query: where does the germ that causes bubonic plague normally live in nature

pos: Bubonic plague Bubonic plague Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by bacterium "Yersinia pestis". One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. These include fever, headaches, and vomiting. Swollen and painful lymph nodes occur in the area closest to where the bacteria entered the skin. Occasionally the swollen lymph nodes may break open. The three types of plague are the result of the route of infection: bubonic plague, septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague. Bubonic plague is mainly spread by infected fleas from small animals. It may also result from exposure to the body fluids

neg: Causality Within the conceptual frame of the scientific method, an investigator sets up several distinct and contrasting temporally transient material processes that have the structure of experiments, and records candidate material responses, normally intending to determine causality in the physical world. For instance, one may want to know whether a high intake of carrots causes humans to develop the bubonic plague. The quantity of carrot intake is a process that is varied from occasion to occasion. The occurrence or non-occurrence of subsequent bubonic plague is recorded. To establish causality, the experiment must fulfill certain criteria, only one example of which is

neg: CCR5 the plague epidemics were intermittent. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease, primarily infecting rodents and spread by fleas and only occasionally infecting humans. Human-to-human infection of bubonic plague does not occur, though it can occur in pneumonic plague, which infects the lungs. Only when the density of rodents is low are infected fleas forced to feed on alternative hosts such as humans, and under these circumstances a human epidemic may occur. Based on population genetic models, Galvani and Slatkin (2003) argue that the intermittent nature of plague epidemics did not generate a sufficiently strong selective force to drive the allele

neg: Urban plague flea bites. Urban plague Urban plague is an infectious disease among rodent species that live in close association with humans in urban areas. It is caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis" which is the same bacterium that causes bubonic and pneumonic plague in humans. Plague was first introduced into the United States in 1900 by rat–infested steamships that had sailed from affected areas, mostly from Asia. Urban plague spread from urban rats to rural rodent species, especially among prairie dogs in the western United States. Common vectors for urban plague are house mice, black rats, and Norway rats. Urban plague

neg: Urban plague Urban plague Urban plague is an infectious disease among rodent species that live in close association with humans in urban areas. It is caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis" which is the same bacterium that causes bubonic and pneumonic plague in humans. Plague was first introduced into the United States in 1900 by rat–infested steamships that had sailed from affected areas, mostly from Asia. Urban plague spread from urban rats to rural rodent species, especially among prairie dogs in the western United States. Common vectors for urban plague are house mice, black rats, and Norway rats. Urban plague spreads via

neg: Kaimingjie germ weapon attack Kaimingjie germ weapon attack The Kaimingjie germ weapon attack was a Japanese biological warfare bacterial germ strike against Kaimingjie, an area of the port of Ningbo in the Chinese province of Zhejiang in October 1940, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. These attacks were a joint Unit 731 and Unit 1644 endeavour. Bubonic plague was the area of greatest interest to the doctors of the units mentioned above. Six different plague attacks were conducted in China during the war, between the start of aggression and the end of the war. Using airdropped wheat, corn, scraps of cotton cloth and sand infested

neg: Theories of the Black Death or another site. Although "Y. pestis" as the causitive agent of plague is widely accepted, recent scientific and historical investigations have led some researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague. While "Y. pestis" was in some samples collected from grave sites in various burial sites across Europe, many skeletons did not yield the DNA. The fact that bubonic plague DNA was present does not necessarily mean that bubonic plague was the cause of death; the individual could possibly have survived a bout of bubonic plague and died of another disease agent.

neg: Japan and weapons of mass destruction the Kaimingye germ weapon attack in Ningbo. Japan sent a submarine with unspecified biological weapons early in 1944 to defend the island of Saipan from American invasion however the submarine was sunk. Japan's biowarfare experts had hoped to launch biological attacks on the U.S. in 1944 with balloon bombs filled with bubonic plague, anthrax, rinderpest, and smut fungus. A 1945-planned kamikaze attack on San Diego with I-400-class submarine aircraft carriers that would deploy Aichi M6As floatplanes and drop fleas infected with bubonic plague was code-named Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plans were rejected by Hideki Tojo who feared similar

neg: Pasteur Institute for personal reasons, without losing Pasteur's benevolence, who never doubted that the young man was destined to great things in the scientific area and would contribute in spreading Pasteur's discoveries around the world. The news of a violent plague outburst in Yunman enabled Yersin to truly show and reach his potential as he was summoned, as Pasteur's scholar, to conduct a microbiological research of the disease. The plague he had to deal with was the bubonic plague, which is recognizable most of the time through the abscesses, known as buboes, it provokes in its victims. Yersin looked for the germ

neg: Bubonic plague Trials, the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on Changde. These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks. Bubonic plague Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by bacterium "Yersinia pestis". One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. These include fever, headaches, and vomiting. Swollen and painful lymph nodes occur in the area closest to where the bacteria entered the skin. Occasionally the swollen lymph nodes may break open. The three types of plague are the result of the route of

neg: Peak District Reservation Ordinance 1904 Chinese population, observed that they usually threw house refuse into the street, where it accumulated until such time as the torrential summer rains and the overflow of the Pearl River cleared it away. A study by City University of Hong Kong also attributes the spread of plague to the hygiene and sanitary condition among local population at the time. Governor of Hong Kong Sir William Robinson reported to the British Government that "the filthy habits of life amongst the 210,000 Chinese who reside here have rendered Hong Kong liable to the invasion and development of the germ of the bubonic

neg: Ningbo carrying the bubonic plague. According to Daniel Barenblatt, Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda received, with Prince Mikasa, a special screening by Shiro Ishii of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940. Ningbo ranges in latitude from 28° 51' to 30° 33' N and in longitude from 120° 55' to 122° 16' E, bounded on the east by the East China Sea and Zhoushan Archipelago, on the north by Hangzhou Bay, across which it faces Jiaxing and Shanghai, on the west by Shaoxing, and on the south by Taizhou. Its land area is , while

neg: History of Ningbo served as the minister at Ningbo. Rev.W. A. Russell was the Corresponding Secretary of the Church Missionary Society at Ningbo. During World War II in 1940, Japan bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague. According to Daniel Barenblatt, Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda received, with Prince Mikasa, a special screening by Shiro Ishii of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940. History of Ningbo Ningbo's origins date back to over 6,800 years, and its history as a major city began 2,000 years ago, becoming a port for foreign trade during the Tang and

