query: what is the enamel on cast iron pans

pos: Cast-iron cookware heat retention properties. If given time to equalize, the entire pan will eventually heat to an evenly high temperature, which includes any iron handles, making it important to use protection to prevent burns. Enameled cast iron is cast iron that has a vitreous enamel glaze applied to the surface. The fusion of the glaze with the cast iron prevents rusting, eliminates the need to season the metal, and allows more thorough cleaning. Enameled cast iron is excellent for slow cooking and drawing flavor from foods. Furthermore, pigments used in the enameling process can produce vibrant colors. While enamel-coated cast iron

neg: Cast-iron cookware as the enamel coating prevents rust in most instances. It is recommended to maintain the seasoning frequently to keep the food from sticking to the iron. Because other cookware cleaning techniques like scouring or washing in a dishwasher can remove or damage the seasoning on a bare cast-iron pan, these pans should not be cleaned like most other cookware. Some chefs advocate never cleaning cast-iron pans at all; simply wiping them out after use, or washing them with hot water and a stiff brush. Others advocate washing with mild soap and water, and then re-applying a thin layer of fat

neg: Cookware and bakeware porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface. The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel. Enamel over steel is ideal for large stockpots and for other large pans used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its

neg: Cousances Cousances Cousances was a French cookware manufacturer, known for enameled cast iron pans ("cocotte" in French). The company was formed in 1553 and was acquired by Le Creuset in 1957. Cookware under the Cousances brand continued to be manufactured by Le Creuset into the early 1980s. Cousances enameled cast iron skillets, pans, gratins, and pots were produced in the town of Cousances-les-Forges and had features which distinguished them from their competitors, Le Creuset, Descoware of Belgium, and the Scandinavian Copco. Among those features were the base, which was left without enamel (like Copco) but sealed against rust with the final

neg: Cast-iron cookware applied and the cookware is placed upside down in an oven above a large pan (to drain for an hour), the pan can now be removed, then the oven set to 350 degrees Fahrenheit (180 degrees Celsius) and baked for 30 minutes. Some cookware comes pre-seasoned from the factory. A proper cast iron seasoning protects the cookware from rusting, provides a non-stick surface for cooking, and reduces food interaction with the iron of the pan. However, exposure to acidic foods such as tomatoes removes the seasoning, and the cookware must be re-seasoned again. Enamel-coated cast-iron pans do not need seasoning,

neg: Industrial porcelain enamel industrial scale first began in Germany in 1840. The method used was very primitive compared to modern methods: the product was heated to a very high temperature and dusted with enamel, then immediately fired. This frequently resulted in poor adhesion or a spotty coat; two coats were always required to achieve a continuous, corrosion-resistant surface. It could only be applied to cast- and wrought-iron, and only used for relatively simple products like pots and pans. The ability to apply porcelain enamel to sheet steels was not developed until 1900, with the discovery that making minor changes to the composition of

neg: Le Creuset 12 step finishing process implemented by 15 different pairs of hands to ensure that there are no flaws or imperfections in the final product. However, Le Creuset products that are not cast-iron may be made in other countries, such as China (accessories or silicone products), Thailand (kettles and ceramics), England (enamel cleaner), Portugal (stainless steel).and Swaziland (clay pots). Le Creuset Le Creuset (, meaning "the crucible") is a premium French cookware manufacturer best known for its colorfully-enameled cast-iron cookware "French ovens", also known as "cocottes or coquelles" and "sauce pans" or "casseroles" (in French). The company also makes many other

neg: The Vollrath Company enamel in 1889, which became common. Sheet steel stamped ware was added to the product line in 1892, which increased the range of items considerably. A catalog from that era shows the addition of coffee boilers, dippers, ladles, cake and pie pans, bowls and cups. Already manufacturing enameled cast iron sinks, stove reservoirs, refrigerator tanks, and water cooler tanks, Vollrath added bathtubs to the product line in 1895, although they weren't included in a catalog. At the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, Vollrath garnered the Grand Prize for enameled iron ware. Jacob died in May 1898, passing the

neg: Cast-iron cookware doesn't have the seasoning and cleaning issues of bare cast iron, a similar style of enamel-coated cast iron can cost three or four times its bare cast iron counterpart. For those seeking to reduce iron in their diet, enameled cast iron limits the leaching of dietary iron into food. However, some of the benefits of bare cast iron, such as the ability to withstand searing heat and resist sticking, are lost through enameling. In addition, chipping of the enamel coating can occur if the pan is dropped, overheated, or cold water is added to a hot pot. An American Dietetic

neg: Cast-iron cookware and its excellent heat retention makes it a good option for long-cooking strong-flavored stews or braised dishes. Because cast-iron skillets can develop a "non-stick" surface when cared for properly, they are excellent for frying potatoes or preparing stir-fries. Some cooks consider cast iron a good choice for egg dishes, while others feel the iron adds an off-flavor to eggs. Other uses of cast-iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers and cakes. Most bare cast-iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the

neg: Elizabeth David earthenware pots, bowls and dishes in traditional colours, plain pots and pans in thick aluminium, cast-iron, vitreous enamel and fireproof porcelain, unadorned crockery in classic shapes and neat rows of cooks' knives, spoons and forks. David reduced her writing commitments to concentrate on running the shop, but contributed some articles to magazines, and began to focus more on English cuisine. She still included many recipes but increasingly wrote about places—markets, "auberges", farms—and people, including profiles of famous chefs and gourmets such as Marcel Boulestin and Édouard de Pomiane. In her later articles, she expressed strongly held views on a wide

neg: Induction cooking disks are metal plates that are heated by induction and heat non-ferrous pots by thermal contact, but these are much less efficient than ferrous cooking vessels. Induction compatible cookware for an induction cooking surface can nearly always be used on other stoves. Some cookware or packaging is marked with symbols to indicate compatibility with induction, gas, or electric heat. Induction cooking surfaces work well with any pans with a high ferrous metal content at the base. Cast iron pans and any black metal or iron pans will work on an induction cooking surface. Stainless steel pans will work on an

neg: Cookware and bakeware often as an enclosed diffusion layer (see Coated and Composite Cookware below). Cast iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron pans ideal for searing. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods (such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black. Cast iron is a porous material that rusts easily. As a result, it typically requires seasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of oxidized

