query: where is the medulla located in the kidney

pos: Renal medulla Renal medulla The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. The renal medulla is split up into a number of sections, known as the renal pyramids. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits up to form the interlobar arteries. The interlobar arteries each in turn branch into arcuate arteries, which in turn branch to form interlobular arteries, and these finally reach the glomeruli. At the glomerulus the blood reaches a highly disfavourable pressure gradient and a large exchange surface area, which forces the serum portion of the blood out of the vessel and

pos: Renal medulla oxygen tension and more importantly, a critical sensitivity to hypotension, hypoxia, and blood flow. The renal medulla extracts oxygen at a ratio of ~80% making it exquisitely sensitive to small changes in renal blood flow. The mechanisms of many perioperative renal insults are based on the disruption of adequate blood flow (and therefore oxygen delivery) to the renal medulla. Renal medulla The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. The renal medulla is split up into a number of sections, known as the renal pyramids. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits up

pos: Renal medulla Renal medulla The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. The renal medulla is split up into a number of sections, known as the renal pyramids. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits up to form the interlobar arteries. The interlobar arteries each in turn branch into arcuate arteries, which in turn branch to form interlobular arteries, and these finally reach the glomeruli. At the glomerulus the blood reaches a highly disfavourable pressure gradient and a large exchange surface area, which forces the serum portion of the blood out of the vessel and

pos: Adrenal medulla compensation by the autonomous nervous system, except in episodes of hypoglycemia where glycogenolysis cannot be stimulated by circulating epinephrine . In dopamine beta hydroxylase deficiency, the entire body cannot efficiently produce epinephrine and norepinephrine from dopamine, this results in severe dysautonomia but most crucially due to autonomous nervous system failure which requires epinephrine and norepinephrine as neurotransmitters, dopamine being used in this pathology as an inadequate substitute. Adrenal medulla The adrenal medulla () is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It is the innermost part of

pos: Adrenal medulla Adrenal medulla The adrenal medulla () is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It is the innermost part of the adrenal gland, consisting of cells that secrete epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and a small amount of dopamine in response to stimulation by sympathetic preganglionic neurons. The adrenal medulla consists of irregularly shaped cells grouped around blood vessels. These cells are intimately connected with the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). In fact, these adrenal medullary cells are modified postganglionic neurons, and preganglionic autonomic nerve

neg: Kidney renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid. Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns. Nephrons, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle, which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct. The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into

neg: Kidd antigen system red blood cells approach the renal medulla (where there is a high concentration of urea), the urea transporter allows for rapid uptake of urea and prevents cell shrinkage in the hypertonic environment of the medulla. As the red cell leaves the medulla, the urea is transported back out of the cell, preventing cellular swelling and preventing the urea from being carried away from the kidney. HUT11 was detected on endothelial cells of the vasa recta (vascular supply of the renal medulla) but it is not present in renal tubules. Due to absence of the urea transporter, Jk(a-b-) cells are not

neg: Straight arterioles of kidney same name: Straight arterioles of kidney In the blood supply of the kidney, the straight arterioles of kidney (or vasa recta renis) are a series of straight capillaries in the medulla (Latin: "vasa", "vessels"; "recta", "straight"). They lie parallel to the loop of Henle. These vessels branch off the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons (those nephrons closest to the medulla), enter the medulla, and surround the loop of Henle. The straight arterioles are peritubular capillaries, specifically those that surround the loop of Henle. On a histological slide, the straight arterioles can be distinguished from the tubules of the loop of

neg: Straight arterioles of kidney Straight arterioles of kidney In the blood supply of the kidney, the straight arterioles of kidney (or vasa recta renis) are a series of straight capillaries in the medulla (Latin: "vasa", "vessels"; "recta", "straight"). They lie parallel to the loop of Henle. These vessels branch off the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons (those nephrons closest to the medulla), enter the medulla, and surround the loop of Henle. The straight arterioles are peritubular capillaries, specifically those that surround the loop of Henle. On a histological slide, the straight arterioles can be distinguished from the tubules of the loop of Henle by

neg: Renal medulla into the renal tubules. Flow continues through the renal tubules, including the proximal tubule, the Loop of Henle, through the distal tubule and finally leaves the kidney by means of the collecting duct, leading to the renal pelvis, the dilated portion of the ureter. The renal medulla (Latin renes medulla = kidney middle) contains the structures of the nephrons responsible for maintaining the salt and water balance of the blood. These structures include the vasa rectae (both spuria and vera), the venulae rectae, the medullary capillary plexus, the loop of Henle, and the collecting tubule. The renal medulla is hypertonic

neg: Vasopressin receptor renal medulla. VR is present on platelets, which upon stimulation induces an increase in intracellular calcium, facilitating thrombosis. Studies have indicated that due to polymorphism of platelet VR there is significant heterogeneity in the aggregation response of normal human platelets to vasopressin. VRs are found in kidney, where they occur in high density on medullary interstitial cells, vasa recta, and epithelial cells of the collecting duct. Vasopressin acts on medullary vasculature through VR to reduce blood flow to inner medulla without affecting blood flow to outer medulla. VRs on the luminal membrane of the collecting duct limit the antidiuretic action

neg: Bird anatomy their evolution. A bird has paired kidneys which are connected to the lower gastrointestinal tract through the ureters. Depending on the bird species, the cortex makes up around 71-80% of the kidney's mass, while the medulla is much smaller at about 5-15% of the mass. Blood vessels and other tubes make up the remaining mass. Unique to birds is the presence of two different types of nephrons (the functional unit of the kidney) both reptilian-like nephrons located in the cortex and mammalian-like nephrons located in the medulla. Reptilian nephrons are more abundant but lack the distinctive loops of Henle seen

neg: Mammal is passed through [[bile]] and [[urine]] with the help of enzymes excreted by the liver. The passing of bilirubin via bile through the [[intestinal tract]] gives mammalian [[feces]] a distinctive brown coloration. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney include the presence of the [[renal pelvis]] and [[renal pyramid]]s, and of a clearly distinguishable [[renal cortex|cortex]] and [[renal medulla|medulla]], which is due to the presence of elongated [[Loop of Henle|loops of Henle]]. Only the mammalian kidney has a bean shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed [[reniculate kidney]]s of pinnipeds, [[cetacea]]ns and bears. Most adult placental mammals have