neg: Disease in Imperial Rome and in turn has the disease named after him (also possibly due to the oppression of Christianity at the time). Notably, his list does not include skin rashes or swelling, which is the main separation from the bubonic plague and Antonine Plague. This plague was very widespread, possibly originating in Ethiopia and spreading to Scotland. With the skin contact-spreading nature of the disease and the crowded civilization style in Rome, the death toll was tremendous in the empire. Morbus Gallicus, better known in modern times as syphilis, or the "French Disease" was not prominent in ancient Europe but with recent

neg: Sylvatic plague Sylvatic plague Sylvatic plague is an infectious bacterial disease caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis" that primarily affects rodents such as prairie dogs. It is the same bacterium that causes bubonic and pneumonic plague in humans. Sylvatic, or sylvan, means 'occurring in wildlife,' and refers specifically to the form of plague in rural wildlife. Urban plague refers to the form in urban wildlife. It is primarily transmitted among wildlife through flea bites and contact with infected tissue or fluids. Sylvatic plague is most commonly found in prairie dog colonies and some mustelids like the black-footed ferret. Sylvatic plague is most

neg: Sylvatic plague plague antigens. It was originally developed by a Fort Detrick company in 2003 which showed it protected mice against lethal plague. Sylvatic plague Sylvatic plague is an infectious bacterial disease caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis" that primarily affects rodents such as prairie dogs. It is the same bacterium that causes bubonic and pneumonic plague in humans. Sylvatic, or sylvan, means 'occurring in wildlife,' and refers specifically to the form of plague in rural wildlife. Urban plague refers to the form in urban wildlife. It is primarily transmitted among wildlife through flea bites and contact with infected tissue or fluids.

neg: Bubonic plague rose due to the demand for labor. Some historians see this as a turning point in European economic development. The term "bubonic" is derived from the Greek word βουβών, meaning "groin". The term "buboes" is also used to refer to the swollen lymph nodes. The best-known symptom of bubonic plague is one or more infected, enlarged, and painful lymph nodes, known as buboes. After being transmitted via the bite of an infected flea, the "Y. pestis" bacteria become localized in an inflamed lymph node, where they begin to colonize and reproduce. Buboes associated with the bubonic plague are commonly found

neg: Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night smallpox, botulism, anthrax, and other diseases into bombs where they were routinely dropped on Chinese combatants and non-combatants. According to the 2002 "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare", the number of people killed by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and human experiments was around 580,000. According to other sources, "tens of thousands, and perhaps as many as 400,000 Chinese died of bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax and other diseases" from the use of biological warfare. During the first few months at war with the United States following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan planned to use biological weapons

neg: Deusdedit of Canterbury in England it was probably bubonic plague. Although Bede does not describe either Eorcenberht or Deusdedit's symptoms he does discuss another victim of the 664 disease, who suffered from a tumour on his thigh, resembling the characteristic groin swellings of bubonic plague. Except for the bare facts of his life, little is known about Deusdedit. Deusdedit's successor as Archbishop of Canterbury, Wighard, had been one of his clergy. Deusdedit was regarded as a saint after his death, with a feast day of 14 July, although the Bosworth Psalter, a late 10th or early 11th-century psalter produced at , gives a

neg: Theories of the Black Death villages. It argues that while healthy black rats are rarely seen, rats suffering from bubonic plague behave differently from healthy rats; where accounts from warmer climates mention rats falling from roofs and walls and piling high in the streets, Samuel Pepys, who described trifling observations and events of the London plague of 1665 in great detail, makes no mention of sick or dead rats, nor does Absalon Pederssøn in his diary, which contains detailed descriptions of a plague epidemic in Bergen in 1565. Ultimately, Hufthammer and Walløe offer the possibility of human fleas and lice in place of rats. University

neg: Theories of the Black Death "Y. pestis" might well have been the cause of death, but since archaeologists have often specifically sought evidence of "Y. pestis", other important information is potentially neglected. While rats were present in major sea ports across Europe, the evidence for rats in rural communities in Northern Europe is scanty. The fact that the epidemiology of the Black Death and its rapid spread does not match modern bubonic plague is an indication that all possibilities should be considered, even in the case that the epidemic was caused by bubonic plague In 1984, Graham Twigg published "The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal",

neg: Plague (disease) a plug that blocks its stomach and causes it to starve. The flea then bites a host and continues to feed, even though it cannot quell its hunger, and consequently the flea vomits blood tainted with the bacteria back into the bite wound. The bubonic plague bacterium then infects a new person and the flea eventually dies from starvation. Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents, or a rise in the rodent population. Since human plague is rare in most parts of the world, routine vaccination is not needed other than for those at

neg: Takahito, Prince Mikasa was to use living Chinese POWs for bayonet practice. According to Daniel Barenblatt, Prince Mikasa and his cousin Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda received a special screening by Shirō Ishii of a film showing airplanes loading germ bombs for bubonic plague dessemination over the Chinese city of Ningbo in 1940. He also was given a film of Japanese atrocities, possibly linked to the footage used in "The Battle of China", and was so moved that he made his brother Emperor Hirohito watch the film. In 1994, a newspaper revealed that after Prince Mikasa's return to Tokyo, he had written a stinging indictment

neg: Bubonic plague from a dead plague-infected animal. In the bubonic form of plague, the bacteria enter through the skin through a flea bite and travel via the lymphatic vessels to a lymph node, causing it to swell. Diagnosis is made by finding the bacteria in the blood, sputum, or fluid from lymph nodes. Prevention is through public health measures such as not handling dead animals in areas where plague is common. Vaccines have not been found to be very useful for plague prevention. Several antibiotics are effective for treatment, including streptomycin, gentamicin, and doxycycline. Without treatment, plague results in the death of

neg: Third plague pandemic Third plague pandemic Third Pandemic is the designation of a major bubonic plague pandemic that began in Yunnan province in China in 1855. This episode of bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents, and ultimately more than 12 million people died in India and China, with 10 million people killed in India alone. According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic was considered active until 1960, when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year. The name refers to this pandemic being the third major bubonic plague outbreak to affect European society. The first was the Plague of Justinian, which ravaged

neg: Black Death in England bites carry the disease into the lymphatic system, through which it makes its way to the lymph nodes. Here the bacteria multiply and form swellings called buboes, from which the term bubonic plague is derived. After three or four days the bacteria enter the bloodstream, and infect organs such as the spleen and the lungs. The patient will then normally die after a few days. A different strain of the disease is pneumonic plague, where the bacteria become airborne and enter directly into the patient's lungs. This strain is far more virulent, as it spreads directly from person to person.

