query: who came up with the theory of endosymbiosis

pos: Symbiogenesis the Great Oxidation Event might be a consequence of eukaryogenesis and its impact on the export and burial of organic carbon. Symbiogenesis Symbiogenesis, or endosymbiotic theory, is an evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms, first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967. It holds that the organelles distinguishing eukaryote cells evolved through symbiosis of individual single-celled prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea). The theory holds that mitochondria, plastids such as chloroplasts, and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells represent formerly free-living

pos: Symbiogenesis Symbiogenesis Symbiogenesis, or endosymbiotic theory, is an evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms, first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967. It holds that the organelles distinguishing eukaryote cells evolved through symbiosis of individual single-celled prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea). The theory holds that mitochondria, plastids such as chloroplasts, and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells represent formerly free-living prokaryotes taken one inside the other in endosymbiosis. In more detail, mitochondria appear to be related to Rickettsiales proteobacteria, and chloroplasts

neg: Eukaryote but not all have chloroplasts, the serial endosymbiosis theory proposes that mitochondria came first. Chimeric models claim that two prokaryotic cells existed initially – an archaeon and a bacterium. These cells underwent a merging process, either by a physical fusion or by endosymbiosis, thereby leading to the formation of a eukaryotic cell. Within these chimeric models, some studies further claim that mitochondria originated from a bacterial ancestor while others emphasize the role of endosymbiotic processes behind the origin of mitochondria. Based on the process of mutualistic symbiosis, the hypotheses can be categorized as – the serial endosymbiotic theory (SET), the

neg: Hologenome theory of evolution structures (in insects, the bacteriome). Associations between hosts and primary endosymbionts are usually ancient, with an estimated age of tens to hundreds of millions of years. According to endosymbiotic theory, extreme cases of primary endosymbionts include mitochondria, plastids (including chloroplasts), and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. Primary endosymbionts are usually transmitted exclusively vertically, and the relationship is always mutualistic and generally obligate for both partners. Primary endosymbiosis is surprisingly common. An estimated 15% of insect species, for example, harbor this type of endosymbiont. In contrast, secondary endosymbiosis is often facultative, at least from the host point of view, and

neg: Myrionecta rubra the principal food of the ciliate, the photosynthetic algae called cryptomonads (or cryptophytes). It is, thus, both autotrophic and heterotrophic. This nature also indicates that it is an example of endosymbiosis, supporting the endosymbiotic theory, as well as the concept of stealing of cell organelles called kleptoplastidy. Moreover, "M. rubra" represents additional endosymbiosis by transferring its plastids to its predators, the dinoflagellate planktons belonging to the genus "Dinophysis". In 2009, a new species of Gram-negative bacteria called "Maritalea myrionectae" was discovered from a cell culture of "M. rubra". "M. rubra" is a free-living marine ciliate. It is reddish in colour

neg: Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis encompasses the mutualistic relationship between a fungus and intracellular bacteria species residing within the fungus. Many examples of endosymbiotic relationships between bacteria and plants, algae and insects exist and have been well characterized, however fungal-bacteria endosymbiosis has been less well described. Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis represents a diverse range of endosymbionts and hosts with respect to the initiation of the association and the benefits provided by and for each partner. Well-studied examples include Burkholderia species (sp.)/Rhizopus microsporus (R. microsporus), Nostoc punctiforme (N. punctiforme)/Geosiphon pyriforme (G. pyriforme) and Candidatus Glomeribacter gigasporarum (Ca. G. sporarum) /Gigaspora margarita (G. margarita) bacteria/fungi

neg: Lynn Margulis theory. Weathering constant criticism of her ideas for decades, Margulis was famous for her tenacity in pushing her theory forward, despite the opposition she faced at the time. The descent of mitochondria from bacteria and of chloroplasts from cyanobacteria was experimentally demonstrated in 1978 by Robert Schwartz and Margaret Dayhoff. This formed the first experimental evidence for her theory. The endosymbiosis theory of organogenesis became widely accepted in the 1980s, when the genetic material of mitochondria and chloroplasts was found to be different from that of the symbiont's nuclear DNA. In 1995, English evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins had this to

neg: Symbiogenesis an 80-fold increase in plastid-to-nucleus gene transfer compared to organisms with single plastids. There are many lines of evidence that mitochondria and plastids including chloroplasts arose from bacteria. Primary endosymbiosis involves the engulfment of a cell by another free living organism. Secondary endosymbiosis occurs when the product of primary endosymbiosis is itself engulfed and retained by another free living eukaryote. Secondary endosymbiosis has occurred several times and has given rise to extremely diverse groups of algae and other eukaryotes. Some organisms can take opportunistic advantage of a similar process, where they engulf an alga and use the products of its

neg: Lichenology to explain a new theory of Symbiogenesis by lichens and other organisms as evidenced by his earlier work "Nature and Origin of Chromatophores in the Plant Kingdom". These new ideas can be studied today under the title of the Theory of Endosymbiosis. Despite the above studies the dual nature of lichens remained no more than a theory until in 1939 the Swiss researcher Eugen A Thomas was able to reproduce in the laboratory the phenotype of the lichen "Cladonia pyxidata" by combining its two identified components. During the 20th century botany and mycology were still attempting to solve the two

neg: History of biology in the new discipline of the genetics of behavior, sociobiology, and, especially in humans, evolutionary psychology. In the 1960s W.D. Hamilton and others developed game theory approaches to explain altruism from an evolutionary perspective through kin selection. The possible origin of higher organisms through endosymbiosis, and contrasting approaches to molecular evolution in the gene-centered view (which held selection as the predominant cause of evolution) and the neutral theory (which made genetic drift a key factor) spawned perennial debates over the proper balance of adaptationism and contingency in evolutionary theory. In the 1970s Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed the

neg: Lynn Margulis say about Lynn Margulis and her work: I greatly admire Lynn Margulis's sheer courage and stamina in sticking by the endosymbiosis theory, and carrying it through from being an unorthodoxy to an orthodoxy. I'm referring to the theory that the eukaryotic cell is a symbiotic union of primitive prokaryotic cells. This is one of the great achievements of twentieth-century evolutionary biology, and I greatly admire her for it. Margulis opposed competition-oriented views of evolution, stressing the importance of symbiotic or cooperative relationships between species. She later formulated a theory that proposed symbiotic relationships between organisms of different phyla or kingdoms

neg: Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis included the use of harmful pesticides to eliminate the fungi, however more recent research takes into mind the role of the endosymbiotic bacteria in pathogenesis and uses phages to target the bacteria. We can see that fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis significantly impacts the global concern of food production and we can think of the deeper understanding of these relationships as being the solution to these problems. Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis encompasses the mutualistic relationship between a fungus and intracellular bacteria species residing within the fungus. Many examples of endosymbiotic relationships between bacteria and plants, algae and insects exist and have been well