neg: Renal papilla Renal papilla The renal papilla is the location where the renal pyramids in the medulla empty urine into the minor calyx in the kidney. Histologically it is marked by medullary collecting ducts converging to form a papillary duct to channel the fluid. Transitional epithelium begins to be seen. Some chemicals toxic to the kidney, called nephrotoxins, damage the renal papillae. Damage to the renal papillae may result in death to cells in this region of the kidney, called renal papillary necrosis. The most common toxic causes of renal papillary necrosis are NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, and phenylbutazone, in

neg: Ascending limb of loop of Henle the nephron of the kidney. The ascending limb has a thin and a thick segment. The ascending limb drains urine into the distal convoluted tubule. The thin ascending limb is found in the medulla of the kidney, and the thick ascending limb can be divided into a part that is in the renal medulla and a part that is in the renal cortex. The ascending limb is much thicker than the descending limb. As in the descending limb, the epithelium is simple squamous epithelium. The thin ascending limb is impermeable to water; but is permeable to ions that cross by

neg: Loop of Henle Loop of Henle In the kidney, the loop of Henle () (or Henle's loop, Henle loop, nephron loop or its Latin counterpart ansa nephroni) is the portion of a nephron that leads from the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule. Named after its discoverer, the German anatomist Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, the loop of Henle's main function is to create a concentration gradient in the medulla of the kidney. By means of a countercurrent multiplier system, which uses electrolyte pumps, the loop of Henle creates an area of high urea concentration deep in the medulla, near the papillary

neg: Loop of Henle reabsorbed the volume of fluid in the loop of Henle is less than the PCT, approximately one-third of the original volume. The interstitium of the kidney increases in osmolarity outside as the loop of Henle descends from 600 mOsm/L in the outer medulla of the kidney to 1200 mOsm/L in the inner medulla. The descending portion of the loop of Henle is extremely permeable to water and is less permeable to ions, therefore water is easily reabsorbed here and solutes are not readily reabsorbed. The 300 mOsm/L fluid from the loop loses water to the higher concentration outside the loop

neg: Kidney tumour cysts, often with Doppler signal, and is frequently malignant or has a high malignant potential. The most common malignant renal parenchymal tumor is renal cell carcinoma (RCC), which accounts for 86% of the malignancies in the kidney. RCCs are typically isoechoic and peripherally located in the parenchyma, but can be both hypo- and hyper-echoic and are found centrally in medulla or sinus. The lesions can be multifocal and have cystic elements due to necrosis, calcifications and be multifocal (Figure 8 and Figure 9). RCC is associated with von Hippel–Lindau disease, and with tuberous sclerosis, and US has been recommended as

neg: Common raven physiology the collecting ducts descend through the medulla, they combine and empty their contents into the ureter. There are two types of avian nephrons, and nephrons become larger as depth from the kidney surface increases. Reptilian-type nephrons are the smallest nephrons, are found near a kidney’s surface, possess simple glomeruli, and do not have loops of Henle. Conversely, between 10% and 30% of the total nephron population is composed of mammalian-type nephrons, which are located in the innermost area of the kidney, have complex glomeruli, and contain loops of Henle. Once the kidneys receive blood, filtration of substances from the blood

neg: Isosthenuria Isosthenuria Isosthenuria refers to the excretion of urine whose specific gravity (concentration) is neither greater (more concentrated) nor less (more dilute) than that of protein-free plasma, typically 1.008-1.012. Isosthenuria reflects damage to the kidney's tubules or the renal medulla. A closely related term is hyposthenuria, where the urine has a relatively low specific gravity, though not necessarily equal to that of plasma. Therefore, unlike isosthenuria, this condition is not associated with renal failure as the kidney tubules have altered the glomerular filtrate Isosthenuria may be seen in disease states as chronic and acute kidney failure in which the kidneys lack

neg: Efferent arteriole to perfuse the inner zone. Vessels returning from the inner medulla (venulae recti) intersperse themselves in a highly regular fashion among the descending arteriolae recti to form a well-organized rete mirabile. This rete is responsible for the osmotic isolation of the inner medulla from the rest of the kidney and so permits the excretion of a hypertonic urine when circumstances require. Since the rete also isolates the inner medulla from gaseous exchange, any metabolism in this area is anaerobic, and red cells, which would serve no purpose there, are ordinarily shunted from the arteriolae recti by an unknown mechanism into

neg: Kokko and Rector Model Kokko and Rector Model The Kokko and Rector model is a theory explaining the mechanism of generation of a gradient in the inner medulla of the kidney. Unlike earlier theories explaining the mechanism using counter current mechanism (as is the case in the outer medulla), the driving force for salt reabsorption is stated to be urea accumulation. It has been proved that counter current mechanism cannot be the case in the inner medulla, since there are no salt pumps, and the cell membrane is too permeable to salt. It has been proposed by JP Kokko and FC Rector Jr in

neg: Kokko and Rector Model 1972. Kokko and Rector Model The Kokko and Rector model is a theory explaining the mechanism of generation of a gradient in the inner medulla of the kidney. Unlike earlier theories explaining the mechanism using counter current mechanism (as is the case in the outer medulla), the driving force for salt reabsorption is stated to be urea accumulation. It has been proved that counter current mechanism cannot be the case in the inner medulla, since there are no salt pumps, and the cell membrane is too permeable to salt. It has been proposed by JP Kokko and FC Rector Jr

neg: Kidney down upon inhalation. In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams. A Danish study measured the median renal length to be on the left side and on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm on the left and 134 cm on the right. The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing

neg: Medulla Oblongata (film) Medulla Oblongata (film) Medulla Oblongata is a Malayalam movie produced by S. Madhan and directed by Suresh Nair. It is a remake of "Tamil" film "Naduvula Konjam Pakkatha Kaanom". The remake stars Rahul Madhav and newcomer Avaana. Chandru (Rahul Madav) is all set to marry his lover Nidhi Patel (Avana). Two days before the wedding, Chandru plays a leisurely cricket match with his best friends Appachan (Saiju Kurup), Seetharaman (Arjun Nandakumar) and Mani Kantan (Rakendu). While attempting to catch a ball, Chandru falls down and gets hit on the area of the head where the medulla oblongata is located and

neg: Kidney kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals. The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids and a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle; these are much shorter