neg: Germ theory of disease covered by maggots, and the jar covered with gauze had maggots on the surface of the gauze. However, the tightly sealed jar had no maggots inside or outside it. He also noticed that the maggots were found only on surfaces that were accessible by flies. From this he concluded that spontaneous generation is not a plausible theory. Microorganisms are said to have been first directly observed in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, an early pioneer in microbiology. Yet Athanasius Kircher may have done so prior. When Rome was struck by the bubonic plague in 1656, Kircher spent days on

neg: Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda human subjects with a variety of bacterial cultures and viruses during World War II. According to Daniel Barenblatt, Takeda received, with Prince Mikasa, a special screening by Shirō Ishii of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic plague dissemination over the Chinese city of Ningbo in 1940. Moreover, historian Hal Gold has alleged in his work "Unit 731 Testimony" that Prince Takeda had a more active role as "Lieutenant Colonel Miyata" – an officer in the Strategic Section of the Operations Division. Gold reports the testimony of a veteran of the Youth Corps of this unit, who

neg: Black Death the Domesday Book and the year 1377. Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures from the clergy. In addition to arguing that the rat population was insufficient to account for a bubonic plague pandemic, sceptics of the bubonic plague theory point out that the symptoms of the Black Death are not unique (and arguably in some accounts may differ from bubonic plague); that transference via fleas in goods was likely to be of marginal significance; and that the DNA results may be flawed and might not have been repeated elsewhere or were not replicable at all, despite extensive

neg: 1924 Los Angeles pneumonic plague outbreak physician called to the house misdiagnosed the daughter with 'lobar pneumonia' which found out to be secondary plague pneumonia. The physician also misdiagnosed Lujan's bubonic plague as a venereal disease due to his enlarged lymph node. Even the City health officers' confirmation of the disease as pneumonia plague, the disease was referred as "strange malady," "pneumonia," "virulent pneumonia," or "malignant pneumonia" until November 6. Investigators believed that Jesús Lujan initially contracted the bubonic form of plague. Left untreated, bubonic plague can move to the lungs and cause a secondary pneumonic infection. As Lujan's end-stage symptoms included bloody sputum, it's believed

neg: Justinian I both Europe and the Middle East. The causes of these disasters aren't precisely known, but volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, in Iceland are suspected, Seven years later, in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to that of the 14th century, laid siege to the world, killing tens of millions. As ruler of the Empire, Justinian, and members of his court, were physically unaffected by famine. However, the Imperial Court did prove susceptible to plague, with Justinian himself contracting, but surviving, the

neg: Theories of the Black Death questions. Several possible causes have been advanced for the Black Death; the most prevalent is the bubonic plague theory. Efficient transmission of "Yersinia pestis" is generally thought to occur only through the bites of fleas whose mid guts become obstructed by replicating "Y. pestis" several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage results in starvation and aggressive feeding behaviour by fleas that repeatedly attempt to clear their blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host. However, modelling of epizootic plague observed in prairie dogs, suggests that occasional reservoirs

neg: Black Death Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that "it would appear to be some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague". He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the Justinian plague that was prevalent in the Eastern Roman Empire from 541 to 700 CE. An estimate of the mortality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of

neg: History of Chinese Americans in San Francisco late 19th century it was the period of major epidemic of diseases in San Francisco, such as the bubonic plague, smallpox, and cholera. These diseases were commonly found in the poor, and working classes (at this time most Chinese were part of these category), due to the over-populated areas in San Francisco Chinatown. The disease spreading during this time, were not spread due to the "germ theory", but because of the "miasma theory", which was known as spreading disease due to "breathing sick air". Therefore, majority of the citizens in San Francisco believed that this theory was relevant in Chinatown

neg: Bubonic plague west into Greece and Italy. Because the infectious disease spread inland by the transferring of merchandise through Justinian’s efforts in acquiring luxurious goods of the time and exporting supplies, his capital became the leading exporter of the bubonic plague. Procopius, in his work "Secret History", declared that Justinian was a demon of an emperor who either created the plague himself or was being punished for his sinfulness. In the Late Middle Ages (1340–1400) Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history when the Black Death, the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague, hit in 1347, killing a third of the

neg: Yersinia pestis Yersinia pestis Yersinia pestis (formerly "Pasteurella pestis") is a gram-negative, nonmotile, rod-shaped coccobacillus, with no spores. It is a facultative anaerobic organism that can infect humans via the oriental rat flea. It causes the disease plague, which takes three main forms: pneumonic, septicemic, and bubonic plagues. All three forms were responsible for a number of high-mortality epidemics throughout human history, including: the sixth century's Plague of Justinian; the Black Death, which accounted for the death of at least one-third of the European population between 1347 and 1353; and the Third Pandemic, sometimes referred to as the Modern Plague, which began

neg: PRDM1 stem cells. Blimp1 (also known as Prdm1), a known transcriptional repressor, has a critical role in the foundation of the mouse germ cell lineage, as its disruption causes a block early in the process of primordial germ cell formation. Blimp1-deficient mutant embryos form a tight cluster of about 20 primordial germ cell-like cells, which fail to show the characteristic migration, proliferation and consistent repression of homeobox genes that normally accompany specification of primordial germ cells. The genetic lineage-tracing experiments indicate that the Blimp1-positive cells originating from the proximal posterior epiblast cells are indeed the lineage-restricted primordial germ cell precursors. A

neg: Plague of Justinian have been found in skeletons dating to 3000–800 BC, across West and East Eurasia. The strain of "Yersinia pestis" responsible for the Black Death, the devastating pandemic of bubonic plague, does not appear to be a direct descendant of the Justinian plague strain. However, the spread of Justinian plague may have caused the evolutionary radiation that gave rise to the extant 0ANT.1 clade of strains. The Plague of Justinian is generally regarded as the first historically recorded epidemic of "Yersinia pestis". This conclusion is based on historical descriptions of the clinical manifestations of the disease and the detection of "Y.