neg: NUMT the endosymbiosis theory, which gained acceptance around the 1970s. Under this theory, symbiotic organelles gradually transferred their genes to the eukaryotic genome, implying that mtDNA was gradually integrated into the nuclear genome. Despite the metabolic alterations and functional adaptations in the host eukaryotes, circular mitochondrial DNA is contained within the organelles. Containing 37 genes, mitochondrial DNA has an essential role in the production of necessary compounds, such as required enzymes for the proper function of mitochondria. Specifically, it has been suggested that certain genes (such as the genes for cytochrome oxidase subunits I and II) within the organelle are necessary

neg: Red algae alternation of generations that may have three generations rather than two. Chloroplasts evolved following an endosymbiotic event between an ancestral, photosynthetic cyanobacterium and an early eukarytoic phagotroph. This event (termed primary endosymbiosis) resulted in the origin of the red and green algae, and the glaucophytes, which make up the oldest evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic eukaryotes. A secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages such as Cryptophyta, Haptophyta, Stramenopiles (or Heterokontophyta), Alveolata, Centrohelids, Katablepharids, and Telonemi. The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play

neg: Chloroplast membrane Chloroplast membrane Chloroplasts contain several important membranes, vital for their function. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have a double-membrane envelope, called the chloroplast envelope, but unlike mitochondria, chloroplasts also have internal membrane structures called thylakoids. Furthermore, one or two additional membranes may enclose chloroplasts in organisms that underwent secondary endosymbiosis, such as the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes. The chloroplasts come via endosymbiosis by engulfment of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium by the eukaryotic, already mitochondriate cell. Over millions of years the endosymbiotic cyanobacterium evolved structurally and functionally, retaining its own DNA and the ability to divide by binary fission (not mitotically) but giving up its

neg: Malate dehydrogenase structure. It is a large protein molecule with subunits weighing between 30 and 35 kDa. Based on the amino acid sequences, it seems that MDH has diverged into two main phylogenetic groups that closely resemble either mitochondrial isozymes or cytoplasmic/chloroplast isozymes. Because the sequence identity of malate dehydrogenase in the mitochondria is more closely related to its prokaryotic ancestors in comparison to the cytoplasmic isozyme, the theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts were developed through endosymbiosis is plausible. The amino acid sequences of archaeal MDH are more similar to that of LDH than that of MDH of other organisms. This indicates

neg: Eocyte hypothesis in archaea. This could be the reasoning for why elongation factors found in archaea and eukaryotes are so similar, the data currently out is obscured as horizontal gene transfer, vertical gene transfer, or endosymbiosis could be behind the gene sequence similarity. The Eocyte Hypothesis also has troubles due to the endosymbiotic theory and how the archaea were able to phagocytize the bacteria for the formation of membrane bound organelles. It is thought that these ancestral prokaryotes began to have ectosymbiotic relationships with other prokaryotes and slowly engulfed these symbiotes through cell membrane protrusions. Although there has been data that attempts

neg: History of zoology since 1859 Sewall Wright, unified the idea of evolution by natural selection with Mendelian genetics, producing the modern synthesis. The inheritance of acquired characters was rejected, while mutationism gave way as genetic theories matured. In the second half of the century the ideas of population genetics began to be applied in the new discipline of the genetics of behavior, sociobiology, and, especially in humans, evolutionary psychology. In the 1960s W.D. Hamilton and others developed game theory approaches to explain altruism from an evolutionary perspective through kin selection. The possible origin of higher organisms through endosymbiosis, and contrasting approaches to molecular evolution in

neg: Evolution of molecular chaperones to another uncharged amino acid). Any two "hsp10" amino acid sequences share at least 30% similarity, with 15-20% conservative changes. Phylogenetic analysis using "hsp10" and "hsp60" yield similar results to that of rRNA and other genes. Mitochondria were found to be most closely related to the α-purple subdivision of Gram negative bacteria and chloroplasts were most similar to cyanobacteria, similar to other data supporting the endosymbiosis theory. Gram positive bacteria were found to be the most ancestral, which is also supported by other studies. Evolution of molecular chaperones Chaperones, also called molecular chaperones, are proteins that assist other proteins in

neg: Multicellular organism co-dependent symbiosis can be seen frequently, such as in the relationship between clown fish and Riterri sea anemones. In these cases, it is extremely doubtful whether either species would survive very long if the other became extinct. However, the problem with this theory is that it is still not known how each organism's DNA could be incorporated into one single genome to constitute them as a single species. Although such symbiosis is theorized to have occurred (e.g. mitochondria and chloroplasts in animal and plant cells—endosymbiosis), it has happened only extremely rarely and, even then, the genomes of the endosymbionts have

neg: Pelomyxa between the bacteria and the modern cell. In 1973, it was proposed that the ancestors of "Pelomyxa palustris" had branched off from the eukaryote line before the advent of mitochondria In 1976, Jean M. Whatley wrote that "Pelomyxa palustris" "may justly be considered the most primitive eukaryotic organism living today." As such, the organism was potentially a modern analogue of the ancestral eukaryote that, according to the theory of serial endosymbiosis, internalized the bacterial symbiont that later evolved into the mitochondria of the modern cell. The species was known to host several bacterial symbionts. While the function of these was

neg: Chemiosmosis the Calvin Cycle). Bacteria and archaea also can use chemiosmosis to generate ATP. Cyanobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and purple bacteria synthesize ATP by a process called photophosphorylation. These bacteria use the energy of light to create a proton gradient using a photosynthetic electron transport chain. Non-photosynthetic bacteria such as "E. coli" also contain ATP synthase. In fact, mitochondria and chloroplasts are the product of endosymbiosis and trace back to incorporated prokaryotes. This process is described in the endosymbiotic theory. The origin of the mitochondrion triggered the origin of eukaryotes, and the origin of the plastid the origin of the Archaeplastida,

neg: Microbiota way of explaining rapid changes in adaptation that cannot otherwise be explained by traditional mechanisms of natural selection. Within the hologenome theory, the holobiont has not only become the principal unit of natural selection but also the result of other step of integration that it is also observed at the cell (symbiogenesis, endosymbiosis) and genomic levels. Targeted amplicon sequencing relies on having some expectations about the composition of the community that is being studied. In target amplicon sequencing a phylogenetically informative marker is targeted for sequencing. Such a marker should be present in ideally all the expected organisms. It should

neg: Symbiogenesis remnant nucleus of the red algal symbiont (the nucleomorph) is present between the two inner and two outer plastid membranes. Despite the diversity of organisms containing plastids, the morphology, biochemistry, genomic organisation, and molecular phylogeny of plastid RNAs and proteins suggest a single origin of all extant plastids – although this theory is still debated. Some species including "Pediculus humanus" (lice) have multiple chromosomes in the mitochondrion. This and the phylogenetics of the genes encoded within the mitochondrion suggest that mitochondria have multiple ancestors, that these were acquired by endosymbiosis on several occasions rather than just once, and that there

neg: Nucleomorph Nucleomorph Nucleomorphs are small, vestigial eukaryotic nuclei found between the inner and outer pairs of membranes in certain plastids. They are thought to be vestiges of primitive red and green algal nuclei that were engulfed by a larger eukaryote. Because the nucleomorph lies between two sets of membranes, nucleomorphs support the endosymbiotic theory and are evidence that the plastids containing them are complex plastids. Having two sets of membranes indicate that the plastid, a prokaryote, was engulfed by a eukaryote, an alga, which was then engulfed by another eukaryote, the host cell, making the plastid an example of secondary endosymbiosis.