neg: Urea transporter but is a passive transporter. It reabsorbs up to 70% of the original filtered load of urea. Urea Transporter 2 transports urea across the apical membrane into the luminal space of cells in the thin descending loop of Henle of the kidneys. Urea transporter 3 transports urea into the interstitium of the Inner Medullary Collecting Duct. Urea transporter 4 has been detected in rat but not mouse kidney medulla. Urea transporter 5 is not expressed in the kidney but in the testis. UT-B is widely expressed and has been studied in erythrocytes, kidney, intestine, and at the blood–brain barrier. The

neg: Renal biopsy of biopsy sample is kidney cortex and how much is kidney medulla. In some centres, this role will be performed by the proceduralist with the naked eye. When enough kidney tissue has been obtained, pressure will be applied to the biopsy site. After a period of time, it will be cleaned and dressed. Sutures are usually not required. Post-biopsy care will differ from centre to centre. Most hospitals will observe patients who have had renal biopsy for 4–6 hours to minimise the risk of bleeding. Blood pressure and urine are frequently monitored to ensure the patient is not suffering any

neg: Medulla, Florida Medulla, Florida Medulla is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Polk County, Florida, United States. It is part of the Lakeland–Winter Haven Metropolitan Statistical Area. Medulla is an affluent residential community located south of the Lakeland city limits, and north of the Mulberry city limits. Medulla neighbors Lakeland Highlands, and together the two communities make up much of what is known as south (unincorporated) Lakeland. The population was 8,892 at the 2010 census. The area is addressed to Lakeland, with zip codes 33811 and 33813. Medulla is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the

neg: Juxtamedullary nephron of the osmotic gradients in the renal medulla, which are responsible for concentrating urine because they have a longer loop of Henle than cortical nephrons. Also the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla. The juxtamedullary nephron comprises only 20–30% of the nephrons in the human kidney. However, it is this type of nephron which is most often depicted in illustrations of nephrons, because their greater length and verticality makes them easier to draw. Juxtamedullary nephron A juxtamedullary nephron is a type of nephron, found only in birds and mammals, which has a specific location: "medullary" refers

neg: Analgesic nephropathy synthesis depends upon the cyclooxygenases. Aspirin and other NSAIDs are inhibitors of the cyclooxygenases. In the kidney, this inhibition results in decreased PGE concentration causing a reduction in blood flow. Because blood flow to the kidney first reaches the renal cortex (outside) and then the renal medulla (inside), the deeper structures of the kidney are most sensitive to decreased blood flow. Thus the innermost structures of the kidney, known as the renal papillae, are especially dependent on prostaglandin synthesis to maintain adequate blood flow. Inhibition of cyclooxygenases therefore rather selectively damages the renal papillae, increasing the risk of renal papillary

neg: Kidney ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla, creating a hyperosmotic solution that "attracts" water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not. The 'single effect' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an

neg: Straight arterioles of kidney the presence of blood. Each straight arteriole has a hairpin turn in the medulla and carries blood at a very slow rate – two factors crucial in the maintenance of countercurrent exchange that prevent washout of the concentration gradients established in the renal medulla. The maintenance of this concentration gradient is one of the components responsible for the kidney's ability to produce concentrated urine. On the descending portion of the straight arterioles, sodium chloride and urea are reabsorbed into the blood, while water is secreted. On the ascending portion, sodium chloride and urea are secreted into the interstitium, while water

neg: Renal ultrasonography with Doppler signal, and is frequently malignant or has a high malignant potential. The most common malignant renal parenchymal tumor is renal cell carcinoma (RCC), which accounts for 86% of the malignancies in the kidney. RCCs are typically isoechoic and peripherally located in the parenchyma, but can be both hypo- and hyper-echoic and are found centrally in medulla or sinus. The lesions can be multifocal and have cystic elements due to necrosis, calcifications and be multifocal (Figure 8 and Figure 9). RCC is associated with von Hippel–Lindau disease, and with tuberous sclerosis, and US has been recommended as a tool

neg: Behavioral endocrinology throughout your body: The production of too much Thyroxine and triiodothyronine result in Hyperthyroidism. Some potential side effects are: The production of too little thyroxine and triodothyronine results in Hypothyrodism. Some potential side effects are: The 2 adrenal glands are located on the top of the kidney and have two distinct sections. The outer region called the outer part which is called the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex produce the hormones that are essential for life such as Cortisol and Aldosterone. The inner section, or the Adrenal medulla produce hormones that are not essential for life itself but assist the

neg: 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid and vascular endothelial cell overproduction of reactive oxygen species that in turn stimulates the CYp4A/20-HETE pathway. Non-selective and non-selective inhibitors of CYP4A and 20-HETE production reduce hypertension in this model. The hypertension in this model is more severe in male rats and appears to be mediated at least in part by vasopressin, the renin-angiotensin system, and androgens. Lewis rats (see Laboratory rat models) that had one kidney removed and then fed a high salt diet are hypertensive. Kidney medullary interstitial infusion of an inhibitor of 20-HETE production reduced the formation of 20-HETE in the outer medulla of the infused kidney,

neg: GPER protein-coupled receptors and is a multi-pass membrane protein that localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum. The protein binds estradiol, resulting in intracellular calcium mobilization and synthesis of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate in the nucleus. This protein therefore plays a role in the rapid nongenomic signaling events widely observed following stimulation of cells and tissues with estradiol. The distribution of GPER is well established in the rodent, with high expression observed in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal medulla, kidney medulla and developing follicles of the ovary. GPER is expressed in the breasts, and activation by estradiol produces cell proliferation in both normal and malignant

neg: Medullary cystic kidney disease dialysis or a kidney transplant. People with a mutation in this gene can have a variable rate of loss of kidney function, with some individuals going on dialysis in their thirties while others may not go on dialysis until later in life. Earlier on the condition was called medullary cystic kidney disease type 1. It was named this because some people with the disease had cysts (small holes) in the middle (medulla) of their kidneys. It has since then been found that these cysts are uncommon and are not found in the majority of the patients with MUC1 mutations. For