neg: Myra Mimlitsch-Gray collection of the Racine Art Museum, and "Handwrought Copper Tray" is held in the permanent collection of the Cranbrook Art Museum. Made during her residency at the John Michael Kohler Arts Center in 2007, Mimlitsch-Gray’s series "Kohler Skillets and Pone Pans" playfully explores the familiarity of the cast iron skillet and juxtaposes it with themes of globalization, genetic modification, and mid-western food culture. "Kohler Skillets and Pone Pans" consists of a series of cast iron pans (with the exception of one that is chromed brass) that are elongated, bent, melted, or house molds for food that would never fit. Though

neg: Dutch oven However, they lose some of the other advantages of bare cast iron. For example, deep frying is usually not recommended in enameled ovens; the enamel coating is not able to withstand high heat, and is best suited for water-based cooking. Enameled ovens can usually be cleaned like ordinary cookware, and some brands can be put in the dishwasher. However, enamel is not as resistant to scratches as iron. Dutch oven A Dutch oven is a thick-walled cooking pot with a tight-fitting lid. Dutch ovens are usually made of seasoned cast iron; however, some Dutch ovens are instead made of cast

neg: Le Creuset (or French oven) was produced, laying the foundation for what is now an extensive range of cookware and kitchen utensils. The Le Creuset signature color, Flame (orange), was born in this first piece. With their new ability to pigment the enamel glaze, Desaegher and Aubecq modeled their first color after the intense orange hue of molten cast iron inside a crucible ("creuset" in French). During World War II, Le Creuset began to focus on continually improving their cast iron. In 1957, Le Creuset purchased a competitor, Les Hauts Fourneaux de Cousances, and began producing items such as a grill model

neg: Cast-iron cookware Cast-iron cookware Cast-iron cookware is valued for its heat retention properties and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast-iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills and griddles. In Asia, particularly China, India, Korea and Japan, there is a long history of cooking with cast iron vessels. However, the first mention of a cast-iron kettle in English appeared in 679 or 680,

neg: Cousances and Dutch ovens are still to be found as used pieces, and are recognizable by the medallion logo, glazed natural color cast iron bottoms, which they share with the Le Creuset current line. Cousances Cousances was a French cookware manufacturer, known for enameled cast iron pans ("cocotte" in French). The company was formed in 1553 and was acquired by Le Creuset in 1957. Cookware under the Cousances brand continued to be manufactured by Le Creuset into the early 1980s. Cousances enameled cast iron skillets, pans, gratins, and pots were produced in the town of Cousances-les-Forges and had features which distinguished

neg: Cast-iron cookware cast-iron cookware include Milo, Cousances, Ferleon, Tramontina, Le Chasseur, Lodge, Descoware, Combekk and John Wright. Several newer brands are associated with well-known celebrities and chefs, including Daniel Boulud Kitchen, Martha Stewart, Rachael Ray Cookware (made by Anolon), and Mario Batali (made by Copco). Cast-iron cookware Cast-iron cookware is valued for its heat retention properties and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast-iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep

neg: Staub (cookware) Staub (cookware) Staub is a premium French enameled cast iron cookware and bakeware manufacturer that was originally headquartered in Turckheim, Alsace, France. The first piece, a cocotte or coquelle (Dutch oven), was designed by Francis Staub in 1974 in a dormant artillery factory. Pieces are manufactured with cast iron covered with double-glazed enamel. The enamel coating makes the cookware rustproof, and easy to clean. Staub's cocottes have nubs on the interior of the lids, which enables condensation to collect and drip down to baste foods uniformly as they are cooking. In 2007, approximately 50% of the company's sales revenue was

neg: Bronze and brass ornamental work the 15th centuries. Countless are the domestic objects: mortars, small candlesticks, warming pans, trivets, fenders; these date mainly from the 17th and 18th centuries, when brass ornamentation was also frequently applied to clockdials, large and small. Two English developments during the 17th century call for special notice. The first was an attempt to use enamel with brass, a difficult matter, as brass is a bad medium for enamel. A number of objects exist in the form of firedogs, candlesticks, caskets, plaques and vases, the body of which is of brass roughly cast with a design in relief; the hollow spaces

neg: Cast-iron cookware cooking shows, celebrity chefs have brought renewed attention to traditional cooking methods, especially the use of cast iron. In the 2010s, small startup companies such as FINEX, Element Cookware, Smithey Ironware Company, Marquette Castings, Stargazer Cast Iron and Borough Furnace began producing cast-iron cookware designs for specialty cooking markets. The Lodge Manufacturing company is currently the only major manufacturer of cast-iron cookware in the United States, as most other cookware suppliers use pots and pans made in Asia or Europe. Cast iron's ability to withstand and maintain very high cooking temperatures makes it a common choice for searing or frying,

neg: Cookware and bakeware fat over the iron that coats and protects the surface, and prevents sticking. Enameled cast iron cookware was developed in the 1920s. In 1934, the French company Cousances designed the enameled cast iron Doufeu to reduce excessive evaporation and scorching in cast iron Dutch ovens. Modeled on old braising pans in which glowing charcoal was heaped on the lids (to mimic two-fire ovens), the Doufeu has a deep recess in its lid which instead is filled with ice cubes. This keeps the lid at a lower temperature than the pot bottom. Further, little notches on the inside of the lid

neg: Vitreous enamel firing temperatures. Enamel can also be applied to gold, silver, copper, aluminium, stainless steel, and cast iron. Vitreous enamel has many useful properties: it is smooth, hard, chemically resistant, durable, scratch resistant (5–6 on the Mohs scale), has long-lasting colour fastness, is easy to clean, and cannot burn. Enamel is glass, not paint, so it does not fade under ultraviolet light. A disadvantage of enamel is a tendency to crack or shatter when the substrate is stressed or bent, but modern enamels are relatively chip- and impact-resistant because of good thickness control and coefficients of thermal expansion well-matched to the

neg: Frying pan iron is still popular today, especially for outdoor cooking, most frying pans are now made from metals such as aluminium or stainless steel. The materials and construction method used in modern frying pans vary greatly and some typical materials include: A coating is sometimes applied to the surface of the pan to make it non-stick. Frying pans made from bare cast iron or carbon steel can also gain non-stick properties through seasoning and use. A process for bonding Teflon to chemically roughened aluminum was patented in France by Marc Gregoire in 1954. In 1956 he formed a company to market

