query: when was anthropology established as an academic discipline

pos: History of anthropology of the first major treatises on anthropology, "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View" (1798), which treats it as a branch of philosophy. Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, as he never left his region of Germany, nor did he study any cultures besides his own. He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772. Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of Classics and Egyptology informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures. At the same time,

neg: Sara Yorke Stevenson parties who do not happen to think as we do … but to educate them, teach them to see, to know, to love, to feel, to grow." In the 1880s anthropology was still emerging as an established academic discipline, and universities were beginning to develop and formalize their anthropology departments. Stevenson became involved in Egyptological pursuits through her membership in the American branch of the Egypt Exploration Fund, which was founded in 1882 by Amelia Edwards. Throughout her career, Stevenson made several trips overseas, although she never carried out her own archaeological fieldwork. She contributed to the collections of what

neg: Anthropology of food Anthropology of food Anthropology of food is a sub-discipline of anthropology that connects an ethnographic and historical perspective with contemporary social issues in food production and consumption systems. Although early anthropological accounts often dealt with cooking and eating as part of ritual or daily life, food was rarely regarded as the central point of academic focus. This changed in the later half of the 20th century, when foundational work by Mary Douglas, Marvin Harris, Arjun Appadurai, Jack Goody, and Sidney Mintz cemented the study of food as a key insight into modern social life. Mintz is known as the "Father

neg: Cyborg anthropology Cyborg anthropology Cyborg anthropology is a discipline that studies the interaction between humanity and technology from an anthropological perspective. The discipline is relatively new, but offers novel insights on new technological advances and their effect on culture and society. Donna Haraway’s 1984 """"A Cyborg Manifesto" was the first widely-read academic text to explore the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the cyborg. A sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1992 presented a paper entitled "Cyborg Anthropology", which cites Haraway's "Manifesto". The group described cyborg anthropology as the study of how humans define humanness in relationship to machines,

neg: Vincent Crapanzano is an eclectic thinker, a firm believer in rigorous interdisciplinary studies, and severe critique of disciplinary parochialism. He prefers to speak not of anthropology but anthropologies. He often refers to cultural anthropology as a philosophical discipline, at least one that can serve as a corrective to the ethnocentrism of academic philosophy. Once, when asked how he would differentiate anthropology from sociology, he referred to anthropology as a science of the intimate. In many of his ethnographic works, he focuses on the individual, in his early works from a psychoanalytic perspective, later from a dialectical one, and more recently from a

neg: Australian Anthropological Society goals of the Society are to promote the advancement of anthropology as a professional discipline grounded in the systematic pursuit of knowledge, to promote its responsible use in the service of humankind, and to promote professional training and practice in anthropology. AAS supports the development of the discipline in university departments and schools at graduate and post-graduate level. Through an annual conference, an academic journal ("The Australian Journal of Anthropology" - originally published as "Mankind", a regular newsletter, an active listserv and online publications, the Society provides forums where anthropologists can engage in debates central to anthropological theory and practice.

neg: Social theory Cultural Studies programs extended the concerns of social theory into the domain of culture and thus anthropology. A chair and undergraduate program in social theory was established at the University of Melbourne. Social theory at present seems to be gaining acceptance as a classical academic discipline. Adam Ferguson, Montesquieu, and John Millar, among others, were the first to study society as distinct from political institutions and processes. In the nineteenth century, the scientific method was introduced into study of society, which was a significant advance leading to development of sociology as a discipline. In the 18th century, the pre-classical period

neg: Community studies Community studies <onlyinclude> Community studies is an academic field drawing on both sociology and anthropology and the social research methods of ethnography and participant observation in the study of community. In academic settings around the world, community studies is variously a sub-discipline of anthropology or sociology, or an independent discipline. It is often interdisciplinary and geared toward practical applications rather than purely theoretical perspectives. Community studies is sometimes combined with other fields, i.e., "Urban and Community Studies," "Health and Community Studies," or "Family and Community studies." </onlyinclude> In North America, community studies drew inspiration from the classic urban sociology texts

neg: Panchanan Mitra work. Although his contributions included much outside the realm of anthropology, probably his greatest legacy is the introduction and development of anthropology as an academic discipline in India. Presently, anthropology and its related sub-disciplines are taught in more than 40 Indian universities. Panchanan Mitra Dr. Panchanan Mitra () (25 May 1892 – 25 July 1936) was the first professor of anthropology in India. He was among the first Indians to study at Yale University and conducted several anthropological expeditions in India and abroad. He was the head of the Department of Anthropology of the University of Calcutta and is most

neg: Bibliography of anthropology anthropology is traditionally divided into four major subdisciplines: biological anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology and archaeology. Other academic traditions use less broad definitions, where one or more of these fields are considered separate, but related, disciplines. Biological anthropology is traditionally conceived of as part of the North American four-field approach. In some universities, however, the subject has repositioned itself as "human evolutionary biology". In Europe, it is sometimes taught as an individual subject at college level or as part of the discipline of biology. Its methods are informed by evolutionary biology, hence the adjunct "biological". Since 1993, the Biological Anthropology

neg: Cyborg anthropology out the ways that tool-centric and technologically communicated values and ethics typify the human condition, and that cross-cultural and ethnological trends in conceptions of lifeways, power dynamics, and definitions of humanity often incorporate information-rich technological symbology. Cyborg anthropology Cyborg anthropology is a discipline that studies the interaction between humanity and technology from an anthropological perspective. The discipline is relatively new, but offers novel insights on new technological advances and their effect on culture and society. Donna Haraway’s 1984 """"A Cyborg Manifesto" was the first widely-read academic text to explore the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the cyborg. A sub-focus group

neg: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland of anthropological analysis to public and topical issues, while reflecting the breadth of interests within the discipline of anthropology. It is committed to promoting debate at the interface between anthropology and areas of applied knowledge such as education, medicine and development; as well as that between anthropology and other academic disciplines. "Anthropological Index Online" was launched in 1997. The Index is an online bibliographic service for researchers, teachers and students of anthropology worldwide. Access is free to individual users; institutional users (except those in developing countries) pay an annual subscription. Major European and other languages of scholarship are covered, and

