query: explain the significance of french revolution in the history of french

pos: French Revolution French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies beginning in 1789. The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, catalyzed violent periods of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon who brought many of its principles to areas he conquered in Western Europe and beyond. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the Revolution profoundly altered the course of modern history, triggering the global decline of absolute monarchies while replacing them with republics and liberal democracies. Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of

neg: States and Social Revolutions says that the convening of the Estates General in 1789 was essential for the start of the French Revolution. This “is not to say that the king intended to start a revolution.” According to Marinas, “to say this is also to say that the ‘causal arguments’ ...are not sufficient to explain the French Revolution...they leave out precisely what one needs in order to explain the French Revolution, or indeed, to explain any historical event.” Skocpol’s book “States and Social Revolutions” gives an understanding of the similarities and differences between the structures of prerevolutionary and postrevolutionary societies in each of the

neg: Historiography of the United Kingdom compiling the monumental "A History of Agriculture and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793" (7 vol. 1866–1902), which is still useful to scholars. William Ashley (1860–1927) introduced British scholars to the historical school of economic history as developed in Germany. The French historian Élie Halévy (1870-1937) wrote a multivolume history of England, 1815-1914; it was translated and greatly influenced scholars with its in-depth exploration of the complex interactions among politics, religion, economics, reform and absence of French-style Jacobite revolution. Halévy sought the answer not in economics but in religion. "If economic facts explain the course taken by the human

neg: Eden Agreement French harvest failed in 1788-89 and following the outbreak of the French Revolution, the "Ancien Régime" collapsed and with it the Eden Treaty. Although the treaty was short-lived, it still has significance in economic history as it marks the end of an important phase of commercial relations between England and France, and, moreover, Europe. Prior to the treaty, it was accepted that high tariffs, prohibitory laws, and isolationist ideals were economically advantageous for each country. Though it failed, the Eden Treaty, along with Adam Smith’s "Wealth of Nations", and the liberal publications emanating from the American Revolution and its subsequent

neg: Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution difference in salinity (i.e. the difference between distilled water and very good quality drinking water) is enough to explain this difference. The units in the following table are (except for the talent) calculated based on the kilogram definition of the "livre". Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution Before the French Revolution, which started in 1789, French units of measurement were based on the Carolingian system, introduced by the first Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne which in turn were based on ancient Roman measures. Charlemagne brought a consistent system of measures across the entire empire. However, after his death,

neg: The French Revolution: A History The French Revolution: A History The French Revolution: A History was written by the Scottish essayist, philosopher, and historian Thomas Carlyle. The three-volume work, first published in 1837 (with a revised edition in print by 1857), charts the course of the French Revolution from 1789 to the height of the Reign of Terror (1793–94) and culminates in 1795. A massive undertaking which draws together a wide variety of sources, Carlyle's history—despite the unusual style in which it is written—is considered to be an authoritative account of the early course of the Revolution. John Stuart Mill, a friend of Carlyle's, found

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution many French intellectuals was itself a result of their commitment to the ideals of the French Revolution. Working much of the year at the University of Chicago after 1979, Furet also rejected the Annales School, with its emphasis on very long-term structural factors, and emphasized intellectual history. Influenced by Alexis de Tocqueville and Augustin Cochin, Furet argues that Frenchmen must stop seeing the revolution as the key to all aspects of modern French history. His works include "Interpreting the French Revolution" (1981), a historiographical overview of what has preceded him and "A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution" (1989). Some

neg: The French Revolution: A History as “the volumes that delivered our fathers from thraldom to Burke”. The French Revolution: A History The French Revolution: A History was written by the Scottish essayist, philosopher, and historian Thomas Carlyle. The three-volume work, first published in 1837 (with a revised edition in print by 1857), charts the course of the French Revolution from 1789 to the height of the Reign of Terror (1793–94) and culminates in 1795. A massive undertaking which draws together a wide variety of sources, Carlyle's history—despite the unusual style in which it is written—is considered to be an authoritative account of the early course

neg: Commendatory abbot did not abolish them entirely. In spite of various efforts to reform such a system, it continued to plague the monastic orders throughout the centuries. Especially in France, they continued to flourish to the detriment of the monasteries; for example Cluny Abbey. On the eve of the French Revolution of 1789, of the two-hundred-thirty-seven Cistercian institutions in France, only thirty-five were governed by regular Cistercian abbots. Finally the French Revolution and the general secularization of monasteries in the beginning of the eighteenth century reduced the significance of commendatory abbots along with the significance of monasteries in general. Since that time

neg: Edward Duyker also be seen in "An Officer of the Blue", Duyker's biography of Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne, in which he skilfully used missionary and other accounts of Māori oral history and French journals to explain the circumstances of the explorer's death in New Zealand's Bay of Islands in 1772. Prof. Barrie Macdonald of Massey University described it as "a fine piece of detective work – a biography written with an empathy with its subject yet a critical eye that helps set in context a death that still has its significance in New Zealand history." Since 1985, Duyker has written more than 90

neg: History of the French in Baltimore History of the French in Baltimore The history of the French in Baltimore dates back to the 18th century. The earliest wave of French immigration began in the mid-1700s, bringing many Acadian refugees from Canada's Maritime Provinces. The Acadians were exiled from Canada by the British during the French and Indian War. Later waves of French settlement in Baltimore from the 1790s to the early 1800s brought Roman Catholic refugees of the French Revolution and refugees of the Haitian Revolution from the French colony of Saint-Domingue. In 1920, 626 foreign-born White people in Baltimore spoke the French language. As of

neg: French Revolution on countries he controlled, such as Italy. The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World, decisively changing the course of human history. It brought an end to feudalism and made a path for future advances in broadly defined individual freedoms. Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism." Nationalism was emphasised by historian Carlton J. H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was