neg: Blacksmith the western (Europe & the Mideast) tradition, the technology to make fires hot enough to melt iron did not arise until the 16th century, when smelting operations grew large enough to require overly large bellows. These produced blast-furnace temperatures high enough to melt partially refined ores, resulting in "cast iron". Thus cast iron frying pans and cookware did not become possible in Europe until 3000 years after the introduction of iron smelting. China, in a separate developmental tradition, was producing cast iron at least 1000 years before this. Although iron is quite abundant, good quality steel remained rare and expensive

neg: Cast-iron cookware century, Lodge Manufacturing was the only remaining manufacturer of cast-iron cookware in the United States. Today, of the large selection of cookware that can be purchased from kitchen suppliers, cast iron comprises only a small fraction. However, the durability and reliability of cast iron as a cooking tool has ensured its survival. Lodge, Wagner and Griswold cast-iron pots and pans from the 19th and 20th century continue to see daily use to the present day. They are also highly sought after by antique collectors and dealers. However, cast iron has seen a resurgence of its popularity in specialty markets. Through

neg: Michael Lax Lax went to Finland, on a Fulbright Fellowship, where he learned Scandinavian modern design. He was hired by Russel Wright, in 1956, to work on a series of dinnerware designs. Lax did freelance work until 1960 when he began to work on enameled cast iron cookware for Copco; this was his first break as a solo designer. Lax designed a line of cast-iron and porcelain enamel cookware for Copco including a 1962 enamel-coated teakettle with a bent teak handle which became one of his most recognizable pieces. More than one million of these teakettles were sold before it was discontinued

neg: Sink cold objects, but they can be damaged by sharp impacts and once the glass surface is breached, the underlying cast iron will often corrode, spalling off more of the glass. Aggressive cleaning will dull the surface, leading to more dirt accumulation. Enamel over steel is a similar-appearing but far less rugged and less cost-effective alternative. Solid ceramic sinks have many of the same characteristics as enamel over cast iron, but without the risk of surface damage leading to corrosion. Plastic sinks come in several basic forms: Soapstone sinks were once common, but today tend to be used only in very-high-end

neg: Le Creuset Le Creuset offers a variety of colors, from bright (e.g. cherry, a gradated red) to muted (e.g. dune, a gradated off-white). Its discontinued colors include cobalt (gradated blue-violet), black onyx (solid black), kiwi (gradated light green), as well as slate, granite, cactus, and citron. To manufacture their cast-iron cookware, the Le Creuset foundry uses standard sand casting methods. After hand finishing, items are sprayed with at least two coats of enamel. The enamel becomes resistant to damage during normal use. Currently, all Le Creuset cast iron cookware is still manufactured in the company's foundry in Fresnoy-le-Grand, where workers employ a

neg: The Vollrath Company a Polio-Pak during the polio epidemic. It was among the first manufacturing companies in America to integrate computer technology. Today, the company is family-owned with Terry J. Kohler, the great-great grandson of Jacob Vollrath, serving on the company’s board of directors. Jacob Vollrath began building farm implements, steam engines, cast iron ranges and cooking utensils in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. He manufactured porcelain enameled pots, pans, plates, cups and other kitchenware by coating cast iron with ceramic glaze. In 1874 it was reported that "J.J. Vollrath & Sons" was constructing a factory for the production of porcelain hollow ware and cast iron

neg: Cast-iron cookware use when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast-iron skillet. Cast-iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers during the first half of the 20th century. It was a cheap, yet durable cookware. Most American households had at least one cast-iron cooking pan, and brands such as Griswold, which began manufacturing in 1865, Wagner Ware, which began manufacturing in 1881, and Lodge Manufacturing, which entered the marketplace in 1896 as Blacklock Foundry, all competed for market share. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel-coated cast-iron cookware.

neg: Porcelain of porcelain, but of porcelain enamel on a metal base, usually of cast iron. Porcelain enamel is a marketing term used in the US, and is not porcelain but vitreous enamel. Porcelain Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between . The toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and the formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures. Though definitions vary, porcelain can be divided into three main categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone china. The

neg: Induction cooking of aluminum pans makes the temperature more uniform across the pan. Stainless frying pans with an aluminum base will not have the same temperature at their sides as an aluminum sided pan will have. Cast iron frying pans work well with induction cooking surfaces but the material is not as good a thermal conductor as aluminum. When boiling water, the circulating water spreads the heat and prevents hot spots. For products such as sauces, it is important that at least the base of the pan incorporates a good heat conducting material to spread the heat evenly. For delicate products such

neg: Makiyakinabe to 35 cm and are often made of aluminium or cast iron. The best type is considered to be heavy copper coated with tin, although care has to be taken to avoid damage to the pan due to the low melting point of tin. A cheaper, Teflon coated pan is available in many stores. The depth of the pans is usually from 3 cm to 4 cm. Their weights are usually from 0.5 kg to 2.5 kg. There are three types of "makiyakinabe": Kantō-type, Kansai-type and Nagoya-type. The Kantō-type pans are squared. The Kansai-type pans are tall-and-thin rectangles. The Nagoya-type

neg: Chip pan Chip pan A chip pan is a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying. Chip pans are named for their traditional use in frying chips (called "French fries" in the United States). Today, they are made from either aluminium or stainless steel, although in the past were commonly made from cast iron. A basket is placed inside the pan, to lower the chips into the hot cooking oil, and to raise them once cooked. Chip pans are commonly used in the United Kingdom, although are slowly being outmoded by deep fryers. Chip pans are commonly manufactured through a spinning process, as

neg: Seasoning (cookware) remove the protective layer created during the seasoning process. Cast iron ovens are best suited to cook food high in oil or fat, such as chicken, bacon, or sausage, or used for deep frying. Subsequent cleanings are usually accomplished without the use of soap. Detergent soaps and dishwashers can remove the seasoning on cast iron, so some cookbook authors recommend only wiping the pans clean after each use, or using other cleaning methods such as a salt scrub or boiling water. The protective layer itself is polymeric and not very susceptible to soaps, and many users do briefly use detergents