neg: Loop diuretic loop diuretics prevent the generation of a hypertonic renal medulla. Without such a concentrated medulla, water has less of an osmotic driving force to leave the collecting duct system, ultimately resulting in increased urine production. Loop diuretics cause a decrease in the renal blood flow by this mechanism. This diuresis leaves less water to be reabsorbed into the blood, resulting in a decrease in blood volume. A secondary effect of loop diuretics is to increase the production of prostaglandins, which results in vasodilation and increased blood supply to the kidney. The collective effects of decreased blood volume and vasodilation decrease

neg: Countercurrent multiplication high osmolarity at the inner medulla. Countercurrent multiplication A countercurrent mechanism system is a mechanism that expends energy to create a concentration gradient. It is found widely in nature and especially in mammalian organs. For example, it can refer to the process that is underlying the process of urine concentration, that is, the production of hyperosmotic urine by the mammalian kidney. The ability to concentrate urine is also present in birds. Countercurrent multiplication is frequently mistaken for countercurrent exchange, a similar but different mechanism where gradients are maintained, but not established. The term derives from the form and function of

neg: Medulla oblongata the medulla as part of the primordial reptilian brain is confirmed by its disproportionate size in modern reptiles such as the crocodile, alligator, and monitor lizard. Medulla oblongata The medulla oblongata (or medulla) is located in the brainstem, anterior and partially inferior to the cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting to sneezing. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and therefore deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. During embryonic development the medulla oblongata develops from the myelencephalon. The myelencephalon is a secondary

neg: Medulla oblongata Medulla oblongata The medulla oblongata (or medulla) is located in the brainstem, anterior and partially inferior to the cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting to sneezing. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and therefore deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. During embryonic development the medulla oblongata develops from the myelencephalon. The myelencephalon is a secondary vesicle which forms during the maturation of the rhombencephalon, also referred to as the hindbrain. The bulb is an archaic term for the medulla oblongata and

neg: Renal papilla combination with dehydration. Perturbed renal papillary development has also been shown to be associated with onset of functional obstruction and renal fibrosis. Renal papillary damage has also been associated with nephrolithiasis and can be quantified according to the papillary grading score, which accounts for contour, pitting, plugging and randall plaque. Renal papilla The renal papilla is the location where the renal pyramids in the medulla empty urine into the minor calyx in the kidney. Histologically it is marked by medullary collecting ducts converging to form a papillary duct to channel the fluid. Transitional epithelium begins to be seen. Some chemicals

neg: Pyruvate carboxylase and kidney cortex, suggest that a primary role of PC is to participate in gluconeogenesis in these organs. During fasting or starvation when endogenous glucose is required for certain tissues (brain, white blood cells and kidney medulla), expression of PC and other gluconeogenic enzymes is elevated. In rats and mice, alteration of nutrition status has been shown to affect hepatic PC activity. Fasting promotes hepatic glucose production sustained by an increased pyruvate flux, and increases in PC activity and protein concentration; diabetes similarly increases gluconeogenesis through enhanced uptake of substrate and increased flux through liver PC in mice and rats.

neg: Machine perfusion to Pettersson's dogs' kidneys. The constancy of both the glucose consumption rate and the rate of bicarbonate production implied that no injury was affecting the glycolytic enzyme or carbonic anhydrase enzyme systems. Lee showed that fatty acids were the preferred substrate of the rabbit's kidney cortex at normothermic temperatures, and glucose the preferred substrate for the medullary cells which normally metabolise anaerobically. Abodeely showed that both fatty acids and glucose could be utilised by the outer medulla of the rabbit's kidney but that glucose was used preferentially. At hypothermia the metabolic needs of the kidney are much reduced but measurable

neg: Efferent arteriole mammalian kidney about 15% of glomeruli lie close to the boundary between the renal cortex and renal medulla and are known as juxtamedullary glomeruli. The rest are simply undifferentiated cortical glomeruli. The efferent arterioles of the undifferentiated cortical glomeruli are the most complex. Promptly on leaving the glomerulus they break up into capillaries and become part of a rich plexus of vessels surrounding the cortical portions of the renal tubules. The efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary glomeruli are much different. They do break up, but they form bundles of vessels (arteriolae recti) that cross the outer zone of the medulla

neg: Adrenal gland disorder adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Disorders of the adrenal gland may affect the production of one or more of these hormones. Adrenal gland disorder Adrenal gland disorders (or diseases) are conditions that interfere with the normal functioning of the adrenal glands. Adrenal disorders may cause hyperfunction or hypofunction, and may be congenital or acquired. The adrenal gland produces hormones that affects growth, development and stress, and also helps to regulate kidney function. There are two parts of the adrenal glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex produces mineralocorticoids, which regulate salt and water

neg: RVD-Hpα and its projections and in the adrenal medulla. RVD-Hpα also significantly potentiated the effects of CB2 receptor agonists, including the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), for GTPγS binding and cAMP inhibition (5–10 fold). The putative precursor pepcan-23 was identified with pepcan-12 in brain, liver and kidney in mice. RVD-Hpα was increased upon endotoxemia and ischemia reperfusion damage where CB2 receptors play a protective role. The wide occurrence of this endogenous hormone-like CB2 receptor PAM, with unforeseen opposite allosteric effects on cannabinoid receptors, suggests its potential role in peripheral pathophysiological processes. RVD-Hpα RVD-Hpα is an endogenous neuropeptide found in human and mammalian

neg: Medulla, Florida line. Out of the total population, 4.0% of those under the age of 18 and 7.4% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Medulla, Florida Medulla is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Polk County, Florida, United States. It is part of the Lakeland–Winter Haven Metropolitan Statistical Area. Medulla is an affluent residential community located south of the Lakeland city limits, and north of the Mulberry city limits. Medulla neighbors Lakeland Highlands, and together the two communities make up much of what is known as south (unincorporated) Lakeland. The population was 8,892 at the

neg: Thymus Thymus The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the immune system. Within the thymus, T cells mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, where the body adapts specifically to foreign invaders. The thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located anatomically in the anterior superior mediastinum, in front of the heart and behind the sternum. Histologically, each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a central medulla and a peripheral cortex which is surrounded by an outer capsule. The cortex and medulla play different roles in the development of T cells. Cells