neg: American Journal of Physical Anthropology supplement of the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology". It provides "broad but thorough coverage of developments within the discipline" of physical anthropology. American Journal of Physical Anthropology The American Journal of Physical Anthropology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal and the official journal of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. It was established in 1918 by Aleš Hrdlička (U.S. National Museum, now the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History). The journal covers the field of physical anthropology, a discipline which Hrdlička defined in the first issue as "the study of racial anatomy, physiology and pathology." The Wistar Institute of Anatomy

neg: USC Center for Visual Anthropology USC Center for Visual Anthropology The USC Center for Visual Anthropology (CVA) is a center located at the University of Southern California. It is dedicated to the field of visual anthropology, incorporating visual modes of expression in the academic discipline of anthropology. It does so in conjunction with faculty in the anthropology department through five types of activities: training, research and analysis of visual culture, production of visual projects, archiving and collecting, and the sponsorship of conferences and film festivals. It offers a B.A. and an MVA in Visual Anthropology. The CVA was founded and directed by Ira Abrams in

neg: History of anthropology by country been a slow process that involved first understanding what the discipline was and then determining how it fit within each country's individual ideals. Austrian anthropology has close ties to Germany and is generally intertwined with German-speaking countries. As such, the history of anthropology in Austria is foggy until the marked institutionalization of the discipline. The Anthropological Society in Vienna (ASV) was the first anthropological institution in Austria. It was established on February 13, 1870 and is a non-profit organization. The “new anthropology” approach was the ASV’s foundation and Bernd Weiler’s term for anthropology that existed post-publication of Charles Darwin’s "On

neg: Anthropology of food of food anthropology" for his work "Sweetness and Power (1985)," which linked British demand for sugar with the creation of empire and exploitative industrial labor conditions. Research has traced the material and symbolic importance of food, as well as how they intersect. Examples of ongoing themes are food as a form of differentiation, commensality, and food's role in industrialization and globalizing labor and commodity chains. Several related and interdisciplinary academic programs exist in the US and UK (listed under Food studies institutions). Anthropology of food Anthropology of food is a sub-discipline of anthropology that connects an ethnographic and historical perspective

neg: Cultural anthropology generation of cultural anthropologists. Parallel with the rise of cultural anthropology in the United States, social anthropology, in which "sociality" is the central concept and which focuses on the study of social statuses and roles, groups, institutions, and the relations among them—developed as an academic discipline in Britain and in France. The umbrella term socio-cultural anthropology draws upon both cultural and social anthropology traditions. Anthropology is concerned with the lives of people in different parts of the world, particularly in relation to the discourse of beliefs and practices. In addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two

neg: Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology discourse about revolutionary strategy. 2. Anarchism has tended to be an ethical discourse about revolutionary practice" (p. 6). Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology is one of a series of pamphlets published by Prickly Paradigm Press in 2004. With the essay, anthropologist David Graeber attempts to outline areas of research that intellectuals might explore in creating a cohesive body of anarchist social theory. Graeber posits that anthropology is "particularly well positioned" as an academic discipline that can look at the gamut of human societies and organizations, to study, analyze and catalog alternative social and economic structures

neg: Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology is one of a series of pamphlets published by Prickly Paradigm Press in 2004. With the essay, anthropologist David Graeber attempts to outline areas of research that intellectuals might explore in creating a cohesive body of anarchist social theory. Graeber posits that anthropology is "particularly well positioned" as an academic discipline that can look at the gamut of human societies and organizations, to study, analyze and catalog alternative social and economic structures around the world, and most importantly, present these alternatives to the world. One of the most striking suggestions

neg: History of anthropology by country History of anthropology by country Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. This study is practiced in multiple countries, each of whom has their own history of how anthropology has developed in their respective countries. Anthropology in Latin America is a well established discipline that has existed for over 100 years. The countries that are summarized in this section include Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, the Andean region, Costa Rica, and Colombia. Latin America anthropologists established their discipline in conjunction with American and European anthropologists, and revised their disciplines to study cultural phenomena through their

neg: Medical Anthropology Quarterly Medical Anthropology Quarterly Medical Anthropology Quarterly (MAQ) is an international peer-reviewed academic journal published for the Society for Medical Anthropology, a section of the American Anthropological Association, by Wiley-Blackwell. It publishes research and theory about human health and disease from all areas of medical anthropology. The purpose is to stimulate important ideas and debates in medical anthropology and to explore the links between medical anthropology, the parent discipline of anthropology, and neighboring disciplines in the health and social sciences. According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 0.607, ranking it 31st out of 37

neg: Philosophical anthropology of this liberation, characteristic of modernity, has been the Cartesian skepticism formulated by Descartes in the first two of his "Meditations on First Philosophy" (1641). Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) taught the first lectures on anthropology in the European academic world. He specifically developed a conception of "pragmatic anthropology", according to which the human being is studied as a free agent. At the same time, he conceived of his anthropology as an empirical, not a strictly philosophical discipline. Both his philosophical and his anthropological work has been one of the influences in the field during the 19th and 20th century. After Kant,

neg: Medical Anthropology Quarterly journals in the category "Social Sciences, Biomedical". The current Editor is Vincanne Adams, University of California San Francisco. Outgoing editor Clarence (Lance) Gravlee will continue to participate in peer review of manuscripts. Medical Anthropology Quarterly Medical Anthropology Quarterly (MAQ) is an international peer-reviewed academic journal published for the Society for Medical Anthropology, a section of the American Anthropological Association, by Wiley-Blackwell. It publishes research and theory about human health and disease from all areas of medical anthropology. The purpose is to stimulate important ideas and debates in medical anthropology and to explore the links between medical anthropology, the parent discipline

neg: History of anthropology records of travellers and missionaries. In Canada, Jesuit missionaries such as Fathers LeClercq, Le Jeune and Sagard, in the 17th century, provide the oldest ethnographic records of native tribes in what was then the Dominion of Canada. The academic discipline has drawn strongly on both the British Social Anthropology and the American Cultural Anthropology traditions, producing a hybrid "Socio-cultural" anthropology. True anthropology began with a Government department: the Geological Survey of Canada, and George Mercer Dawson (director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who

neg: Hawaiian studies Hawaiian studies Hawaiian studies is an academic discipline dedicated to the study of Hawaiians. It evolved in the second half of the 20th century partly in response to charges that traditional disciplines such as anthropology, history, English language, ethnology, Asian Studies, and orientalism were imbued with an inherently eurocentric perspective. Ethnic Studies has mostly been a study of minority settler cultures although Hawaiian Studies shares with Ethnic Studies attempts to remedy problems with other academic disciplines by trying to study Hawaiian culture and people on their own terms, in their own language, acknowledging their own values. In Hawaii, the discipline