neg: Tatar cuisine boiled (except meat for "pilaw", which requires quick frying). Both boiling and frying were traditionally done in a cast-iron cauldron built into the side of the large kitchen stove. Baking was done in an oven. Cooking over an open fire was not common. This method was used for making pancakes ("täçe qoymaq") and fried eggs ("täbä"). Cast-iron utensils and crock pots were commonly used in the oven. Large deep cast-iron pans served to bake "bäleş" and "göbädiä". Wooden utensils were widely used for various tasks. Bread dough was kneaded in wooden troughs and then allowed to rise in wooden or

neg: Cast-iron cookware in the hearth, or to be suspended in a fireplace. Cast-iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand in the coals. In addition to Dutch ovens with three or four feet, which Abraham Darby I secured a patent in 1708 to produce, a commonly used cast-iron cooking pan called a spider had a handle and three legs allowing it to stand upright over campfires as well as in the coals and ashes of a fireplace. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms came into

neg: New York City Subway tiles more simplified. In his pictorial work, Vickers emphasizes actual buildings as landmarks, such as his colorful depiction of Brooklyn Borough Hall (1919) at the station of that name, rather than Heins and LaFarge's beavers and sailing ships. He describes his technique: Through the 1930s, Vickers ordered some enamel signs for the IRT and BMT from both Nelke Signs and the Baltimore Enamel Company. These signs were located on girder and cast-iron columns, and made them easier to identify stations. Shortened station names on the porcelain-enamel signs had a condensed sans serif capital-letter font. Vickers continued to work on subway projects

neg: Frying pan pans were also known in ancient Greece where they were called "tagēnon" (Greek: τάγηνον) and Rome, where they were called "patella" or "sartago". The word "pan" derives from the Old English "panna". Before the introduction of the kitchen stove in the mid-19th century, a commonly used cast iron cooking pan called a spider had a handle and three legs used to stand up in the coals and ashes of the fire. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast

neg: Bundt cake In the late 1940s, Rose Joshua and Fannie Schanfield, friends and members of the Minneapolis Jewish-American Hadassah Society approached Dalquist asking if he could produce a modern version of a traditional cast iron dish. Dalquist and company engineer Don Nygren designed a cast aluminum version which Nordic Ware then made a small production run of in 1950. In order to successfully trademark the pans, a "t" was added to the word "Bund". A number of the original Bundt pans now reside in the Smithsonian collection. Initially, the Bundt pan sold so poorly that Nordic Ware considered discontinuing it. The product

neg: David Dunbar Buick it over. At this time Buick began to show his promise as an inventor, producing many innovations including a lawn sprinkler, and a method for permanently coating cast iron with vitreous enamel which allowed the production of "white" baths at lower cost. Although cast iron baths are uncommon nowadays, the method is still in use for enameling them. With the combination of Buick's innovation and his partner's sound business management the company became quite successful. During the 1890s, Buick developed an interest in internal combustion engines and began experimenting with them. He was spending little time on the plumbing business,

neg: Frying pan iron skillet. A versatile pan that combines the best of both the sauté pan and the frying pan has higher, sloping sides that are often slightly curved. This pan is called a "sauteuse" (literally a sauté pan in the female gender), an "evasée" (denoting a pan with sloping sides), or a "fait-tout" (literally "does everything"). Most professional kitchens have several of these utensils in varying sizes. A "rappie pan" is a pan used to make rappie pie, an Acadian potato dish. The pan is made from aluminum or stainless steel. Traditionally, frying pans were made of cast iron. Although cast

neg: Griswold Manufacturing Randall Corporation, the owner of Wagner since 1952, sold both companies to Textron in 1959. Textron sold them to the General Housewares corporation in 1969. General Housewares made products under the Griswold and Wagner brands until 1999, when it closed and the manufacturing and brands were acquired by American Culinary Corporation of Willoughby, Ohio Classic cast-iron Griswold cookware is now prized by collectors. The main reason the items are collectible is that they have distinctive brand markings. Collectors should be wary of reproductions, which generally have a grainy finish and uneven and blurred lettering. Griswold cast iron pots and pans,

neg: Boston Manor tube station District Railway. It was a red brick building with an enamel pecked half roundel attached to the arched window space above the booking office entrance. A lampshade branded Tiffany was above the roundel. The original stairs to the platforms with cast iron balustrades are retained. The fretted wooden awnings at the platform remain intact, with the canopy pillars painted black and yellow. Cast iron columns with capitals and octagonal bases provide support for the part-glazed timber roof on iron trusses. The new station building occupies a narrow site due to the nearby depot, where it was built out over the

neg: Vitreous enamel coats of enamel are applied over the fired ground coat. For electrostatic enamels, the coloured enamel powder can be applied directly over a thin unfired ground coat "base coat" layer that is co-fired with the cover coat in a very efficient two-coat/one-fire process. The frit in the ground coat contains smelted-in cobalt and/or nickel oxide as well as other transition metal oxides to catalyse the enamel-steel bonding reactions. During firing of the enamel at between , iron oxide scale first forms on the steel. The molten enamel dissolves the iron oxide and precipitates cobalt and nickel. The iron acts as

neg: Kettle corn Kettle corn Kettle corn is a sweet-and-salty variety of popcorn that is typically mixed or seasoned with a light-colored refined sugar, salt, and oil. It was traditionally made in cast iron kettles, hence the name, but in modern times other types of pots and pans are used. Kettle corn was introduced to the United States in the 18th century. It is referenced in the diaries of Dutch settlers in Pennsylvania circa 1776. It was a treat sold at fairs or consumed at other festive occasions. The corn, oil, sugar, and salt are cooked together in a cast iron kettle, or

neg: Kettle corn corn is commonly cooked in stainless steel or copper kettles because of their lighter weight, cast iron cauldrons are still used to publicly cook the corn and mix the ingredients to retain the original flavor. Recipes for homemade kettle corn are available, and microwave popcorn versions are sold. Kettle corn Kettle corn is a sweet-and-salty variety of popcorn that is typically mixed or seasoned with a light-colored refined sugar, salt, and oil. It was traditionally made in cast iron kettles, hence the name, but in modern times other types of pots and pans are used. Kettle corn was introduced to

neg: Huta Ludwików 1895 Ludwik Starke from Sosnowiec started a new iron foundry in Pstrążnica near Suchedniów. The new factory, since 1899 owned jointly by Starke, Tadeusz Jarmołowicz and Henryk Brunner, entered the markets of the Russian Empire with a variety of cast iron castings, including pots, frying pans, cast iron pipes and machinery parts. As part of the Old-Polish Industrial Region the new factory enjoyed considerable success and soon the crew rose to over 500 workers. In 1907 Ludwik Starke's son, Stanisław, bought the Głęboczka farm at the outskirts of the city of Kielce with the intention of opening his own steelworks.