neg: 21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks most commonly transmitted through infected fleas. There are three types of plague: bubonic, pneumonic and septicemic. Bubonic plague is the most well-known type. This type of plague results in swollen lymph nodes that are called buboes. This type of plague is treatable with antibiotics, but if not treated effectively, the infection can spread to different parts of the body. Pneumonic plague occurs when plague infects the lungs and is transmissible person to person through infected droplets. This form of plague is very deadly. Septicemic plague occurs when plague enters the blood. Skin and tissues turn black and die, and bleeding

neg: Cairo accounts in Cairo involves a plague that was devastating the city. Today, this plague is known as the Bubonic Plague, or the Black Death. It is believed to have arrived in Egypt in 1347, and as Ibn Battuta recalls, the Bubonic plague was responsible for the deaths of between 1 and 20,000 people a day in Cairo (Berkeley ORIAS, 2018) (Ibn Battuta, 2009). The plague originated in Asia and spread via flees on rodents, such as rats (Berkeley ORIAS, 2018). The plague would end up spreading to all of Eurasia and wiped out any civilizations that were in its path.

neg: Japanese war crimes 3,000 deaths. Furthermore, according to the 2002 "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare", the number of people killed by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and human experiments is around 580,000. According to other sources, "tens of thousands, and perhaps as many as 400,000, Chinese died of bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax and other diseases", resulting from the use of biological warfare. Top officers of Unit 731 were not prosecuted for war crimes after the war, in exchange for turning over the results of their research to the Allies. They were also reportedly given responsible positions in Japan's pharmaceutical

neg: Pneumonic plague infection is in the lungs, in bubonic plague the lymph nodes, and in septicemic plague within the blood. Diagnosis is by testing the blood, sputum, or fluid from a lymph node. While vaccines are being worked on, in most countries they are not yet commercially available. Prevention is generally by avoiding contact with rodents. It is recommended that those infected be isolated from others. Treatment of pneumonic plague is with antibiotics. Plague is present among rodents in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Pneumonic plague is more serious and less common than bubonic plague. The total reported number of all types

neg: Belladonna of Sadness refuses to open the door for her and she flees into the forest nearby where she finally makes a pact with the spirit, who reveals himself to be the Devil. She is granted considerable magical powers, and returns to find the village has been infected with the bubonic plague. Jeanne uses her powers to create a cure for the disease and wins the villagers' favor with her magic, presiding over orgiastic rites among the villagers. A page, who is in love with the baron's wife, begs Jeanne to help him seduce her. She gives him a potion that causes the

neg: Luqa live in Ħal Luqa. He constructed various kinds of clocks, the clock in the belfry of the Parish Church being one of his many works. The house in Ħal Luqa where he used to live is located on Pawlu Magri Street. Luqa was established as a separate Parish from that of Gudja on 15 May 1634 by a decree issued by Pope Urban VIII. In 1592 the village of Luqa was hit by Bubonic plague, which at that time hit all the population of Malta and caused many deaths. A sign of this sad episode is the cemetery found in

neg: British Raj between 1817 and 1860 exceeded 15 million. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917. The Third Pandemic of plague started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading disease to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, became the first microbiologist to develop and deploy vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. In 1925 the Plague Laboratory in Bombay was renamed the Haffkine Institute. Fevers ranked as one of the leading causes of death in India in the 19th century. Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the

neg: Andreas Vesalius of the earliest known public health programs. The Council of Doges in Venice responded to the Bubonic Plague in the mid-14th century by directing the University of Padua Medical School to devote itself to discovering the causes of plague, how it spreads, how it develops in the individual, and if possible how victims might be cured. It ultimately took three centuries to find the solution, but with Venice leading the way plague was eventually eliminated as a major killer across Europe. Andreas Vesalius Andreas Vesalius (; 31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564) was a 16th-century Flemish anatomist, physician, and

neg: Pneumonic plague in Gansu. In August 2010, Peru's health minister Oscar Ugarte announced that an outbreak of plague had killed a 14-year-old boy and had infected at least 31 people in a northern coastal province. The boy died of bubonic plague on 26 July 2010. Ugarte stated that authorities were screening sugar and fish meal exports from Ascope Province, located about 325 miles (520 km) northwest of Lima, not far from popular Chicama beach. Most of the infections in Peru were bubonic plague, with four cases of pneumonic plague. The first recorded plague outbreak in Peru was in 1903. The last, in

neg: Flea group: for example, the Malacopsyllidae are found only on armadillos, the Ischnopsyllidae only on bats, and the Chimaeropsyllidae only on elephant shrews. The oriental rat flea, "Xenopsylla cheopis", is a vector of "Yersinia pestis", the bacterium which causes bubonic plague. The disease was spread by rodents such as the black rat, which were bitten by fleas that then infected humans. Major outbreaks included the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death, both of which killed a sizeable fraction of the world's population. Fleas appear in human culture in such diverse forms as flea circuses, poems like John Donne's erotic "The

neg: Great Plague of Seville due to these plagues throughout Spain, throughout the entire 17th century, to be a minimum of nearly 1.25 million. As a result, the population of Spain scarcely budged between the years 1596 and 1696. The disease is generally believed to have been bubonic plague, an infection by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis", transmitted via a rat vector. Other symptom patterns of the bubonic plague, such as septicemic plague and pneumonic plague were also present. Great Plague of Seville The Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) was a massive outbreak of the disease in Spain that killed up to a quarter of Seville's

neg: Biopolitics specific developments in public health legislation aided the French. Furthermore, thanks to the germ theory of disease pioneered by Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, the etiology of some of the most deadly diseases—cholera and typhoid—began to be understood in the 1890s, and the French used this new scientific knowledge in the tropics of West Africa. Illnesses like bubonic plague were isolated, and vectors of malaria and yellow fever were identified for the political purpose of public health. They passed public health laws to introduce up-to-date health standards. The goal was for African subjects to respond in exactly the same way