neg: Plastid terminal oxidase is more than 25% conserved, which is a significant amount of conservation for an oxidase. This sequence conservation further supports the theory that both the alternative and plastid oxidases evolved before endosymbiosis and did not significantly change through eukaryote evolution. There also exist PTOX cyanophages that contain copies of the gene for the plastid oxidase. They are known to act as viral vectors for movement of the gene between cyanobacterial species. Some evidence suggests that the phages may use the oxidase to influence photosynthetic electron flow to produce more ATP and less NADPH because viral synthesis utilizes more ATP. Plastid

neg: Killer ape theory Pierre Boulle’s novel of the same title, but the content is almost similar to the topic. This theory can be seen in the opening sequence of "", and also appears in the television show "Sliders", which made extensive use of the killer ape theory in storyline arcs involving the Kromaggs. (The names of "Dart" and "Ardrey" were combined by the professor Arturo character in the series into ""Drayer"" who purportedly came up with his world's "killer ape theory".) Killer ape theory The killer ape theory or killer ape hypothesis is the theory that war and interpersonal aggression was the driving

neg: Archaeplastida cell. The presence of such genes in the nuclei of eukaryotes without chloroplasts suggests this transfer happened early in the evolution of the group. Other eukaryotes with chloroplasts appear to have gained them by engulfing a single-celled archaeplastidan with its own bacterially-derived chloroplasts. Because these events involve endosymbiosis of cells that have their own endosymbionts, the process is called "secondary endosymbiosis". The chloroplasts of such eukaryotes are typically surrounded by more than two membranes, reflecting a history of multiple engulfment. The chloroplasts of euglenids and chlorarachniophytes appear to be captured green algae, whereas those of other photosynthetic eukaryotes, such as

neg: Chloroplast the chloroplast (formerly the cyanobacterium). Separately, somewhere around 500 million years ago, it happened again and led to the amoeboid "Paulinella chromatophora". This event is called "endosymbiosis", or "cell living inside another cell with a mutual benefit for both". The external cell is commonly referred to as the "host" while the internal cell is called the "endosymbiont". Chloroplasts are believed to have arisen after mitochondria, since all eukaryotes contain mitochondria, but not all have chloroplasts. This is called "serial endosymbiosis"—an early eukaryote engulfing the mitochondrion ancestor, and some descendants of it then engulfing the chloroplast ancestor, creating a cell with

neg: Endosymbiont (nitrogen replete). "Richelia intracellularis" is also found in "Rhizosolenia" spp., a diatom found in oligotrophic oceans. Compared to the "Hemaiulus" host, the endosymbiosis with "Rhizosolenia" is much more consistent, and "Richelia intracellularis" is generally found in "Rhizosolenia". There are some asymbiotic (occurs without an endosymbiont) Rhizosolenia, however there appears to be mechanisms limiting growth of these organisms in low nutrient conditions. Cell division for both the diatom host and cyanobacterial symbiont can be uncoupled and mechanisms for passing bacterial symbionts to daughter cells during cell division are still relatively unknown. Other endosymbiosis with nitrogen fixers in open oceans include Calothrix

neg: Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis associations. What is known on these associations impacts our understanding of the ecological interactions of plants, fungi and bacteria. The classification of bacterial endosymbionts and their fungal partners occur across a diverse set of phyla. Ca. G. sporarum and Burkholderia sp. have been identified to be β-proteobacteria, a gram-negative class of bacteria, and N. punctiforme is a cyanobacteria . These phyla are not closely related showing that the capability of endosymbiosis with fungi is widely spread. A similar pattern is seen with the fungal partners with examples occurring across broad phyla/divisions such as Glomeromycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. The common

neg: Galinha à africana who came up with the dish in a hotel kitchen in the 1940s, utilizing spices he obtained from a trip to Portugal's African colonies at the time, while another theory states the recipe has been passed down through Portuguese families in Macao for centuries. Yet another theory states the recipe was brought to Macao by retired Portuguese Army officers in the aftermath of the Carnation Revolution, who opened cafés and served foods they came to like during their overseas service. Galinha à africana African Chicken (), also known as Galinha à africana (, is a Macanese chicken dish. African Chicken

neg: Hologenome theory of evolution the associations are less ancient. Secondary endosymbionts do not reside in specialized host tissues, but may dwell in the body cavity dispersed in fat, muscle, or nervous tissue, or may grow within the gut. Transmission may be via vertical, horizontal, or both vertical and horizontal transfer. The relationship between host and secondary endosymbiont is not necessarily beneficial to the host; indeed, the relationship may be parasitic. The distinction between vertical and horizontal transfer, and between primary and secondary endosymbiosis is not absolute, but follows a continuum, and may be subject to environmental influences. For example, in the stink bug "Nezara

neg: Evolution organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6–2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in

neg: Reticulate evolution evolution is induced. Researchers succeeded to increasingly identify these mechanisms and processes. Reticulate evolution is found to be driven by symbiosis, symbiogenesis (endosymbiosis), lateral gene transfer, hybridization and infectious heredity. Symbiosis is a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms. Often, both of the organisms involved develop new features upon the interaction with the other organism. This may lead to the development of new, distinct organisms. The alterations in genetic material upon symbiosis can occur via germline transmission or lateral transmission. Therefore, the interaction between different organisms can drive evolution of one or both organisms. Symbiogenesis (endosymbiosis)

neg: Chloroplast was serial secondary endosymbiosis rather than tertiary endosymbiosis—the endosymbiont was a green alga containing a primary chloroplast (making a secondary chloroplast). Cryptophytes, or cryptomonads are a group of algae that contain a red-algal derived chloroplast. Cryptophyte chloroplasts contain a nucleomorph that superficially resembles that of the chlorarachniophytes. Cryptophyte chloroplasts have four membranes, the outermost of which is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum. They synthesize ordinary starch, which is stored in granules found in the periplastid space—outside the original double membrane, in the place that corresponds to the red alga's cytoplasm. Inside cryptophyte chloroplasts is a pyrenoid and thylakoids in

