query: what are the four elements present in dna

pos: DNA the cell, the conjugated bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA molecule, minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming A-T and G-C base pairs. The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, A and G, which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six-membered rings C

pos: DNA sequencing is extremely rare that two people have exactly the same DNA pattern, therefore DNA testing is highly successful. The canonical structure of DNA has four bases: thymine (T), adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). DNA sequencing is the determination of the physical order of these bases in a molecule of DNA. However, there are many other bases that may be present in a molecule. In some viruses (specifically, bacteriophage), cytosine may be replaced by hydroxy methyl or hydroxy methyl glucose cytosine. In mammalian DNA, variant bases with methyl groups or phosphosulfate may be found. Depending on the sequencing technique,

neg: Restriction digest important class of DNA-cleaving enzymes isolated primarily from bacteria. These enzymes are called restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes, and they are able to cleave DNA molecules at the positions at which particular short sequences of bases are present. The resulting digested DNA is very often selectively amplified using PCR, making it more suitable for analytical techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, and chromatography. It is used in genetic fingerprinting, plasmid subcloning, and RFLP analysis. A given restriction enzyme cuts DNA segments within a specific nucleotide sequence, at what is called a restriction site. These "recognition sequences" are typically four, six,

neg: Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) SINEs or Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements are sequences of non-coding DNA present at high frequencies in various eukaryotic genomes. They are a class of retrotransposons, DNA elements that amplify themselves throughout eukaryotic genomes, often through RNA intermediates. Short-interspersed nuclear elements are characterized by their size and method of retrotransposition. The literature differs on the length of the SINEs but there is a general consensus that they often range in length from about 100 to 700 base pairs (more or less, arbitrary cut-offs). Short-interspersed nuclear elements are transcribed by RNA polymerase III which is known to

neg: Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) about these genomic parasites but it is clear they play a significant role within eukaryotic organisms. Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) SINEs or Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements are sequences of non-coding DNA present at high frequencies in various eukaryotic genomes. They are a class of retrotransposons, DNA elements that amplify themselves throughout eukaryotic genomes, often through RNA intermediates. Short-interspersed nuclear elements are characterized by their size and method of retrotransposition. The literature differs on the length of the SINEs but there is a general consensus that they often range in length from about 100 to 700 base pairs (more or

neg: Biomedicine stuck onto an x ray film. The radioactivity of the probes creates black bands on the film, called an autoradiograph. As a result, only similar patterns of DNA to that of the probe are present on the film. This allows us the compare similar DNA sequences of multiple DNA samples. The overall process results in a precise reading of similarities in both similar and different DNA sample. Biochemistry is the science of the chemical processes which takes place within living organisms. Living organisms need essential elements to survive, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, and phosphorus. These elements make

neg: DNA transposon in to the bacterium, where the resistance genes were transposed in to the chromosomal genome. Class II transposable elements make up about 3% of the human genome. Today, there are no active DNA Transposons in the human genome. Therefore, the elements found in the human genome are called "fossils". DNA transposon DNA transposons (also called Class II elements) are a group of transposable elements (TEs) that can move in the DNA of an organism via a single- or double-stranded DNA intermediate. DNA transposons have been found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. They can make up a significant portion of

neg: DNA transposon resulting in the target sequence duplication that are characteristic of transposition. In many reactions, the transposon is completely excised from the donor site in what is called a "cut and paste" transposition and inserted into the target DNA to form a simple insertion.Occasionally, genetic material not originally in the transposable element gets copied and moved as well. The ability of these elements to excise and insert themselves creates a mechanism for lateral gene transfer from one organism to another via a transposon migrating from one cell to another. Helitrons are a group of eukaryotic class II transposable elements. This group

neg: DNA methylation DNA methylation DNA methylation is a process by which methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule. Methylation can change the activity of a DNA segment without changing the sequence. When located in a gene promoter, DNA methylation typically acts to repress gene transcription. DNA methylation is essential for normal development and is associated with a number of key processes including genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, repression of transposable elements, aging, and carcinogenesis. Two of DNA's four bases, cytosine and adenine, can be methylated. Cytosine methylation is widespread in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, even though the rate of cytosine DNA methylation

neg: Revelation (2001 film) work out the Loculus's meaning—its significance in fact lies in the four nails holding it together, which are those used to crucify Christ and retain organic matter with his DNA, preserved in a ceremony on Mount Hebron. The Templars and the order have continually attempted to use the DNA on it to resurrect Christ (including one failed attempt by Newton), but have failed until the genetic advances of the present day. The three argue as to what to do with the discovery—Jake concurs with his dead father and wishes to destroy it to keep it out of the order's hands,