neg: Outdoor cooking usually either vegetable oil or margarine. Normal (salted) butter may also be appropriate for camp use, but unsalted butter or lard may not be, due to their shorter shelf life. Camp frying pans often lack handles for easy packing, with the camp cook using a clamp-like device to pick up and move the pan. Camp frying pans are generally made out of very thin metal (though some campers do use cast iron pans for this purpose as well), so extra care must be taken to evenly cook the food, especially over the small-diameter flame of a portable stove. A "round

neg: Kohler Co. headlines for becoming the first sleeve sponsor for English Premier League football giants Manchester United. Kohler Co. was co-founded in 1873 by Austrian immigrant John Michael Kohler and Charles Silberzahn with the purchase of the Sheboygan Union Iron and Steel Foundry from Kohler's father-in-law, Jacob Vollrath, for $5000. Early products included cast iron and steel farm implements, castings for furniture factories, and ornamental iron pieces including cemetery crosses and settees. A breakthrough came in 1883 when John Michael applied enamel to a cast-iron horse trough to create the company's first bathtub. The company has been primarily in the plumbing business

neg: Bathtub to peel with time. The Scottish-born inventor David Buick invented a process for bonding porcelain enamel to cast iron in the 1880s while working for the Alexander Manufacturing Company in Detroit. The company, as well as others including Kohler Company and J. L. Mott Iron Works, began successfully marketing porcelain enameled cast-iron bathtubs, a process that remains broadly the same to this day. Far from the ornate feet and luxury most associated with clawfoot tubs, an early Kohler example was advertised as a "horse trough/hog scalder, when furnished with four legs will serve as a bathtub." The item's use as

neg: Cookware and bakeware light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used while camping. Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of efficient heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminum, covered on the cooking surface by a non-reactive material such as stainless steel, and often covered on the exterior aspect of the pan ("dual-clad") as well. Some pans feature a copper or aluminum interface layer that extends over the entire pan rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base. Generally, the thicker the interface layer, especially in the base of the pan, the

neg: Cast iron be cast with larger sections. Cast iron and wrought iron can be produced unintentionally when smelting copper using iron ore as a flux. The earliest cast-iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. This is based on an analysis of the artifact's microstructures. Because cast iron is comparatively brittle, it is not suitable for purposes where a sharp edge or flexibility is required. It is strong under compression, but not under tension. Cast iron was invented in China in the 5th century BC and poured

neg: Industrial porcelain enamel attack or high heat such as cookware, burners, and laboratory equipment. It is used in the production of many household goods and appliances, especially those used in the kitchen or bathroom area: pots, pans, cooktops, appliances, sinks, toilets, bathtubs, even walls, counters, and other surfaces. Porcelain enamel is also used architecturally as a coating for wall panels. It may be used externally to provide weather resistance and desirable appearance, or internally to provide wear resistance; for example, on escalator side panels and tunnel walls. In recent years, agricultural silos have also been constructed with porcelain enamelled steel plates to protect

neg: Cast-iron cookware though this wasn't the first use of metal vessels of cooking. The term pot came into use in 1180. Both terms referred to a vessel capable of withstanding the direct heat of a fire. Cast-iron cauldrons and cooking pots were valued as kitchen items for their durability and their ability to retain heat evenly, thus improving the quality of cooked meals. In both Europe and the United States, before the introduction of the kitchen stove in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the hearth or fireplace, and cooking pots and pans were either designed for use

neg: Vitreous enamel metal. The Buick automobile company was founded by David Dunbar Buick with wealth earned by his development of improved enamelling processes, c. 1887, for sheet steel and cast iron. Such enameled ferrous material had, and still has, many applications: early 20th century and some modern advertising signs, interior oven walls, cooking pots, housing and interior walls of major kitchen appliances, housing and drums of clothes washers and dryers, sinks and cast iron bathtubs, farm storage silos, and processing equipment such as chemical reactors and pharmaceutical process tanks. Structures such as filling stations, bus stations and Lustron Houses had walls, ceilings

neg: Tetsubin it more practical for tea brewing, though it can't be used to heat water because that would break the enamel coating. In the west, these teapots are commonly referred to as "tetsubin", although the Japanese call them "tetsu kyūsu" (鉄急須), or iron teapot, to make a distinction from the kettle. Cast-iron teapots often come with a tea strainer that fits inside. The prefectures of Iwate and Yamagata are best known for producing "tetsubin" as well as iron teapots. It is not clear when the first tetsubin kettles appeared in Japan, but one hypothesis is that the popularity of the tetsubin

neg: Griswold Manufacturing Griswold Junior, was president from 1905 to 1914. The Griswold Plaza in Erie is named in honor of his efforts to develop downtown Erie with a post office and railway station. Matthew Junior's brother Marvin was president from 1914 until his death in 1926, during a period of rapid growth. Griswold began making tobacco cutters in 1883. In 1884 Matthew Griswold patented and manufactured a wheeled spittoon. Over the years that followed the company added products such as kettles, Dutch ovens, roasters, a grid iron and other various pots and pans. Cast-iron stovetop waffle irons were one of the company's

neg: Howell Works The cupolas were added for the production of cast-iron products, which Allaire was able to manufacture as a result of the surplus pig iron from the Works. His company manufactured items including pots, pans, skillets, kettles and other holloware; along with andirons, pipes, tools and machine castings. Some of these items were sold at the company store, but most were shipped north for sale in New York. Allaire established file and screw factories, the latter of which manufactured the first screws made on mechanical lathes. At the peak of Howell Works' production, however, Allaire's business empire suffered a series of