neg: Robert Tigerstedt blood pressure (probably measured by Ludwig's kymograph). They showed that the substance, which they called 'renin' was present in extract of renal cortex or venous blood from the kidney but not in urine, extract of renal medulla or the arterial blood supplying the kidney. They further showed that the pressor effect of renin did not require an intact nervous system and that it was not accompanied by a change in heart rate. They concluded that renin caused vasoconstriction, but the mechanism was unknown. This question would remain unresolved until the work of Harry Goldblatt, Irvine Page, Eduardo Braun-Menenez and others

neg: Rostral ventromedial medulla and 70% P2Y1. Rostral ventromedial medulla The rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM), or ventromedial nucleus of the spinal cord, is a group of neurons located close to the midline on the floor of the medulla oblongata (myelencephalon). The rostral ventromedial medulla sends descending inhibitory and excitatory fibers to the dorsal horn spinal cord neurons. There are 3 categories of neurons in the RVM: on-cells, off-cells, and neutral cells. They are characterized by their response to nociceptive input. Off-cells show a transitory decrease in firing rate right before a nociceptive reflex, and are theorized to be inhibitory. Activation of off-cells, either by

neg: Rostral ventromedial medulla Rostral ventromedial medulla The rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM), or ventromedial nucleus of the spinal cord, is a group of neurons located close to the midline on the floor of the medulla oblongata (myelencephalon). The rostral ventromedial medulla sends descending inhibitory and excitatory fibers to the dorsal horn spinal cord neurons. There are 3 categories of neurons in the RVM: on-cells, off-cells, and neutral cells. They are characterized by their response to nociceptive input. Off-cells show a transitory decrease in firing rate right before a nociceptive reflex, and are theorized to be inhibitory. Activation of off-cells, either by morphine or by

neg: Lymph node stromal cell the "T cell zone". B lymphocytes (cells which help to fight certain bacteria) are located in the "B cell follicle". The primary B cell follicle matures in germinal centers. In the medulla are hematopoietic cells (which contribute to the formation of the blood) and stromal cells. Near the medulla is the hilum of lymph node. This is the place where blood vessels enter and leave the lymph node and lymphatic vessels leave the lymph node. Lymph vessels entering the node do so along the perimeter (outer surface). The lymph nodes, the spleen and Peyer's patches, are known as secondary lymphoid

neg: Lymph node range in size from a few millimeters to about 1–2 cm long. Each lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, which extends inside the lymph node to form trabeculae. The substance of the lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex is continuous around the medulla except where the medulla comes into direct contact with the hilum. Thin reticular fibers of reticular connective tissue, and elastin form a supporting meshwork called a "reticulin" inside the node. B cells are mainly found in the outer (superficial) cortex where they are clustered together as follicular

neg: Respiratory center Respiratory center The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal respiratory group, and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes two areas known as the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The respiratory centre is responsible for generating and maintaining the rhythm of respiration, and also of adjusting this in homeostatic response to physiological changes. The respiratory center receives input

neg: Renal cortical necrosis is likely an important aspect in the cause of this condition. In general the renal cortex is under greater oxygen tension and more prone to ischemic injury, especially at the level of the proximal collecting tubule, leading to its preferential damage in a sudden drop in perfusion. Rapidly corrected acute renal ischemia leads to acute tubular necrosis, from which complete recovery is possible, while more prolonged ischemia may lead to RCN. Pathologically, the cortex of the kidney is grossly atrophied with relative preservation of the gross structure of the medulla. The damage is usually bilateral owing to its underlying systemic

neg: Serotonergic cell groups caudal pons. Nine serotonergic cell groups have been identified. Cell group B1 occupies the midline nucleus raphes pallidus and adjacent structures in the caudal medulla oblongata of the rodent and the primate. Cell group B2 occupies the midline nucleus raphes obscurus and adjacent structures in the caudal medulla oblongata of the rodent and the primate. Cell group B3 occupies the midline nucleus raphes magnus and adjacent structures in the caudal medulla oblongata of the rodent and the primate. Its boundary with the serotonergic group B1 is indistinct. Cell group B4 is located in the floor of the fourth ventricle, in

neg: Renal physiology hormones. Renal gluconeogenesis takes place in the renal cortex. The renal medulla is incapable of producing glucose due to absence of necessary enzymes. The kidney is responsible for maintaining a balance of the following substances: The body is very sensitive to its pH. Outside the range of pH that is compatible with life, proteins are denatured and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function, and the body is unable to sustain itself. The kidneys maintain acid-base homeostasis by regulating the pH of the blood plasma. Gains and losses of acid and base must be balanced. Acids are divided into "volatile

neg: Lymph node the lymphatic system the lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ. A lymph node is enclosed in a fibrous capsule and is made up of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Lymph nodes also have clinical significance. They become inflamed or enlarged in various diseases which may range from trivial throat infections, to life-threatening cancers. The condition of the lymph nodes is very important in cancer staging, which decides the treatment to be used, and determines the prognosis. When swollen, inflamed or enlarged, lymph nodes can be hard, firm or tender. Lymph nodes are kidney or oval shaped and

neg: Bladder outlet obstruction but still have normal renal architecture. This leads to a decrease in the number of nephrons, or functional units of the kidney. Malformation of kidney or bladder architecture. A dysplastic kidney is typically small for age and may contain cysts. A multicystic dysplastic kidney is an extreme example of renal dysplasia. Dilation of the renal pelvis, ureters, or both. Also called hydronephrosis. Kidneys and ureters located in incorrect position, including horseshoe kidney and ectopic ureters. Bladder outlet obstruction is classified based on where along the urinary tract the obstruction occurs, including upper urinary tract obstruction and lower urinary tract obstruction.

neg: Cisterna magna Cisterna magna The cisterna magna (or cerebellomedullaris cistern) is one of three principal openings in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and pia mater layers of the meninges surrounding the brain. The openings are collectively referred to as the subarachnoid cisterns. The cisterna magna is located between the cerebellum and the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata. Cerebrospinal fluid produced in the fourth ventricle drains into the cisterna magna via the lateral apertures and median aperture. The two other principal cisterns are the "pontine cistern" located between the pons and the medulla and the "interpeduncular cistern" located between the cerebral

neg: Juvenile nephronophthisis syndrome and Joubert syndrome. Juvenile nephronophthisis causes fibrosis and scarring of the kidneys, which accounts for the symptoms observed. The kidneys also often have corticomedullary cysts. It is an autosomal recessive disease. Sonography shows bilateral small kidneys with loss of corticomedullary junction and multiple cysts only in the medulla. Cysts may only be seen if they are large enough, they are rarely visible early in disease. Patients with medullary cystic disease present with similar features as juvenile nephronophthisis but they can be differentiated by: In polycystic kidney disease, there is bilateral enlargement of kidneys (small kidneys in JN). It is

neg: Stubble quail strict regulations in place to ensure that they are not hunted at times when the population is weak such as breeding, moulting and environmental stress. The stubble quail has many evolutionary adaptations that enable it to live very dry conditions. These include low daily water requirements, high tolerance of saline water and the ability to produce highly concentrated waste products. Highly concentrated urine is achieved by the large medulla in the kidney which is present in the stubble quail. If the birds have access to green foliage as well as grain, the stubble quail can survive without drinking any water.