neg: Detection of genetically modified organisms several elements that govern its functioning. The elements are promoter sequence, structural gene and stop sequence for the gene. Quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) is used to measure the quantity of a PCR product (preferably real-time, QRT-PCR). It is the method of choice to quantitatively measure amounts of transgene DNA in a food or feed sample. Q-PCR is commonly used to determine whether a DNA sequence is present in a sample and the number of its copies in the sample. The method with currently the highest level of accuracy is quantitative real-time PCR. QRT-PCR methods use fluorescent dyes, such as Sybr Green,

neg: Genome survey sequence locus, specific human DNA can be obtained from clone of TAC, BAC, PAC or human-mouse cell hybrid. PCR is an approach used to clone a small piece of fragment of DNA. The fragment could be one gene or just a part of gene. PCR can only clone very small fragment of DNA, which generally does not exceed 10kbp. Alu PCR is a "DNA fingerprinting" technique. This approach is rapid and easy to use. It is obtained from analysis of many genomic loci flanked by Alu repetitive elements, which are non-autonomous retrotransposons present in high number of copies in primate genomes.

neg: Cis-regulatory element usually proteins, that may modify the expression of genes distant from the gene that was originally transcribed to create them. For example, a transcription factor that regulates a gene on chromosome 6 might itself have been transcribed from a gene on chromosome 11. The term "trans-regulatory" is constructed from the Latin root "trans", which means "across from". There are cis-regulatory and trans-regulatory elements. Cis-regulatory elements are often binding sites for one or more trans-acting factors. To summarize, cis-regulatory elements are present on the same molecule of DNA as the gene they regulate whereas trans-regulatory elements can regulate genes distant from

neg: Extrachromosomal DNA digestion of the paternal mtDNA to prevent its inheritance. It is theorized that the uniparental inheritance of mtDNA, which has a high mutation rate, might be a mechanism to maintain the homoplasmy of cytoplasmic DNA. Sometimes called EEs, extrachromosomal elements, have been associated with genomic instability in eukaryotes. Small polydispersed DNAs (spcDNAs) are commonly found in conjunction with genome instability. SpcDNAs are derived from repetitive sequences such as satellite DNA, retrovirus-like DNA elements, and transposable elements in the genome. They are thought to be the products of gene rearrangements. Double minute chromosomes (DMs) are also extrachromosomal elements that are associated

neg: Helitron (biology) They integrate between an AT host dinucleotide. Some families of Helitrons also carry tandem repeats, like microsatellites and minisatellites which are generally highly mutable sequences. Most Helitrons are non-autonomous elements and share common termini and other structural hallmarks with autonomous Helitrons, but they do not encode any complete set of proteins encoded by the autonomous elements. The main enzymatic hallmarks of Helitrons are the rolling-circle (RC) replication initiator (Rep) and DNA helicase (Hel) domains, which are present in a protein comprising 1000–3000 amino acids (aa) (Rep/Hel) encoded by all autonomous Helitron elements. The Rep/Helicase protein includes zinc finger motifs, the

neg: Planetary habitability the building blocks of proteins, the substance of living tissue. In addition, neither sulfur, required for the building of proteins, nor phosphorus, needed for the formation of DNA, RNA, and the adenosine phosphates essential to metabolism, is rare. Relative abundance in space does not always mirror differentiated abundance within planets; of the four life elements, for instance, only oxygen is present in any abundance in the Earth's crust. This can be partly explained by the fact that many of these elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, along with their simplest and most common compounds, such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,

neg: Environmental DNA thought, and can be made more sensitive with relative ease. Sensitivity is how likely the DNA marker will be present in the sampled water, and can be increased simply by taking more samples, having bigger samples, and increasing PCR. eDNA degrades relatively fast in the water column, which is very beneficial in short term conservation studies such as identifying what species are present. Wildlife researchers in snowy areas also use snow samples to gather and extract genetic information about species of interest. DNA from snow track samples has been used to confirm the presence of such elusive and rare species

neg: CRISPR sequences in a palindromic repeat (the sequence of nucleotides is the same in both directions). Each repetition is followed by short segments of spacer DNA from previous integration of foreign DNA from a virus or plasmid. Small clusters of "cas" (CRISPR-associated) genes are located next to CRISPR sequences. The CRISPR/Cas system is a prokaryotic immune system that confers resistance to foreign genetic elements such as those present within plasmids and phages that provides a form of acquired immunity. RNA harboring the spacer sequence helps Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins recognize and cut foreign pathogenic DNA. Other RNA-guided Cas proteins cut foreign RNA.