neg: Flatkaka Flatkaka Flatkökur, flatkaka (lit. "flat cake") or flatbrauð (lit. "flat bread") is an Icelandic unleavened rye flatbread. "Flatkaka" is soft, round, thin and dark with a characteristic pattern from the pan. Traditionally, "flatkaka" was baked on hot stones or straight on the embers of the fire, later on small but heavy cast iron frying pans, and today, when making "flatkaka" at home, people sometimes bake them directly on an electric hot plate to get the desired result. There usually is a difference between home-made "flatkaka" and the varieties sold in stores, the latter being somewhat thicker and dryer because of

neg: Le Creuset Le Creuset Le Creuset (, meaning "the crucible") is a premium French cookware manufacturer best known for its colorfully-enameled cast-iron cookware "French ovens", also known as "cocottes or coquelles" and "sauce pans" or "casseroles" (in French). The company also makes many other types of cookware and bakeware, from fondue-sets to tagines. Le Creuset was founded in the French town of Fresnoy-le-Grand, Aisne, Picardy, a strategic location at the crossroads of transportation routes for iron, coke, and sand. Armand Desaegher (a Belgian casting specialist) and Octave Aubecq (a Belgian enameling specialist) opened their foundry in 1925. That same year, the first

neg: Brunost Brunost is also popular on Norwegian waffles, and as an ingredient in cooking, particularly in sauces for game meat. To what extent brunost is healthy has been the subject of some controversy in Norway. Brunost contains high amounts of calcium, proteins and vitamin B, as well as Iodine, which is beneficial. It also does not, as other cheeses do, contain salt. It used to contain significant amounts of iron because it was traditionally made in iron pots. In fact, when modern production methods with aluminium pans were introduced by the Norwegian dairy co-operative, the government was worried that it would

neg: Open-pan salt making conical wicker baskets (barrows) in which the wet salt was drained and dried. By the 17th century the pans started to be made from iron, firstly in pans by . William Brownrigg writing in 1748 in his ‘Book of Common Salt’, shows a wood-cut of one of these salt-making pans. The change from lead to iron coincided with a change from wood to coal for the purpose of heating the brine. Gradually the pans increased in size Christoph Chrysel writing in 1773 in his ‘Remarkable and very useful Information about the present Salt Works and Salt pans in England’ noted

neg: Ludlow wall box the front door is surrounded by a cast iron decorative beading and surmounted by a cast aperture or mouth-piece which bears the cypher of the reigning British monarch at the time of supply. Ludlow boxes can hence be found bearing the cyphers of Queen Victoria, Edward VII, George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II. Below the aperture casting is a wooden door which is faced with thin sheet steel at the top and a decorative enamel plate at the bottom. The plate normally bears the Royal Cypher and the wording "POST OFFICE LETTER BOX". It may also contain

neg: Grilling impart a subtle flavor to the food being cooked. The flattop grill is a versatile platform for many cooking techniques such as sautéing, toasting, steaming, stir frying, grilling, baking, braising, and roasting, and can also be used in flambéing. In addition, pots and pans can be placed directly on the cooking surface for even more cooking flexibility. In most cases, the steel cooking surface is seasoned like cast iron cookware, providing a natural non-stick surface. Charbroiling, or chargrilling outside North America, refers to grilling on a surface with wide raised ridges, to the point of having the food slightly charred

neg: Flattop grill materials. Spaniards adopted these grills with the name "plancha", which means "metal plate". Food that is cooked "a la plancha" means “grilled on a metal plate”. For example, "filetes à la plancha" translates as “grilled beef fillets”. The flattop grill is a versatile platform for many cooking techniques such as sautéing, toasting, simmering, shallow frying, stir frying, pan frying, browning, blackening, grilling, baking, braising, and roasting, and can also be used for flambéing. In addition, pots and pans can be placed directly on the cook surface, giving more cooking flexibility. In most cases, the steel cooksurface seasons like cast iron

neg: Ludlow wall box smaller style box could be used instead of the enamel plate. It was uniform with the smaller style and both of these later EIIR boxes carry a cast plaque on the lower door reading "Post Office". In Scotland, this style of box featured apertures showing the Crown of Scotland. Ludlow boxes were introduced because, until 1910, sub-postmasters were responsible for the provision of secure posting facilities in their post offices. As the traditional cast iron boxes were heavy and expensive, James Ludlow & Son introduced a range of much cheaper boxes which they could supply at a competitive price to

neg: Wrought iron than what might be called "unwrought" iron. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold. Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a wide variety of terms according to its form, origin, or quality. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the starting materials used in the finery forge and puddling furnace. Pig iron and cast iron have higher carbon content than wrought iron, but have a lower melting point than

neg: Cookware and bakeware pan is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use, usually by rubbing a fat or oil on the cooking surface and heating the cookware on the stovetop or in the oven. With proper use and care, seasoning oils polymerize on carbon steel to form a low-tack surface, well-suited to browning, Maillard reactions and easy release of fried foods. Carbon steel will easily rust if not seasoned and should be stored seasoned to avoid rusting. Carbon steel is traditionally used for crêpe and fry pans, as well as woks.

neg: Ferrous metallurgy meteoritic iron. The earliest cast iron artifacts, dating to 5th century BC, were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture and architecture. Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern state of Wu achieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be cast into molds, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom. Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can, however,

neg: Wok food in the wok is frequently turned with a tossing motion of the arm and wrist when stir-frying food. The classic stick handle is made of hollow hammered steel, but other materials may be used, including wood or plastic-covered hand grips. Because of their popularity in northern China, stick-handled woks are often referred to as "pao woks" or "Peking pans". Stick handles are normally not found on cast iron woks since the wok is either too heavy for the handle or the metal is too thin to handle the tensile stress exerted by the handle. Larger-diameter woks with stick-type handles

neg: Wok on an electric stove. Coupled with the lower heat retention of woks, meals stir-fried on electric stoves have a tendency to stew and boil when too much food is in the wok rather than "fry" as in traditional woks, thus not producing "wok hei". A wok can, however, benefit from the slow steady heating of electric stoves when used for slower cooking methods such as stewing, braising, and steaming, and immersion cooking techniques such as frying and boiling. Many Chinese cooks use Western style cast-iron pans for stir-frying on electric stoves, since they hold enough heat for the required sustained