neg: Buddhist ethics (discipline) Buddhist ethics (discipline) Buddhist ethics as an academic discipline is relatively new, blossoming in the mid-1990s. Much like Critical Buddhism and Buddhist modernism, it is a result of recent exchanges of Eastern and Western thought. While generally thought of as a sub-field of Buddhist studies, the discipline of Buddhist ethics draws together history, philosophy, religious studies, anthropology, and more in an attempt to understand what may be the fundamental question of Buddhism: how ought man live? Specific work has been produced on Buddhist ethics dating back to the 1920s. Early descriptive accounts of Buddhist ethics include Tachibana’s "Ethics of Buddhism"

neg: Annual Review of Anthropology ranking it 8th out of 81 journals in the category "Anthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology The Annual Review of Anthropology is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal that was established in 1972. It covers significant developments on all aspects of anthropology, including archaeology, biological anthropology, linguistics and communicative practices, regional studies and international anthropology, and sociocultural anthropology. The editors-in-chief are Donald Brenneis (University of California, Santa Cruz) and Karen B. Strier (University of Wisconsin-Madison). The journal was established as "Biennial Review of Anthropology" which was published by the Stanford University Press from 1959 to 1971 or 1972. According to the "Journal

neg: Clark University States at Harvard. Clark has played a prominent role in the development of psychology as a distinguished discipline in the United States ever since. Franz Boas, founder of American cultural anthropology and adviser for the first Ph.D. in anthropology which was granted at Clark in 1894, taught at Clark from 1888 until 1892 when he resigned in a dispute with President Hall over academic freedom and joined the faculty of Columbia University. Albert A. Michelson, the first American to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics, best known for his involvement in the Michelson–Morley experiment, which measured the speed of light,

neg: Annual Review of Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology The Annual Review of Anthropology is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal that was established in 1972. It covers significant developments on all aspects of anthropology, including archaeology, biological anthropology, linguistics and communicative practices, regional studies and international anthropology, and sociocultural anthropology. The editors-in-chief are Donald Brenneis (University of California, Santa Cruz) and Karen B. Strier (University of Wisconsin-Madison). The journal was established as "Biennial Review of Anthropology" which was published by the Stanford University Press from 1959 to 1971 or 1972. According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 2.246,

neg: Society for Applied Anthropology The journal seeks to link practicing anthropologists with academic anthropologists, inform policy research and implementation, and provide a reflexive look into the history and future of anthropology as a discipline. The journal is driven by its contributors who are encouraged to submit special issues as well as individual research articles for publication. "Practicing Anthropology" is an editor-reviewed publication. There is no fee to contributing authors who are current SfAA members. The journal is distributed online or via mail to current dues paying members of the SfAA. The journal is also available to purchase online for non-members. The SfAA has an

neg: Principlism would generally give more credence towards that position. On the other hand, if one academic discipline has a hypothesis that contradicts several or all of the other academic disciplines, then that would be reason either to reject that hypothesis or at least to give it some pause. One example of such unification would be the comparison of evolution vs. creationism. Evolution converges in several academic fields such as Biology, Microbiology, Astronomy, Cosmology, Geology, Paleontology, Oceanography, Pathology, Medicine, Anthropology, and more. Creationism, on the other hand, is based on the non-academic discipline of religious faith and is not supported by any

neg: Critical military studies the military. Critical military studies Critical Military Studies is a new academic sub-discipline which brings critical theory to the study of military institutions and practices. It intersects with many academic disciplines, such as international relations, political science, gender studies, human geography and anthropology. Academic conferences in 2013 and 2014 have included panels on Critical Military Studies. The sub-discipline also has a new academic journal published by Taylor and Francis. Scholarship on Critical Military Studies includes issues such as military recruitment and military landscapes. Critical Military Studies is particularly concerned with how understandings of gender and sexuality shape military practices and

neg: Critical military studies Critical military studies Critical Military Studies is a new academic sub-discipline which brings critical theory to the study of military institutions and practices. It intersects with many academic disciplines, such as international relations, political science, gender studies, human geography and anthropology. Academic conferences in 2013 and 2014 have included panels on Critical Military Studies. The sub-discipline also has a new academic journal published by Taylor and Francis. Scholarship on Critical Military Studies includes issues such as military recruitment and military landscapes. Critical Military Studies is particularly concerned with how understandings of gender and sexuality shape military practices and research on

neg: Visual anthropology include sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs. Also within the province of the subfield are studies of human vision, properties of media, the relationship of visual form and function, and applied, collaborative uses of visual representations. Multimodal anthropology describes the latest turn in the subfield, which considers how emerging technologies like immersive virtual reality, augmented reality, mobile apps, social networking, gaming along with film, photography and art is reshaping anthropological research, practice and teaching. Even before the emergence of anthropology as an academic discipline in the 1880s, ethnologists used photography as a tool

neg: Public anthropology by claiming it is "a useful trope for one important reason: it calls attention to the fact that there is a division between public and academic perceptions" (Fields 2001a). Public anthropology Public anthropology, according to Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, "demonstrates the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline - illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change" (Borofsky 2004). Merrill Singer has criticized the concept of public anthropology on the grounds that it ignores applied

neg: Thai studies academics at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) promoted Thai studies as a research discipline in social studies. The inaugural open-access "Thai Studies Journal" was launched at RMIT in 2011. RMIT hosted three Thai studies conferences in 2001, 2011, and 2014. Thai studies Thai Studies, a branch of Asian studies, is the multidisciplinary study of Thailand and the Thai peoples. It calls upon the academic disciplines of history, anthropology, religious studies, political science, Thai language, Thai literature, musicology and the physical sciences such as geology. The first organisation to sponsor and promote Thai Studies was the Siam Society, established

neg: Damián Domingo the history of Filipino art and is credited with establishing academic courses in art in the Philippines. Damian Domingo's contribution to the development of art as an academic discipline in the Philippines was seminal. He took an important step toward his vision of making art more accessible in 1821, when he established a school for artists in his residence in Tondo. It was a major leap for the discipline in the Philippines. He also oversaw the growth and development of art as the director of the first official Philippine art academy. The academy was also possibly the first of its