neg: Unit 731 also tied to stakes and used as targets to test germ-releasing bombs, chemical weapons, and explosive bombs. In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the length of time until death; placed into high-pressure chambers until death; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; placed into centrifuges and spun until death; injected with animal blood; exposed to lethal doses of x-rays; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with sea water; and burned or buried alive. Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with bubonic plague, cholera, smallpox, botulism, and

neg: Black Death from the 14th century found in London have shown the plague is a strain of "Y. pestis" that is almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013. The plague theory was first significantly challenged by the work of British bacteriologist J. F. D. Shrewsbury in 1970, who noted that the reported rates of mortality in rural areas during the 14th-century pandemic were inconsistent with the modern bubonic plague, leading him to conclude that contemporary accounts were exaggerations. In 1984, zoologist Graham Twigg produced the first major work to challenge the bubonic plague theory directly, and his doubts about the

neg: Bubonic plague diagnose and confirm plague. Ideally, confirmation is through the identification of "Y. pestis" culture from a patient sample. Confirmation of infection can be done by examining serum taken during the early and late stages of infection. To quickly screen for the "Y. pestis" antigen in patients, rapid dipstick tests have been developed for field use. Samples taken for testing include: Several classes of antibiotics are effective in treating bubonic plague. These include aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and gentamicin, tetracyclines (especially doxycycline), and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin. Mortality associated with treated cases of bubonic plague is about 1–15%, compared to a mortality

neg: Pneumonic plague Pneumonic plague Pneumonic plague is a severe lung infection caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis". Symptoms include fever, headache, shortness of breath, chest pain, and cough. They typically start about three to seven days after exposure. It is one of three forms of plague, the other two being septicemic plague and bubonic plague. The pneumonic form may occur following an initial bubonic or septicemic plague infection. It may also result from breathing in airborne droplets from another person or cat infected with pneumonic plague. The difference between the forms of plague is the location of infection; in pneumonic plague the

neg: Nude mouse mice is normally 6 months to a year. In controlled, germ free environments and with antibiotic treatments found in many laboratories that routinely use nude mice, they can live almost as long as normal mice (18 months to two years). Nude mouse A nude mouse is a laboratory mouse from a strain with a genetic mutation that causes a deteriorated or absent thymus, resulting in an inhibited immune system due to a greatly reduced number of T cells. The phenotype (main outward appearance) of the mouse is a lack of body hair, which gives it the "nude" nickname. The nude

neg: 21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks 21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks Madagascar has experienced two outbreaks of bubonic and pneumonic plague in the 21st century. In 2014, 40 died, and in 2017, 221 died. An outbreak of plague in Madagascar in 2014 started on 31 August. On that day the first case, a man from Soamahamanina village in Tsiroanomandidy, was identified. The patient died on 3 September. The outbreak is in the form of bubonic and pneumonic plague. By 16 November 2014, a total of 119 cases had been confirmed, including 40 deaths. Two percent of reported cases were of the pneumonic form. By 21 November,

neg: San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 month of March and the beginning of April. Towards the end of April, the corpse of Law An, a Chinese laborer from a village near the Sacramento River, was found in an alley in Chinatown. The cause of death of Law An was determined to be bubonic plague. After that, a few more Chinese residents that died suddenly were determined to be infested with plague bacilli. The fear that the bubonic plague was spreading intensified. The controversy of the vaccination program organized by Kinyoun with the help of Surgeon General Wyman spiked. The plan was to inoculated the Chinese residents

neg: Theories of the Black Death where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of "Rattus rattus", "Rattus norvegicus", and the common fleas "Xenopsylla cheopis" and "Pulex irritans" with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the "R. rattus" is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for "Yersinia pestis" to have been the causative agent of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across Europe.

neg: House mouse during pregnancy. House mice are not usually a vector of human plague (bubonic plague) because they have fewer infestations with fleas than do rats, and because the fleas which house mice normally carry exhibit little tendency to bite humans rather than their natural host. Rickettsialpox, caused by the bacterium "Rickettsia akari" and similar to chickenpox, is spread by mice in general, but is very rare and generally mild and resolves within 2–3 weeks if untreated. No known deaths have resulted from the disease. Murine typhus (also called endemic typhus) is caused by the bacterium" Rickettsia typhi", and is transmitted by

neg: Great Plague of London Great Plague of London The Great Plague, lasting from 1665–1666, was the last major epidemic of the bubonic plague to occur in England. It happened within the centuries-long time period of the Second Pandemic, an extended period of intermittent bubonic plague epidemics which began in China in 1331, the first year of the Black Death, an outbreak which included other forms such as pneumonic plague, and lasted until 1750. The Great Plague killed an estimated 100,000 people—almost a quarter of London's population—in 18 months. The plague was caused by the "Yersinia pestis" bacterium, which is usually transmitted through the bite

neg: Black Death samples from other mass graves. Other arguments include the lack of accounts of the death of rats before outbreaks of plague between the 14th and 17th centuries; temperatures that are too cold in northern Europe for the survival of fleas; that, despite primitive transport systems, the spread of the Black Death was much faster than that of modern bubonic plague; that mortality rates of the Black Death appear to be very high; that, while modern bubonic plague is largely endemic as a rural disease, the Black Death indiscriminately struck urban and rural areas; and that the pattern of the Black

neg: San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 of the passengers showed no signs of disease. Health officials conducted no tests on rats or fleas. Despite important advances in the 1890s in the fight against bubonic plague, many of the world's doctors did not immediately change their ineffective and outdated methods. In November 1898, the US Marine Hospital Service (MHS) chief surgeon, James M. Gassaway, felt obliged to refute rumors of plague in San Francisco. Supported by the city's health officer, Gassaway that some Chinese residents had died of pneumonia or lung edema, and it was not bubonic plague. In the newly formed US Territory of Hawaii, the

neg: Mary West Niles trained and accommodated Dr. Mary Hannah Fulton on her arrival to the Canton Hospital in 1884. Dr. Mary Niles, by working hand in hand with Dr. Kerr and other American doctors, played significant role in the campaign against the Bubonic plague in 1894 by being the first to identify the outbreak of the plague and speculated about its causes. The female patients were appreciated the advantage of having a physician of their own sex to whom they could state their problems. This was highly important for the hospital because many uneducated Chinese women choose to endure the suffering rather than