neg: Tetsubin water; large ones may hold around 5 litres. The historical origin of the "tetsubin" is not certain. At least one authoritative Japanese source states that it developed from the spouted and handled water kettle called "tedorigama" that was already being used in "chanoyu" in the era of Sen no Rikyū (1522–91). During the 19th century, infused tea became more popular and tetsubin were considered primarily status symbols rather than functional kitchen items. Outside Japan, a frequently seen variant is a cast-iron teapot that outwardly resembles a "tetsubin". This type of teapot is glazed with enamel on the inside to make

neg: Eglinton Tournament Bridge the 2008 restoration work. The old bridge partly collapsed in early 1936, the cast iron fascias and central pinnacles falling outwards. To save the bridge from total collapse the 103rd (Glasgow) Company Royal Engineers, who were encamped on the Irvine Moor, removed the cast iron outer fascia coverings and the pinnacles, encasing the remaining cast iron arches in concrete as can be seen from contemporary photographs and as further revealed during restoration work. It is not known what happened to the pinnacles and cast iron coverings. It had been thought that they were safely in storage, however enquiries have led

neg: Buddy's Pizza Buddy's Pizza Buddy's Pizza is an independent pizza restaurant chain based in Detroit, Michigan. Founded in 1946, the company has an annual revenue of US $30 million. The chain's eleven restaurants have a total of 700 employees. Buddy's has been called one of the five best pizzerias in the United States by the Food Network. They have bocce ball league play every Saturday morning at their original location on Conant St. The restaurant serves Detroit-style pizza baked in cast-iron pans. In addition to pizza, Buddy's serves sandwiches, soups, pastas, salads and chicken tenders. As of 2009, the restaurant chain is

neg: Dillinger Hütte fuel for the furnaces, and the ore deposits in the immediate vicinity the feed materials for production. The first products were iron forgings, nails and cast artifacts such as pots, pans and so-called "Takenplatten", decorative iron plates that carried the heat of the kitchen over into the adjacent living space by conduction and radiation. Production was gradually optimized over succeeding years, with plate beginning to predominate in the mill's product mix as from 1802, following the construction of the first plate rolling-mill in continental Europe. These developments brought the factory to the forefront as Prussia's largest black and tin plate

neg: Post - 1500 Southeast Asia Archaeology when bronze Chinese coins were discovered, the main form of trade during pre-colonial times. These bronze coins served as a wider piece of evidence for the growth of metals in Southeast Asia, proving the heavy use of iron, copper, and gold, especially in Fort Canning. Items used in daily life were found as well, among the most popular were Chinese cast iron pans, commonly known as woks. Copper used in Singapore was found to be exported from another Southeast Asian country, most likely Sumatra. Pottery was found to be one of the biggest forms of art in ancient Singapore. It

neg: Wall box ever reaching his coronation, only a handful of post boxes were made carrying his Royal Cipher. Of these, 200 were pillar boxes, 70 were Ludlow wall boxes and just 11 were cast iron wall boxes. Following the Abdication Crisis in late 1936, resentment and bad feeling led to the removal or exchange of many of the doors of these boxes. Today none exists in their original form, save for one Ludlow wall box at Bawdsey in Suffolk. Unfortunately the original enamel plate on this box was stolen and the plate seen on the box today is a modern replica. With

neg: Cast iron and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation. The earliest cast-iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. During the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for cannon in Burgundy, France, and in England during the

neg: Iron the Song and Tang Dynasties. During the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Henry Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems. In 1783 he patented the puddling process for refining iron ore. It was later improved by others, including Joseph Hall. Cast iron was first produced in China during 5th century BC, but was hardly in Europe until the medieval period. The earliest cast iron artifacts were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture.

neg: Brandon, Iowa the "cowboy breakfast". They chose to build a large frying pan because the cowboy breakfast is cooked over open flames using mostly cast iron frying pans. It is quantitatively 10 times the size of a 10-inch frying pan. The frying pan is calculated to hold 88 times as much as a 10-inch frying pan. Brandon, Iowa Brandon is a city in Buchanan County, Iowa, United States. The population was 309 at the 2010 census. Brandon is located at (42.314216, -92.004126). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all of it land. As

neg: Wood-fired oven ovens can also be built out of adobe, cob or cast iron. Wood-fired ovens are distinct from wood-fired stoves that have a hot cooking surface for pots and pans, like on a gas or electric stove. A wood stove may also have an oven separate from the fire chamber. Regardless of material they all have an oven chamber consisting of a floor (or hearth), a dome and an entry (oven opening). Unlike modern household gas or electric ovens that provide a nearly constant cooking temperature, a black oven is typically heated only once during the firing stage (the combustion of

neg: Industrial porcelain enamel of dry application, especially for cast-iron substrates, is to heat the substrate and roll it in powdered frit. The frit particles melt on contact with the hot substrate and adhere to its surface. This method requires a high level of operator skill and concentration to achieve an even coating, and due to its inconstant nature is not often used in industrial applications. The most common method of dry application used in industry today is electrostatic deposition. Before application, the dry frit must be encapsulated in an organic silane; this allows the frit to hold an electrical charge during application. An

neg: Edison Records wax per pan. After the material has cooled to room temperature it is removed from the pans and stacked. 3. Into a 200-gallon cast iron cauldron heated by an oil burner of the household type, (or as required at present by war conditions, heated by bituminous coal) are placed 500 to 900 labs of "formula wax". Note: The amount of "formula wax" to make up a batch various according to the amount of scrap wax which is to be added to the cauldron. Scrap wax represents commercial wax of which "formula wax" is a part. To the amount of "formula

neg: Minas Gerais all his life. Minas Gerais is known nationally for its cuisine. The cultural basis of its cuisine is the small farmhouse, and many of the dishes are prepared using locally produced vegetables and meats, especially chicken and pork. Traditional cooking is done using coal- or wood-fired ovens and cast iron pans, making for a particularly tasty flavor; some restaurant chains have adopted these techniques and made this type of food popular in other parts of the country. Many of the cakes and appetizers of the local cuisine use corn or cassava (known there as "mandioca") flour instead of wheat, as