neg: Forensic anthropology potentially be identified. The field of forensic anthropology grew during the twentieth century into a fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists as well as numerous research institutions gathering data on decomposition and the effects it can have on the skeleton. Today, forensic anthropology is a well established discipline within the forensic field. Anthropologists are called upon to investigate remains and to help identify individuals from bones when other physical characteristics which could be used to identify a body no longer exist. Forensic anthropologists work in conjunction with forensic pathologists to identify remains based on their skeletal characteristics. If the

neg: Franz Boas established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with Polish-English anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant observation method of fieldwork. The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one overarching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of England, France, or Germany. This approach defines as its object the human

neg: Rock Art Research over 350 authors. The journal bridges numerous disciplines, including geochemistry, geomorphology, art history, ethnography, conservation science, human evolution, anthropology, archaeology, semiotics and others, with an editorial emphasis on the hard sciences. It has been instrumental in guiding the discipline for a third of a century. Rock Art Research Rock Art Research is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering rock art and other forms of paleoart. It is published by the International Federation of Rock Art Organizations (IFRAO) and the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA) and was established in 1984. It is the only refereed journal specifically dedicated to the

neg: Anarchy argued by palaeoanthropologists that resistance to being dominated was a key factor driving the development of human consciousness, language, kinship, and social organization. In "Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology" anarchist anthropologist David Graeber attempts to outline areas of research that intellectuals might explore in creating a cohesive body of anarchist social theory. Graeber posits that anthropology is "particularly well positioned" as an academic discipline that can look at the gamut of human societies and organizations, to study, analyze and catalog alternative social and economic structures around the world, and most importantly, present these alternatives to the world. In "Society Against

neg: History of anthropology by country Master of Arts degree in anthropology, while there were none in the 1990s. There were three anthropologists on the faculty throughout this time. Among them were Fuad Khuri, Martha Mundy, and Gerald Obermeyer. A survey conducted in 1989 by Seteney Shami, a 1976 graduate of the BA program in anthropology at the American University in Beirut, sought to learn more about the teachings of anthropology at universities in the Arab world. Her findings suggested that the role of the discipline in the Arab world were minimal. In an academic report that came out in 2006, anthropologists at the same university

neg: History of anthropology by country "volkekunde", which means knowledge about people, and it was first known from pre-WWII German passage that was written by Völkerkunde. This expansion of the discipline was also known as ethnology or cultural anthropology, and it was paired with aspects of the apartheid period. This caused a division between social anthropology and volkekunde, as well as Afrikaans-medium universities and English-medium universities, respectively. Stellenbosch University (an Afrikaan-medium university) had established its first anthropological department due to Werner Eiselen, who was the Permanent Secretary in the National Department of Native Affairs, as well as being a developer of the concept of apartheid, with

neg: Sociology of social anthropology or anthroposociology is the dominant constituent of anthropology throughout the United Kingdom and Commonwealth and much of Europe (France in particular), where it is distinguished from cultural anthropology. In the United States, social anthropology is commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology (or under the relatively new designation of sociocultural anthropology). Sociology and applied sociology are connected to the professional and academic discipline of social work. Both disciplines study social interactions, community and the effect of various systems (i.e. family, school, community, laws, political sphere) on the individual. However, social work is generally more focused on practical strategies to

neg: History of anthropology most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the social sciences". Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Scholarly traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the Romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. These intellectual movements in part grappled with one of the greatest paradoxes of

neg: Dreamtime (book) increase in the number of students enrolling to study ethnography at West German universities. It also saw increasing interdisciplinary collaboration between anthropologists and philosophers, with several scholars arguing that ethnography was relevant to "philosophical analysis". This increase in philosophical discussion within German anthropology was largely rejected by the "official academic representatives" of the discipline, who believed that it exceeded the "limits of scientific respectability", but it was nonetheless adopted by Duerr in "Dreamtime". When the book was first published in West Germany in 1978, it sold hundreds of thousands of copies, becoming a bestseller and arousing both popular and academic

neg: History of anthropology by country a rising trend in which the Palestinian subject is explored for their national identity, rather than silenced. Anthropology as a discipline in Turkey can trace its roots back to 1925. Developing in an nationalistic atmosphere, The Anthropology Institute, otherwise known as The Center for Anthropological Research in Turkey, was established on that year within the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Istanbul. From 1925 to the 1960s, the main topics of research centered around studies of rural and village life, with a focus on nation building. In the 1960s, a series of military coups occurred, causing considerable changes to

neg: Forensic anthropology within the discipline. The use of anthropology in the forensic investigation of remains grew out of the recognition of anthropology as a distinct scientific discipline and the growth of physical anthropology. The field of anthropology began in the United States and struggled to obtain recognition as a legitimate science during the early years of the twentieth century. Earnest Hooton pioneered the field of physical anthropology and became the first physical anthropologist to hold a full-time teaching position in the United States. He was an organizing committee member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists along with its founder Aleš Hrdlička.

neg: Society for Applied Anthropology Society for Applied Anthropology The Society for Applied Anthropology (SfAA) is a US-based professional association for applied anthropology, established "to promote the integration of anthropological perspectives and methods in solving human problems throughout the world; to advocate for fair and just public policy based upon sound research; to promote public recognition of anthropology as a profession; and to support the continuing professionalization of the field." Members include academic as well as practicing and applied anthropologists. The Society publishes two journals: "Human Organization" and "Practicing Anthropology". The SfAA was founded in 1941 and has maintained its status as an important resource

neg: Arab studies Arab studies Arab studies or Arabic studies is an academic discipline centered on the study of Arabs and Arab World. It consists of several disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, linguistics, historiography, archaeology, Anthropology, Cultural studies, Economics, Geography, History, International relations, Law, Literature, Philosophy, Psychology, Political science, Public administration and Sociology. The field draws from old Arabic chronicles, records and oral literature, in addition to written accounts and traditions about Arabs from explorers and geographers in the Arab World (Middle East-North Africa). Arab studies talk about the history of the Middle East and North Africa, before the rise of Islam to