neg: Bubonic plague in the armpits, upper femoral, groin and neck region. Acral gangrene (i.e., of the fingers, toes, lips and nose) is another common symptom. Because of its bite-based mode of transmission, the bubonic plague is often the first of a progressive series of illnesses. Bubonic plague symptoms appear suddenly a few days after exposure to the bacterium. Symptoms include: Other symptoms include heavy breathing, continuous vomiting of blood (hematemesis), aching limbs, coughing, and extreme pain caused by the decay or decomposition of the skin while the person is still alive. Additional symptoms include extreme fatigue, gastrointestinal problems, lenticulae (black dots scattered

neg: 1629–31 Italian plague 1629–31 Italian plague The Italian Plague of 1629–31 was a series of outbreaks of bubonic plague which ravaged northern and central Italy. This epidemic, often referred to as the Great Plague of Milan, claimed possibly one million lives, or about 25% of the population. This episode is considered one of the later outbreaks of the centuries-long pandemic of bubonic plague which began with the Black Death. German and French troops carried the plague to the city of Mantua in 1629, as a result of troop movements associated with the Thirty Years' War (1618–48). Venetian troops, infected with the disease, retreated

neg: Septicemic plague it occasionally happens that bubonic plague for example leads to infection of the blood, and septicemic plague results. If the bacteria happen to enter the bloodstream rather than the lymph or lungs, they multiply in the blood, causing bacteremia and severe sepsis. In septicemic plague, bacterial endotoxins cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), where tiny blood clots form throughout the body, commonly resulting in localised ischemic necrosis, tissue death from lack of circulation and perfusion. DIC results in depletion of the body's clotting resources, so that it can no longer control bleeding. Consequently, the unclotted blood bleeds into the skin and

neg: Bubonic plague to escape the Black Death. First-person, sometimes sensationalized or fictionalized, accounts of living through plague years have also been popular across centuries and cultures. Later works, such as Albert Camus's novel "The Plague" or Ingmar Bergman's film "The Seventh Seal" have used bubonic plague in settings, such quarantined cities in either medieval or modern times, as a backdrop to explore a variety of concepts. Common themes include the breakdown of society, institutions, and individuals during the plague, the cultural and psychological existential confrontation with mortality, and the allegorical use of the plague in reference to contemporary moral or spiritual questions.

neg: Globalization and disease culture and behavior from North to South. It is important to target and reduce the spread of infectious diseases in developing countries. However, addressing the risk factors of non-comunicable diseases and lifestyle risks in the South that cause disease, such as use or consumption of tobacco, alcohol, and unhealthy foods, is important as well. Bubonic plague is a variant of the deadly flea-borne disease plague, which is caused by the enterobacteria "Yersinia pestis", that devastated human populations beginning in the 14th century. Bubonic plague is primarily spread by fleas that lived on the black rat, an animal that originated in

neg: Yersiniabactin iron, yersiniabactin can solubilize the metal bound to host binding proteins and transport it back to the bacteria. The complex yersiniabactin-Fe recognizes the specific bacterial outer membrane TonB-dependent receptor, FyuA (Psn), and is translocated with the help of membrane-embedded proteins into the cytosol where the iron is discharged from yersiniabactin and used in various metabolic pathways. In the absence of a high-affinity iron-chelating compound, pathogenic "Yersinia", responsible for such lethal disease as the bubonic plague, only causes local symptoms of moderate intensity. The availability of iron, through an intrinsic high-affinity iron-chelating system such as Ybt, provides the bacteria with the

neg: Epidemiology of plague to poor laboratory procedures. Yet several lines of evidence strongly suggest that it was a plague epidemic: blood tests for Yersinia were positive, a number of individuals showed antibodies against Yersinia and the clinical symptoms displayed by the affected were all consistent with the disease being plague. The Plague of Justinian in AD 541–542 is the first known attack on record, and marks the first firmly recorded pattern of bubonic plague. This disease is thought to have originated in China. It then spread to Africa from where the huge city of Constantinople imported massive amounts of grain, mostly from Egypt,

neg: Istro-Romanian language of foreign rulers of this region. He believes that the Istro-Romanians are the descendants of the "melting pot" of the Roman legionnaires (moved by Augustus to eastern Istria to colonize the borders of Italy) and the Aromanian shepherds who escaped from the Ottoman invasions to settle in a plague-depopulated Istria in the 14th century. However, he does not relate to the fact that Istro-Romanian is linguistically closer to Daco-Romanian than to Aromanian (also called Macedo-Romanian). A. Kovačec (1998) hypothesizes that the Istro-Romanians migrated to their present region about 600 years ago from Romania, after the Bubonic plague depopulated Istria. This

neg: Destruction under the Mongol Empire Other historians like William McNeill and David Morgan argue that the Bubonic Plague, spread by the Mongols, was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. The plague also spread into areas of Western Europe and Africa that the Mongols never reached, most likely carried by individuals fleeing invasion. The Mongols practised biological warfare by catapulting diseased cadavers into the cities they besieged. It is believed that fleas remaining on the bodies of the cadavers may have acted as vectors to spread the bubonic plague. About half the population of Kievan Rus' may have died during the Mongol

neg: History of Stanford Medicine stand. In 1896 Cooper Medical College student Theodore Durrant was convicted in a murder trial that garnered national press coverage. In 1900 Bubonic plague arrived in San Francisco by ship, starting the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904. California Governor Henry Gage issued a proclamation denying that bubonic plague exists in San Francisco, which was signed by Lane. In 1902 Lane died, and Charles N. Ellinwood was selected to replace him as the new president of Cooper Medical College. However, in 1907 Ellinwood was removed from the presidency following a financial management controversy. In 1906 David Starr Jordan, president of Stanford

neg: Bubonic plague fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood, which is now infected, into the bite site of a rodent or human host. Once established, bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply. "Y. pestis" bacilli can resist phagocytosis and even reproduce inside phagocytes and kill them. As the disease progresses, the lymph nodes can haemorrhage and become swollen and necrotic. Bubonic plague can progress to lethal septicemic plague in some cases. The plague is also known to spread to the lungs and become the disease known as the pneumonic plague. Laboratory testing is required in order to