neg: Brillo Pad Brillo Pad Brillo Pad is a trade name for a scouring pad, used for cleaning dishes, and made from steel wool impregnated with soap. The concept was patented in 1913, at a time when aluminium pots and pans were replacing cast iron in the kitchen; the new cookware blackened easily. The company's website states the name "Brillo" is from the Latin word for "bright", although no such word exists in Latin. In Spanish the word "brillo" means the noun "shine"; however, German, Italian, French, and English do have words for "shine" or "bright" beginning with "brill-" deriving from Latin words

neg: Lagostina who wished to share their culinary secrets under the lens of the photographer. Lagostina produces premium cookware features such as stoves, pots, pans, cast iron pots and tableware (services, flatware ...). Although labeled as Italian, their products are now made in China. Among the last innovations of the brand, there is « Melodia Triply » and, most of all, the new pressure cookers Domina and Maga with new open-close patented system « Easy Opening ». In 2009, Lagostina launches La Collezione Rossa, a worldwide innovation in the field of cookware. This collection is the result of a unique technological process

neg: Æbleskiver Pans are usually made of cast iron, allowing good heat retention. Traditional models in hammered copper plate exist but are today used primarily for decoration. The batter for æbleskiver usually includes wheat flour, which is mixed with buttermilk, milk or cream, eggs, sugar and a pinch of salt. Some recipes also include fat (usually butter), cardamom and lemon zest to improve taste, and a leavening agent, most often baking powder, but sometimes yeast, to aerate the batter. Batter is poured into the oiled indentations and as the æbleskiver begin to cook, they are turned with a knitting needle, skewer or

neg: Vitreous enamel the anode in an electrogalvanic reaction in which the iron is again oxidised, dissolved by the glass, and oxidised again with the available cobalt and nickel limiting the reaction. Finally, the surface becomes roughened with the glass anchored into the holes. Enamel coatings applied to steel panels offer protection to the core material whether cladding road tunnels, underground stations, building superstructures or other applications. It can also be specified as a curtain walling. Qualities of this structural material include: Vitreous enamel Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing,

neg: Saltern due to weather, salt was produced from the concentrated brine by boiling the brine. Earliest examples of pans used in the solution mining of salt date back to prehistoric times and the pans were made of ceramics known as briquetage. Later examples were made from lead and then iron. The change from lead to iron coincided with a change from wood to coal for the purpose of heating the brine. Brine would be pumped into the pans, and concentrated by the heat of the fire burning underneath. As crystals of salt formed these would be raked out and more brine

neg: Industrial porcelain enamel decoration. It was not until the Industrial Revolution that ferrous metals first became the subject of porcelain enamelling processes; these first attempts were met with limited success. A reliably successful technique was not developed until the middle of the 19th century, with the development of a method for enamelling cast-iron cooking pots in Germany. It was not long before this method of enamelling became outdated with the development of new ferrous substrates, and most modern research into porcelain enamelling is concerned with creating an acceptable bond between enamels and new metal substrates. The production of porcelain enamelled products on an

neg: Victoria and Albert Museum Joan Evans' 1977 gift of more than 800 jewels dating from the Middle Ages to the early 19th century. A new jewellery gallery, funded by William and Judith Bollinger, opened on 24 May 2008. This collection of more than 45,000 items covers decorative ironwork, both wrought and cast, bronze, silverware, arms and armour, pewter, brassware and enamels (including many examples Limoges enamel). The main iron work gallery was redesigned in 1995. There are over 10,000 objects made from silver or gold in the collection, the display (about 15% of the collection) is divided into secular and sacred covering both Christian

neg: Andiron hot. English late 17th-century andirons often have elaborate flat brass front pieces, often in openwork and sometimes using enamel for further decoration. By the 18th century classical forms with several mouldings, similar to those used for candlesticks and the like, predominate in pieces for the middle classes, and were followed in the American colonies, often just in iron and rather more simply. Small figures at the front also became popular; in America cast flat "Hessian" soldiers were a long-lasting favourite. Andiron An andiron or firedog, fire-dog or fire dog is a bracket support, normally found in pairs, on which logs

neg: Castroville, California tortilla cast iron pans, personal items and moved the people to Juan Pomber's hotel for ninety days. They were registered and became ready to vote. They were not able to read in English, so the ballots were translated for them. Juan Bautista Castro won the office of supervisor of his district. Juan Pomber became Road- Master of the district. The county supplied money and low income housing was built on the donated lots. Castroville now had residents and a community. In 1875 Castroville had 900 residents. There were two hotels, five stores, stables, three saloons, flour mill, two blacksmith shops,

neg: Sink are fabricated by welding. Stainless steel sinks will not be damaged by hot or cold objects and resist damage from impacts. One disadvantage of stainless steel is that, being made of thin metal, they tend to be noisier than most other sink materials, although better sinks apply a heavy coating of vibration-damping material to the underside of the sink. Enamel over cast iron is a popular material for kitchen and bathroom sinks. Heavy and durable, these sinks can also be manufactured in a very wide range of shapes and colors. Like stainless steel, they are very resistant to hot or

neg: Non-stick surface Non-stick surface A non-stick surface is a surface engineered to reduce the ability of other materials to stick to it. Non-stick cookware is a common application, where the non-stick coating allows food to brown without sticking to the pan. Non-stick is often used to refer to surfaces coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a well-known brand of which is "Teflon." In the twenty-first century other coatings have been marketed as non-stick, such as anodized aluminium, ceramics, silicone, enameled cast iron, and seasoned cookware. Superhydrophobic coating is the newest non-stick coating for sale. The Mycenaean Greeks might have used non-stick pans to make

neg: Cast iron carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite, FeC, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles. As the iron carbide precipitates out, it withdraws carbon from the original melt, moving the mixture toward one that is closer to eutectic, and the remaining phase is the lower iron-carbon austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide the benefit of what is called precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where much smaller cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation

neg: Lapel pin a sheet of steel, aluminum, copper, brass, or iron. In the case of cloisonne and soft enamel, the shape and the design are stamped out. Cloisonné Sometimes called epola or hard enamel, cloisonné is stamped out from a sheet of copper. The stamping leaves recessed areas, or pools, which are filled with enamel powder and high fired at 800 – 900 degrees. After cooling, the surface of the pin is ground down to a smooth finish and then the copper is plated. Soft enamel This process is like epola and cloisonné in that strips of metal separate areas of color.