neg: Control of chromosome duplication of these sequences are deleted, DNA is still copied from other intact origins, but when many are deleted, chromosome replication slows down dramatically. Still, presence of an ACS sequence is not sufficient to identify an origin of replication. Only about 30% of ACS sequences present in the genome are the sites of initiation activity. Origins in fission yeast contain long stretches of DNA rich in thymines and adenines that are important for origin function, but do not exhibit strong sequence similarity. In animals, no highly conserved sequence elements have been found to direct origin activity, and it has proved difficult

neg: Topologically associating domain fully elucidated, though a number of protein complexes and DNA elements are associated with TAD boundaries. TADs are defined as regions whose DNA sequences preferentially contact each other. They were discovered in 2012 using chromosome conformation capture techniques including Hi-C. They have been shown to be present in fruit flies (Drosophila), mouse and human genomes, but not in the wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. TAD locations are defined by applying an algorithm to Hi-C data. For example, TADs are often called according to the so-called "directionality index". The directionality index is calculated for individual 40kb bins, by collecting the reads that

neg: Epigenetics in insects different species which specific Dnmt types are present. It still is a matter of discussion what the specific role of DNA methylation in insects is, as some insects such as "Drosophila melanogaster" just have traces of DNA methylation in their genome and in general insect genomes are much less methylated compared to mammalian genomes (0.034% vs. 7.6% in "Mus musculus"). In a comparison of different insect species and their respective methylation levels, there was a clear relationship between cell turn over and DNA methylation, but not between genome size or the number of repetitive sequences and DNA methylation. Honeybees ("Apis

neg: Mosaic (genetics) L1 and Alu transposable elements. In early development, DNA from undifferentiated cell types may be more susceptible to mobile element invasion due to long, un-methylated regions in the genome. Further, the accumulation of DNA copy errors and damage over a lifetime lead to greater occurrences of mosaic tissues in aging humans. As our longevity has increased dramatically over the last century, our genome may not have had time to adapt to cumulative effects of mutagenesis. Thus, cancer research has shown that somatic mutations are increasingly present throughout a lifetime and are responsible for most leukemia, lymphomas, and solid tumors. One

neg: Forensic identification never be used on biological evidence because it could degrade DNA or lead to bacterial growth. DNA can be sourced from biological material such as semen, blood, saliva, feces, urine, teeth, bone, and hair that is left behind from an individual. There are different presumptive and confirmatory tests used for each type of biological material found at a scene. Presumptive tests are quick, sensitive and are relatively specific to bodily fluids that give the analyst an idea of what might be present. Confirmatory tests confirm what the biological sample is. In addition to looking for biological material at a crime

neg: DNA profiling an individual's profile, as could previous profiled human remains. A reference sample is then analyzed to create the individual's DNA profile using one of the techniques discussed below. The DNA profile is then compared against another sample to determine whether there is a genetic match. When a sample such as blood or saliva is obtained, the DNA is only a small part of what is present in the sample. Before the DNA can be analyzed, it must be extracted from the cells and purified. There are many ways this can be accomplished, but all methods follow the same basic procedure.

neg: Repeated sequence (DNA) Repeated sequence (DNA) Repeated sequences (also known as repetitive elements, or repeats) are patterns of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) that occur in multiple copies throughout the genome. Repetitive DNA was first detected because of its rapid reassociation kinetics. In many organisms, a significant fraction of the genomic DNA is highly repetitive, with over two-thirds of the sequence consisting of repetitive elements in humans. Repetitive elements found in genomes fall into different classes, depending on their mode of multiplication and/or structure. The disposition of repetitive elements consists either in arrays of tandemly repeated sequences, or in repeats dispersed throughout the

neg: XDNA compared to B-DNA. Altering groove width affects the xDNA's ability to associate with DNA-binding proteins, but as long as the expanded nucleotides are exclusive to one strand, recognition sites are sufficiently similar to B-DNA to allow bonding of transcription factors and small polyamide molecules. Mixed helices present the possibility of recognizing the four expanded bases using other DNA-binding molecules. Expanded nucleotides and their oligomeric helices share many properties with their natural B-DNA counterparts, including their pairing preference: A with T, C with G. The various differences in chemical properties between xDNA and B-DNA support the hypothesis that the benzene ring