neg: Nationalization of history French revolution that creating of historical works started to be strongly influenced by national perspectives, and that perspective gradually became globally dominant with its culmination during the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Nationalism was estimated as the proper perspective to such an extent that nationalization of history remained unnoticed till recently (1980s and 1990s) and was not studied in historiography in a scale that would correspond to its significance. Many various reasons, depending on the circumstances, caused nationalization of history. Probably the most important is national revival, the important element of which was nationalized history, that

neg: George Rudé force on history. Rudé wrote a broad survey "Revolutionary Europe: 1783-1815" in traditional fashion. In is he portrays France and Europe before, during and after the French Revolution. He examines the significance of the Revolution in context to the rest of the European world. The broader focus of this work was a shift from his crowd studies, which would resume in his later works. Rudé’s "Paris and London in the 18th Century" explains the popular protests and revolts of Paris and London during the 18th century. Rudé compares and contrasts the time, place, social, political and economic factors of Paris

neg: Greek War of Independence the Greek Revolution with the Enlightenment and the French Revolution has been questioned by several Greek authors, who considered this theory mechanistic and false. The relation between the Greek and the French Revolution has also been challenged by other scholars, such as professor of history Nikolaos Vlachos (he also doubts that the French Revolution was a "revolution" in the real sense), prof. Ioannis Theodorakopoulos, the historian of the Revolution Dionysios Kokkinos, prof. of history Emmanuel Protopsaltes, prof. Konstantinos Despotopoulos and others According to Th. Proussis, the main external factor who contributed to the progress to the Revolution was Russia. Since

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution the 1789 revolution in a "long" history of 19th century revolutionary France. Another seminal figure in the revisionism debate is the Francophile Englishman Richard Cobb, who has produced a number of immensely detailed studies of both provincial and city life, avoiding the revisionism debate by "keeping his nose very close to the ground". "Les armées révolutionnaires" (1968, translated as "The People's Armies" in 1987) is his most famous work. William Doyle, professor at Bristol University, has published "The Origins of the French Revolution" (1988) and a revisionist history, "The Oxford History of the French Revolution" (2nd edition 2002). Another recent

neg: Operation McGill français Francophone. This is a significant improvement over the Francophone student body during the Quiet Revolution that consisted of approximately 3%. Students now have the opportunity to write any work in English or French even though the language of instruction continues to be predominantly in English. Operation McGill français Operation McGill français was a street demonstration that posed great significance in Canadian history. It took place in Montreal on March 28, 1969 in the midst of Quebec's Quiet Revolution. On this day, approximately 10,000–15,000 protesters, largely leftist activists, trade unionists, leftists and a few students from McGill University's CEGEP, gathered and

neg: Military history of Luxembourg Military history of Luxembourg The military history of Luxembourg is central to the formation of Luxembourg as a nation from its formation around Luxembourg Castle in 963. A place of strategic military significance, Luxembourg had been fortified since the 10th century by over of walls and towers. Ruled by the House of Luxembourg in the early medieval period, Luxembourg was subsequently invaded by the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and the French, among others. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands. The Belgian Revolution of 1830–1839 reduced Luxembourg's territory by more than half, as

neg: The French Revolution (poem) The French Revolution (poem) The French Revolution is a poem written by William Blake in 1791. It was intended to be seven books in length, but only one book survives. In that book, Blake describes the problems of the French monarchy and seeks the destruction of the Bastille in the name of Freedom. Blake felt that there was a strong connection between the American and French revolutions and that these revolutions had a universal and historical impact. "The French Revolution" was intended as a poetic history of these current events in Blake's life and was supposed to be an account

neg: History of liberalism of the governed, as it had been put as early as the Declaration of Independence, was epoch-marking". The American Revolution had its impact on the French Revolution and later movements in Europe. Leopold von Ranke, a leading German historian, in 1848 argued that American republicanism played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism: Historians widely regard the French Revolution as one of the most important events in history. The Revolution is often seen as marking the "dawn of the modern era", and its convulsions are widely associated with "the triumph of liberalism". Three years into the French Revolution,

neg: Eureka Rebellion time one group or another calls for the existing Australian flag to be replaced by the Eureka Flag. Some historians believe that the prominence of the event in the public record has come about because Australian history does not include a major armed rebellion phase equivalent to the French Revolution, the English Civil War, or the American War of Independence, making the Eureka story inflated well beyond its real significance. Others, however, maintain that Eureka was a seminal event and that it marked a major change in the course of Australian history. In 1980, historian Geoffrey Blainey drew attention to

neg: Influence of the French Revolution trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.<br>The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism." Nationalism was emphasized by historian Carlton J.H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of

neg: Influence of the French Revolution was a long-range influence on liberal ideas and the ideal of legal equality, as well as the notion of opposition to a tyrannical government. In this regard, the French Revolution brought such influential themes as constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, individual liberty, legal equality, and the sense of ethnic nationalism. These came to fruition about 1876. Influence of the French Revolution The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. In the short-term, France lost thousands of her countrymen in the form of émigrés,

neg: Ancien Régime early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the Annales School paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability. The demands by peasants played a major in fashioning the early stages of the French Revolution in 1789. The role of women has recently received attention, especially regarding their religiosity. Historians have explored numerous aspects of peasant life in France, such as: In 1789, the Ancien Régime was violently overthrown by the French Revolution. Although France in 1785 faced economic difficulties, mostly concerning the equitability

neg: David H. Pinkney extend well beyond his teaching career. Over his lifetime he authored five books and multiple articles on French history, specifically the French Revolution of 1789 and the post-revolution years. Pinkney was one of the co-founders of the Society for French Historical Studies and held many positions within the society over the years, including president from 1975–76, as well as, member of the Executive Board for twenty-seven years. From 1966 to 1975 he was editor-in-chief for the journal of French Historical Studies. Pinkney received international acclaim for his contributions to French history and received an honorary doctorate from the University of

neg: Alfred Cobban his inaugural lecture as professor of French history at University College, London to attack what he called the "social interpretation" of the French Revolution. The lecture was later published as "The Myth of the French Revolution" (1955). Cobban and Furet believed that the Revolution did little to change French society, in direct opposition to the orthodox Marxist school, which saw the Revolution as the rise of the bourgeoisie and proletariat against the nobility and the transition from feudalism to capitalism, making it a symbol of progress. He believed traditional landowners and the middle class wanted access to political power. He