neg: Endosymbiont Endosymbiont An endosymbiont or endobiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism in a mutualistic (formerly called symbiotic) relationship with the host body or cell, often but not always to mutual benefit. The term endosymbiosis is from the Greek: ἔνδον "endon" "within", σύν "syn" "together" and βίωσις "biosis" "living"). Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (called rhizobia), which live in root nodules on legume roots, single-cell algae inside reef-building corals, and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10–15% of insects. Many instances of endosymbiosis are obligate; that is, either the endosymbiont or the host

neg: Marine life cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6–2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to

neg: Symbiogenesis photosynthesis, but once the prey item dies (or is lost) the host returns to a free living state. Obligate secondary endosymbionts become dependent on their organelles and are unable to survive in their absence (for a review see McFadden 2001). RedToL, the Red Algal Tree of Life Initiative funded by the National Science Foundation highlights the role red algae or Rhodophyta played in the evolution of our planet through secondary endosymbiosis. One possible secondary endosymbiosis in process has been observed by Okamoto & Inouye (2005). The heterotrophic protist "Hatena" behaves like a predator until it ingests a green alga, which

neg: Cyanobacteria fact that another independent and more recent primary endosymbiosis event has been described between a cyanobacterium and a separate eukaryote lineage (the rhizarian "Paulinella chromatophora") also gives credibility to the endosymbiotic origin of the plastid. In addition to this primary endosymbiosis, many eukaryotic lineages have been subject to secondary or even tertiary endosymbiotic events, that is the "Matryoshka-like" engulfment by a eukaryote of another plastid-bearing eukaryote. Within this evolutionary context, it is noteworthy that, as far as we can tell, oxygenic photosynthesis only evolved once (in cyanobacteria), and all other photosynthetic eukaryotes (including all plants and algae) have acquired this

neg: Eukaryote later acquired mitochondria. According to this model, a large prokaryote developed invaginations in its plasma membrane in order to obtain enough surface area to service its cytoplasmic volume. As the invaginations differentiated in function, some became separate compartments—giving rise to the endomembrane system, including the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, nuclear membrane, and single membrane structures such as lysosomes. Mitochondria are proposed to come from the endosymbiosis of an aerobic proteobacterium, and it is assumed that all the eukaryotic lineages that did not acquire mitochondria became extinct. Chloroplasts came about from another endosymbiotic event involving cyanobacteria. Since all eukaryotes have mitochondria,

neg: Plastid terminal oxidase organisms capable of oxygenic photosynthesis, which includes plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Plastid terminal oxidase and alternative oxidase are thought to have originated from a common ancestral di-iron carboxylate protein. Oxygen reductase activity was likely an ancient mechanism to scavenge oxygen in the early transition from an anaerobic to aerobic world. The plastid oxidase first evolved in ancient cyanobacteria and the alternative oxidase in proteobacteria before eukaryotic evolution and endosymbiosis events. Through endosymbiosis, the plastid oxidase was vertically inherited by eukaryotes that evolved into plants and algae. Sequenced genomes of various plant and algae species shows that the amino acid sequence

neg: Viridiplantae Viridiplantae Viridiplantae (literally "green plants") are a clade of eukaryotic organisms made up of the green algae, which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants (embryophytes), which emerged within them. Green algae traditionally excludes the land plants, rendering them a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. They have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins. More than 350,000 species of Viridiplantae exist. In some classification systems, the group

neg: Location hypotheses of Atlantis in Rand's work with author Colin Wilson, in "The Atlantis Blueprint" (published in 2002). The second work theorized that Atlantis was to be found in Lesser Antarctica, near the coast of the Ross Ice Shelf. A geological theory known as "Earth Crust Displacement" forms the basis of their work. The Atlantis Blueprint uses both scientific and pseudoscientific (such as mere speculation and assumptions) means to back up the theory. Charles Hapgood came up with the "Earth Crustal Displacement theory". Hapgood's theory suggests that Earth's outer crust is able to move upon the upper mantle layer rapidly up to a distance

neg: Malaria originated through the endosymbiosis of algae and play a crucial role in various aspects of parasite metabolism, such as fatty acid biosynthesis. Over 400 proteins have been found to be produced by apicoplasts and these are now being investigated as possible targets for novel anti-malarial drugs. With the onset of drug-resistant "Plasmodium" parasites, new strategies are being developed to combat the widespread disease. One such approach lies in the introduction of synthetic pyridoxal-amino acid adducts, which are taken up by the parasite and ultimately interfere with its ability to create several essential B vitamins. Antimalarial drugs using synthetic metal-based complexes

neg: Chlorovirus indicating that such endosymbiosis serves to provide resistance from infection. Chlorovirus titers are variable by season and location, but typically fluctuate between 1 and 100 PFU/mL, although high abundances of up to 100,000 PFU/mL may occur in some environments. Due to the rich genetic diversity and high specialization of individual species with respect to infectious range, variations in their ecology are not unusual, resulting in unique spatio-temporal patterns, which ultimately depend on lifestyle and nature of the host. As such, previous survey data highlighted two prominent seasonal abundance peaks for both "Chlorella variabilis" NC64A and "Chlorella variabilis" Syngen viruses —

neg: Chemical revolution of a "new chemistry" and describes the experiments and reasoning that led to his conclusions. Like Newton's "Principia", which was the high point of the Scientific Revolution, Lavoisier's "Traité" can be seen as the culmination of the Chemical Revolution. Lavoisier's work was not immediately accepted and it took several decades for it gain momentum. This transition was aided by the work of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who came up with a simplified shorthand to describe chemical compounds based on John Dalton's theory of atomic weights. Many people credit Lavoisier and his overthrow of phlogiston theory as the traditional chemical revolution, with

neg: Chloroplast many small circles. Most of the genome has migrated to the nucleus, and only critical photosynthesis-related genes remain in the chloroplast. The peridinin chloroplast is thought to be the dinophytes' "original" chloroplast, which has been lost, reduced, replaced, or has company in several other dinophyte lineages. The fucoxanthin dinophyte lineages (including "Karlodinium" and "Karenia") lost their original red algal derived chloroplast, and replaced it with a new chloroplast derived from a haptophyte endosymbiont. "Karlodinium" and "Karenia" probably took up different heterokontophytes. Because the haptophyte chloroplast has four membranes, tertiary endosymbiosis would be expected to create a six membraned chloroplast, adding

neg: Character orientation Character orientation Character orientation is how people relate to the world by acquiring and using things (assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization), and they can do so either nonproductively or productively. Erich Fromm is a theorist who came up with six different character orientations; Receptive, Exploitative, Hoarding, Necrophilous, Marketing and Productive. German-American psychoanalyst Erich Fromm was influenced by Freudian ideologies when coming up with the theory of character orientation. The basis of character orientation comes from Freud who said that character traits underlie behavior and that they must be inferred from it. These character traits can be