neg: Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 DNA binding sites in promoters and enhancers are known as the SMAD-binding elements (SBEs). These sites contain the CAG(AC)|(CC) and GGC(GC)|(CG) consensus sequences, the latter also known as 5GC sites. The 5GC-motifs are highly represented as clusters of sites, in SMAD-bound regions genome-wide. These clusters can also contain CAG(AC)|(CC) sites. SMAD3/SMAD4 complex also binds to the TPA-responsive gene promoter elements, which have the sequence motif TGAGTCAG. The X-ray structures of the SMAD3 MH1 domain bound to the GTCT DNA reveal characteristic features of the fold. The MH1 structure consists of four-helices and three sets of antiparallel β-hairpins, one of which

neg: Metagenomics or WMGS sequencing). The approach, used to sequence many cultured microorganisms and the human genome, randomly shears DNA, sequences many short sequences, and reconstructs them into a consensus sequence. Shotgun sequencing reveals genes present in environmental samples. Historically, clone libraries were used to facilitate this sequencing. However, with advances in high throughput sequencing technologies, the cloning step is no longer necessary and greater yields of sequencing data can be obtained without this labour-intensive bottleneck step. Shotgun metagenomics provides information both about which organisms are present and what metabolic processes are possible in the community. Because the collection of DNA from

neg: DNA transposon DNA transposon DNA transposons (also called Class II elements) are a group of transposable elements (TEs) that can move in the DNA of an organism via a single- or double-stranded DNA intermediate. DNA transposons have been found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. They can make up a significant portion of an organism's genome, particularly in eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, TE's can facilitate the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance or other genes associated with virulence. There are autonomous, as well as nonautonomous DNA transposons. The latter use the enzymatic machinery of the former for their amplification in a genome. It is

neg: Western honey bee functional DNA methylation system since functional key enzymes (DNA methyltransferase-1 and -3) were identified in the genome. DNA methylation is one of the important mechanisms in epigenetics to study gene expression and regulation without changing the DNA sequence, but modifications on DNA activity. DNA methylation later was identified to play an important role in gene regulation and gene splicing. The genome is unusual in having few transposable elements, although they were present in the evolutionary past (remains and fossils have been found) and evolved more slowly than those in fly-species. European honey-bee populations face threats to their survival increasing interests

neg: DNA methylation the fine-tuning of gene regulation, its stability is perfect to ensure the permanent silencing of transposable elements. Transposon control is one the most ancient functions of DNA methylation that is shared by animals, plants and multiple protists. It is even suggested that DNA methylation evolved precisely for this purpose. A function that appears even more conserved than transposon silencing is positively correlated with gene expression. In almost all species where DNA methylation is present, DNA methylation is especially enriched in the body of highly transcribed genes. The function of gene body methylation is not well understood. A body of evidence

neg: Tc1/mariner Tc1/mariner Tc1/mariner is a class of interspersed repeats DNA transposons. The elements of this class are found in all animals, including humans. They can also be found in protists. The class is named after its two best-studied members, the Tc1 transposon of "Caenorhabditis elegans" and the mariner transposon of "Drosophila". Tc1 is a transposon active in "Caenorhabditis elegans". There are also Tc1-like transposons in humans, all inactive. Tc1-like elements are present in other lower vertebrates, including several fish species and amphibians. In "C. elegans", it is a 1610 base-pair long sequence. Experiments show that this element "jumps" in human cells,

neg: Genomic organization Genomic organization The hereditary material i.e. DNA(deoxyribonuclic acid) of an organism is composed of a sequence of four nucleotides in a specific pattern, which encode information as a function of their order. Genomic organization refers to the linear order of DNA elements and their division into chromosomes. "Genome organization" can also refer to the 3D structure of chromosomes and the positioning of DNA sequences within the nucleus. Organisms have a vast array of ways in which their respective genomes are organized. A comparison of the genomic organization of six major model organisms shows size expansion with the increase of complexity

neg: Linusorb residue numbering (#) Residue numbering begins at the N-terminal-most amino acid residue of the orbitide, based on DNA sequence. Notation for any post-translational modifications start with the lowest number and proceed to the highest number. Where multiple identical modifications are present, they are grouped together as illustrated for Met groups in [1–8-NαC],[1,3-("R","S")-MetO]-linusorb A1 (Table 1 and Figure 1; formerly cyclolinopeptide G, CLG). This more descriptive name for CLG reflects the complexity of fully and appropriately naming this compound as it contains the chiral amino acid methionine "S"-oxide. Clearly, what was formerly recognized as CLG is actually four distinct compounds. New