neg: Juan Comas (1942) shows the different percentages of blood types in the population, and how an argument on blood truly does not carry weight in defining a population primitive. Blood and blood types were not basis for defining any group inferior. The discipline of anthropology is viewed and exercised much different in Latin America from that of its North American counterpart. This has much to do with the history of the North v. South. The discipline began in the North when the colonial expansion was at its highest in the mid-nineteenth century, and used anthropology, a nascent discipline, to carry out its

neg: History of anthropology by country issues. A leading journal in Africa is the African Anthropology, now known as The African Anthropologist, allows research from all over Africa to be shared and more easily accessible. The history of the discipline of anthropology in South Africa comes from the result of political and ideological interpretations of the research there. In the 1920s, the South African Association for the Advancement of Science was established, and it was here that anthropology was known. Presentations were given by archeologists, linguists, anthropologists, and ethnologists; there was also a South African Journal of Science that many researchers published in as well. During

neg: Franz Boas publish his manuscripts about the culture of the Kwakiutl people. Franz Boas was an immensely influential figure throughout the development of folklore as a discipline. At first glance, it might seem that his only concern was for the discipline of anthropology—after all, he fought for most of his life to keep folklore as a part of anthropology. Yet Boas was motivated by his desire to see both anthropology and folklore become more professional and well-respected. Boas was afraid that if folklore was allowed to become its own discipline the standards for folklore scholarship would be lowered. This, combined with the

neg: Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre (SAC) is an academic institution under Ministry of Culture in Taling Chan District, Bangkok, Thailand, established in 1992, with the aim of the systematic gathering, processing, and maintenance of anthropological data scattered throughout the country. The centre was initiated by Silpakorn University in 1991, started as a faculty-equivalent unit within the university. It became an autonomous organisation in 2000. The institute is named after Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, Princess Royal of Thailand. In 1989, Silpakorn University established the project of organizing the centre to glorify Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn

neg: Historical geography in turn to the 1950s crisis in geography, which raised serious questions about geography as an academic discipline in the USA. This sub-branch of human geography is closely related to history, environmental history, and historical ecology. Historical geography Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time. It is a synthesizing discipline which shares both topical and methodological similarities with history, anthropology, ecology, geology, environmental studies, literary studies, and other fields. Although the majority of work in historical geography is considered human geography, the field also encompasses studies of geographic

neg: Dell Hymes Dell Hymes Dell Hathaway Hymes (June 7, 1927 in Portland, OregonNovember 13, 2009 in Charlottesville, Virginia) was a linguist, sociolinguist, anthropologist, and folklorist who established disciplinary foundations for the comparative, ethnographic study of language use. His research focused upon the languages of the Pacific Northwest. He was one of the first to call the fourth subfield of anthropology "linguistic anthropology" instead of "anthropological linguistics". The terminological shift draws attention to the field's grounding in anthropology rather than in what, by that time, had already become an autonomous discipline (linguistics). In 1972 Hymes founded the journal "Language in Society" and served

neg: History of anthropology by country the state with a focus on understanding, regulating, and standardizing the different ethnic groups of Russia. Central and Eastern Europe includes the countries of Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, and Hungary among many others. Anthropological study is active in many places Europe through research centers, academic societies, and universities on a range of topics. One of the biggest problems facing anthropologists in Central and Eastern Europe is the need to define themselves as a discipline separate from any other. Anthropology in central European countries has its roots in Germany. The establishment of anthropology within central Europe has

neg: American Journal of Physical Anthropology American Journal of Physical Anthropology The American Journal of Physical Anthropology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal and the official journal of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. It was established in 1918 by Aleš Hrdlička (U.S. National Museum, now the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History). The journal covers the field of physical anthropology, a discipline which Hrdlička defined in the first issue as "the study of racial anatomy, physiology and pathology." The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology was the original publisher. Before launching publication, there were few outlets in the United States to publish scientific work in

neg: Digital leisure studies Digital leisure studies Digital leisure studies is an academic interdisciplinary sub-discipline of leisure studies that focuses on the study of digital leisure cultures, including digital leisure practices, experiences, spaces, communities, institutions, and subjectivities. It is an area of scholarship aimed at making sense of the place of digital leisure “in understandings of embodiment, power relations, social inequalities, social structures and social institutions”. To do so, leisure scholars use theoretical and methodological approaches from within leisure studies as well as from other academic disciplines such as political science, history, communication studies, cultural studies, philosophy, sociology, geography, anthropology, and others. Scholars in

neg: Legal anthropology and Legal Anthropology Review", the leading U.S. journal in the field of legal anthropology, which is accessible via http://polarjournal.org/ or http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1555-2934 'Allegra: a Virtual Laboratory of Legal Anthropology' is an online experiment by a new generation of legal anthropologists designated to facilitate scholarly collaboration and awareness of the sub-discipline. Legal anthropology Legal anthropology, also known as the anthropology of laws, is a sub-discipline of anthropology which specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering". The questions that Legal Anthropologists seek to answer concern how is law present in cultures? How does it manifest? How may anthropologists contribute to understandings of

neg: Manchu studies Manchu studies Manchu studies or Manjuristics is an academic discipline concerned with the study of the Manchu language, the historical texts written in it during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), as well as by contemporary Manchu and Sibe people. The first treatise on the Manchu language was the "Elementa linguæ Tartaricæ" published in Paris in 1696. The foundations of Manchu studies as scholarly discipline date to the 18th century, when diplomatic and trade relations were established between European countries and China's Qing dynasty. The first major centres of Manchu studies were in France and Russia. An important event was the establishment

neg: History of anthropology by country department to be established, was closed down in the mid-1990s. A few years afterward, the discipline of social anthropology was introduced within the Department of Sociology. The new association of Anthropology South Africa was a cause to link the two distinguished branches of volkekunde and social anthropology. Its first annual conference was in 2001. In 2004, it became one of the founding members of the World Council of Anthropology Associations in Brazil. There aren’t very many volkekundiges, or ethnologists, who have membership within the ASnA, nor do most of them attend any of the conferences that are held. A majority

neg: American Literature (academic discipline) an assistant professorship of American Literature had been established at a French university while a chair for the study of "American civilization" had been created at Berlin University. The scholarly journal "American Literature" was first published in 1929. In 1989 the American Literature Association, a coalition of 110 affiliated societies mostly concerned with the work of a particular author (e.g. the Emily Dickinson International Society or the Thoreau Society), was organized. American Literature (academic discipline) American Literature is an academic discipline devoted to the study of American literature. In the mid-19th century, English literature in the United States was generally