neg: French Revolution undeclared naval war took place with France from 1798 until 1799, often called the "Quasi War". Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. However, the two entered negotiations over the Louisiana Territory and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, an acquisition that substantially increased the size of the United States. The French Revolution has received enormous amounts of historical attention, both from the general public and from scholars and academics. The views of historians, in particular, have been characterised as falling along ideological lines, with disagreement over the significance and the

neg: François Furet the key to all aspects of modern French history. His works include "Interpreting the French Revolution" (1981), a historiographical overview of what has preceded him and "A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution" (1989). Because of his influence in history and historiography, Furet was granted some of the field's most prestigious awards, among them: Furet's concerns were not only historical but also historiographical. He attempted particularly to address distinctions between history as grand narrative and history as a set of problems that must be dealt with in a purely chronological manner. François Furet François Furet (; 27 March 1927, Paris

neg: Trường Chinh work, “The Marxism and Vietnamese Culture” Trường Chinh suggested the cultural revolution as a tool to fight the French colonial government under the principle of Marxism. The significance of culture was equal with the military and economic battle fronts. These two works became the fundamental elements to Vietnam society and culture and brought big changes to Vietnam society, particularly after the 1945 August Revolution. The key tool in eliminating the enemies of the nation was the expansion of the new democratic culture into the French-occupied cultural space as well as making the new democratic culture a national culture at the

neg: Fascism and ideology Gottlieb Fichte as a political response to the development of French nationalism. The Nazis accused the French Revolution of being dominated by Jews and Freemasons and were deeply disturbed by the Revolution's intention to completely break France away from its past history in what the Nazis claimed was a repudiation of history that they asserted to be a trait of the Enlightenment. Though the Nazis were highly critical of the Revolution, Hitler in "Mein Kampf" said that the French Revolution is a model for how to achieve change that he claims was caused by the rhetorical strength of demagogues. Furthermore,

neg: French Revolution in the shadow of the French Revolution. Almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. Its central phrases and cultural symbols, such as "La Marseillaise" and "Liberté, fraternité, égalité, ou la mort", became the clarion call for other major upheavals in modern history, including the Russian Revolution over a century later. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day. The Revolution resulted in the suppression of the feudal system, emancipation of the individual, a greater division of landed property, abolition of the privileges of noble birth, and nominal establishment of

neg: Influence of the French Revolution Influence of the French Revolution The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. In the short-term, France lost thousands of her countrymen in the form of émigrés, or emigrants who wished to escape political tensions and save their lives. A number of individuals settled in the neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), however quite a few also went to the United States. The displacement of these Frenchmen led to a spread of French culture, policies regulating immigration,

neg: French Revolution and the English Gothic Novel French Revolution and the English Gothic Novel The French Revolution influenced the English gothic novel. The gothic novel combines elements of terror and romance, and the supernatural. English novelist Fanny Burney wrote at the time of the French Revolution that, "There is nothing in old history that I shall any longer think fabulous; the destruction of the most wonderful empires on record has nothing more wonderful, nor of more sounding improbability, than the demolition of this great nation, which rises up against itself for its own ruin-perhaps annihilation." A year later in 1790, English statesman Edmund Burke wrote that the

neg: François-René de Chateaubriand on his own literary work. His exile forced Chateaubriand to examine the causes of the French Revolution, which had cost the lives of many of his family and friends; these reflections inspired his first work, "Essai sur les Révolutions" (1797). An attempt in 18th-century style to explain the French Revolution, it predated his subsequent, romantic style of writing and was largely ignored. A major turning point in Chateaubriand's life was his conversion back to the Catholic faith of his childhood around 1798. Chateaubriand took advantage of the amnesty issued to "émigrés" to return to France in May 1800 (under the

neg: Franco-Hova Wars island-wide significance attached to ancestral land. In addition, the French government received a letter purportedly written by the prince, requesting French military aid to depose his mother. The origins and authenticity of the letter are disputed, and the British alleged that it was crafted by Laborde (particularly since it was written in French, a language Radama did not know how to write) to support French military action on the island. After a brief reign, Radama was strangled in an 1863 "coup d'etat" termed the Aristocratic Revolution. Radama's widow Rasoherina was placed on the throne by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and his

neg: Nouvelles Extraordinaires de Divers Endroits it with the peaceful transformation in Poland. This relative lack of support for the French Revolution may explain why the paper was abolished on 23 April 1798, three years after the invasion of the Netherlands by France and the Batavian Revolution. It reappeared as the Nouvelles politiques publiées à Leyde in October, but it was seen as no longer independent. Under a new name—Journal politique publié à Leyde—it lasted from 1804 until 1811, but it never regained its audience and its quality, and disappeared after the annexation of Holland by the French Empire. A new "Leyden Gazette" briefly appeared after

neg: Charles F. Warwick Harrisburg. Mayors in Philadelphia were limited to one four-year term, so in 1899, Warwick left office. Besides continuing his law practice, he also wrote several books of historical scholarship, including "Mirabeau and the French Revolution" (1908), "Danton and the French Revolution" (1909), and "Napoleon and the end of the French revolution" (1910). A few years later, in 1913, he published a less formal local history, entitled "Warwick's Keystone commonwealth; a review of the history of the great state of Pennsylvania, and a brief record of the growth of its chief city, Philadelphia." Warwick died later that year, and was buried

neg: French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church perforce underwent radical restructuring. This article covers a period of time slightly longer than a year, from 14 July 1790, the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly on 1 October 1791. This article is a continuation of French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution

neg: French Revolution global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. The causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years' War and the American Revolution, the French government was deeply in debt. It attempted to restore its financial status through unpopular taxation schemes, which were heavily regressive. Leading up to the Revolution, years of bad harvests worsened by deregulation of the grain industry also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the aristocracy and the