neg: Mycobacterium ulcerans they have been treated. Moreover, PCR can be used to amplify the DNA from organisms that are present in tissues preserved in formalin and from non-cultivable organisms (e.g. M. leprae). Rep-PCR is a modification of the PCR technique that is more suitable for epidemiological purposes than conventional PCR. In this case, the primers are directed towards repetitive chromosomal elements such as IS6110 in "M. tuberculosis" and the ERIC sequence in other bacteria. In "M. ulcerans", the genomic sequence between the IS2404 elements has been amplified. The profiles produced by this technique categorized the strains into three subgroups related to the

neg: Astrology and the classical elements Astrology and the classical elements Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. In Western astrology and Indian astrology four elements are used: Fire, Earth, Air, and Water. In Western tropical astrology, there are always 12 astrological signs. Each of the four elements is associated with 3 signs of the Zodiac which are always located exactly 120 degrees away from each other along the ecliptic and said to be in "trine" with one another. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, (also known as triplicities) and indeed it is still viewed as

neg: Trans-regulatory element an adjacent regulatory element for that gene in the same DNA molecule. Examples of trans-acting factors include the genes for: Trans-regulatory element Trans-regulatory elements are genes which may modify (or regulate) the expression of distant genes. More specifically, trans-regulatory elements are DNA sequences that encode transcription factors. Trans-regulatory elements work through an intermolecular interaction between two different molecules and so are said to be "acting in trans". For example (1) a transcribed and translated transcription factor protein derived from the trans-regulatory element; and a (2) DNA regulatory element that is adjacent to the regulated gene. This is in contrast to

neg: DNA nanoball sequencing the template construction phase. However, these disadvantages are common to all short-read sequencing platforms are not specific to DNA nanoballs. DNA nanoball sequencing has been used in recent studies. Lee "et al." used this technology to find mutations that were present in a lung cancer and compared them to normal lung tissue. They were able to identify over 50,000 single nucleotide variants. Roach "et al." used DNA nanoball sequencing to sequence the genomes of a family of four relatives and were able to identify SNPs that may be responsible for a Mendelian disorder, and were able to estimate the inter-generation

neg: APOBEC3C related genes or pseudogenes found in a cluster thought to result from gene duplication, on chromosome 22. Members of the cluster encode proteins that are structurally and functionally related to the C to U RNA-editing cytidine deaminase APOBEC1. Conversely, A3 proteins enzymatically convert cytidine to uridine present in the single stranded DNA. The crystal structure of A3C suggests a putative HIV-1 vif binding region. A3C was found to inhibit LINE-1 elements by directly interacting with ORF1p proteins, in a deaminase-independent manner. APOBEC3C DNA dC->dU-editing enzyme APOBEC-3C is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "APOBEC3C" gene. A3C belong

neg: Bulgars and are a mixture of steppes ethnic groups. Eric Hobsbawm considered the languages to be "almost always semi-artificial constructs". Political processes, rather than linguistic, tribal or ethnic elements, created new communities. Golden noted that the Turkic tribes in the Western Eurasia since the 1st millennium BC had contacts with Proto-Indo-Europeans. Those tribes were considered by Golden to be the ancestors of the Oğuric Turks. Recent blood and DNA studies of present-day populations in Central Asia confirm the extreme genetic heterogeneity. The latest DNA studies on Turkic people in Central Asia and Eastern Europe also confirm genetic heterogeneity, indicating that the

neg: Cis-regulatory element within a gene. The most well characterized types of CREs are enhancers and promoters. Both of these sequence elements are structural regions of DNA that serve as transcriptional regulators. Promoters are CREs consisting of relatively short sequences of DNA which include the site where transcription is initiated and the region approximately 35 bp upstream or downstream from the initiation site (bp). In eukaryotes, promoters usually have the following four components: the TATA box, a TFIIB recognition site, an initiator, and the downstream core promoter element. It has been found that a single gene can contain multiple promoter sites. In order

neg: Genomic organization DNA). Only 1.2% of the mammalian genome thus encodes for protein function. This massive expansion of repetitive and noncoding sequences in multicellular organisms is most likely due to the incorporation of invasive elements, such as DNA transposons, retrotransposons, and other repetitive elements. The expansion of repetitive elements (such as Alu sequences) has even infiltrated the transcriptional units of the mammalian genome. This results in transcription units that are frequently much larger (30-200 kb), commonly containing multiple promoters and DNA repeats within untranslated introns. The vast expansion of the genome with noncoding and repetitive DNA in higher eukaryotes implies more extensive