neg: Marcel Mauss Marcel Mauss Marcel Mauss (; 10 May 1872 – 10 February 1950) was a French sociologist. The nephew of Émile Durkheim, Mauss' academic work traversed the boundaries between sociology and anthropology. Today, he is perhaps better recognised for his influence on the latter discipline, particularly with respect to his analyses of topics such as magic, sacrifice, and gift exchange in different cultures around the world. Mauss had a significant influence upon Claude Lévi-Strauss, the founder of structural anthropology. His most famous book is "The Gift" (1925). Mauss was born in Épinal, Vosges, to a Jewish family, and studied philosophy at

neg: Philosophical anthropology Philosophical anthropology Philosophical anthropology, sometimes called anthropological philosophy, is a discipline dealing with questions of metaphysics and phenomenology of the human person, and interpersonal relationships. Augustine of Hippo was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear anthropological vision, although it is not clear if he had any influence on Max Scheler, the founder of philosophical anthropology as an independent discipline, nor on any of the major philosophers that followed him. Augustine has been cited by Husserl and Heidegger as one of the early writers to inquire on time-consciousness and the role of "seeing" in the

neg: Cultural history a watershed in the history of (so-called) modernity, and that the problematic notion of 'modernity' has itself attracted scant attention. "Cultural studies" is an academic discipline popular among a diverse group of scholars. It combines political economy, geography, sociology, social theory, literary theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, and art history/criticism to study cultural phenomena in various societies. Cultural studies researchers often concentrate on how a particular phenomenon relates to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender. The term was coined by Richard Hoggart in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. It has

neg: Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre on the occasion of her 36th birthday in 1991, given her interest in anthropology and related subjects, such as history, linguistics, and archaeology. The project was approved by royal decree to be a state agency under the aegis of Silpakorn University. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre (SAC) is an academic institution under Ministry of Culture in Taling Chan District, Bangkok, Thailand, established in 1992, with the aim of the systematic gathering, processing, and maintenance of anthropological data scattered throughout the country. The centre was initiated by Silpakorn University in 1991, started as a

neg: The Golden Bough Frazer's ideas played "a much smaller part" in the history of academic social anthropology. Lienhardt himself dismissed Frazer's interpretations of primitive religion as "little more than plausible constructs of [Frazer's] own Victorian rationalism", while Ludwig Wittgenstein, in his "Remarks on Frazer's Golden Bough" (1979), wrote: "Frazer is much more savage than most of his 'savages' [since] his explanations of [their] observances are much cruder than the sense of the observances themselves." Initially, the book's influence on the emerging discipline of anthropology was pervasive. For example, the Polish anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski read Frazer's work in the original English, and afterwards wrote:

neg: Matriarchy is "female dominance". Within the academic discipline of cultural anthropology, according to the "OED", matriarchy is a "culture or community in which such a system prevails" or a "family, society, organization, etc., dominated by a woman or women." In general anthropology, according to William A. Haviland, matriarchy is "rule by women". A matriarchy is a society in which females, especially mothers, have the central roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property, but does not include a society that occasionally is led by a female for nonmatriarchal reasons or an occupation in which females generally predominate without reference

neg: Academic ranks in the United Kingdom Academic ranks in the United Kingdom Academic ranks in the United Kingdom are the titles, relative importance and power of academic employees. In general the United Kingdom has three academic career pathways, a combined research and teaching career pathway, a research career pathway and a teaching career pathway. In the United Kingdom, like most Commonwealth countries (excluding Australia and Canada), as well as in Ireland, traditionally a professor held either an established chair or a personal chair. An established chair is established by the university to meet its needs for academic leadership and standing in a particular area or discipline

neg: Robert B. Hall (Japanologist) would be an alternative to training in a discipline and that Area Studies would not drain students away from the established departments. The Center's executive committee included members from the departments of Anthropology, Fine Arts, Economics, and the Oriental Studies Program. Hall's study, "Area Studies: With Special Reference to Their Implications for Research in the Social Sciences", published in 1947 for the SSRC, drew up the arguments in favor of the approach in order to organize government and foundation support. The Center established a research program in Okayama, Japan, in 1950. The program was partly made possible when Hall met

neg: History of anthropology by country this institute even contributed to some of the top scholars such as musicologists P.N. Kavyu and , historians H.S.K. Mwaniki and William R. Ochieng’, and writers Okot p’Bitek and Taban lo Liyong. In 1986, the IAS had established its first anthropology training program, providing courses of medical, linguistic, economic, and ecological anthropology and material culture (Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, 2006). The future of the discipline of anthropology consists of research projects dedicated to resolving health issues, such as malaria and HIV/AIDS, so it’s not a surprise that most anthropologists in Kenya today are either medical anthropologists or those anthropologists who study medical issues.

neg: Eric Wolf than ideal position in the wider academy, Eric Wolf criticized what he called "disciplinary imperialism" within social sciences, and between social sciences on one hand, and the natural sciences on another, banishing certain topics, such as history, as not enough academic. An example within social sciences is cultural anthropology winning over social anthropology (established in British academia), over sociology, and over history in the American and Americanized global academic community, since sociology was left with studying social mobility and social class, categories which neoliberals argue to be irrelevant, cultural anthropologists on the other hand proved useful for colonialist rule over

neg: Visual anthropology and applied anthropological initiatives - ranging from photovoice to virtual museum collections - in which cameras are given to local collaborators as a strategy for empowerment. In the United States, Visual Anthropology first found purchase in an academic setting in 1958 with the creation of the Film Study Center at Harvard's Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. In the United Kingdom, The Granada Centre for Visual Anthropology at the University of Manchester was established in 1987 to offer training in anthropology and film-making to MA, MPhil and PhD students and whose graduates have produced over 300 films to date. John

neg: History of anthropology by country from communism in 1989, there was a turn to socio-cultural anthropology in the way of ideology, but it was inconsistent. Some academics saw it as the same thing as ethnology, while others thought of it as a different research field with different methods and traditions, which resulted in the difficulty of establishing anthropology as a discipline. Many argue for there being a real epistemological difference between the two approaches. Hungarian anthropology is a defined discipline with its own departments and methods, though there is still overlap between anthropology and other related departments, like history and sociology. Hungarian anthropology places a