neg: Convento de Santa Clara la Real, Toledo interior of the city of Toledo, is referred to another of the minor friars located outside its walls: "et uni quos est extra muris, quod est Ordinis Minorum", which shows according to the historian that in 1248 the Poor Clares were already established in the Valley of Santa Susana, where they lived: In 1345, during the last period of the reign of Alfonso XI of Castile, that died by the bubonic plague while beleaguering Gibraltar in 1350, a new Ordinances for the city of Toledo were drafted in which were forbidden for anyone to live outside its walls, but Pérez

neg: Black Death bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of the plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms. In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which

neg: John Woodall live mainly on the continent in Holland, until 1603 when he took up residence in Wood Street, London. He was able to offer treatment to victims of the plague epidemic. At unspecified times in his life he contracted bubonic plague and survived, writing of this, ""...for I had it twice, namely at two severall Plague times in my Groyne."" In 1604 James I of England sent an embassy, led by Sir Thomas Smith, Governor of the East India Company, to Poland and possibly to Russia. Woodall was included for his knowledge of the region and command of the languages. The

neg: Georges Girard Madagascar, Girard conducted studies of typhoid, tuberculosis, leprosy and especially bubonic plague. Beginning in 1898 there had been sporadic outbreaks of the plague in the country, and none of the previously developed vaccines were strong or durable enough to handle the disease. In the 1930s, Girard and his assistant, developed an anti-plague vaccine known as the "EV strain". The EV strain had excellent results against the plague, and inoculation was carried out by Colonial Army medical officers and auxiliary Malagasy physicians. For decades afterwards this strain has been used worldwide to combat bubonic plague. In 1941 he succeeded Edouard Dujardin-Beaumetz

neg: Marie-Angélique Memmie Le Blanc arrived [by ship] in Marseille during the bubonic plague epidemic in Provence in 1720. Having escaped the plague that should have killed her, Marie-Angélique walked thousands of kilometers through the forests of the kingdom of France before being captured in 1731 in the province of Champagne in a state of savagery. During these ten years, she did not live with wolves, but survived them by resisting their attacks with a wooden club and another weapon [a long stick with a sharp metal tip] that she either found or stole. When she was captured, this black-skinned, hairy and clawed huntress was

neg: Government of San Francisco Health and Safety Branch, Community Health Promotion and Prevention Branch, and the Community Health Services Branch. In the 1890s San Francisco received heavy ship traffic from Asian cities that were currently dealing with the bubonic plague. In 1889, a ship from Hong Kong was found to have two cases of bubonic plague on board.The bodies washed up on the bay later, but no immediate outbreak occurred at this initial finding. In 1900 a city health officer autopsied a Chinese man and found evidence of the plague. With anti-Chinese feelings already running rampant throughout the city, the Department of Public Health

neg: Paul-Louis Simond Pfeiffer. In 1897, when Alexandre Yersin was transferred by the Pasteur Institute to a post in Vietnam, his position in Bombay was filled by Simond, who was to test the efficacy of an experimental antiserum against the outbreak of plague in that city. The following year, Simond was in Karachi where, despite limited resources, he was able to demonstrate that fleas transmit the bacterium Yersinia pestis, the agent causing bubonic plague, from rat to rat, and from rat to human. His ingenious experiments are described in his report to the Pasteur Institute on the spread of plague ("La propagation de

neg: Plague (disease) Plague (disease) Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis". Symptoms include fever, weakness and headache. Usually this begins one to seven days after exposure. In the bubonic form there is also swelling of lymph nodes, while in the septicemic form tissues may turn black and die, and in the pneumonic form shortness of breath, cough and chest pain may occur. Bubonic and septicemic plague is generally spread by flea bites or handling an infected animal. The pneumonitic form is generally spread between people through the air via infectious droplets. Diagnosis is typically by finding the bacterium

neg: Agnes Miegel themes like man's course of life, nature, life in the countryside, the relationship with God and the past (especially the German past). A minority of these poems and stories were set in East Prussia, and these became her most popular works. Her most famous early poem was "Die Frauen von Nidden" ("The Women of Nidden", 1907), in which the village of Nidden (present-day Nida in Lithuania) falls victim to a bubonic plague epidemic. The seven women who survive the plague let themselves be buried alive by the drifting sand dunes near the village. During the Third Reich National Socialist themes

neg: Bubonic plague Some of the earliest instances of biological warfare were said to have been products of the plague, as armies of the 14th century were recorded catapulting diseased corpses over the walls of towns and villages to spread the pestilence. Later, plague was used during the Second Sino-Japanese War as a bacteriological weapon by the Imperial Japanese Army. These weapons were provided by Shirō Ishii's units and used in experiments on humans before being used on the field. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague. During the Khabarovsk War Crime

neg: Plague doctor Plague doctor A plague doctor was a medical physician who treated victims of the bubonic plague. In times of epidemics, such physicians were specifically hired by towns where the plague had taken hold. Since the city was paying their salary, they treated everyone: both the wealthy and the poor. However, some plague doctors were known to charge patients and their families additional fees for special treatments and/or false cures. Typically they were not professionally trained nor experienced physicians or surgeons, but rather they were often either second-rate doctors unable to otherwise run a successful medical practice or young physicians seeking

neg: Fulminant in a few hours. It was said of the "black death" (pneumonic bubonic plague) that some of its victims would die in a matter of hours after the initial symptoms appeared. Other pathologic conditions that may be fulminating in character are acute respiratory distress syndrome, asthma, acute anaphylaxis, septic shock, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. The most rapid deaths are those provoked by massive body trauma, such as explosion injuries, airplane crashes, falling from a significant height, or industrial machinery incidents. Other examples include "Commotio cordis", a sudden cardiac arrest caused by a blunt, non-penetrating trauma to the precordium, which causes

neg: Bubonic plague of 40–60% in untreated cases. People potentially infected with the plague need immediate treatment and should be given antibiotics within 24 hours of the first symptoms to prevent death. Other treatments include oxygen, intravenous fluids, and respiratory support. People who have had contact with anyone infected by pneumonic plague are given prophylactic antibiotics. Using the broad-based antibiotic streptomycin has proven to be dramatically successful against the bubonic plague within 12 hours of infection. "Yersinia pestis" was discovered in archaeological finds from the Late Bronze Age (~3800 BP). The first recorded epidemic affected the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and was