neg: Sickle cell nephropathy Sickle cell nephropathy Sickle cell nephropathy is a type of nephropathy associated with sickle cell disease which causes kidney complications as a result of sickling of red blood cells in the small blood vessels. The hypertonic and relatively hypoxic environment of the renal medulla, coupled with the slow blood flow in the vasa recta, favors sickling of red blood cells, with resultant local infarction (papillary necrosis). Functional tubule defects in patients with sickle cell disease are likely the result of partial ischemic injury to the renal tubules. Also the sickle cell disease in young patients is characterized by renal hyperperfusion,

neg: Nephron of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine. Lower portions of the collecting organ are also permeable to urea, allowing some of it to enter the medulla of the kidney, thus maintaining its high concentration (which is very important for the nephron). Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces,

neg: Kidney increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels. ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body. There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the 'single effect.' Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and

neg: Norepinephrine as a possible consequence of taking sympathomimetic drugs. It causes a distinctive set of symptoms including aches and pains, rapid heartbeat, elevated blood pressure, sweating, palpitations, anxiety, headache, paleness, and a drop in blood glucose. If sympathetic activity is elevated for an extended time, it can cause weight loss and other stress-related body changes. The list of conditions that can cause sympathetic hyperactivation includes severe brain injury, spinal cord damage, heart failure, high blood pressure, kidney disease, and various types of stress. A pheochromocytoma is a rarely occurring tumor of the adrenal medulla, caused either by genetic factors or certain

neg: Descending limb of loop of Henle Descending limb of loop of Henle Within the nephron of the kidney, the descending limb of loop of Henle is the portion of the renal tubule constituting the first part of the loop of Henle. The permeability is as follows: Also, the medullary interstitium is highly concentrated (because of the activity of the ascending limb), leading to a strong osmotic gradient from the descending limb to the medulla. Because of these factors, the concentration of the urine increases dramatically in the descending limb. Osmolality can reach up to 1400 mOsmol/kg by the end of the descending limb. The epithelium of

neg: Descending limb of loop of Henle descending limb" are used interchangeably. Some sources simply refer to a "thin limb". In this context, the thin ascending limb of loop of Henle would be included. Descending limb of loop of Henle Within the nephron of the kidney, the descending limb of loop of Henle is the portion of the renal tubule constituting the first part of the loop of Henle. The permeability is as follows: Also, the medullary interstitium is highly concentrated (because of the activity of the ascending limb), leading to a strong osmotic gradient from the descending limb to the medulla. Because of these factors, the

neg: Fiuggi Institute for kidney stimulation and helping to break down and dissolve kidney stones. Various medical studies have been performed and published in Italian scientific journals citing evidence that Fiuggi is beneficial for dissolving kidney stones and improving kidney function. Fiuggi is a divided into two parts, the upper and lower. The area where the springs are located is called new Fiuggi, or Fiuggi Fonte at the base of the hill (it was developed during the Middle Ages so it is not all that new). The upper part, or old Fiuggi, is above sea level. The natives call it "Fiuggi Citta".

neg: Rete mirabile maintaining the hypertonicity of the renal medulla. It is the hypertonicity of this zone, resorbing water osmotically from the renal collecting ducts as they exit the kidney, that makes possible the excretion of a hypertonic urine and maximum conservation of body water. Vascular retia mirabilia are also found in the limbs of a range of mammals. These reduce the temperature in the extremities. Some of these probably function to prevent heat loss in cold conditions by reducing the temperature gradient between the limb and the environment. Others reduce the temperature of the testes increasing their productivity. In the neck of

neg: Na-K-Cl cotransporter chloride concentration in neurons down to adult values. NKCC2 is specifically found in cells of the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle and the macula densa in nephrons, the basic functional units of the kidney. Within these cells, NKCC2 resides in the apical membrane abutting the nephron's lumen, which is the hollow space containing urine. It thus serves both in sodium absorption and in tubuloglomerular feedback. The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle begins at the deeper portion of the renal outer medulla. Here, the urine has a relatively high concentration of sodium. As urine moves

neg: Complement component 4 and RD probe as positive control, showed that the liver contains the majority of transcripts throughout the body. Even so, moderate quantities were expressed in adrenal cortices/medulla, thyroid, and kidney. As noted, C4 (mixture of C4A and C4B) participates in all three of the complement pathways (classical, alternative, and lectin); the alternative pathway is "triggered spontaneously," while the classical and lectin pathways are elicited in response to the recognition of particular microbes. All three pathways converge at a step in which complement protein C3 is cleaved into proteins C3a and C3b, which results in a "lytic pathway" and formation of

neg: Thymus the capsule along . The cortex is mainly made up of thymocytes, supported by a network of finely-branched epithelial reticular cells, which is continuous with a similar network in the medulla. This network forms an adventitia to the blood vessels, which enter the cortex via septa near the junction with the medulla. The cortex is the location of the earliest events in thymocyte development, where T-cell receptor gene rearrangement and positive selection takes place. In the medulla, the network of reticular cells is coarser than in the cortex, the lymphoid cells are relatively fewer in number, and there are concentric,

neg: Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor CNS structures: The α-adrenergic receptor is classically located on vascular prejunctional terminals where it inhibits the release of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) in a form of negative feedback. It is also located on the vascular smooth muscle cells of certain blood vessels, such as those found in skin arterioles or on veins, where it sits alongside the more plentiful α-adrenergic receptor. The α-adrenergic receptor binds both norepinephrine released by sympathetic postganglionic fibers and epinephrine (adrenaline) released by the adrenal medulla, binding norepinephrine with slightly higher affinity. It has several general functions in common with the α-adrenergic receptor, but also has specific effects