neg: History of anthropology by country Weltmuseum Wien, translated ‘World Museum Vienna’, opened in 1928 and houses worldwide artifacts, not including Europe, from as early as the 1500s. The museum’s previous title was the Museum of Ethnology and it recently reopened after closing for renovations in 2014. Croatian anthropology started with a focus more on natural and medical topics because it wasn’t embraced as a human-centered scientific discipline. In 1973, various European anthropologists met for the first time to discuss the making of a European Association for Anthropology. It wasn’t until the fourth meeting in Zagreb, on October 7, 1976, that the board members established the

neg: Primatology Primatology Primatology is the scientific study of primates. It is a diverse discipline at the boundary between mammalogy and anthropology, and researchers can be found in academic departments of anatomy, anthropology, biology, medicine, psychology, veterinary sciences and zoology, as well as in animal sanctuaries, biomedical research facilities, museums and zoos. Primatologists study both living and extinct primates in their natural habitats and in laboratories by conducting field studies and experiments in order to understand aspects of their evolution and behaviour. As a science, primatology has many different sub-disciplines which vary in terms of theoretical and methodological approaches to the subject

neg: History of anthropology by country termed cholification by the Peruvian sociologist Anibal Quijano. In the 1990s during the Neo-liberal era, indigenous thought became more recognized with political conflicts in the Andean region, and interculturalidad was pursued again for Andean states to recognize the diversity of the people that occupied them. Social Anthropology was established in Argentina in 1957. It was first institutionalized at the University of Buenos Aires. Before the institutionalization of social anthropology, the discipline largely focused on historical studies. Rosana Guber attributes the introduction of social anthropology to Esther Hermitte who was a history professor at the Ethnographic Museum in Argentina. It was

neg: History of anthropology by country Australopithecus Boisei (1959), Homo Habilis (1964), and Kenyapithecus (1967). In 1960, he established the Institute of Primate Research (IPR) which helped in comprehending human evolution and biomedical research for health challenges in Africa, such as HIV/AIDS. Since the discipline of anthropology was associated with colonialism, the nation-state of Kenya did not identify with its trajectories and could not support it. It wasn’t until Daniel Arap Moi, who succeeded Jomo as president, made culture a central means for socio-economic aspects, making anthropology slowly begin to gain popularity again among locals due to its national cultural ethos. In 1965, the University of

neg: History of anthropology by country a time of great social and political change for Russia with the end of the USSR, were a time for critical introspective views on the recent past. With this, Russian anthropology turned towards more contemporary interests, where it still is today. Even with these contemporary interests, Russian anthropology still finds itself heavily influenced by the ethnology of its past and attempting to reconcile what it means to be a “social” anthropologist in this environment. The discipline of anthropology is not new to the Arab world. While there were no established anthropological institutions until the 20th century, scholars such as Abu

neg: Juan Comas the discipline in Latin America as a great tool. However, when he arrived to the American continent, Comas saw that the literature and work were not complete. He wanted to change that. One way he accomplished this, already mentioned above, was through popularizing the discipline through the journals that he edited and founded. A second way Comas contributed to the literature of the discipline was in his — often cited as a Masterpiece — textbook, Manual of Physical Anthropology (1957, 1960). This was an extensive book that was used throughout the continent, and even translated into English. This book was

neg: Cultural anthropology the Iroquois. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as Edward Tylor), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from "savagery", to "barbarism", to "civilization". Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. Franz Boas established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to Morgan's evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and

neg: Franz Boas United States was dominated by the Bureau of American Ethnology, directed by John Wesley Powell, a geologist who favored Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. The BAE was housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, Otis T. Mason, shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution. (The Peabody Museum at Harvard University was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research). It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline. During

neg: Game design are both examples of game design. Game studies or gaming theory is a discipline that deals with the critical study of games, game design, players, and their role in society and culture. Prior to the late-twentieth century, the academic study of games was rare and limited to fields such as history and anthropology. As the video game revolution took off in the early 1980s, so did academic interest in games, resulting in a field that draws on diverse methodologies and schools of thought. These influences may be characterized broadly in three ways: the social science approach, the humanities approach, and

neg: Anthropology or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe. In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of

neg: History of anthropology by country and a limited number of methods taken advantage of by Bulgarian anthropologists. Much attention is paid to community formation, complex societies, power, polity, statehood, nationalism, myth, ritual, religion, marriage, kinship, ethnicity, nation-hood, magic, medicine, and multiculturality. The Czech Republic takes a constructivist approach to anthropology (closely connected to ethnology), which they take a positivist approach to. Ethnology is taken to be trying to get at objective truth, where anthropology is getting at social constructs and beliefs. Despite this split between ideas of ethnology and anthropology in the Czech Republic, anthropology is not yet a fully established discipline. After the split

neg: Legal anthropology law through its established functions as opposed to a discrete entity. This has led to multiple researchers and ethnographies examining such aspects as order, dispute, conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation, in addition (and often antagonistically) to law-centred studies, with small-societal studies leading to insightful self-reflections and better understanding of the founding concept of law. Legal anthropology remains a lively discipline with modern and recent applications including issues such as human rights, legal pluralism, Islamophobia and political uprisings. Legal Anthropology provides a definition of law which differs from that found within modern legal systems. Hoebel (1954) offered the following

neg: David Baker (composer) notable performances under Baker's leadership was a concert in Egypt in 2008 when it played at the Cairo Opera House, the Alexandra Opera House, and at the Pyramids. Baker died on March 26, 2016, at the age of eighty-four in Bloomington from complications due to Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia. In the 1960s he introduced jazz studies as academic discipline at Indiana University. It was accepted as an academic degree program in 1968, making it one of the earliest to be established in an American university. In addition to chairing IU's Jazz Studies department from 1968 to 2013, he

neg: American Ethnological Society focus changed from the evolutionary concerns of ethnology to the academic discipline of anthropology. The AES remained small, due to financial difficulties until the 1920s. In 1916, the AES became the American Ethnological Society, Inc. During this time, it also became associated with Columbia University and linked to the American Anthropological Association. In the 1930s, the AES and AAA jointly published the "American Anthropologist", which concerned itself with all four fields of anthropology. In 1950, the AES went nationwide and started having biannual meetings across North America. In 1972, the new "American Ethnologist" journal was created to focus on the

