choi Model formula_1 Xuan and Roetzel model formula_2 See also Viscosity of nanofluids See also Thermal conductivity of nanofluids European projects: Nanofluid A nanofluid is a fluid containing nanometer-sized particles, called nanoparticles. These fluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. The nanoparticles used in nanofluids are typically made of metals, oxides, carbides, or carbon nanotubes. Common base fluids include

neg: Reynolds number also used in scaling of fluid dynamics problems, and is used to determine dynamic similitude between two different cases of fluid flow, such as between a model aircraft, and its full size version. Such scaling is not linear and the application of Reynolds numbers to both situations allows scaling factors to be developed. With respect to laminar and turbulent flow regimes: The Reynolds number is defined as where: The Reynolds number can be defined for several different situations where a fluid is in relative motion to a surface. These definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and viscosity, plus

neg: Boiling water reactor fluid. In other words, steam semi-insulates the heated surface and surface temperature rises to allow heat to get to the cooling fluid (through convection and radiative heat transfer). MFLCPR is monitored with an empirical correlation that is formulated by vendors of BWR fuel (GE, Westinghouse, AREVA-NP). The vendors have test rigs where they simulate nuclear heat with resistive heating and determine experimentally what conditions of coolant flow, fuel assembly power, and reactor pressure will be in/out of the transition boiling region for a particular fuel design. In essence, the vendors make a model of the fuel assembly but power it

neg: Lattice Boltzmann methods formula_88, and the local momentum are given by In the above equation for the equilibrium velocity formula_92, the formula_93 term is the interaction force between a component and the other components. It is still the subject of much discussion as it is typically a tuning parameter that determines how fluid-fluid, fluid-gas, etc. interact. Frank et al. list current models for this force term. The commonly used derivations are Gunstensen chromodynamic model, Swift's free energy-based approach for both liquid/vapor systems and binary fluids, He's intermolecular interaction-based model, the Inamuro approach, and the Lee and Lin approach. The following is the general

neg: Dust solution Dust solution In general relativity, a dust solution is a fluid solution, a type of exact solution of the Einstein field equation, in which the gravitational field is produced entirely by the mass, momentum, and stress density of a perfect fluid that has "positive mass density" but "vanishing pressure". Dust solutions are an important special case of fluid solutions in general relativity. A pressureless perfect fluid can be interpreted as a model of a configuration of "dust particles" that locally move in concert and interact with each other only gravitationally, from which the name is derived. For this reason, dust

neg: Amniotic fluid index if the fetus has problems with the development of the kidneys or urinary tract, which could cause little urine production, and it can lead to low levels of amniotic fluid. Maternal complications may cause low amniotic fluid. Some factors such as hypertension, diabetes, dehydration, preeclampsia, and chronic hypoxia in a woman can have an effect on amniotic fluid levels. Amniotic fluid index Amniotic fluid index (AFI) is a quantitative estimate of amniotic fluid and an indicator of fetal well-being. It is a part of the biophysical profile. Leaking or rupture of membranes may be caused by a gush of fluid

neg: Newtonian fluid If n < 1 then the fluid is Pseudoplastic If n > 1 then the fluid is Dilitant The relationship between the shear stress and shear rate in a the casson fluid model is defined as follows: formula_33 where: 𝜏 = Shear stress formula_34 = yield stress dV/dy = Shear rate formula_35, µ = Viscosity, α : depends on protein composition, H = Hematocrit number Water, air, alcohol, glycerol, and thin motor oil are all examples of Newtonian fluids over the range of shear stresses and shear rates encountered in everyday life. Single-phase fluids made up of small molecules are

neg: Asymptotically flat spacetime one would expect in order to create the simplest possible model of a rotating star. This is surprising because of the plenitude of fluid interiors which match to Schwarzschild vacuum exteriors. Indeed, if some argue that an interior solution which matches to the Kerr vacuum, which has Petrov type D, should also be type D. There is in fact a known perfect fluid solution, the Wahlquist fluid, which is Petrov type D and which has a definite surface across which one can attempt to match to a vacuum exterior. However, it turns out that the Wahlquist fluid cannot be matched

neg: Simulation modeling Simulation modeling Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real world. Simulation modeling is used to help designers and engineers understand whether, under what conditions, and in which ways a part could fail and what loads it can withstand. Simulation modeling can also help to predict fluid flow and heat transfer patterns. It analyses the approximate working conditions by applying the simulation software. Simulation modeling allows designers and engineers to avoid repeated building of multiple physical prototypes to analyze designs for new or existing parts.

neg: Simulation modeling Before creating the physical prototype, users can investigate many digital prototypes. Using the technique, they can: Simulation modeling follows a process much like this: Simulation modeling Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real world. Simulation modeling is used to help designers and engineers understand whether, under what conditions, and in which ways a part could fail and what loads it can withstand. Simulation modeling can also help to predict fluid flow and heat transfer patterns. It analyses the approximate working conditions by applying the

neg: Herschel–Bulkley fluid generalized Newtonian fluid model, the effective viscosity is given as The limiting viscosity formula_14 is chosen such that formula_15. A large limiting viscosity means that the fluid will only flow in response to a large applied force. This feature captures the Bingham-type behaviour of the fluid. The viscous stress tensor is given, in the usual way, as a viscosity, multiplied by the rate-of-strain tensor where the magnitude of the shear rate is given by The magnitude of the shear rate is an isotropic approximation, and it is coupled with the second invariant of the rate-of-strain tensor A frequently-encountered situation in