neg: Germ theory of disease a recurrence of the disease if the patients didn't follow a physician's therapeutic regimen. During the Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville (ca. 560 – 636) mentioned "plague-bearing seeds" ("pestifera semina") in his "On the Nature of Things" (ca. AD 613). Later in 1345, Tommaso del Garbo (ca. 1305–1370) of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galen's "seeds of plague" in his work "Commentaria non parum utilia in libros Galeni" (Helpful commentaries on the books of Galen). The Italian scholar and physician Girolamo Fracastoro proposed in 1546 in his book "De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis" that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seed-like entities

neg: Plague pit Plague pit A plague pit is the informal term used to refer to mass graves in which victims of the Black Death were buried. The term is most often used to describe pits located in Great Britain, but can be applied to any place where bubonic plague victims were buried. The plague which swept across China, Middle East, and Europe in the 14th century is estimated to have killed between one-third and two-thirds of Europe's population. Disposal of the bodies of those who died presented huge problems for the authorities, and eventually the normal patterns of burial and funerary observance

neg: Caragea's plague Caragea's plague Caragea's plague or Caradja's plague () was a bubonic plague epidemic that occurred in Wallachia, mainly in Bucharest, in the years 1813 and 1814. It coincided with the rule of the Phanariote Prince John Caradja. As Caradja came to Bucharest in 1812 after being appointed prince, the plague was already claiming victims in Istanbul, the Ottoman capital. A man in Caradja's retinue grew sick and died. It is alleged that this was the source of the plague in Wallachia, although the next reported death from plague in Wallachia occurred in June 1813. The plague was expected and in

neg: Plague of Emmaus the death of many prominent companions of Muhammad. It is estimated that 25,000 people died in this outbreak, which is considered part of the outbreaks of plague in the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries that followed the major pandemic of the 6th century, the Plague of Justinian. Plague of Emmaus The Plague of Emmaus (, "ṭāwiʿna ʻimwas" transliterated), also known as the Plague of Amwas, was an outbreak of plague, possibly bubonic plague, that occurred in 639 in the town of Emmaus (Amwas) in Judea (at the time under the Bilad al-Sham within the Rashidun Caliphate). The town had been

neg: Oguntola Sapara Health. Sapara returned to the Lagos colony. In January 1896 he was appointed an Assistant Colonial Surgeon. He served continuously in different stations for the next thirty-two years. Sapara made many contributions to improving public health. He fought for slum clearance, organised a society for scientifically training midwives, organised the first public dispensary in 1901, and identified causes of an epidemic of tuberculosis in 1918, which included overcrowding, poor ventilation and public ignorance about hygiene. He was Chairman of the Health Week Committee, leading the successful fight against bubonic plague, which struck Lagos in 1924. In Nigeria at that time,

neg: Bid‘ah died of plague and who did not was explained as simply the will of God based on al-Bukhari's al-Sahih hadith, but studying the progress of the Black Death (bubonic plague) in the 14th century, scholar Ibn al-Khatib noted those who died had the plague transmitted to them from "garments, vessels, ear-rings; ... persons ... by infection of a healthy sea-port by an arrival from an infected land" where as isolated individuals were immune. In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun defends the science of medicine from suggestions that it is an innovation going against the Sunna. "The medicine mentioned in religious tradition

neg: History of Western civilization VI, gave rise to the Western Schism — which saw another line of Avignon Popes set up as rivals to Rome (subsequent Catholic history does not grant them legitimacy). The period helped weaken the prestige of the Papacy in the buildup to the Protestant Reformation. In the Later Middle Ages the Black Plague struck Europe, arriving in 1348. Europe was overwhelmed by the outbreak of bubonic plague, probably brought to Europe by the Mongols. The fleas hosted by rats carried the disease and it devastated Europe. Major cities like Paris, Hamburg, Venice and Florence lost half their population. Around 20

neg: Plague! The Musical the Rat King promises that the business will prosper. Clive is swayed and delivers the exhumed remains to the sewer. Unbeknownst to Clive, however, Elman Squatcherd was the last known victim of the Black Death and the Rat King actually uses the remains to infect London with the deadly bubonic plague ("It's Bubonic")! His henchmen also steal the Elixir of life to ensure that salvation is impossible. The Londoners quickly assemble at the town hall looking for leadership but, without a cure, the devious Lord Mayor can only appease the mob with a scapegoat – the Alchemist - ("Someone to

neg: Caragea's plague another cholera epidemic), the population of Bucharest was about 60,000 people. Caragea's plague Caragea's plague or Caradja's plague () was a bubonic plague epidemic that occurred in Wallachia, mainly in Bucharest, in the years 1813 and 1814. It coincided with the rule of the Phanariote Prince John Caradja. As Caradja came to Bucharest in 1812 after being appointed prince, the plague was already claiming victims in Istanbul, the Ottoman capital. A man in Caradja's retinue grew sick and died. It is alleged that this was the source of the plague in Wallachia, although the next reported death from plague in

neg: Bubonic plague the United States had 1,036 human plague cases with an average of 9 cases per year. In 2015, 16 people in the Western United States developed plague, including 2 cases in Yosemite National Park. These US cases usually occur in rural northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, California, southern Oregon, and far western Nevada. In November 2017, the Madagascar Ministry of Health reported an outbreak to WHO (World Health Organization) with more cases and deaths than any recent outbreak in the country. Unusually most of the cases were pneumonic rather than bubonic. In June 2018, a child was confirmed

neg: Bubonic plague to be the first person in Idaho to be infected by bubonic plague in nearly 30 years. The scale of death and social upheaval associated with plague outbreaks has made the topic prominent in a number of historical and fictional accounts since the disease was first recognized. The Black Death in particular is described and referenced in numerous contemporary sources, some of which, including works by Chaucer, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, are considered part of the Western canon. The Decameron, by Boccaccio, is notable for its use of a frame story involving individuals who have fled Florence for a secluded villa

neg: Bubonic plague throughout the body), delirium, and coma. Bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea, "Xenopsylla cheopis" (the rat flea). In very rare circumstances, as in the septicemic plague, the disease can be transmitted by direct contact with infected tissue or exposure to the cough of another human. The flea is parasitic on house and field rats, and seeks out other prey when its rodent hosts die. The bacteria remain harmless to the flea, allowing the new host to spread the bacteria. The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected