query: what is the genotype of a true breeding organism

pos: True-breeding organism is that the organism will "breed true" for the breed-relevant traits. Apomixis and parthenogenesis, types of asexual reproduction, also result in true breeding, although the organisms are usually not homozygous. A purebred variety of cat, such as Siamese, only produces kittens with Siamese characteristics because their ancestors were inbred until they were homozygous for all of the genes that produce the physical characteristics and temperament associated with the Siamese breed. Apples are notorious for not breeding true from seed, which means that they are propagated by grafting. The same is true of many fruit and nut trees. Many commercially produced

neg: True-breeding organism True-breeding organism A true-breeding organism, sometimes also called a purebred, is an organism that always passes down certain phenotypic traits (i.e. physically expressed traits) to its offspring of many generations. An organism is referred to as true breeding for each trait to which this applies, and the term "true-breeding" is also used to describe individual genetic traits. In Mendelian genetics, this means that an organism must be homozygous for every trait for which it is considered true breeding; that is, the pairs of alleles that express a given trait are the same. In a purebred strain or breed, the goal

neg: True-breeding organism plants for gardeners are F1 hybrids, which if propagated from seed will produce F2 hydrids which are quite different from their parents; the F1 hybrids therefore don't breed true. True-breeding organism A true-breeding organism, sometimes also called a purebred, is an organism that always passes down certain phenotypic traits (i.e. physically expressed traits) to its offspring of many generations. An organism is referred to as true breeding for each trait to which this applies, and the term "true-breeding" is also used to describe individual genetic traits. In Mendelian genetics, this means that an organism must be homozygous for every trait

neg: Zygosity homozygote. True breeding organisms are always homozygous for the traits that are to be held constant. An individual that is homozygous-dominant for a particular trait carries two copies of the allele that codes for the dominant trait. This allele, often called the "dominant allele", is normally represented by a capital letter (such as "P" for the dominant allele producing purple flowers in pea plants). When an organism is homozygous-dominant for a particular trait, the genotype is represented by a doubling of the symbol for that trait, such as "PP". An individual that is homozygous-recessive for a particular trait carries two

neg: Introduction to genetics show. This is a difference between what you see on the surface (the traits of an organism, called its phenotype) and the genes within the organism (its genotype). In this example you can call the allele for brown "B" and the allele for red "b". (It is normal to write dominant alleles with capital letters and recessive ones with lower-case letters.) The brown hair daughter has the "brown hair phenotype" but her genotype is Bb, with one copy of the B allele, and one of the b allele. Now imagine that this woman grows up and has children with a

neg: Zygosity organism at a single locus on the DNA. "Homozygous" describes a genotype consisting of two identical alleles at a given locus, "heterozygous" describes a genotype consisting of two different alleles at a locus, "hemizygous" describes a genotype consisting of only a single copy of a particular gene in an otherwise diploid organism, and "nullizygous" refers to an otherwise-diploid organism in which both copies of the gene are missing. A cell is said to be homozygous for a particular gene when identical alleles of the gene are present on both homologous chromosomes. The cell or organism in question is called a

neg: Maternal effect development and, ultimately, the larval phenotype. Maternal effect A maternal effect is a situation where the phenotype of an organism is determined not only by the environment it experiences and its genotype, but also by the environment and genotype of its mother. In genetics, maternal effects occur when an organism shows the phenotype expected from the genotype of the mother, irrespective of its own genotype, often due to the mother supplying messenger RNA or proteins to the egg. Maternal effects can also be caused by the maternal environment independent of genotype, sometimes controlling the size, sex, or behaviour of the

neg: Maternal effect Maternal effect A maternal effect is a situation where the phenotype of an organism is determined not only by the environment it experiences and its genotype, but also by the environment and genotype of its mother. In genetics, maternal effects occur when an organism shows the phenotype expected from the genotype of the mother, irrespective of its own genotype, often due to the mother supplying messenger RNA or proteins to the egg. Maternal effects can also be caused by the maternal environment independent of genotype, sometimes controlling the size, sex, or behaviour of the offspring. These adaptive maternal effects lead

neg: Dominance (genetics) respect to that gene; if instead the two alleles are different, the organism is a heterozygote and is heterozygous. The genetic makeup of an organism, either at a single locus or over all its genes collectively, is called its genotype. The genotype of an organism directly and indirectly affects its molecular, physical, and other traits, which individually or collectively are called its phenotype. At heterozygous gene loci, the two alleles interact to produce the phenotype. In complete dominance, the effect of one allele in a heterozygous genotype completely masks the effect of the other. The allele that masks the other

neg: Progeny testing so that they can be commercially promoted. But when the breeding organisations are Government controlled (eg.India), the onus of conducting the testing also lies with them if required genetic improvement is to be achieved. Progeny testing Progeny Testing is a test of the value for selective breeding of an individual's genotype by looking at the progeny produced by different matings. It is used in the breeding of both plants and animals, but is most commercially important in animal breeding to determine the true breeding value of an animal esp. males which are used extensively for propagation of best germplasm. The

neg: Progeny testing Progeny testing Progeny Testing is a test of the value for selective breeding of an individual's genotype by looking at the progeny produced by different matings. It is used in the breeding of both plants and animals, but is most commercially important in animal breeding to determine the true breeding value of an animal esp. males which are used extensively for propagation of best germplasm. The extensive use of artificial insemination in domestic animals has helped in increasing the selection intensity on the male animals. This selection tool is usually used for characters that are sex-limited, expressed after death(meat characteristics)

neg: Quantitative genetics in fraction form, not percentages; and that there are no omissions within the framework proposed.) Notice that "random fertilization" and "panmixia" are "not" synonyms. Mendel's pea experiments were constructed by establishing true-breeding parents with "opposite" phenotypes for each attribute. This meant that each opposite parent was homozygous for its respective allele only. In our example, "tall "vs" dwarf", the tall parent would be genotype TT with p = 1 (and q = 0); while the dwarf parent would be genotype tt with q = 1 (and p = 0). After controlled crossing, their hybrid is Tt, with p = q

neg: Lakenvelder cattle reduction / buy-out program, which encouraged selling dairy cattle for beef to bolster milk prices. The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy lists the Dutch Belted as "critical" on the Conservation Priority list. The population in the USA is estimated at less than 300, with fewer than 1,000 worldwide. Cross-breeding in the Netherlands has resulted in dilution of original stock, and the US population of Dutch Belted cattle is now considered purer and more true to the original genotype than are the cows in the Netherlands today. Currently, a "Breeding Up" program designed to increase numbers and genetic diversity of the Dutch

neg: Philosophy of biology emphasised a strict determinism (as opposed to high probability) and to the discovery of universally applicable laws, testable in the course of experiment. It was difficult for biology, beyond a basic microbiological level, to live up to these structures. Standard philosophy of science seemed to leave out a lot of what characterised living organisms - namely, a historical component in the form of an inherited genotype. Biologists with philosophic interests responded, emphasising the dual nature of the living organism. On the one hand there was the genetic programme (represented in nucleic acids) - the "genotype". On the other there was

neg: Zygosity be present. In more complex dominance schemes the results of heterozygosity can be more complex. A heterozygous genotype can have a higher relative fitness than either the homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive genotype - this is called a heterozygote advantage. A chromosome in a diploid organism is hemizygous when only one copy is present. The cell or organism is called a "hemizygote". Hemizygosity is also observed when one copy of a gene is deleted, or in the heterogametic sex when a gene is located on a sex chromosome. Hemizygosity must not be confused with haploinsufficiency, which describes a mechanism for

neg: Genotype cancer, that is, of the disease as distinct from the diseased. An example of a characteristic determined by a genotype is the petal color in a pea plant. The collection of all genetic possibilities for a single trait are called alleles; two alleles for petal color are purple and white. Any given gene will usually cause an observable change in an organism, known as the phenotype. The terms genotype and phenotype are distinct for at least two reasons: A simple example to illustrate genotype as distinct from phenotype is the flower colour in pea plants (see Gregor Mendel). There are

neg: Sex pheromone Sex pheromone Sex pheromones are pheromones released by an organism to attract an individual of the opposite sex, encourage them to mate with them, or perform some other function closely related with sexual reproduction. Sex pheromones specifically focus on indicating females for breeding, attracting the opposite sex, and conveying information on species, age, sex and genotype. Non-volatile pheromones, or cuticular contact pheromones, are more closely related to social insects as they are usually detected by direct contact with chemoreceptors on the antennae or feet of insects. Insect sex pheromones have found uses in monitoring and trapping of pest insects. Sex

neg: Trichoderma harzianum in a single organism (thallus). Thus, the fungi are highly adaptable and evolve rapidly. There is great diversity in the genotype and phenotype of wild strains. While wild strains are highly adaptable and may be heterokaryotic (contain nuclei of dissimilar genotype within a single organism, and hence highly variable), strains used for biocontrol in commercial agriculture are, or should be, homokaryotic (nuclei are all genetically similar or identical). This, coupled with tight control of variation through genetic drift, allows these commercial strains to be genetically distinct and nonvariable. This is an extremely important quality control item for any company wishing

neg: Punnett square one specific trait in an organism. In its simplest form, a pair of alleles can be either homozygous or heterozygous. Homozygosity, with 'de for the same trait. For example, using 'A' as the representative character for each allele, a homozygous dominant pair's genotype would be depicted as 'AA', while homozygous recessive is shown as 'aa'. Heterozygosity, with "hetero" associated with "different", can only be 'Aa' because 'aA' is not biologically correct. The phenotype of a homozygous dominant pair is 'A', or dominant, while the opposite is true for homozygous recessive. Heterozygous pairs always have a dominant phenotype. To a lesser

neg: Mosaic (genetics) of genetics. True mosaicism should not be mistaken for the phenomenon of X‑inactivation, where all cells in an organism have the same genotype, but a different copy of the X chromosome is expressed in different cells. The latter is the case in normal (XX) female mammals, although it is not always visible from the phenotype (like it is in calico cats). However, all multicellular organisms are likely to be somatic mosaics to some extent. Somatic mutation leading to mosaicism is prevalent in the beginning and end stages of human life. Somatic mosaics are common in embryogenesis due to retrotransposition of

neg: Genotype–phenotype distinction plasticity, the concept of genetic canalization addresses the extent to which an organism's phenotype allows conclusions about its genotype. A phenotype is said to be canalized if mutations (changes in the genome) do not noticeably affect the physical properties of the organism. This means that a canalized phenotype may form from a large variety of different genotypes, in which case it is not possible to exactly predict the genotype from knowledge of the phenotype (i.e. the genotype–phenotype map is not invertible). If canalization is not present, small changes in the genome have an immediate effect on the phenotype that develops.

neg: Evolution such as epigenetics, parental effects, ecological inheritance and cultural inheritance, and evolvability. Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits—the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, eye colour is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome (genetic material) is called its genotype. The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits come from the interaction of its genotype

neg: Labrador Retriever be if it has chocolate rims around the eyes (or more accurately of the genotype eebb). Breed standards for Labradors considers a true Dudley to be a disqualifying feature in a conformation show Lab, such as one with a thoroughly pink nose or one lacking in any pigment along with flesh coloured rims around the eyes. True Dudleys are extremely rare. Breeding in order to correct pigmentation often lacks dependability. Because colour is determined by many genes, some of which are recessive, crossbreeding a pigmentation non-standard yellow Labrador to a black Labrador may not correct the matter or prevent future

neg: Sex pheromone For example, research on the control of the spruce bud moth ("Zeiraphera canadensis)" has focused on the use of the pheromone E-9-tetradecenyl-acetate, a chemical the spruce bud moth releases during mating. Sex pheromone Sex pheromones are pheromones released by an organism to attract an individual of the opposite sex, encourage them to mate with them, or perform some other function closely related with sexual reproduction. Sex pheromones specifically focus on indicating females for breeding, attracting the opposite sex, and conveying information on species, age, sex and genotype. Non-volatile pheromones, or cuticular contact pheromones, are more closely related to social insects

neg: Reproduction opposite of what it predicts. Reproduction Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to single-celled organisms. The cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of

neg: Natural selection not by how long an organism lives, but by how successful it is at reproducing. If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation. Though natural selection acts on individuals, the effects of chance mean that fitness can only really be defined "on average" for the individuals within a population. The fitness of a particular genotype corresponds to the average effect on all individuals with that genotype. A distinction must be made between the concept

neg: Price equation with these definitions, the simple Price equation now applies. In this case we want to look at the idea that fitness is measured by the number of children an organism has, regardless of their genotype. Note that we now have two methods of grouping, by lineage, and by genotype. It is this complication that will introduce the need for the full Price equation. The number of children an "i"-type organism has is: which gives fitness: We now have characters in the child population which are the average character of the "i"-th parent. with global characters: with these definitions, the full

neg: Biological constraints produced by the genotype (compare stabilizing selection, where there is no constraint on what is produced, but rather on what is naturally selected). For example, for a highly homozygous organism, the degree of observed phenotypic variability in its descendents would be lower than those of a heterozygous one. Similarly, developmental systems may be highly canalised, to prevent the generation of certain types of variation. Although they are separate, the types of constraints discussed are nevertheless relatable to each other. In particular, stabilizing selection, mechanical, and physical constraints might lead through time to developmental integration and canalisation. However, without any clear

neg: Genetic engineering same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic. If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods. Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection. More recently, mutation breeding has used

neg: GEN2PHEN GEN2PHEN Genotype to Phenotype Databases: a Holistic Approach (GEN2PHEN) is a European project aiming to develop a knowledge web portal integrating information from the genotype to the phenotype in a unifying portal: The Knowledge Centre. The GEN2PHEN project aims to unify human and model organism genetic variation databases towards increasingly holistic views into Genotype-To-Phenotype (G2P) data, and to link this system into other biomedical knowledge sources via genome browser functionality. The project will establish the technological building-blocks needed for the evolution of today’s diverse G2P databases into a future seamless G2P biomedical knowledge environment, by the projects end. This will

neg: Behavioral plasticity exist inside the organism. In contrast, if an organism's current behavior is altered by past experiences, then the animal is said to be exhibiting developmental or "innate" behavioral plasticity. This form of plasticity is generally thought to require new neuronal pathways to form. Developmental behavioral plasticity corresponds to the commonly used definition of plasticity: a single genotype can express more than one behavioral phenotype as a result of different developmental routes triggered by differences in past experiences. Developmental plasticity thus includes what is referred to as "learning". However, developmental plasticity also includes developmental changes in morphology and physiology relevant to

neg: Mendelian inheritance the dominant purple flower allele will hide the phenotypic effects of the recessive white flower allele. This is known as the Law of Dominance but it is not a transmission law: it concerns the expression of the genotype. The upper case letters are used to represent dominant alleles whereas the lowercase letters are used to represent recessive alleles. In the pea plant example above, the capital "B" represents the dominant allele for purple flowers and lowercase "b" represents the recessive allele for white flowers. Both parental plants were true-breeding, and one parental variety had two alleles for purple flowers ("BB")

neg: Phene Phene A phene is an individual genetically determined characteristic or trait which can be possessed by an organism, such as eye colour, height, behavior, tooth shape or any other observable characteristic. The term 'phene' was evidently coined as an obvious parallel construct to 'gene'. Phene is to Phenotype as Gene is to Genotype, and Similarly Phene is to Phenome as Gene is to Genome. More specifically, a Phene is an abstract concept describing a particular characteristic which can be possessed by an organism. Whereas Phenotype refers to a collection of Phenes possessed by a particular organism, and Phenome refers to

neg: Genetics homozygous at that gene locus, while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called heterozygous. The set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype, while the observable traits of the organism are called its phenotype. When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both

neg: Genocopy Genocopy Genocopy is a trait that is a phenotypic copy of a genetic trait but is caused by a different genotype. A genotype at one locus that produces a phenotype that at some levels of resolution is indistinguishable from that produced by another genotype; two types of elliptocytosis that are genocopies of each other, but are distinguished by the fact that one is linked to the Rh blood group locus and the other is not. The way to distinguish a recessive genocopy from a phenotype caused by a different allele would be by carrying out a test cross, breeding the

neg: Phenotypic trait is the phenotype. The phenotype is dependent on the genetic make-up of the organism, and also influenced by the environmental conditions to which the organism is subjected across its ontogenetic development, including various epigenetic processes. Regardless of the degree of influence of genotype versus environment, the phenotype encompasses all of the characteristics of an organism, including traits at multiple levels of biological organization, ranging from behavior and evolutionary history of life traits (e.g., litter size), through morphology (e.g., body height and composition), physiology (e.g., blood pressure), cellular characteristics (e.g., membrane lipid composition, mitochondrial densities), components of biochemical pathways, and even

neg: Microbial genetics Microbial genetics Microbial genetics is a subject area within microbiology and genetic engineering. Microbial genetics studies microorganisms for different purposes. The microorganisms that are observed are bacteria, and archaea. Some fungi and protozoa are also subjects used to study in this field. The studies of microorganisms involve studies of genotype and expression system. Genotypes are the inherited compositions of an organism. (Austin, "Genotype," n.d.) Genetic Engineering is a field of work and study within microbial genetics. The usage of recombinant DNA technology is a process of this work. The process involves creating recombinant DNA molecules through manipulating a DNA sequence.

neg: Computational and Statistical Genetics is difficult to separate the two chromosomes within a pair and the assays produce the combined haplotype, called the genotype information at each nucleotide. The objective of haplotype phasing is to find the phase of the two haplotypes given the combined genotype information. Knowledge of the haplotypes is extremely important and not only gives us a complete picture of an individuals genome, but also aids other computational genomic processes such as Imputation among many significant biological motivations. For diploid organisms such as humans and maize, each organism has two copies of a chromosome - one each from the two parents.

neg: Genotype–phenotype distinction theory that exist in parallel, traditional population genetics operating in the genotype space and the biometric theory used in plant and animal breeding, operating in phenotype space. The missing part is the mapping between the genotype and phenotype space. This leads to a "sleight of hand" (as Lewontin terms it) whereby variables in the equations of one domain, are considered parameters or "constants", where, in a full-treatment they would be transformed themselves by the evolutionary process and are "functions" of the state variables in the other domain. The "sleight of hand" is assuming that the mapping is known. Proceeding as

neg: Mosaic (genetics) determine whether a gene is cell autonomous. That is, whether or not the gene acts solely within the cell of that genotype, or if it affects the entire organism of neighboring cells which do not themselves contain that genotype. The earliest examples of this involved transplantation experiments (technically creating chimeras) where cells from a blastula stage embryo from one genetic background are aspirated out and injected into a blastula stage embryo of a different genetic background. Genetic mosaics are a particularly powerful tool when used in the commonly studied fruit fly, where specially-selected strains frequently lose an X or a

neg: Classical genetics can be either homozygous, meaning the same, or heterozygous, meaning different. Many pairs of alleles have differing effects that are portrayed in an offspring's phenotype and genotype. The phenotype is a general term that defines an individual's visible, physical traits. The genotype of an offspring is known as its genetic makeup. The alleles of genes can either be dominant or recessive. A dominant allele needs only one copy to be expressed while a recessive allele needs two copies (homozygous) in a diploid organism to be expressed. Dominant and recessive alleles help to determine the offspring’s genotypes, and therefore phenotypes. Classical

neg: Heredity set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's phenotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: a striking example is people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.

neg: Hybrid (biology) is used to describe an annual plant that, if grown and bred in a small monoculture free of external pollen (e.g., an air-filtered greenhouse) produces offspring that are "true to type" with respect to phenotype; i.e., a true-breeding organism. Hybridisation can occur in the zones where geographical subspecies overlap. For example, the butterfly "Limenitis arthemis" has two major subspecies in North America, "L. a. arthemis" (the white admiral) and "L. a. astyanax" (the red-spotted purple). The white admiral has a bright, white band on its wings, while the red-spotted purple has cooler blue-green shades. Hybridisation occurs between a narrow area

neg: Monohybrid cross both round and wrinkled seeds and in a 50:50 ratio. He performed the cross and harvested 106 round peas and 101 wrinkled peas. Mendel tested his hypothesis with a type of backcross called a testcross. An organism has an unknown genotype which is one of two genotypes (like RR and Rr) that produce the same phenotype. The result of the test identifies the unknown genotype. Mendel did not stop there. He went on to cross pea varieties that differed in six other qualitative traits. In every case, the results supported his hypothesis. He crossed peas that differed in two traits.

neg: Evolutionary algorithm the organism. Such indirect (a.k.a. generative or developmental) encodings also enable evolution to exploit the regularity in the environment. Recent work in the field of artificial embryogeny, or artificial developmental systems, seeks to address these concerns. And gene expression programming successfully explores a genotype-phenotype system, where the genotype consists of linear multigenic chromosomes of fixed length and the phenotype consists of multiple expression trees or computer programs of different sizes and shapes. Swarm algorithms include The computer simulations "Tierra" and "Avida" attempt to model macroevolutionary dynamics. Evolutionary algorithm In artificial intelligence, an evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary

neg: Genotype–phenotype distinction environmental factors have a strong influence on the particular phenotype that develops. If there is little plasticity, the phenotype of an organism can be reliably predicted from knowledge of the genotype, regardless of environmental peculiarities during development. An example of high plasticity can be observed in larval newts: when these larvae sense the presence of predators such as dragonflies, they develop larger heads and tails relative to their body size and display darker pigmentation. Larvae with these traits have a higher chance of survival when exposed to the predators, but grow more slowly than other phenotypes. In contrast to phenotypic

neg: Phenotypic trait Phenotypic trait A phenotypic trait, simply trait, or character state is a distinct variant of a phenotypic characteristic of an organism; it may be either inherited or determined environmentally, but typically occurs as a combination of the two. For example, eye color is a character of an organism, while blue, brown and hazel are "traits". A phenotypic trait is an obvious, observable, and measurable trait; it is the expression of genes in an observable way. An example of a phenotypic trait is hair color. Underlying genes, which make up the genotype, determine the hair color, but the hair color observed

neg: Zygosity copies of the allele that codes for the recessive trait. This allele, often called the "recessive allele", is usually represented by the lowercase form of the letter used for the corresponding dominant trait (such as, with reference to the example above, "p" for the recessive allele producing white flowers in pea plants). The genotype of an organism that is homozygous-recessive for a particular trait is represented by a doubling of the appropriate letter, such as "pp". A diploid organism is heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different alleles (one wild-type allele and one mutant allele) of

neg: Gene expression Gene regulation gives the cell control over structure and function, and is the basis for cellular differentiation, morphogenesis and the versatility and adaptability of any organism. Gene regulation may also serve as a substrate for evolutionary change, since control of the timing, location, and amount of gene expression can have a profound effect on the functions (actions) of the gene in a cell or in a multicellular organism. In genetics, gene expression is the most fundamental level at which the genotype gives rise to the phenotype, i.e. observable trait. The genetic code stored in DNA is "interpreted" by gene expression,

neg: Envirome change or a static situation. In twin studies, envirome influences are often decomposed into shared environmental factors, common to both twins and non-shared environmental factors that differ between the twins. The effect of an envirome on an organism can be potentially modulated by its genetic makeup, i.e., its genome. The two main ways genes and environment may interact is through genotype-environment correlation and interaction. Genotype-environment correlation occurs because, for example, children both inherit genes from their parents and live under the influence of their parents. In the context of genetic epidemiology, interaction refers to the genes and the environment both

neg: Self-actualization the individual a desire, or motivation to achieve budding ambitions. Maslow's usage of the term is now popular in modern psychology when discussing personality from the humanistic approach. A basic definition from a typical college textbook defines self-actualization according to Maslow simply as "the full realization of one's potential", and of one's "true self". A more explicit definition of self-actualization according to Maslow is "intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately of what is the organism itself...self-actualization is growth-motivated rather than deficiency-motivated." This explanation emphasizes the fact that self-actualization cannot normally be reached until other

neg: Phenome Phenome A phenome is the set of all phenotypes expressed by a cell, tissue, organ, organism, or species. Just as the genome and proteome signify all of an organism's genes and proteins, the phenome represents the sum total of its phenotypic traits. Examples of human phenotypic traits are skin color, eye color, body height, or specific personality characteristics. Although any phenotype of any organism has a basis in its genotype, phenotypic expression may be influenced by environmental influences, mutation, and genetic variation such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), or a combination of these factors. Phenomics is the study of the

neg: Somatic evolution in cancer an up-to-date review in this field, see Bast 2012. An adaptive landscape is a hypothetical topological landscape upon which evolution is envisioned to take place. It is similar to Wright's fitness landscape in which the location of each point represents the genotype of an organism and the altitude represents the fitness of that organism in the current environment. However, unlike Wright's rigid landscape, the adaptive landscape is pliable. It readily changes shape with changes in population densities and survival/reproductive strategies used within and among the various species. Wright's shifting balance theory of evolution combines genetic drift (random sampling error in

neg: Adaptation capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of specialization. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life; learning means improvement in behavioral performance during life. These terms are preferred to adaptation for changes during life which are not inherited by the next generation. Flexibility stems from phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism with a given genotype to change its phenotype in response to changes in its habitat, or to move to a different habitat. The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined

neg: Christian Carl André and in what circumstances inbreeding was liable to lead to weakening of the organism. In 1819 he demonstrated a recently designed micrometer for evaluating wool quality, recognised as marking "the beginning of a new epoch of scientific breeding defined with mathematical precision" His son Rudolf (1792–1827) also studied the theory and practice of sheep-breeding. The environment of scientific enquiry he helped to foster in the Habsburg empire soon become famous in Europe, and nurtured further work in animal and plant breeding, precursor to the groundbreaking work of Gregor Mendel. Christian Carl André Christian Carl André (1763-1831) was a leading 19th

neg: State switching and amplitude are concerned. However, the ultimate organization of the PIN and its ground state threshold would be determined by learning and adapting to the environment in which the organism finds itself. For adaptive learning to be inherited, one would anticipate that changes in the genome, whether genetic or epigenetic, would be necessary implying a reversal of information flow from phenotype to genotype. In response to dynamic environmental fluctuations, an organism’s PINs constantly process information and organize and reorganize themselves. However, it is postulated that in response to ‘unanticipated’ environmental changes, several IDPs are overexpressed and the organism explores numerous

neg: SNV calling from NGS data then be predicted based on these probabilities, often according to the MAP estimate. Probabilistic methods for variant calling are based on Bayes' Theorem. In the context of variant calling, Bayes' Theorem defines the probability of each genotype being the true genotype given the observed data, in terms of the prior probabilities of each possible genotype, and the probability distribution of the data given each possible genotype. The formula is: In the above equation: Given the above framework, different software solutions for detecting SNVs vary based on how they calculate the prior probabilities formula_5, the error model used to model the

neg: Quantitative genetics these effects are defined already as deviates from the genotypic mean, the cross-product sum using {genotype-frequency * parental gene-effect * half-breeding-value} immediately provides the "allele-substitution-expectation covariance" between any one parent and its offspring. After careful gathering of terms and simplification, this becomes cov(PO) = pqa = ½ s . Unfortunately, the "allele-substitution-deviations" are usually overlooked, but they have not "ceased to exist" nonetheless! Recall that these deviations are: d = -2q d, and d = 2pq d and also d = -2p d [see section on "Genotype substitution – Expectations and Deviations"]. Consequently, the cross-product sum using {genotype-frequency * parental

neg: Zygosity person. In cultured mammalian cells, such as the Chinese hamster ovary cell line, a number of genetic loci are present in a functional hemizygous state, due to mutations or deletions in the other alleles. A nullizygous organism carries two mutant alleles for the same gene. The mutant alleles are both complete loss-of-function or 'null' alleles, so homozygous null and nullizygous are synonymous. The mutant cell or organism is called a "nullizygote". Zygosity may also refer to the origin(s) of the alleles in a genotype. When the two alleles at a locus originate from a common ancestor by way of nonrandom

neg: Sorex ornatus sinuosus Pablo Bay marshland. Very few local extant tidal marshes have true undisturbed marsh vegetation, and even fewer border significant upland areas where marshland species can seek refuge from flooding. "S. o. sinuosus" inhabits a smaller range and is more limited in the habitats it occupies than is the salt marsh harvest mouse, for example. A lifespan of 16 months is considered to apply to most shrew taxa, with females surviving slightly longer than males. Preferred food sources for this organism are small insects and other invertebrates. The normal birth season occurs during the spring and summer breeding season, with a