neg: Haitian Revolution was influenced by the revolution in France, but once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion in history. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in saint-Domingue. The revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation

neg: Quibéron mutinies loyal to the Ancien Régime to explain the incident. In consequence, a number of officers were relieved of duty and arrested, including two admirals. The collapse of the French absolute monarchy with the French Revolution had an important impact on the French Navy: the Navy was strongly linked to the monarchy by its officer corps, largely recruited from the nobility, and trained in highly technical disciplines; it was also enormously dependant on funds and supplies to maintain ships and crews. The collapse of Royal power triggered a shift of authority towards local governments, the revolutionary municipalities. These municipalities were both

neg: French Revolution Revolution was in intellectual disarray. The old model or paradigm focusing on class conflict has been discredited, and no new explanatory model had gained widespread support. Nevertheless, as Spang has shown, there persists a very widespread agreement to the effect that the French Revolution was the watershed between the premodern and modern eras of Western history. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in history. It marks the end of the early modern period, which started around 1500 and is often seen as marking the "dawn of the modern era". Within France itself, the Revolution

neg: Alexis de Tocqueville investigates the forces that caused the Revolution. Tocqueville was quoted in several chapters of Toby Young's memoirs "How to Lose Friends and Alienate People" to explain his observation of widespread homogeneity of thought even amongst intellectual elites at Harvard University during his time spent there. He is frequently quoted and studied in American history classes. Tocqueville is the inspiration for Australian novelist Peter Carey in his 2009 novel "Parrot and Olivier in America". General: Alexis de Tocqueville Alexis Charles Henri Clérel, Viscount de Tocqueville (; ; 29 July 180516 April 1859) was a French diplomat, political scientist and historian. He

neg: Alfred Cobban by corollary, class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the nobility). Rather, argued Cobban, the French Revolution should be seen as a political revolution with social consequences. Cobban died in London on 1 April 1968. Alfred Cobban Alfred Cobban (24 May 1901 in London – 1 April 1968 in London) was an English historian and professor of French history at University College, London, who along with prominent French historian François Furet advocated a Revisionist view of the French Revolution. Born in London, Cobban was educated at Latymer Upper School and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Before his professorship at University College,

neg: Notre Dame de Chicago the Archdiocese of Chicago gave control of the church to the Fathers of the Blessed Sacrament in 1918. The church hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in 1926. As the successor to the St. Louis Church, the first French church in Chicago, Notre Dame de Chicago represents a significant part of the history of French immigrants in Chicago. The church has been called "the best extant landmark associated with the French in Chicago" and "the only surviving French monument" in the city. Due to its importance to the history of the French community and its architectural significance, the church was added

neg: The French Revolution (poem) language that Blake relies on in the poem is very political, but Blake felt that language in such discussions is replaced by rhetoric. In order to overcome that problem, he attempts to return to an original language. Revolution is a recurring theme in Blake's works. In Blake's "America", his views are expressed in the character of Orc. In "The French Revolution", the ideas expressed are in direct contrast to those who stood against the French Revolution, including Edmund Burke. He accomplishes this by merging myth with history in order to create an apocalyptic vision that connects with the revolution. Other

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution of the Tuileries and the Terror. French historians of the first half of the 19th century like the politician and man of letters François Guizot (1787–1874), historian François Mignet (published "Histoire de la Révolution française" in 1824), and famous philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville ("L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution", 1856) established and wrote in this tradition. Other French historians in the 19th-century include: One of the most famous English works on the Revolution remains Thomas Carlyle's three-volume "The French Revolution, A History" (1837) . It is a romantic work, both in style and viewpoint. Passionate in his concern for the poor

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution overthrow a dying-out feudal aristocratic ruling caste, and held the field for almost twenty years. His major publication was "La Révolution française" (1957, translated and published in English in two volumes, 1962–1967). This, and particularly his later work on Napoleon and the Directory, remains highly regarded. Some other influential French historians of this period: Some of the significant conservative French historians of this period include: The following five scholars have served as Chairs in the History of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne: "Revisionism" in this context means the rejection of the Orthodox/Marxist model of a revolution carried out by

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution French authors Chateaubriand, Stendhal et Sainte-Beuve, was translated into English (1838) and Spanish (1889), and won him a seat in the Académie française in 1834. It was less appreciated by British critics, in large part because of his favorable view of the French Revolution and of Napoleon Bonaparte. The British historian Thomas Carlyle, who wrote his own history of the French Revolution, complained that it "was far as possible from meriting its high reputation", though he admitted that Thiers is "a brisk man in his way, and will tell you much if you know nothing." The British historian Hugh Chisholm

neg: Migration Period observes that Michael Schmidt introduced the equation in his 1778 history of the Germans. Wolfram observed that the significance of "gens" as a biological community was shifting, even during the early Middle Ages and that "to complicate matters, we have no way of devising a terminology that is not derived from the concept of nationhood created during the French Revolution". The "primordialistic" paradigm prevailed during the 19th century. Scholars, such as German linguist Johann Gottfried Herder, viewed tribes as coherent biological (racial) entities, using the term to refer to discrete ethnic groups. He also believed that the "Volk" were an

neg: Adolphe Thiers generals. The first work on the French Revolution, published between 1823 and 1827, was highly praised by French critics. It was the first major history in French of the Revolution, and won Thiers a seat as the second-youngest elected member of the Academie Française, and in addition was a major commercial success. It condemned the violence of the Terror and the most radical leaders, including Marat, Robespierre, and Saint-Just, and glorified the ideals and the more moderate leaders of the French Revolution, including Mirabeau, Bailly and Lafayette, though at the time the book was published France was still a monarchy,

neg: The Black Jacobins of the French Revolution, "Had the monarchists been white, the bourgeoisie brown, and the masses of France black, the French Revolution would have gone down in history as a race war." Toussaint L'Ouverture is a central figure in James's telling of the Haitian Revolution. Although born a slave, James writes of Toussaint, "both in body and mind he was far beyond the average slave". Toussaint joined the revolution after its onset and was immediately regarded as a leader, organizing the Haitian people into a force capable of breaking the French hold on the colony of San Domingo. He emerged both