neg: Mauritian tomb bat such as the Sudan and Chad. The bat's kidneys have a mean renal index of 5.55. This means that the bat's inner medulla, the part of the kidney that collects waste, is very large compared to the overall size of the organ, so that the animal can remove much of the waste out the water it drinks. The bats have a predicted mean maximum urine concentration of 3,921 mosmol/kg, which means the urine they produce is very concentrated. From this, scientists have tentatively come to the conclusion that this species' kidneys offer valuable water conservation. Mauritian tomb bats are occasionally

neg: Sensory nervous system and tactile information. The gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures: the anterior insula, located on the insular lobe, and the frontal operculum, located on the frontal lobe. Similarly to the olfactory cortex, the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms. Peripheral taste receptors, located on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus, transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla, or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. The signal is then transmitted to the thalamus, which in turn projects the

neg: 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid cells or in large blood vessels. However, both the smooth muscle and endothelial cells obtained from mouse brain microvasculature, produce 20-HETE in culture. 20-HETE is produced by human neutrophils and platelets and by the ascending tubule cells in the medulla as well the pre-glomerular arterioles and certain other localized areas of the rabbit kidney. In various rodent models, 20-HETE, at low concentrations (<50 nanomolar), acts to constrict arteries by sensitizing (i.e. increasing) the contraction responses of these artery's smooth muscle cells to other contracting agents such as alpha adrenergic agonists, vasopressin, endothelin, and a product of renin angiotensin system, angiotensin

neg: Botzinger complex Botzinger complex In mammals, the Bötzinger complex (BötC) is a group of neurons located in the rostral ventrolateral medulla, and ventral respiratory column. In the medulla, this group is located caudally to the facial nucleus and ventral to nucleus ambiguous. The Bötzinger complex plays an important role in controlling breathing and responding to hypoxia. The BötC consists primarily of glycinergic neurons which inhibit respiratory activity. Of the respiratory cycle phases BötC generates post-inspiratory (Post-I) activity and augmenting expiratory (aug-e) activity. The Bötzinger complex was named by UCLA Professor Jack Feldman in 1978, after a bottle of white wine named Botzinger

neg: Loop of Henle medulla to lose osmolarity as well. Increases in flow will disrupt the kidney's ability to form concentrated urine. Overall the loop of Henle reabsorbs around 25% of filtered ions and 20% of the filtered water in a normal kidney. These ions are mostly Na, Cl, K, Caand HCO. The powering force is the Na/K ATPase on the basolateral membrane which maintains the ion concentrations inside the cells. On the luminal membrane, Na enters the cells passively; using the Na-K-2Cl symporter. Then the Na/K ATPase will pump 3 Na out into the peritubular fluid and 2 K into the cell on

neg: Renal pyramids of parallel bundles of urine collecting tubules. Renal pyramids Renal pyramids (or malpighian pyramids or Malpighi's pyramids named after Marcello Malpighi, a seventeenth-century anatomist) are cone-shaped tissues of the kidney. In humans, the renal medulla is made up of 10 to 18 of these conical subdivisions. The broad "base" of each pyramid faces the renal cortex, and its apex, or papilla, points internally towards the pelvis. The pyramids appear striped because they are formed by straight parallel segments of nephrons and collecting ducts. The base of each pyramid originates at the corticomedullary border and the apex terminates in a papilla,

neg: Renal pyramids Renal pyramids Renal pyramids (or malpighian pyramids or Malpighi's pyramids named after Marcello Malpighi, a seventeenth-century anatomist) are cone-shaped tissues of the kidney. In humans, the renal medulla is made up of 10 to 18 of these conical subdivisions. The broad "base" of each pyramid faces the renal cortex, and its apex, or papilla, points internally towards the pelvis. The pyramids appear striped because they are formed by straight parallel segments of nephrons and collecting ducts. The base of each pyramid originates at the corticomedullary border and the apex terminates in a papilla, which lies within a minor calyx, made

neg: Control of ventilation rate. The peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are located in the arterial aortic bodies and the carotid bodies. Central chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to changes in the pH in the blood, (resulting from changes in the levels of carbon dioxide) and they are located on the medulla oblongata near to the medullar respiratory groups of the respiratory center. Information from the peripheral chemoreceptors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory groups of the respiratory center. There are four respiratory groups, two in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups

neg: Northwest Kidney Centers research space in its facilities where Kidney Research Institute investigators meet with patients. In 2013, Northwest Kidney Centers opened its 15th center, in the southeast King County city of Enumclaw. In 2017, Nephrology News & Issues magazine ranked Northwest Kidney Centers as the 8th largest dialysis provider in the United States. Museum On November 10, 2012, during its 50th anniversary year, Northwest Kidney Centers opened a museum and gallery dedicated to the history of the organization and of dialysis treatment. Located in Seattle, the museum showcases photos, artifacts, dialysis machines and equipment. In 2016, the organization established a professional archives

neg: Medullary pyramids (brainstem) Medullary pyramids (brainstem) The medullary pyramids are paired white matter structures of the brainstem's medulla oblongata that contain motor fibers of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts – known together as the pyramidal tracts. The lower limit of the pyramids is marked when the fibers cross (decussate). The ventral portion of the medulla oblongata contains the medullary pyramids. These two ridge-like structures travel along the length of the medulla oblongata and are bordered medially by the anterior median fissure. They each have an anterolateral sulcus along their lateral borders, where the hypoglossal nerve emerges from. Also at the side of each

neg: Chromaffin cell sides of the spinal cord toward the region just behind the dorsal aorta forming the two chains of sympathetic ganglia (Sympathetic chain). From these ganglia, the post synaptic sympathetic fibers will arise and extend toward their target organ. Some of these cells will migrate to the adrenal medulla to form sympathetic ganglia cells within the adrenal medulla (without postsynaptic sympathetic fibers). A tumor arising from these cells is called neuroblastoma. 2) Chromaffin cells (or pheochromocytes): These cells will migrate to the area adjacent to the sympathetic ganglia (hence the name paraganglia) and to the adrenal medulla where they will be