neg: V. G. Braun-Dusemond family came. Mond was the maiden name of his mother who came from Werl in Westphalia. It was Braun-Dusemond's encounters with the German Expressionist, Ludwig Meidner which first inspired him to become a painter. Meidner had come to Braun-Dusemond's home town of Cologne, in 1935, to take up a position as drawing master at the Jewish school, Javneh. Meidner’s enthusiastic response to the young man’s sketches and drawings encouraged him to develop his talent. Dr Braun's thesis was on the art theorist and critic, Konrad Fiedler (1841–1895) who, in his "Kunstwissenschaft," created the theory of pure form, rejecting the concepts

neg: Chloroplast each cell; they are star-shaped in "Zygnema", or may follow the shape of half the cell in order Desmidiales. In some algae, the chloroplast takes up most of the cell, with pockets for the nucleus and other organelles, for example, some species of "Chlorella" have a cup-shaped chloroplast that occupies much of the cell. All chloroplasts have at least three membrane systems—the outer chloroplast membrane, the inner chloroplast membrane, and the thylakoid system. Chloroplasts that are the product of secondary endosymbiosis may have additional membranes surrounding these three. Inside the outer and inner chloroplast membranes is the chloroplast stroma, a

neg: Transsaccadic memory an example of perceptual constancy. Transsaccadic memory is a system that contributes to this stability. Transsaccadic memory is a relatively new topic of interest in the field of psychology. Conflicting views and theories have spurred several types of experiments intended to explain transsaccadic memory and the neural mechanisms involved. McConkie's and Currie's saccade target theory is similar to research by Schneider who came up with a similar "reference object theory". Both theories hypothesize that each saccade is preceded by processes in the visual system that chose an object as the target for the next fixation point. The object is usually

neg: Cognition symbolic reasoning." His work can be compared to Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund Freud, and Erik Erikson who were also great contributors in the field of Developmental Psychology. Today, Piaget is known for studying the cognitive development in children. He studied his own three children and their intellectual development and came up with a theory that describes the stages children pass through during development. Serial position The serial position experiment is meant to test a theory of memory that states that when information is given in a serial manner, we tend to remember information in the beginning of the sequence, called the

neg: Parker House and Theory Emerson together from 1997 - 2001. The name of the band came from a road trip by the two founding members in 1999. They wrote down the names which were printed on the sides of big rig trucks that they passed. Mixing up the words collected, they came up with two names for their band. The first, which was discarded, was Calarc Bean Company and Friends. The second name they created was the one they ultimately used - Parker House and Theory. overheard at a show I heard that they got the name from Miles Davis and Charlie Parker, and

neg: Eric Person He knew the "Big Apple" was the place to be. He came back to St. Louis with the goal of coming back to New York in three months. His father, who was all for his adventure, suggested that he stay home one year to save up some money, and "tie up some loose ends." It was wise advise which he heeded. In that year he studied with woodwind teacher Lloyd Smith, and took theory and piano classes at Florissant Valley Community college while finishing up his stint with the James "Ironhead" Matthews quartet. Eric arrived in New York City on

neg: Tutankhamun's mummy he needed to be buried quickly following his unexpected death because the man who was next in line for the throne wanted to avoid a power struggle that might have occurred if the burial process had taken too long. By speeding up the burial ceremony, the new pharaoh maintained order in Egypt. Detective Michael R. King and FBI profiler Gregory M. Cooper came together with an actual Egyptologist to form their own theory which was that Tutankhamun was murdered. With the use of forensic evidence and their extensive backgrounds in criminology, they came to the conclusion that he was likely

neg: Abstract algebra and Emmy Noether, building up on the work of Ernst Kummer, Leopold Kronecker and Richard Dedekind, who had considered ideals in commutative rings, and of Georg Frobenius and Issai Schur, concerning representation theory of groups, came to define abstract algebra. These developments of the last quarter of the 19th century and the first quarter of 20th century were systematically exposed in Bartel van der Waerden's "Moderne algebra", the two-volume monograph published in 1930–1931 that forever changed for the mathematical world the meaning of the word "algebra" from "the theory of equations" to the "theory of algebraic structures". By abstracting away

neg: Maratha to Sikhs and Gurkhas in terms of other masculine traits due to prevailing Christian notions of manliness in battlefield as well as in practices. They disapproved of Maratha raiding tactics at war. However, racial theories have been discredited. Lord Roberts, commander-in-chief of the Indian Army 1885–1893, who came up with the "martial race" theory, stated that in order to improve the quality of the army, there was a need to use "more warlike and hardy races" instead of the current sepoys from Bengal, the Tamils, Telugus and the Marathas. Based on this theory, Gurkhas and Sikhs were recruited by the

neg: Molecular orbital theory Molecular orbital theory was developed, in the years after valence bond theory had been established (1927), primarily through the efforts of Friedrich Hund, Robert Mulliken, John C. Slater, and John Lennard-Jones. MO theory was originally called the Hund-Mulliken theory. According to German physicist and physical chemist Erich Hückel, the first quantitative use of molecular orbital theory was the 1929 paper of Lennard-Jones. This paper notably predicted a triplet ground state for the dioxygen molecule which explained its paramagnetism (see Molecular orbital diagram#Dioxygen) before valence bond theory, which came up with its own explanation in 1931. The word "orbital" was introduced

neg: Chromalveolata Chromalveolata Chromalveolata was an eukaryote supergroup present in a major classification of 2005, then regarded as one of the six major groups within the eukaryotes. It was a refinement of the kingdom Chromista, first proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 1981. Chromalveolata was proposed to represent the organisms descended from a single secondary endosymbiosis involving a red alga and a bikont. The plastids in these organisms are those that contain chlorophyll c. However, the monophyly of the Chromalveolata has been rejected. Thus, two papers published in 2008 have phylogenetic trees in which the chromalveolates are split up, and recent studies continue

neg: Euglenid up green algae by secondary endosymbiosis. Euglenoids are distinguished mainly by the presence of a pellicle (periplast). Within its taxon, the cyanobacteria is one of the euglenoids' most diverse features from a morphological standpoint. The pellicle is composed of proteinaceous strips underneath the cell membrane, supported by dorsal and ventral microtubules. This varies from rigid to flexible, and gives the cell its shape, often giving it distinctive striations. In many euglenids the strips can slide past one another, causing an inching motion called metaboly. Otherwise they move using their flagella. The euglenids were first defined by Otto Bütschli in 1884

neg: Cuvier–Geoffroy debate winner of the debate, as he always came better prepared to the debate with overwhelming amounts of evidence and more logical arguments, as well as having more political and academic influence. Despite this, Geoffroy's philosophy is seen as early support of evolution theory and parts of the theory of the "unity of composition" are generally more accepted over Cuvier's fixed species philosophy. Both naturalists had a love for classification and description but grew up with different influences. Geoffroy came to Paris to study medicine, law and philosophy in early 1789, but shifted to the study of zoology not long after.

neg: Kleptoplasty are sea slugs in the clade Sacoglossa. Several species of Sacoglossan sea slugs capture intact, functional chloroplasts from algal food sources, retaining them within specialized cells lining the mollusc's digestive diverticula. The longest known kleptoplastic association, which can last up to ten months, is found in "Elysia chlorotica", which acquires chloroplasts by eating the alga "Vaucheria litorea", storing the chloroplasts in the cells that line its gut. Juvenile sea slugs establish the kleptoplastic endosymbiosis when feeding on algal cells, sucking out the cell contents, and discarding everything except the chloroplasts. The chloroplasts are phagocytosed by digestive cells, filling extensively branched

neg: Comodoro Rivadavia contributed to this theory with the discovery of utensils and human remains near Rada Tilly. It is widely known that the Tehuelche who came from the north of Patagonia during warm summer days used to make a halt where Rada Tilly is today. The English navigator FitzRoy was the first to mention its existence in a navigation chart. On March 10, 1889, Francisco Pietrobelli, accompanied by the Tehuelche Sainajo and Marcelo Pereira, came to Rada Tilly following FitzRoy's navigation charts in search of an anchoring place to set up a deep-water port where deep-draft ships could stop to supply the

neg: Plateau effect reaches a "crescendo" and then slowly decline over time. This view is disputed by mediocre technical directors all over New York City, but supported by the city's top lighting director. An example of the plateau effect is found in the paradox of the pesticides. The paradox states that applying pesticide to a pest may end up increasing the abundance of the pest if the pesticide upsets natural predator–prey dynamics in the ecosystem. In the book "Moonwalking with Einstein" by Joshua Foer, a theory called "deliberate practice" is brought up. The theorist that came up with this theory was K. Anders

neg: Kaluza–Klein theory Kaluza–Klein theory In physics, Kaluza–Klein theory (KK theory) is a classical unified field theory of gravitation and electromagnetism built around the idea of a fifth dimension beyond the usual four of space and time and considered an important precursor to string theory. The five-dimensional theory developed in three steps. The original hypothesis came from Theodor Kaluza, who sent his results to Einstein in 1919, and published them in 1921, which detailed a purely classical extension of general relativity to five dimensions and includes 15 components. Ten components are identified with the four-dimensional spacetime metric, four components with the electromagnetic vector

neg: Dependency need needs can be both internal and external. Having and achieving self-respect, receiving attention, and accomplishing achievements are examples of self-esteem needs. After one succeeds in the area of self-esteem, self-actualization needs are to be met. One's full potential as a person, his or her "self-actualization", helps him or her keep developing as a person throughout the lifespan. (Maslow, 2002) Another key contributor to the establishment of dependency need theory was Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development. Freud's theory of psychosexual development Sigmund Freud came up with a five-stage theory that stated human beings are born with sexual energy; this energy

neg: Evolutionary history of life chains. Eukaryotes may have been present long before the oxygenation of the atmosphere, but most modern eukaryotes require oxygen, which their mitochondria use to fuel the production of ATP, the internal energy supply of all known cells. In the 1970s it was proposed and, after much debate, widely accepted that eukaryotes emerged as a result of a sequence of endosymbiosis between "prokaryotes." For example: a predatory microorganism invaded a large prokaryote, probably an archaean, but the attack was neutralized, and the attacker took up residence and evolved into the first of the mitochondria; one of these chimeras later tried to

neg: Number theory gradually took place: Algebraic number theory may be said to start with the study of reciprocity and cyclotomy, but truly came into its own with the development of abstract algebra and early ideal theory and valuation theory; see below. A conventional starting point for analytic number theory is Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions (1837), whose proof introduced L-functions and involved some asymptotic analysis and a limiting process on a real variable. The first use of analytic ideas in number theory actually goes back to Euler (1730s), who used formal power series and non-rigorous (or implicit) limiting arguments. The use of

neg: Everingham competing theories as to the origins of the village's name. Firstly, the theory that the village is named for St. Everilda, the daughter of 7th century King Cyneglis of the West Saxons, who fled her home to practice Christianity in seclusion. Upon reaching York she was allowed to set up a convent at a place that came to be known as 'Everildsham' (Everild's home), which some believe to have evolved into the current name; Everingham. No trace of the convent survives and the former location is unknown. The second theory is that the name is derived from 'Eofor's Ham', meaning

neg: Light-dependent reactions Rather, they bear a striking resemblance to chloroplasts themselves. This suggests that organisms resembling cyanobacteria were the evolutionary precursors of chloroplasts. One imagines primitive eukaryotic cells taking up cyanobacteria as intracellular symbionts in a process known as endosymbiosis. Cyanobacteria contain structures similar to PS II and PS I in chloroplasts. Their light-harvesting system is different from that found in plants (they use "phycobilins", rather than chlorophylls, as antenna pigments), but their electron transport chain is, in essence, the same as the electron transport chain in chloroplasts. The mobile water-soluble electron carrier is cytochrome " in cyanobacteria, plastocyanin in plants. Cyanobacteria

neg: Special functions the theory. Conjectures of Ian G. Macdonald helped to open up large and active new fields with the typical special function flavour. Difference equations have begun to take their place besides differential equations as a source for special functions. In number theory, certain special functions have traditionally been studied, such as particular Dirichlet series and modular forms. Almost all aspects of special function theory are reflected there, as well as some new ones, such as came out of the monstrous moonshine theory. Special functions Special functions are particular mathematical functions which have more or less established names and notations due

neg: Kevin Malone ate half of the maple candies she brought for the office. After Holly confronts the staff over who threw her Woody doll in the trash, Kevin comes up with the theory that, since Toy Story is about toys coming alive when nobody's around, Woody came alive and threw himself in the garbage. In "Ultimatum", Holly raises up her ring fingers to show that she is not engaged, but Kevin misunderstands and calls her a "bitch" while giving her "the finger". Kevin's new year resolution he puts on Pam's "New Year's Resolution Board" is for him to eat more vegetables. Later,

neg: Hans Jørgen Uldall later recalled their process of collaboration as organic to the degree that they were not always sure who had come up with which ideas. During this period he also collaborated with Danish linguist Otto Jespersen on a work on English phonology, which however name came to completion. This period also saw his collaboration with Louis Hjelmslev, which first was a study of the field they called "phonematics", but which developed to become part of Hjelmslev's glossematic theory. Hjelmslevs student, Eli Fischer-Jørgensen, later recalled their process of collaboration as organic to the degree that they were not always sure who had

neg: Protection motivation theory cognitive appraisal processes and how they relate to coping with stress. He states that people "differ in their sensitivity and vulnerability to certain types of events, as well as in their interpretations and reactions". While Richard Lazarus came up with many of the fundamental ideas used in the protection motivation theory, Rogers was the first to apply the terminology when discussing fear appeals. Today the protection motivation theory is mainly used when discussing health issues and how people react when diagnosed with health related illnesses. The threat appraisal process consists of both the severity and vulnerability of situation. It focuses

neg: Volley theory Bray, in 1930, proposed the volley theory, claiming that multiple neurons could fire in a volley to later combine and equal the frequency of the original sound stimulus. Through more research, it was determined that because phase synchrony is only accurate up to about 1000 Hz, volley theory cannot account for all frequencies at which we hear. Ultimately, as new methods of studying the inner ear came about, a combination of place theory and frequency theory was adopted. Today, it is widely believed that hearing follows the rules of the frequency theory, including volley theory, at frequencies below 1000 Hz

neg: Knot theory knot tables for complete classification. Tait, in 1885, published a table of knots with up to ten crossings, and what came to be known as the Tait conjectures. This record motivated the early knot theorists, but knot theory eventually became part of the emerging subject of topology. These topologists in the early part of the 20th century—Max Dehn, J. W. Alexander, and others—studied knots from the point of view of the knot group and invariants from homology theory such as the Alexander polynomial. This would be the main approach to knot theory until a series of breakthroughs transformed the subject.

neg: Thomas Baumgartner Institute of Sociology of the University of Oslo, ending up as research consultant in Zurich, Switzerland, in the late 1980s, where in the 1990s he directed the Creato-network for environmental planning in Zurich. In the early 1970s Baumgartner collaborated with Tom R. Burns and a number of other researchers, such as Walter F. Buckley, Matthew Cooper, Philippe DeVille, David Meeker, and Bernard Gauci, among others. They have been developing a new theory complex, which came to be referred to as actor-system dynamics (ASD), a new social systems theory, substantially different from Parson's systems theory and the systems theory later developed

neg: The Big Bang Theory Lorre and Molaro, with Prady expected to be involved in some capacity, and intended to air in the 2017–18 season alongside "The Big Bang Theory". The initial idea for the series came from Parsons, who passed it along to "The Big Bang Theory" producers. In early March 2017, Iain Armitage was cast as the younger Sheldon, as well as Zoe Perry as his mother, Mary Cooper. Perry is the real-life daughter of Laurie Metcalf, who portrays Mary Cooper on "The Big Bang Theory". On March 13, 2017, CBS ordered the spin-off "Young Sheldon" series. Jon Favreau directed and executive produced

neg: Marcel Baltazard and the role played in this permanence by the presence of rodents showing a high resistance to infection. He came to the conclusion that it was necessary to look for a real plague reservoir not among sensitive species eradicated by infection, but among the semi-resistant species that survive. To prove this theory, WHO set up a research campaign associated with Institut Pasteur of Iran. In 1950, he became WHO' rabies committee expert. He elaborated a testing program of a new serum antirabic, purified and concentrated (called hyperimmun) in the USA. This has paved a new way of using serum antirabic.

neg: Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty) came from a Chahamana family. By the time Yashovarman's ascension, the Pratiharas depended on their feudatories to a large extent. The Rashtrakutas, who were the main rival of the Patiharas, were busy in dynastic feuds. This offered the Chandelas an opportunity to increase their own power. Yashovarman did not formally give up the allegiance to the Pratiharas, but he was practically independent. Yashovarman conquered the important fortress of Kalanjara, although the identity of his enemy in this campaign is not certain. One theory is that he conquered Kalanjara from his overlords, the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Another theory is that he defeated the

neg: The Stuart Hall Project and more broadly provide an accurate barometer of social change. Society is infinitely changing, and must be closely analyzed in order to pinpoint exactly what catalyses such change, as the cause can be the most subtle. "Where do you come from?" is expected to be followed up with a long story. The immigrants of the Caribbean opened up the ideas that the notions of ourselves and our values of where we live are not always translatable from one value to another. Hall says the theory that full assimilation is possible, or that the people who came over two generations would

neg: Politics-administration dichotomy Politics-administration dichotomy The Politics-administration dichotomy is a theory that constructs the boundaries of public administration and asserts the normative relationship between elected officials and administrators in a democratic society. The phrase "politics-administration dichotomy" itself does not appear to have a known inventor, even after exhaustive research, the combination of words that make up the phrase was first found in public administration literature from the 1940s with no clear originator. Woodrow Wilson is credited with the politics-administration dichotomy via his theories on public administration in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Administration". Wilson came up with a theory that politics and

neg: Bioinformatics in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and endosymbiosis, often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a

neg: Chloroplast who forms". The first definitive description of a chloroplast ("Chlorophyllkörnen", "grain of chlorophyll") was given by Hugo von Mohl in 1837 as discrete bodies within the green plant cell. In 1883, A. F. W. Schimper would name these bodies as "chloroplastids" ("Chloroplastiden"). In 1884, Eduard Strasburger adopted the term "chloroplasts" ("Chloroplasten"). Chloroplasts are one of many types of organelles in the plant cell. They are considered to have originated from cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis—when a eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthesizing cyanobacterium that became a permanent resident in the cell. Mitochondria are thought to have come from a similar event, where an

neg: Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004 who withdrew charges against a Pitcairn man, claimed that detectives had offered her money to testify; when pressed, she clarified that the money referred to statutory "compensation for victims of crime." Some women came up with a conspiracy theory that the trial was part of "a British plot to jail the [community's] able-bodied men and 'close' the island." "They've picked on all the viable young men, the ones who are the backbone of this place," said one, Meralda Warren. Not all women on the island were such defenders. Some present at the Big Fence meeting sat "silent and appeared ill

neg: Parker House and Theory wrote down the names which were printed on the sides of big rig trucks that they passed. Mixing up the words collected, they came up with two names for their band. The first, which was discarded, was Calarc Bean Company and Friends. The second name they created was the one they ultimately used - Parker House and Theory. After Tasker and Foglia wrote a collection of songs, they recorded an EP title YAOUIDASI in 1999. After a list of performances, they decided to bring on more musicians to fill out the sound. The first batch of musicians they hired were

neg: Gerald Gardner (Wiccan) Beloved of the Great Goddess". Gardner only married once, to Donna, and several who knew him made the claim that he was devoted to her. Indeed, after her death in 1960, he began to again suffer serious asthma attacks. Despite this, as many coven members slept over at his cottage due to living too far away to travel home safely, he was known to cuddle up to his young High Priestess, Dayonis, after rituals. The author Philip Heselton, who largely researched Wicca's origins, came to the conclusion that Gardner had held a long-term affair with Dafo, a theory expanded upon