neg: Genetic architecture Genetic architecture is sometimes studied using a genotype-phenotype map, which graphically depicts the relationship between the genotype and the phenotype. Genetic architecture is incredibly important for understanding evolutionary theory because it describes phenotypic variation in its underlying genetic terms, and thus it gives us clues about the evolutionary potential of these variations. Therefore, genetic architecture can help us to answer biological questions about speciation, the evolution of sex and recombination, the survival of small populations, inbreeding, understanding diseases, animal and plant breeding, and more. Evolvability is literally defined as the ability to evolve. In terms of genetics, evolvability is the

neg: Compensatory growth (organism) as long-term reduced estrogen-producing adipose tissue levels compared to premorbid levels. In 1960, Wilson and Osborne outlined six factors that could affect compensatory growth in a review article. The importance of each, some, or all of these factors is not well understood. These factors are as follows: Animal factors that can affect compensatory growth may include the maturity level and fat proportion of the animal at the time of nutrient deprivation, the genotype, the gender, and the metabolic changes. The stage of development of the animal when the nutrient restriction occurs greatly affects its body composition. Compensatory growth (organism) Compensatory

neg: Equine coat color genetics normal or wildtype allele is labeled "E", or sometimes "E" or "E". "Agouti" controls the restriction of true black pigment (eumelanin) in the coat. Horses with the normal agouti gene have the genotype "A/A" or "A/a". Horses without a normal agouti gene have the genotype "a/a", and if they are capable of producing black pigment, it is uniformly distributed throughout the coat. A third option, "A", restricts black pigment to a black-and-tan pattern called seal brown. This allele is recessive to "A" and dominant to "a", such that horses with the genotype "A/A" appear bay, while "A/A" and "A/a" horses

neg: Reproduction Reproduction Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to single-celled organisms. The cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself. The evolution of sexual

neg: Complementation (genetics) or "b", it will have white eyes. Knowing this, the geneticist may perform a complementation test on two separately obtained strains of pure-breeding white-eyed flies. The test is performed by crossing two flies, one from each strain. If the resulting progeny have red eyes, the two strains are said to complement; if the progeny have white eyes, they do not. If the strains complement, we imagine that one strain must have a genotype aa BB and the other AA bb, which when crossed yield the genotype AaBb. In other words, each strain is homozygous for a different deficiency that produces

neg: Shetland Sheepdog CEA makes control of this disease much more likely as more breeders take advantage of the test. PRA can be detected at any time but usually does not show up until the dog is around two years old. Breeding dogs should be tested for genotype for this condition before breeding and only animals found "clear" should be used for breeding. PRA can occur in most breeds of dog including mix breeds. In most breeds it is also an autosomal recessive condition, however it has been found in other breeds to be autosomal dominant and sex-linked in others. As the name

neg: Framsticks in the gene pool and edit its genotype. Framsticks allows users to design organisms or manually edit the living genetic code of an organism. Users have the ability to seed the environment with energy orbs that the organisms convert to energy and material. Depending on how the organism does in its lifespan determines the future of the virtual gene pool. Gene pools can be exported and shared. The bodies are made up of various building blocks that are assembled according to a genetic script. Building blocks include: a rotator, hinge, muscle, structure, and receptor. The brains are basic neural networks

neg: Gene he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured Wilhelm Johannsen's distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance. Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents

neg: Hepatitis C weeks of treatment. Successful treatment decreases the future risk of hepatocellular carcinoma by 75%. Prior to 2012 sustained response occurs in about 40–50% in people with HCV genotype 1 given 48 weeks of treatment. A sustained response is seen in 70–80% of people with HCV genotypes 2 and 3 with 24 weeks of treatment. A sustained response occurs about 65% in those with genotype 4 after 48 weeks of treatment. The evidence for treatment in genotype 6 disease is sparse and what evidence there is supports 48 weeks of treatment at the same doses used for genotype 1 disease. It

neg: Crossbreed Crossbreed A crossbreed is an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. "Crossbreeding", sometimes called "designer crossbreeding", is the process of breeding such an organism, often with the intention to create offspring that share the traits of both parent lineages, or producing an organism with hybrid vigor. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of organisms, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce organisms of inferior quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point of extinction of a given breed of organism. A domestic animal of unknown ancestry, where the breed status of only

neg: Reproductive success Reproductive success Reproductive success is defined as an individual's production of offspring per breeding event or lifetime. This is not limited by the number of offspring produced by one individual, but also the reproductive success of these offspring themselves. Reproductive success is different form fitness in that individual success is not necessarily a determinant for adaptive strength of a genotype since the effects of chance and the environment have no influence on those specific genes. Reproductive success turns into a part of fitness when the offspring are actually recruited into the breeding population. If offspring quantity is not correlated with

neg: Genetic load Genetic load Genetic load is the difference between the fitness of an average genotype in a population and the fitness of some reference genotype, which may be either the best present in a population, or may be the theoretically optimal genotype. The average individual taken from a population with a low genetic load will generally, when grown in the same conditions, have more surviving offspring. Genetic load can also be seen as reduced fitness at the population level compared to what the population would have if all individuals had the reference high-fitness genotype. High genetic load may put a population

neg: Doubled haploidy of species from recalcitrant category. Hence it will provide greater efficiency of plant breeding. Doubled haploidy A doubled haploid (DH) is a genotype formed when haploid cells undergo chromosome doubling. Artificial production of doubled haploids is important in plant breeding. Haploid cells are produced from pollen or egg cells or from other cells of the gametophyte, then by induced or spontaneous chromosome doubling, a doubled haploid cell is produced, which can be grown into a doubled haploid plant. If the original plant was diploid, the haploid cells are monoploid, and the term doubled monoploid may be used for the doubled