neg: Régie du cinéma (Quebec) are darker than what is depicted in traditional fantasy films warrant a 13+ rating. As opposed to G movies, strong horror elements can be present; these are usually accompanied with the "Horror" tag. Vulgar Language is more prevalent and scenes of sexual acts or nudity can be more explicit. 16+ rated films are usually movies with more explicit violence than what a 13+ movie can afford. Most of these cases, a movie deals with extreme violence. In some cases, it can be for sex and nudity, and that rating usually occurs to soft-core pornography. Horror elements can also be present,

neg: Alu element cytosine residues (in lowercase above). "Alu" elements are responsible for regulation of tissue-specific genes. They are also involved in the transcription of nearby genes and can sometimes change the way a gene is expressed. "Alu" elements are retrotransposons and look like DNA copies made from RNA polymerase III-encoded RNAs. "Alu" elements do not encode for protein products. They are replicated as any other DNA sequence, but depend on LINE retrotransposons for generation of new elements. "Alu" elements replication and mobilization begins by interactions with signal recognition particles (SRPs), which aid newly translated proteins reach final destinations. "Alu" RNA forms a

neg: History of molecular biology modeling efforts of Watson and Crick. In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when Erwin Chargaff visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides — adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine — the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions. Using X-ray diffraction, as

neg: Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements Ds elements can generate long direct inverted duplicates of a chromosome segment, indicating that Ds elements are able to mobilize DNA sequences unrelated to themselves, this can provide a mechanism for rearrangement of genetic information. Since small duplication of host DNA created by the insertion of the elements are left over in a slightly altered form after excision of the transposable element, they may indicate that plant transposable elements play a role in the evolution of genes. Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements was the first transposable element system recognized in maize.The "Ac" "Activator" element is autonomous, whereas

neg: Gene duplication this happening is a function of the degree of sharing of repetitive elements between two chromosomes. The products of this recombination are a duplication at the site of the exchange and a reciprocal deletion. Ectopic recombination is typically mediated by sequence similarity at the duplicate breakpoints, which form direct repeats. Repetitive genetic elements such as transposable elements offer one source of repetitive DNA that can facilitate recombination, and they are often found at duplication breakpoints in plants and mammals. Replication slippage is an error in DNA replication that can produce duplications of short genetic sequences. During replication DNA polymerase begins

neg: GCM transcription factors a DNA binding domain that recognises preferentially the nonpalindromic octamer 5'-ATGCGGGT-3'. The GCM motif contains many conserved basic amino acid residues, seven cysteine residues, and four histidine residues. The conserved cysteines are involved in shaping the overall conformation of the domain, in the process of DNA binding and in the redox regulation of DNA binding. The GCM domain as a new class of Zn-containing DNA-binding domain with no similarity to any other DNA-binding domain. The GCM domain consists of a large and a small domain tethered together by one of the two Zn ions present in the structure. The large

neg: Genetic genealogy DNA sequencing has identified various ancestral components in contemporary populations. A number of these genetic elements have West Eurasian origins. They include the following ancestral components, with their geographical hubs and main associated populations: Genealogical DNA testing methods are in use on a longer time scale to trace human migratory patterns. For example, they determined when the first humans came to North America and what path they followed. For several years, researchers and laboratories from around the world sampled indigenous populations from around the globe in an effort to map historical human migration patterns. The National Geographic Society's Genographic Project

neg: Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4 the GGC(GC)|(CG) consensus sequences, the latter also known as 5GC sites. The 5GC-motifs are highly represented as clusters of sites, in SMAD-bound regions genome-wide. These clusters can also contain CAG(AC)|(CC) sites. SMAD3/SMAD4 complex also binds to the TPA-responsive gene promoter elements, which have the sequence motif TGAGTCAG. The first structure of SMAD4 bound to DNA was the complex with the palindromic GTCTAGAC motif. Recently, the structures of SMAD4 MH1 domain bound to several 5GC motifs have also been determined. In all complexes, the interaction with the DNA involves a conserved β-hairpin present in the MH1 domain. The hairpin is partially

neg: Transgene for over 100 years, due to its well-understood developmental pattern. The transfer of transgenes into the "Drosophila" genome has been performed using various techniques, including P element, Cre-loxP, and ΦC31 insertion. The most practiced method used thus far to insert transgenes into the "Drosophila" genome utilizes P elements. The transposable P elements, also known as transposons, are segments of bacterial DNA that are translocated into the genome, without the presence of a complementary sequence in the host’s genome. P elements are administered in pairs of two, which flank the DNA insertion region of interest. Additionally, P elements often consist of