neg: Nicole Oresme psychology, psychology of consciousness, and psychophysics. Oresme discovered the psychology of unconscious and came up with the theory of unconscious conclusion of perception. He developed many ideas beyond quality, quantity, categories and terms which were labeled “theory of cognition”. In his modern "psycho-cybernetics" and "information theory" Oresme solved the "dualism-problem" of the physical and the psychical world by using the three-part schema "species - materia - qualitas sensibilis". Nicole Oresme Nicole Oresme (; c. 1320–1325 – July 11, 1382), also known as Nicolas Oresme, Nicholas Oresme, or Nicolas d'Oresme, was a significant philosopher of the later Middle Ages. He wrote

neg: Dharmakirti theory of momentariness ("kṣaṇikatva"), which held that dharmas spontaneously perish the moment they arise. Dharmakīrti came up with an argument for the theory which stated that since anything that really exists has a causal power, the fact that its causal power is in effect proves it is always changing. For Dharmakīrti, nothing could be a cause while remaining the same, and any permanent thing would be causally inert. Dharmakīrti defends Dignāga's theory of consciousness being non-conceptually reflexive ("svasamvitti" or "svasaṃvedana"). This is the idea that an act of intentional consciousness is also aware of itself as aware. Consciousness is said

neg: Ninja Theory of "Enslaved: Odyssey to the West", publisher Capcom chose Ninja Theory to develop the next entry in the "Devil May Cry" series, as it was impressed by the company's past work, especially on "Heavenly Sword". Capcom intentionally selected a western developer so that they could "add western flair to a traditionally Japanese-styled game", and granted the company plenty of creative freedom. Hideaki Itsuno supervised the entire project. The team came up with a new design for series' protagonist Dante, which generated a backlash and some criticism. Some irrational fans sent Ninja Theory death threats and death metal songs. Despite being

neg: ICarly own show – a web show she could run herself and do whatever she wanted to do. In November 2006, Schneider threw out his "Starstruck" script and wrote a new pilot called "iCarly" during December. The pilot was shot in January 2007. During production of "Zoey 101", Schneider came up with the idea of the show and its name with his friend and producer of "The Big Bang Theory", Steven Molaro. He was trying to think of a good title for the new series about kids who start their own web show. The pilot script followed the lead girl's name

neg: Bill Lear in 1924 when he moved to Chicago and built a B-battery eliminator for the Universal Battery Company with R. D. Morey. Then he met Waldorf Astoria Smith of the Carter Radio Company who helped him with radio theory including Ohm's law. Tom Fletcher of the QRS Company was so impressed by Lear's radio set designed around a QRS rectifier tube that he hired him, offering 60% more pay than Universal Battery. Bill Grunow of the Grigsby-Grunow-Hinds Company topped that offer when Lear fixed the problem with 60,000 B-battery eliminators that they had manufactured. Lear also came up with an invention

neg: Lisa Zunshine (Johns Hopkins UP, 2012) and "The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Literary Studies" (Oxford UP, 2015). Lisa Zunshine Lisa Zunshine is a scholar of 18th-century British literature, whose interests include cultural historicism, narrative theory, and cognitive approaches to literary and cultural studies (with a particular emphasis on Theory of mind and fiction). She was born in Russia, came to the United States as a refugee when she was twenty-one, and became a U.S. citizen in 1998. She is Bush-Holbrook professor of professor of English at the University of Kentucky, Lexington; a Guggenheim fellow (2007); and author and editor of eleven books,

neg: Philip Cross at the Munster Assizes before Mr. Justice Murphy. Cross was defended by Craigie Atkinson, who came up with a defence that since the defendant had served in the Far East, and was acquainted with many barely known subtler poisons, that it was unlikely he would have used arsenic, which is the first poison the police would think of. The prosecution demolished this theory by suggesting that while he was a brilliant man normally, as a criminal Dr. Cross behaved like a fool. Motive was shown as was the fact that the doctor had purchased arsenic recently (and had his sister

neg: By the Way (Theory of a Deadman song) By the Way (Theory of a Deadman song) "By the Way" is the sixth single from Theory of a Deadman's album "Scars & Souvenirs", released on May 18, 2009. The song features Chris Daughtry and Robin Diaz on back-up vocals. It is about a girl leaving her boyfriend without saying anything to him and he now thinks about her all the time and wishes she'd come back. The "Scars & Souvenirs" album title comes from a line in this song: "Piled up from the years, all those scars and souvenirs". The music video came out in the second week of

neg: Clark L. Hull Hull found inspiration for his own theory of learning after learning about Ivan Pavlov’s idea of conditional reflexes, and Watson’s system of behaviorism. He also was impacted by Edward Thorndike, as he adapted his theory to include and agree with Thorndike's law of effect. After Hull discovered his interest in learning theories from Pavlov, Watson, and Thorndike, he dedicated much of his own laboratory work to perfecting his own theory. Also, many experiments concerning his learning theory came from Hull's students, who carried out many different experiments in Hull's lab after finding inspiration from seminars and lectures in classes that

neg: Market failure there has arisen an idea according to which decisions of policy-makers are not influenced by self-interest, but they are driven by altruism. They came up with the theory of the so-called the “second best.” They refuse Chang's theory and state that is it not possible to restore Pareto optimality even if policy makers possess the sufficient knowledge, intervene efficiently and altruism serves as stimulus for their decisions. On the other hand, the “second best” theory holds that when market failure occurs in one branch of the economy, it should be feasible to increase social welfare in another branch of the

neg: States and Social Revolutions theory in understanding why revolution happen include understanding relative deprivation, interpreting people's justification and beliefs about political action, and analyzing the disconnected between the crowds capacity to act and the method in which they organize themselves. In 1966, Chalmers Johnson came up with the Systems Value Consensus Theory, which explains revolutions as a violent reaction to ideological movements. In order for a successful revolution to occur, Johnson claims that there must be both change and violence; there is no such thing as a non-violent revolution. The Systems Value Consensus Theory departs from others in that it claims revolution is a

neg: Cultural capital used or developed in other discourses. Use of Bourdieu's cultural capital can be broken up into a number of basic categories. First, are those who explore the theory as a possible means of explanation or employ it as the framework for their research. Second, are those who build on or expand Bourdieu's theory. Finally, there are those who attempt to disprove Bourdieu's findings or to discount them in favour of an alternative theory. The majority of these works deal with Bourdieu's theory in relation to education, only a small number apply his theory to other instances of inequality in society.

neg: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff structure accounted for the isomers found in nature. He shares credit for this with the French chemist Joseph Le Bel, who independently came up with the same idea. Three months before his doctoral degree was awarded, van 't Hoff published this theory, which today is regarded as the foundation of stereochemistry, first in a Dutch pamphlet in the fall of 1874, and then in the following May in a small French book entitled "La chimie dans l'espace". A German translation appeared in 1877, at a time when the only job van 't Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School