neg: Aquaporin have been two clear examples of diseases identified as resulting from mutations in aquaporins: A small number of people have been identified with severe or total deficiency in aquaporin-1. They are, in general, healthy, but exhibit a defect in the ability to concentrate solutes in the urine and to conserve water when deprived of drinking water. Mice with targeted deletions in aquaporin-1 also exhibit a deficiency in water conservation due to an inability to concentrate solutes in the kidney medulla by countercurrent multiplication. In addition to its role in genetically determined nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, aquaporins also play a key role

neg: Glomerulus (kidney) since arterioles dilate and constrict more readily than venules, owing to their thick circular smooth muscle layer (tunica media). The blood exiting the efferent arteriole enters a renal venule, which in turn enters a renal interlobular vein and then into the renal vein. Cortical nephrons near the corticomedullary junction (15% of all nephrons) are called juxtamedullary nephrons. The blood exiting the efferent arterioles of these nephrons enter the vasa recta, which are straight capillary branches that deliver blood to the renal medulla. These vasa recta run adjacent to the descending and ascending loop of Henle, and participate in the maintenance

neg: Central neurogenic hyperventilation infiltrative tumors in the pons. Some cases involve the medulla and other regions of the brain. Primarily, researchers believe that the tumors infiltrate the pontine respiratory centers and central chemoreceptors. CNH has not been found to be associated with any other of the body’s systems. Cardiac, pulmonary, and metabolic disorders have been ruled out as causes of the hyperventilation. Tests such as electrocardiograms, echocardiograms, torso computed tomographic scans, and chest radiographs have revealed that the pulmonary and cardiac systems of CNH are normal. Liver and kidney functions are also normal. Lymph node and thyroid enlargement also have not been detected.

neg: Kidney left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20% of the cardiac output. Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli. After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of

neg: Autonomic nervous system neurons” located in the central nervous system. Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal cord, at the thorax and upper lumbar levels. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the medulla oblongata where they form visceral motor nuclei; the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve; the nucleus ambiguus, the salivatory nuclei, and in the sacral region of the spinal cord. Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic

neg: Respiratory center bring about forceful exhalation. Depression of the respiratory centre can be caused by: brain trauma, brain damage, a brain tumour, or ischemia. A depression can also be caused by drugs including opioids, and sedatives. The respiratory centre can be stimulated by amphetamine, to produce faster and deeper breaths. Normally at therapeutic doses, this effect is not noticeable, but may be evident when respiration is already compromised. Respiratory center The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and

neg: Pontine tegmentum Pontine tegmentum The pontine tegmentum, or dorsal pons, is located within the brainstem, and is one of two parts of the pons, the other being the ventral pons or basilar part of the pons. The pontine tegmentum can be defined in contrast to the basilar pons: basilar pons contains the corticospinal tract running craniocaudally and can be considered the rostral extension of the ventral medulla oblongata; however, basilar pons is distinguished from ventral medulla oblongata in that it contains additional transverse pontine fibres that continue laterally to become the middle cerebellar peduncle. The pontine tegmentum is all the material dorsal

neg: Accessory nerve As it courses downwards, the nerve pierces through the sternocleidomastoid muscle while sending it motor branches, then continues down until it reaches the trapezius muscle to provide motor innervation to its upper part. The fibres that form the spinal accessory nerve are formed by lower motor neurons located in the upper segments of the spinal cord. This cluster of neurons, called the spinal accessory nucleus, is located in the lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and stretches from where the spinal cord begins (at the junction with the medulla) through to the level of about C6.

neg: Dendrin dendrin. Most notably, the greatest protein was found in the forebrain and hippocampus. After this initial study, it was assumed that dendrin was located only in the brain. However, in 2006, Kawata et al. found that the dendrin protein is also located in the kidneys. A yeast two-hybrid screening of kidney cDNA proved to find dendrin in the kidney podocytes, where it connects to cytoskeleton proteins: S-S-SCAM and CIN85. It is now known that dendrin is found in the brain and kidneys, but it is not expressed everywhere in these two organs. Dendrin has only been found in a very

neg: Alpha-3 beta-4 nicotinic receptor Alpha-3 beta-4 nicotinic receptor The alpha-3 beta-4 nicotinic receptor, also known as the α3β4 receptor and the ganglion-type nicotinic receptor, is a type of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, consisting of α3 and β4 subunits. It is located in the autonomic ganglia and adrenal medulla, where activation yields post- and/or presynaptic excitation, mainly by increased Na and K permeability. As with other nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, the α3β4 receptor is pentameric [(α3)(β4) where m + n = 5]. The exact subunit stoichiometry is not known and it is possible that more than one functional α3β4 receptor assembles in vivo with varying subunit stoichiometries.

neg: Moxonidine rostral ventro-lateral pressor and ventromedial depressor areas of the medulla oblongata. Moxonidine therefore causes a decrease in sympathetic nervous system activity and, therefore, a decrease in blood pressure. Compared to the older central-acting antihypertensives, moxonidine binds with much greater affinity to the imidazoline I-receptor than to the α-receptor. In contrast, clonidine binds to both receptors with equal affinity. In addition, moxonidine may also promote sodium excretion, improve insulin resistance and glucose tolerance and protect against hypertensive target organ damage, such as kidney disease and cardiac hypertrophy. Effects on insulin resistance In all animal models of insulin resistance, moxonidine had striking

neg: Glucose glucose themselves from certain precursors as the need arises. Nerve cells, cells of the renal medulla and erythrocytes depend on glucose for their energy production.<ref name="Löffler/Petrides 195">Peter C. Heinrich: "Löffler/Petrides Biochemie und Pathobiochemie." Springer-Verlag, 2014, , p. 195. (german)</ref> In adult humans, there are about 18 g of glucose, of which about 4 g are present in the blood. Approximately 180 to 220 g of glucose are produced in the liver of an adult in 24 hours. Many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., blindness, kidney failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or

neg: Chemoreceptor trigger zone be involved in the mechanism by which opiates cause nausea and vomiting. The blood–brain barrier is not as developed here, therefore drugs such as dopamine which cannot normally enter the CNS may still stimulate the CTZ. The CTZ is in the medulla oblongata, which is phylogenetically the oldest part of the nervous system. Early lifeforms developed a brainstem, or inner brain, and nothing more. This part of the brain is responsible for basic survival instincts and reactions, for example to make an organism turn its head and look where an auditory stimulus was heard. The brainstem is where the medulla