neg: DNA methylation of transposable elements during early spermatogenesis, an activity shown to be essential for their epigenetic repression and male fertility. It is yet unclear if in other mammals that do not have DNMT3C (like humans) rely on DNMT3B or DNMT3A for "de novo" methylation of transposable elements in the germline. Finally, DNMT2 (TRDMT1) has been identified as a DNA methyltransferase homolog, containing all 10 sequence motifs common to all DNA methyltransferases; however, DNMT2 (TRDMT1) does not methylate DNA but instead methylates cytosine-38 in the anticodon loop of aspartic acid transfer RNA. Since many tumor suppressor genes are silenced by DNA methylation

neg: Gene structure both eukaryotic and prokaryotic genes involve several nested sequence elements. Each element has a specific function in the multi-step process of gene expression. The sequences and lengths of these elements vary, but the same general functions are present in most genes. Although DNA is a double-stranded molecule, typically only one of the strands encodes information that the RNA polymerase reads to produce protein-coding mRNA or non-coding RNA. This 'sense' or 'coding' strand, runs in the 5' to 3' direction where the numbers refer to the carbon atoms of the backbone's ribose sugar. The open reading frame (ORF) of a gene

neg: Pyrosequencing enzyme. A mixture of three enzymes (DNA polymerase, ATP sulfurylase and firefly luciferase) and a nucleotide (dNTP) are added to single stranded DNA to be sequenced and the incorporation of nucleotide is followed by measuring the light emitted. The intensity of the light determines if 0, 1 or more nucleotides have been incorporated, thus showing how many complementary nucleotides are present on the template strand. The nucleotide mixture is removed before the next nucleotide mixture is added. This process is repeated with each of the four nucleotides until the DNA sequence of the single stranded template is determined. A second

neg: Sperm-mediated gene transfer and internalization of the DNA is not a random event. The exogenous DNA interacts with the DNA-binding proteins (DBPs) that are present on the surface of the sperm cell. Spermatozoa are naturally protected against the intrusion of exogenous DNA molecules by an inhibitory factor present in mammals’ seminal fluid. This factor blocks the binding of sperm cells and exogenous DNA because in the presence of the inhibitory factor, DBPs lose their ability to bind to exogenous DNA. In the absence of this inhibitory factor, DBPs on sperm cells are able to interact with DNA and can then translocate the DNA

neg: Kitchen work triangle of the triangle are no more an ergonomic requirement. There are usually four zones present: food preparation, baking, cooking, and cleaning. Kitchen work triangle The kitchen work triangle is a concept used to determine efficient kitchen layouts that are both aesthetic and functional. The primary tasks in a home kitchen are carried out between the cook top, the sink and the refrigerator. These three points and the imaginary lines between them, make up what kitchen experts call the work triangle. The idea is that when these three elements are in close (but not too close) proximity to one other, the

neg: DNA profiling samples are degraded samples and DNA mixtures. In the real world DNA labs often have to deal with DNA samples that are less than ideal. DNA samples taken from crime scenes are often degraded, which means that the DNA has started to break down into smaller fragments . Victims of homicides might not be discovered right away, and in the case of a mass casualty event it could be hard to get DNA samples before the DNA has been exposed to degradation elements. Degradation or fragmentation of DNA at crime scenes can occur because of a number of reasons, with

neg: Erwin Chargaff and best known achievement was to show that in natural DNA the number of guanine units equals the number of cytosine units and the number of adenine units equals the number of thymine units. In human DNA, for example, the four bases are present in these percentages: A=30.9% and T=29.4%; G=19.9% and C=19.8%. This strongly hinted towards the base pair makeup of the DNA, although Chargaff did not explicitly state this connection himself. For this research, Chargaff is credited with disproving the tetranucleotide hypothesis (Phoebus Levene's widely accepted hypothesis that DNA was composed of a large number of repeats of

neg: David M. Gilbert Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Consortium (2011–2017), is a member of the NIH 4D Nucleome consortium and the Southeast Stem Cell Consortium (SESCC). He has served on American Cancer Society (1996–2004) and NIH study sections (1997–present), is an editorial member of the Epigenetics Society and is on the editorial board of the Journal of Cell Biology (2008–present). He also maintains ReplicationDomain, a free online database resource for storing, sharing and visualizing large-scale chromosome mapping data. David M. Gilbert David M. Gilbert is an American molecular biologist, known for work in DNA replication. Gilbert is J. Herbert Taylor Distinguished Professor of