neg: History of the Basques the French Revolution centralized government and abolished the region specific powers recognized by the "ancien régime". The French political design intently pursued a dissolution of the Basque identity into a new French nation, and in 1793 that French national ideal was enforced with terror over the population. During the period of the French Convention (up to 1795), Labourd (Sara, Itxassou, Biriatu, Ascain, etc.) went on to be shaken by indiscriminate mass deportation of civilians to the Landes of Gascony, confiscations, and the death of hundreds. It has been argued that despite its 'fraternal' intent, the intervention of the French Revolution

neg: Military history of France during World War II was the French State's first paramilitary force, created on 29 August 1940 by Xavier Vallat. On 19 November 1941, the force changed its name to "Légion française des combattants et des volontaires de la Révolution nationale" ("French Legion of Fighters and Volunteers of the National Revolution"). The National Revolution was the French State's official ideology. The "Légion Tricolore" ("tricolore legion") was created by Pierre Laval and Jacques Benoist-Méchin in summer 1941 and was disbanded in autumn 1942. The French Milice, ("militia") was a Vichy French paramilitary force created on 30 January 1943 by the French State for service as auxiliary

neg: Trotskyism 1906, Trotsky outlines his theory in detail, arguing: "History does not repeat itself. However much one may compare the Russian Revolution with the Great French Revolution, the former can never be transformed into a repetition of the latter". In the French Revolution of 1789, France experienced what Marxists called a "bourgeois-democratic revolution"—a regime was established wherein the bourgeoisie overthrew the existing French feudalistic system. The bourgeoisie then moved towards establishing a regime of democratic parliamentary institutions. However, while democratic rights were extended to the bourgeoisie, they were not generally extended to a universal franchise. The freedom for workers to organize

neg: Robert Roswell Palmer text covers events from the Black Death to the Fall of the Soviet Union in European history. The book is organized partly by ideas: for example, the relation of the French Revolution to modern and ancient thought may be mentioned before the French Revolution. Palmer's most important work of historical scholarship is "The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800". It was published by Princeton in two volumes: "The Challenge" (1959), which won the Bancroft Prize in American History, and "The Struggle" (1964). Palmer's masterwork traced the growth of two competing forces – ideas

neg: Robert Roswell Palmer new preface in 1989 for the French Revolution bicentennial, and was reissued as a Princeton Classic in 2005 as part of the University Press centennial celebration. The book is a fusion of history and collective biography, focusing on the members of the Committee of Public Safety and their efforts to guide France during the Terror following their Revolution. Columbia University history professor Isser Woloch, a specialist in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, has stated that "Twelve Who Ruled" "may be the best book on the French Revolution written by an American." From 1983 the "[Rand McNally] Atlas of World History",

neg: 1812 Overture "La Marseillaise" was chosen as the French national anthem in 1795, it was banned by Napoleon in 1805 and would not have been played during the Russian campaign. It was reinstated as the French Anthem in 1879—the year before the commission of the overture—which can explain its use by Tchaikovsky in the overture. However, "Veillons au salut de l'Empire" which served as the unofficial anthem of Napoleon I's regime had been largely forgotten by 1882, while educated Russians of the time were likely to be familiar with the tune of "La Marseillaise" and recognize its significance. Although "God Save the

neg: Leopold von Ranke the "idea" of their state. Thus, in this way, Ranke urged his readers to stay loyal to the Prussian state and reject the ideas of the French Revolution, which Ranke claimed were meant for France only. In 1834–36 Ranke published "Die römischen Päpste, ihre Kirche und ihr Staat im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert" ("The Popes of Rome, Their Church and State in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries") (3 vols.). As a Protestant, Ranke was barred from viewing the Vatican archives in Rome, but on the basis of private papers in Rome and Venice, he was able to explain the history

neg: History of Bangkok Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totaling about one thousand men. French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted

neg: George Rudé inspired by his new bottom-up approach to write crowd-centric histories of other eras. He made no secret of his sympathy for the underdog, and this history offers a robust defence of popular uprisings in this period. In "The Crowd in the French Revolution", Rudé examines the historically neglected crowd of the French Revolution. He explains that the Revolution was not only political but more importantly a social upheaval in which the common Frenchmen played a tremendous role in the course and outcome of the Revolution. Most significantly, Rudé analyzes the French crowds in great depth to understand their composition and

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution 1789 Revolution; the clear heroes were Mirabeau, Lafayette, and other moderate leaders. It condemned Marat, Robespierre and the other radical leaders, and also condemned the monarchy, aristocracy and clergy for their inability to change. The book played a notable role in undermining the legitimacy of the Bourbon regime of Charles X, and bringing about the July Revolution of 1830. Thiers went on to become a Deputy, twice Prime Minister, and the first president of the Third French Republic. He also headed the French government in 1871 which suppressed the Paris Commune. Thiers' history of the Revolution was praised by the

neg: The Black Jacobins Productions with the assistance of Kwame Kwei-Armah.. The Black Jacobins The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution is a 1938 book by Afro-Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James, a history of the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804. He went to Paris to research this work, where he met Haitian military historian Alfred Auguste Nemours. James's text places the revolution in the context of the French Revolution, and focuses on the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was born a slave but rose to prominence espousing the French Revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality. These ideals, which many French revolutionaries

neg: The Black Jacobins The Black Jacobins The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution is a 1938 book by Afro-Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James, a history of the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804. He went to Paris to research this work, where he met Haitian military historian Alfred Auguste Nemours. James's text places the revolution in the context of the French Revolution, and focuses on the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was born a slave but rose to prominence espousing the French Revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality. These ideals, which many French revolutionaries did not maintain consistently with regard to