neg: Biostatistics markers in selection aiming for breeding, mainly the molecular ones, collaborated to the development of marker-assisted selection. While QTL mapping is limited due resolution, GWAS does not have enough power when rare variants of small effect that are also influenced by environment. So, the concept of Genomic Selection (GS) arises in order to use all molecular markers in the selection and allow the prediction of the performance of candidates in this selection. The proposal is to genotype and phenotype a training population, develop a model that can obtain the genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) of individuals belonging to a genotyped

neg: PSE meat gene increases the glycogen content of the muscle, resulting in lower pH. The poultry industry is still currently trying to identify and eliminate genes that may be responsible for predisposing birds to PSE meat. Advancements in swine and poultry breeding can result in decreases in PSE meat. Selecting hogs with a genotype lacking the "Hal" and "RN-" genes should help eliminate the problem. Breeding advancements have led to fewer marketed pigs having genotypes containing these two genes, so that PSE rates are decreasing. Using microbiology techniques, it is also possible to "knockout" these genes, to reduce the likelihood of carcass

neg: Gene stacked event steps. This can be achieved either by genetic engineering or by conventional cross-breeding of GM plants with two different modifications. Gene stacked event A genetically modified organism (GMO) and all subsequent identical clones resulting from a transformation process are called collectively a transformation event. If more than one gene from another organism has been transferred, the created GMO has stacked genes (or stacked traits), and is called a gene stacked event. Gene stacked events have become an important topic in plant breeding. Occasionally, researchers wish to transfer more than one trait (e.g. an insect resistance and a herbicide resistance) to

neg: Plant breeding selection for traits such as: Currently, few breeding programs are directed at organic agriculture and until recently those that did address this sector have generally relied on indirect selection (i.e. selection in conventional environments for traits considered important for organic agriculture). However, because the difference between organic and conventional environments is large, a given genotype may perform very differently in each environment due to an interaction between genes and the environment (see gene-environment interaction). If this interaction is severe enough, an important trait required for the organic environment may not be revealed in the conventional environment, which can result in

neg: Crossbreed to as domestic short-haired or domestic long-haired cat generically, and in some dialects is often called a "moggy". A horse of unknown bloodlines is a grade horse. Crossbreed A crossbreed is an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. "Crossbreeding", sometimes called "designer crossbreeding", is the process of breeding such an organism, often with the intention to create offspring that share the traits of both parent lineages, or producing an organism with hybrid vigor. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of organisms, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce organisms of inferior quality or dilute

neg: The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man Organism in the Light of the Holistic Approach 229 VIII On Gestalt Psychology and the Theory of the Physical Gestalten 285 IX The Nature of Biological Knowledge 305 X On Norm, Health, and Disease. On Anomaly, Heredity, and Breeding 325 XI On Life and Mind. The Problem of Organismic Hierarchy 353 XII Knowledge and Action 377 XIII Concluding Remarks 383 Notes 395 Index 413 The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man is a book on psychology and neurology by Dr. Kurt

neg:
Haplotype special cases where there is specific information to drastically limit the size of the population of candidates under consideration. Haplotype diversity is a measure of the uniqueness of a particular haplotype in a given population. The haplotype diversity (H) is computed as:
 formula_1
 where formula_2 is the (relative) haplotype frequency of each haplotype in the sample and formula_3 is the sample size. Haplotype diversity is given for each sample. Haplotype A haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent. However, there are other uses of this term. First, it

neg: Capital and income breeding of season, it is predicted that capital breeding will be more prevalent, as the time when the organism is not breeding but when conditions are still favourable will be dedicated to rebuilding stores, therefore allowing them to achieve higher rates of reproduction. Capital breeding also increases with size (at least in organisms with optimal storage and indeterminate growth), as the energy dedicated to growth gives less and less return, thus meaning that energy dedicated to storage will have more return compared to that dedicated to growth. But, in eastern grey kangaroos, capital breeding is used during times of food scarcity,

neg: Cytoplasmic male sterility to fertiles while S cytoplasm with "rfrf" produces only male steriles. Another feature of these systems is that "Rf" mutations ("i.e.", mutations to "rf" or no fertility restoration) are frequent, so that N cytoplasm with "Rfrf" is best for stable fertility. Cytoplasmic–genetic male sterility systems are widely exploited in crop plants for hybrid breeding due to the convenience of controlling sterility expression by manipulating the gene–cytoplasm combinations in any selected genotype. Incorporation of these systems for male sterility evades the need for emasculation in cross-pollinated species, thus encouraging cross breeding producing only hybrid seeds under natural conditions. Hybrid production requires

neg: DNA mediate the function of the genome. Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation, to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus, with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype. A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences

neg: Haplotype Haplotype A haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent. However, there are other uses of this term. First, it is used to mean a collection of specific alleles (that is, specific DNA sequences) in a cluster of tightly linked genes on a chromosome that are likely to be inherited together—that is, they are likely to be conserved as a sequence that survives the descent of many generations of reproduction. A second use is to mean a set of linked single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) alleles that tend to always occur

neg: Genetic engineering a genetically modified organism in the process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding. Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism. Plants, animals or micro organisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the

neg: Haploinsufficiency a gene is absent is called hemizygosity. Hemizygosity is not the same as haploinsufficiency; hemizygosity describes the genotype, and haploinsufficiency is a mechanism that may have caused the phenotype. The general assumption is that the single remaining functional copy of the gene cannot provide sufficient gene product (typically a protein) to preserve the wild-type phenotype leading to an altered or even diseased state. As such, haploinsuffiency is typically transmitted with dominant inheritance, either autosomally or X-linked in female humans. Dominance describes the circumstance in which both alleles in a diploid organism are present but one allele is responsible for the