neg: James Currey James Currey James Currey is an academic publisher specialising on Africa. It is named after its founder who established the company in 1984. It publishes on a full spectrum of topics—including anthropology, archaeology, history, politics, economics, development studies, gender studies, literature, theatre, film studies, and the humanities and social sciences generally—and its authors include leading names such as Bethwell Ogot and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o. Named after its founder, the company was established in 1984 when James Currey, originally from South Africa, left his position at Heinemann Educational Books to set up an Africa-focused publisher. At Heinemann, working with Chinua Achebe,

neg: Biblical criticism 1985 with the Jesus Seminar. By 1990, biblical criticism was no longer primarily a historical discipline but was instead a group of disciplines with often conflicting interests. New perspectives from different ethnicities, feminist theology, Catholicism and Judaism revealed an "untapped world" previously overlooked by the majority of white male Protestants who had dominated biblical criticism from its beginnings. Globalization brought different world views, while other academic fields such as Near Eastern studies, sociology, and anthropology became active in biblical criticism as well. These new points of view created awareness that the Bible can be rationally interpreted from many different perspectives.

neg: Four field approach Four field approach The four field approach in anthropology sees the discipline as composed of the four subfields of Archaeology, Linguistics, Physical Anthropology and Cultural anthropology. The approach is conventionally understood as having been developed by Franz Boas who developed the discipline of anthropology in the United States. A 2013 re-assessment of the evidence has indicated that the idea of four-field anthropology has a more complex 19th-century history in Europe and North America. For Boas, the four field approach was motivated by his holistic approach to the study of human behavior, which included integrated analytical attention to culture history, material

neg: Göttingen School of History Göttingen School of History The Göttingen school of history was a group of historians associated with a particular style of historiography located at the University of Göttingen in the late 18th century. This group of historians played an important role in creating a "scientific" basis for historical research, and were also responsible for coining two fundamental groups of terminologies in scientific racism: The University of Göttingen was the original centre of the "" or history as an academic discipline, and became a major centre for globally-orientated anthropology. The school itself was one of the newest universities in Europe, having been

neg: History of anthropology by country of seeing people differently instead of similarly. There was no insight from those who had inhabited the continent for centuries, and the country is not well represented. There was not a lot of support for methods that contradicted what had already been practiced and known within the discipline. Universally, there were various debates about the methodology of the discipline in relation to folklore, co-production with aid of natives, and boundaries within the field. These aspects had not been taken into consideration when observing the region. Anthropology surviving in Africa were due to not observing Africa explicitly as scientific (racially or

neg: Society for Applied Anthropology native populations, involve themselves in policy matters and politics, and research contemporary social issues". Society for Applied Anthropology The Society for Applied Anthropology (SfAA) is a US-based professional association for applied anthropology, established "to promote the integration of anthropological perspectives and methods in solving human problems throughout the world; to advocate for fair and just public policy based upon sound research; to promote public recognition of anthropology as a profession; and to support the continuing professionalization of the field." Members include academic as well as practicing and applied anthropologists. The Society publishes two journals: "Human Organization" and "Practicing Anthropology". The

neg: History of anthropology by country remains under question. Egyptian anthropologist, Hania Sholkamy, remarks that there are four main points that shape this ongoing relationship: the relationship of methods to theory, the relationship between methods and their analysis, the relationship of culture to its determinants, and the relationship between having data and being able to evaluate it. The discipline of anthropology is in a constant state of judgment within Egypt, particularly when compared with the discipline of demography. The qualitative data more common in demography is given more attention than the theoretical and analytical methods associated with anthropology. In Morocco, topics of anthropological research include the

neg: Michael von Clemm Michael took a postgraduate course in anthropology at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he was awarded his Doctorate. As part of his studies, he had lived with the Wachagga tribe in Tanzania for 14 months. Academic life did not entirely suit him, however, and he tried his hand at journalism, with a stint on the Boston Globe as a reporter. He maintained an interest in anthropology throughout his career in banking. He was an assistant professor of anthropology at Harvard University from 1971–1972 and then when he transferred to London with CSFB, became Visiting Professor of Anthropology at the University

neg: Multimodal anthropology discipline to engage in variety of media forms that exist today." Multimodal anthropology Multimodal anthropology is an emerging subfield of social cultural anthropology that encompasses anthropological research and knowledge production across multiple traditional and new media platforms and practices including film, video, photography, theatre, design, podcast, mobile apps, interactive games, web-based social networking, immersive 360 video and augmented reality. As characterized in American Anthropologist"," multimodal anthropology is an "anthropology that works across multiple media, but one that also engages in public anthropology and collaborative anthropology through a field of differentially linked media platforms" (Collins, Durington & Gill). A multimodal approach

neg: Futurist professional, and academic groups as visionaries, foresight consultants, corporate strategists, policy analysts, cultural critics, planners, marketers, forecasters, prediction market developers, roadmappers, operations researchers, investment managers, actuaries, and other risk analyzers, and future-oriented individuals educated in every academic discipline, including anthropology, complexity studies, computer science, economics, engineering, urban design, evolutionary biology, history, management, mathematics, philosophy, physical sciences, political science, psychology, sociology, systems theory, technology studies, trend analysis, and other disciplines. "Futures studies"—sometimes referred to as futurology, futures research, and foresight—can be summarized as being concerned with "three P's and a W", i.e. "possible, probable, and preferable" futures, plus "wildcards", which are

neg: Time discipline Time discipline In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. The concept of "time discipline" as a field of special attention in sociology and anthropology was pioneered by E. P. Thompson in "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism", published in 1967. Coming from a Marxist viewpoint, Thompson argued that observance of clock-time is a consequence of the European industrial revolution, and that neither industrial capitalism

neg: Intellectual synthesis Intellectual synthesis Intellectual synthesis is a broad term describing scholarly endeavors meant to unify and fuse a large amount of information into a single integrated body of knowledge. Commonly, intellectual synthesis occurs as an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary academic effort by one or more scholars. A good example would be Big History, which is an effort to reexamine human history within the context of the wider history of the universe, applying diverse fields of knowledge to paint a picture which is wider in scope, and relies on much information generally outside of the discipline of history (anthropology, systems theory, geology, biology,