neg: Jacques Godechot 'the problem of Atlantic history' at the 10th International Congress of Historical Sciences in Rome. Jacques Godechot Jacques Léon Godechot (3 January 1907 – 24 August 1989) was a French historian of the French revolution, and a pioneer of Atlantic history. As a frequent and varied contributor to the "Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française", he acted as "a mediator, an intermediary between readers of the journal and Anglo-Saxon and Italian historiography of the Revolution". His emphasis on the international dimension of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth-century revolutions was crystallized in the concepts of Atlantic history and 'occidental revolution'. In 1955

neg: Reign of Terror "A Short History of the French Revolution". 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2016. “Robespierre, "On Political Morality",” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 19, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/413. Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon." "The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 ", no. 4 (1988): 771-93. doi:10.2307/204824. https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824. “"Terror Is the Order of the Day",” "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity", accessed October 26, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/416. Voltaire. "Voltaire, Selections from the Philosophical Dictionary." Omeka RSS. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/273/. Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror, or The Terror (), is the label given by most

neg: Operation McGill français equality for all. There is no true legacy that exists for Operation McGill français. It did bring together thousands of people to protest unequal rights and for better services in the Anglo-Saxon community they lived in, but did not have much significance prior to such. In fact, it is something that historians have barely researched in regards to its influence on the Quiet Revolution and Quebec's history in general. Today, McGill University continues to be one of three English universities in Quebec, demonstrating that the efforts to make McGill French had failed. However, today the student body is approximately 20.3%

neg: 19th-century French art 19th-century French art 19th-century French art was made in France or by French citizens during the following political regimes: Napoleon Bonaparte's Consulate (1799-1804) and Empire (1804-1814), the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814-1830), the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe d'Orléans (1830-1848), the Second Republic (1848-1852), the Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852-1871), and the first decades of the Third Republic (1871-1940). Many of the developments in French arts in this period parallel changes in literature. For more on this, see French literature of the 19th century. For more on French history, see History of France. The French Revolution

neg: Popes during the Age of Revolution Popes during the Age of Revolution The modern history of the papacy is shaped by the two largest dispossessions of papal property in its history, stemming from the French and its spread to Europe, including Italy. In 1793, a French diplomat in Rome, Nicolas Jean Hugon de Bassville, indulged in a provocative display of the tricolour, symbol of French anti-clerical republicanism. A Roman crowd attacked him and he died the next day. Four years later, when Napoleon reached as far south as Ancona in an advance on Rome, this incident remained a specific grievance for which France held the pope

neg: Brabant Revolution form part of the same Europe-wide "crisis of the "ancien régime"" which sparked the French Revolution. Pirenne, a nationalist himself, argued that the Brabant Revolution was a very important influence on the Belgian Revolution of 1830 and can be seen as an early expression of Belgian nationalism. Pirenne praised the revolution as a unification of Flemish and Walloons. He also argued that the Vonckists and Statists could be seen as the forerunners of the major political factions of Belgium post-independence, the Liberals and Catholics, and expressed sympathy with the Vonckists. Pirenne, as a liberal, could only explain the defeat of

neg: Laurence Gronlund revolutionary Georges Danton in the French Revolution of 1789 to 1794. At the end of his life Gronlund regarded this 1887 work, "Ça Ira! or Danton in the French Revolution," as his most important work. In his book Gronlund attempted to challenge the popular image of Danton, first President of the Committee of Public Safety, as a terrorist and to restore his place to history as a leader of the democratic French revolution. A member of the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Labor Party in 1888, Gronlund broke with the party soon after, ostensibly over its decision to open

neg: Augustin Barruel during 1790 and 1791. He afterward gathered into one "Collection Ecclésiastique" all of the works relative to the clergy and civil constitution. The storm of the French Revolution had in the meantime forced Barruel to seek refuge in England, where he became almoner to the refugee Prince of Conti. Here he wrote in 1793 the "Histoire du Clergé pendant la Revolution Française" ("History of the Clergy during the French Revolution"). He dedicated the work to the English nation in recognition of the hospitality that it had showed toward the unfortunate French ecclesiastics. It has been translated into German, Italian, Spanish,

neg: Bourbon Restoration Bourbon Restoration The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1815 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of the executed Louis XVI came to power, and reigned in highly conservative fashion; exiled supporters of the monarchy returned to France. They were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up nearly all the territorial gains made since 1789. Following the French Revolution (1789–1799), Napoleon became ruler of France. After years of

neg: Philippe Buchez French Revolution. There is a review of it by Thomas Carlyle ("Miscellanies"), the first two parts of whose own history of the French Revolution are mainly drawn from it. The editors strongly admired the principles of Robespierre and the Jacobins. They also espoused the belief that the French Revolution was an attempt to fulfill Christianity's promise. In the "" (1839–1840), Buchez endeavored to co-ordinate, in a single system, the political, moral, religious, and natural phenomena of existence. Denying the possibility of innate ideas, he asserted that morality comes by revelation. Therefore, it is not only certain, but the only real

neg: Cultural history microhistory and new cultural history. Common theoretical touchstones for recent cultural history have included: Jürgen Habermas's formulation of the public sphere in "The Structural Transformation of the Bourgeois Public Sphere"; Clifford Geertz's notion of 'thick description' (expounded in, for example, "The Interpretation of Cultures"); and the idea of memory as a cultural-historical category, as discussed in Paul Connerton's "How Societies Remember". The area where new-style cultural history is often pointed to as being almost a paradigm is the 'revisionist' history of the French Revolution, dated somewhere since François Furet's massively influential 1978 essay "Interpreting the French Revolution". The 'revisionist interpretation'

neg: Stanley J. Luft Stanley J. Luft Stanley J. Luft of Golden, Colorado, is a philatelist who is an expert on the postal history of France. Stanley Luft specialized in the collecting of rare postage stamps and postal history of France. His collections of French postal history centered on specific aspects of French philately, such as postal history of the Grande Armée, the French Revolution, various French military campaigns, the 15-centimes Sage issue, the 30-centimes Cameo Sowers, and so on. When placed in competition at national and international exhibitions, they often won gold. Luft is the recipient of at least thirty gold medals, reserve