neg: Zygosity common, and another allele may be rare. Sometimes, one allele is a disease-causing variation while the other allele is healthy. Sometimes, the different variations in the alleles make no difference at all in the function of the organism. In diploid organisms, one allele is inherited from the male parent and one from the female parent. Zygosity is a description of whether those two alleles have identical or different DNA sequences. In some cases the term "zygosity" is used in the context of a single chromosome. The words homozygous, heterozygous, and hemizygous are used to describe the genotype of a diploid

neg: Ooceraea biroi laboratory conditions, it has attracted attention as a potential model organism for studying the molecular biology of sociality. Laboratory maintenance is made easy by the clonality of the species; a few individuals placed in an airtight box and given ant brood as food can be grown up into many large colonies. Clonal reproduction is achieved by automixis with central fusion (see diagram), as is common in the Hymenoptera, yet unlike most clonal Hymenoptera, loss of heterozygosity is extraordinarily slow. The upshot of this is that offspring are almost genetically identical to the parent, allowing nearly complete control over the genotype

neg: Race and health human has a unique genetic code is the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting. Versions of a trait, known as alleles, occur at different frequencies in different human populations; populations that are more geographically and ancestrally remote tend to differ more. A phenotype is the "outward, physical manifestation" of an organism." For humans, phenotypic differences are most readily seen via skin color, eye color, hair color, or height; however, any observable structure, function, or behavior can be considered part of a phenotype. A genotype is the "internally coded, inheritable information" carried by all living organisms. The human genome is

neg: Phene and genes in a strongly comparative context, relating traits to genes where possible. OMIA is modelled on and is complementary to Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM)." The term "phene" is equated with "trait". Phene A phene is an individual genetically determined characteristic or trait which can be possessed by an organism, such as eye colour, height, behavior, tooth shape or any other observable characteristic. The term 'phene' was evidently coined as an obvious parallel construct to 'gene'. Phene is to Phenotype as Gene is to Genotype, and Similarly Phene is to Phenome as Gene is to Genome. More specifically,

neg: Biology is localized in the cell nucleus, or with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype. Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments that are controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis. To maintain dynamic equilibrium and

neg: Phenotype Phenotype The phenotype () of an organism is the composite of the organism's observable characteristics or traits, including as its morphology or physical form and structure; its developmental processes; its biochemical and physiological properties; its behavior, and the products of behavior, for example, a bird's nest. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code, or its genotype, and the influence of environmental factors, which may interact, further affecting phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented polymorphism is

neg: Cell type Cell type A cell type is a classification used to distinguish between morphologically or phenotypically distinct cell forms within a species. A multicellular organism may contain a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such as muscle cells and skin cells in humans, that differ both in appearance and function yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype, but different cell type due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain. Classification of a specific cell type is often done through the use of microscopy (such as those from the cluster of differentiation

neg: Peppered moth evolution have a phenotype (visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen in a homozygous genotype (an organism that has two copies of the same allele), and never in a heterozygous one. This helps explain how dramatically quickly the population changed when being selected for dark colouration. The peppered moth "Biston betularia" is also a model of parallel evolution in the incidence of melanism in the British form ("f. carbonaria") and the American form ("f. swettaria") as they are indistinguishable in appearance. Genetic analysis indicates that both phenotypes are inherited as autosomal dominants. Cross hybridizations indicate the phenotypes are produced by

neg: Maternal effect to phenotypes of offspring that increase their fitness. Further, it introduces the concept of phenotypic plasticity, an important evolutionary concept. It has been proposed that maternal effects are important for the evolution of adaptive responses to environmental heterogeneity. In genetics, a maternal effect occurs when the phenotype of an organism is determined by the genotype of its mother. For example, if a mutation is maternal effect recessive, then a female homozygous for the mutation may appear phenotypically normal, however her offspring will show the mutant phenotype, even if they are heterozygous for the mutation. Maternal effects often occur because the

neg: Phenotype reactions of enzymes. Another extension adds behavior to the phenotype, since behaviors are observable characteristics. Behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes. Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection. It is the living organism as a whole that contributes (or not) to the next generation, so natural selection affects the genetic structure of a population indirectly via the contribution of phenotypes. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection. The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often

neg: Phenotype specific drugs tailored to the patient. As the regulation of phenomics develops there is a potential that new knowledge bases will help achieve the promise of personalized medicine and treatment of neuropsychiatric syndromes. Phenotype The phenotype () of an organism is the composite of the organism's observable characteristics or traits, including as its morphology or physical form and structure; its developmental processes; its biochemical and physiological properties; its behavior, and the products of behavior, for example, a bird's nest. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code, or its genotype, and the influence

neg: Environmental factor is often related to environmental factors. Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing the disease, according to researchers. Environmental triggers for asthma and autism have been studied too. Environmental factor Environmental factor or ecological factor or eco factor is any factor, abiotic or biotic, that influences living organisms. Abiotic factors include ambient temperature, amount of sunlight, and pH of the water soil in which an organism lives. Biotic factors would include the availability of food organisms and the presence of conspecifics, competitors, predators, and parasites. An organism's genotype (e.g.,

neg: Albinism in humans of melanocyte tyrosinase enzymes, a change that is hypothesized to promote brown versus black melanin synthesis, resulting in a third oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) genotype, ″OCA3″. Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body. Some of these are associated with increased risk of skin cancer . The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers

neg: Neurogenetics the resulting phenotype. In forward genetics, an organism with a particular phenotype is identified first, and its genotype is then analyzed. Model organisms are an important tool in many areas of research, including the field of neurogenetics. By studying creatures with simpler nervous systems and with smaller genomes, scientists can better understand their biological processes and apply them to more complex organisms, such as humans. Due to their low-maintenance and highly mapped genomes, mice, "Drosophila", and "C. elegans" are very common. Zebrafish and prairie voles have also become more common, especially in the social and behavioral scopes of neurogenetics. In