neg: French Revolutionary Wars left major command positions to those who could be trusted, namely, the aristocracy. The hectic nature of the French Revolution, however, tore apart France's old army, meaning new men were required to become officers and commanders. In addition to opening a flood of tactical and strategic opportunities, the Revolutionary Wars also laid the foundation for modern military theory. Later authors that wrote about "nations in arms" drew inspiration from the French Revolution, in which dire circumstances seemingly mobilized the entire French nation for war and incorporated nationalism into the fabric of military history. Although the reality of war in the

neg: Club de Clichy previously banned as "private associations occupying themselves with political questions". In the history of slavery, the Clichyens's nucleus of French colonial planters coordinated a common voice against abolition as detrimental to the French colonies. Public statements of the Clichy Club generally appeared in the right-wing press, "L'Éclair", "Le Véridique", "Le Messager du soir" and "Les nouvelles politiques". Club de Clichy The Clichy Club () was a political group active during the French Revolution from 1794 to 1797. During the French Revolution, the Clichy Club formed in 1794 following the fall of Maximilien Robespierre, 9 Thermidor an II (27 July 1794).

neg: History of French foreign relations French Revolution." France did obtain its revenge against Britain, but materially it gained little and its huge debts seriously weakened the government and helped facilitate the French Revolution in 1789. Benjamin Franklin served as the American ambassador to France from 1776 to 1785. He met with many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists and financiers. Franklin's image and writings caught the French imagination – there were many images of him sold on the market – and he became the cultural icon of the archetypal new American, and even a hero for aspirations for a new order inside France. After the stated

neg: François Victor Alphonse Aulard study of parliamentary oratory during the French Revolution, and published two volumes on "Les orateurs de la Constituante" (1882) and on "Les orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention" (1885). With these works he established a reputation as a careful scholar well versed in the primary sources of the French Revolution. Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval history, Aulard devoted himself to profound research in the archives, and to the publication of numerous important contributions to the political, administrative

neg: Influence of the French Revolution as home of the most influential Revolution in history. As early as 1810, the term "liberal" was coined in Spanish politics to indicate supporters of the French Revolution. This usage passed to Latin America and animated the independence movement against Spain. In the nineteenth century "Liberalism" was the dominant element in Latin American political thought. French liberal ideas were especially influential in Mexico, particularly as seen through the writings of Alexis de Tocqueville, Benjamin Constant and Édouard René de Laboulaye. The Latin American political culture oscillated between two opposite poles: the "traditional", as based on highly specific personal and family

neg: Battle of Valmy psychological victory for the Revolution at large. The outcome was thoroughly unexpected by contemporary observers—a vindication for the French revolutionaries and a stunning defeat for the vaunted Prussian army. The victory emboldened the newly assembled National Convention to formally declare the end of monarchy in France and to establish the First French Republic. Valmy permitted the development of the Revolution and all its resultant ripple-effects, and for that it is regarded by historians as one of the most significant battles in history. As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their

neg: Historiography of the French Revolution the bourgeoisie against the aristocracy on the right, with intervention from the proletariat pushing it to the left. Shank finds that 21st century trends include a broader range of topics regarding the effects of the Revolution, and a more global perspective. He cites heavy use of the Internet, resources such as the H-France daily discussion email list, and use of digital sources to scan through massive amounts of text. In 1954, Alfred Cobban used his inaugural lecture as Professor of French History at the University of London to attack what he called the "social interpretation" of the French Revolution. The

neg: Musée de la Révolution française museum. The newspaper mentioned it again on 6 March 1932, specifying a museum of the French Revolution. With the opening that summer of the nearby Napoleon Road, a room was devoted to the history of the castle. After the 1981 election of François Mitterrand, the 2 March 1982 decentralization law permitted a museum dedicated to the French Revolution far from Paris. At its 10 June 1983 meeting, the general council of Isère created a museum of the French Revolution in the castle of Vizille. Two people contributed to the museum's founding: Departmental Archives of Isère director Vital Chomel and historian

neg: History of Western civilization the ideals of the French Revolution. The spirit of the age also produced early works of feminist philosophy – notably Mary Wollstonecraft's 1792 book: "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman". The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to the application of modern mass conscription. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe, but

neg: War in the Vendée "A French Genocide: The Vendée". Secher argued that the actions of the French republican government during the War in the Vendée was the first modern genocide. Secher's claims caused a minor uproar in France amongst scholars of modern French history, as many mainstream authorities on the period – both French and foreign – published articles rejecting Secher's claims. Claude Langlois (of the Institute of History of the French Revolution) derides Secher's claims as "quasi-mythological". Timothy Tackett of the University of California summarizes the case as such: "In reality ... the Vendée was a tragic civil war with endless horrors committed

neg: Judith Chazin-Bennahum and a doctoral degree in Romance languages in 1981. She had discovered the topic of her doctoral dissertation when her mentor, Selma Jeanne Cohen, referred her to French dance historian Marie-Françoise Christout, who suggested that she focus on ballet at the time of the French Revolution (1789-1799). So began a kind of love affair for her with that period of French history. Her Ph.D. dissertation,"Livrets of Ballet and Pantomime in Paris during the French Revolution," eventually formed the core of her first book, "Dance in the Shadow of the Guillotine" (1988). When a friend became head of dance in the

neg: History of New Orleans From early days the city was noted for its cosmopolitan polyglot population and mixture of cultures. It grew rapidly, with influxes of Americans, African, French and Creole French (people of French descent born in the Americas) and Creoles of color (people of mixed European and African ancestry), many of the latter two groups fleeing from the violent revolution in Haiti. The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) in the former French colony of Saint-Domingue established the second republic in the Western Hemisphere and the first led by blacks. Refugees, both white and free people of color ("affranchis" or "gens de couleur libres"), arrived

neg: Montmorency, Val-d'Oise meant "estate of Maurentius", probably a Gallo-Roman landowner. In 1689 Montmorency was officially renamed "Enghien" (read history section below), but the village on the slopes of the promontory was still referred to as "Montmorency" by most people. Indeed, during the French Revolution, at the creation of French communes in 1790, the newly born commune was named Montmorency. Three years later in 1793, at the peak of the French Revolution, the name of the commune, which was probably thought of as too reminiscent of the overthrown "Ancien Régime", was changed into "Émile", in honor of French philosopher and writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau

neg: George Rudé very little to back his research in Paris of revolutionary France, became a leading British historian of the French Revolution. Rudé contributed to the "history from below" view of history, which is history from the view of the oppressed. He focused especially on those who participated in the riots and rebellions. He is credited by Eric Hobsbawm as having been the only member of the Historians' Group of the English Communist Party to write 18th-century history, exploring the chronological "no-man's land between the Group's two most flourishing sections". After writing an article about rioters during the French Revolution, he was

neg: History of the Dominican Republic beef, hides, mahogany, and tobacco. With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural "hateros" (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Although the population of Spanish Santo Domingo was perhaps one-fourth that of French Saint-Domingue, this did not prevent the Spanish king from launching an invasion of the French side of the island in 1793, attempting to take advantage of the chaos sparked by the French Revolution. French forces checked Spanish progress toward Port-au-Prince in the south, but the

neg: French Guatemalan associations: Lycée Français Jules Verne, a French international school, is located in Fraijanes, Guatemala. French Guatemalan A French Guatemalan is a citizen of Guatemala who has French ancestry. Guatemalans of French descent make up the third largest European descended group in Guatemala, after the German Guatemalans and Spanish Guatemalans. According to the French embassy, as of 31 December 2010, there are 803 French citizens in Guatemala. The history of the French in Guatemala is divided into three periods of migratory waves. After the French Revolution, capitalists and entrepreneurs came to create coffee plantations in several countries of America, in Guatemala

neg: Colonial American military history four major wars between Britain and France for control of North America, the most important of which were Queen Anne's War, in which the British won French Acadia (Nova Scotia), and the final French and Indian War (1754–1763), when France lost all of Canada. This final war gave thousands of colonists military experience, including George Washington, which they put to use during the American Revolution. Britain and France fought a series of four French and Indian Wars, followed with another war in 1778 when France joined the Americans in the American Revolution. The French settlers in New France were outnumbered

neg: Jacques Godechot Jacques Godechot Jacques Léon Godechot (3 January 1907 – 24 August 1989) was a French historian of the French revolution, and a pioneer of Atlantic history. As a frequent and varied contributor to the "Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française", he acted as "a mediator, an intermediary between readers of the journal and Anglo-Saxon and Italian historiography of the Revolution". His emphasis on the international dimension of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth-century revolutions was crystallized in the concepts of Atlantic history and 'occidental revolution'. In 1955 Godechot collaborated with the Yale historian Robert Roswell Palmer to present a joint paper on

neg: History of medicine in France comfortable - providing clothing, beds, and food, and of course the spiritual treatment that had been present since the inception of hospitals. This remained the status quo for French hospitals until the French Revolution. Many concepts of modern hospital medicine are considered products of social and political change of the French Revolution, arising in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Medical reform was a contentious topic of the revolutionary movement, as the French medical system met neither the needs of the population nor its practitioners. Patients described Paris' hospitals as poorhouses, noting severe overcrowding, and that only those with

neg: History of the French in Louisville of Nantes was repealed. These were represented by such people as Thomas Bullitt, a surveyor who started Bullitt's Lick, Kentucky's oldest industry. The second significant immigration was mainly of culture value during the American Revolution as most of the French that came overseas during this time returned after the war. The third migration during the French Revolution during 1793 provided a wide variety of people from nobles to clergy. Most of the groups that traveled to Kentucky settled in Louisville at the Falls of the Ohio. During this time, the French descendants and immigrants utilized Shippingport and Portland for commerce.

neg: Pierre Gaxotte of the "Entre-deux-Guerres" period. Pierre Gaxotte Pierre Gaxotte (19 November 1895 – 21 November 1982) was a French historian. Gaxotte was born in Revigny-sur-Ornain, Meuse. He began his career as a history teacher at the Lycée Charlemagne and later worked as a columnist for "Le Figaro". Over the course of his life he authored numerous historical studies, and was elected to the "Académie française" in 1953. He is famous for his critical vision of the French Revolution, notably in "The French Revolution" (1928), and for his rehabilitation of the French 18th century ("Louis XV's Century", 1933). He is also known

neg: Marc Bloch been made compulsory for all French adult males in 1905, with enlistment terms of two years. Bloch joined the 46th Infantry Regiment based at Pithiviers from 1905 to 1906. By this time, changes were taking place in French academia. In Bloch's own specialism of history, attempts were being made at instilling a more scientific methodology. In other, newer departments such a sociology, efforts were made at establishing an independent identity. Bloch graduated in 1908 with degrees in both geography and history (Davies notes, given Bloch's later divergent interests, the significance of the two qualifications). He highly respected the then-French specialism

neg: Pierre Gaxotte Pierre Gaxotte Pierre Gaxotte (19 November 1895 – 21 November 1982) was a French historian. Gaxotte was born in Revigny-sur-Ornain, Meuse. He began his career as a history teacher at the Lycée Charlemagne and later worked as a columnist for "Le Figaro". Over the course of his life he authored numerous historical studies, and was elected to the "Académie française" in 1953. He is famous for his critical vision of the French Revolution, notably in "The French Revolution" (1928), and for his rehabilitation of the French 18th century ("Louis XV's Century", 1933). He is also known as a right-wing journalist

neg: The French Revolution: A History himself caught up in other projects and unable to meet the terms of a contract he had signed with his publisher for a history of the French Revolution. Mill proposed that Carlyle produce the work instead; Mill even sent his friend a library of books and other materials concerning the Revolution, and by 1834 Carlyle was working furiously on the project. When he had completed the first volume, Carlyle sent his only complete manuscript to Mill. While in Mill's care the manuscript was destroyed, according to Mill by a careless household maid who mistook it for trash and used it