neg: Trans-regulatory element Trans-regulatory element Trans-regulatory elements are genes which may modify (or regulate) the expression of distant genes. More specifically, trans-regulatory elements are DNA sequences that encode transcription factors. Trans-regulatory elements work through an intermolecular interaction between two different molecules and so are said to be "acting in trans". For example (1) a transcribed and translated transcription factor protein derived from the trans-regulatory element; and a (2) DNA regulatory element that is adjacent to the regulated gene. This is in contrast to cis-regulatory elements that work through an intramolecular interaction between different parts of the same molecule: (1) a gene; and (2)

neg: Paul Rabinow future.” The current challenge is to be specific about which inquiries and what objects are best engaged with an approach that is drawn from a History of the Present orientation. Contrastingly, Rabinow defines the contemporary as a (re)assemblage of both old and new elements and their interactions and interfaces. This means, among other things, that contemporary problems and objects are emergent and consequently, by definition, contingent. Emergence refers to “a state in which multiple elements combine to produce an assemblage, whose significance cannot be reduced to prior elements and relations.” It follows that the History of the Present, while often

neg: Crystallography and what phases are present in the material, as their composition, structure and proportions will influence the material's properties. Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms. X-ray or neutron diffraction can be used to identify which patterns are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present. Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason is related to group theory and geometry. X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological macromolecules, particularly protein and nucleic acids such as DNA and

neg: DNA damage theory of aging their primordial follicles. Primordial follicles are immature primary oocytes surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells. An enzyme system is present in oocytes that normally accurately repairs DNA double-strand breaks. This repair system is referred to as homologous recombinational repair, and it is especially active during meiosis. Titus et al. also showed that expression of four key DNA repair genes that are necessary for homologous recombinational repair ("BRCA1", "MRE11", "Rad51" and "ATM") decline in oocytes with age. This age-related decline in ability to repair double-strand damages can account for the accumulation of these damages, which then likely contributes to

neg: Lac operon and lactose are present, the transport of glucose blocks the transport of the inducer of the "lac" operon. The lac repressor is a four-part protein, a tetramer, with identical subunits. Each subunit contains a helix-turn-helix (HTH) motif capable of binding to DNA. The operator site where repressor binds is a DNA sequence with inverted repeat symmetry. The two DNA half-sites of the operator together bind to two of the subunits of the repressor. Although the other two subunits of repressor are not doing anything in this model, this property was not understood for many years. Eventually it was discovered that

neg: HTML element status of elements is complicated by the existence of three types of HTML 4.01 / XHTML 1.0 DTD: The first Standard (HTML 2.0) contained four deprecated elements, one of which was invalid in HTML 3.2. All four are invalid in HTML 4.01 Transitional, which also deprecated a further ten elements. All of these, plus two others, are invalid in HTML 4.01 Strict. While the frame elements are still current in the sense of being present in the Transitional and Frameset DTDs, there are no plans to preserve them in future standards, as their function has been largely replaced, and they

neg: Subsequence dash) in one sequence when two elements in the same column differ: Subsequences are used to determine how similar the two strands of DNA are, using the DNA bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. Subsequence In mathematics, a subsequence is a sequence that can be derived from another sequence by deleting some or no elements without changing the order of the remaining elements. For example, the sequence formula_1 is a subsequence of formula_2 obtained after removal of elements formula_3, formula_4, and formula_5. The relation of one sequence being the subsequence of another is a preorder. The subsequence should not be

neg: Astrology and the classical elements information, see Wu Xing. Ptolemy later modified the rulerships of Water triplicity, making Mars the ruler of the water triplicity for both day and night charts—and William Lilly concurred. Astrology and the classical elements Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. In Western astrology and Indian astrology four elements are used: Fire, Earth, Air, and Water. In Western tropical astrology, there are always 12 astrological signs. Each of the four elements is associated with 3 signs of the Zodiac which are always located exactly 120 degrees away from each other along the ecliptic

neg: Alu element subfamilies due to their inherited activity to cause various cancers. Thus due to their major heritable damage it is important to understand the causes that affect their transpositional activity. The following human diseases have been linked with "Alu" insertions: And the following diseases have been associated with single-nucleotide DNA variations in Alu elements affecting transcription levels: Alu element An Alu element is a short stretch of DNA originally characterized by the action of the "Arthrobacter luteus (Alu)" restriction endonuclease. "Alu" elements are the most abundant transposable elements, containing over one million copies dispersed throughout the human genome. "Alu" elements are

neg: Gene structure Gene structure Gene structure is the organisation of specialised sequence elements within a gene. Genes contain the information necessary for living cells to survive and reproduce. In most organisms, genes are made of DNA, where the particular DNA sequence determines the function of the gene. A gene is transcribed (copied) from DNA into RNA, which can either be non-coding (ncRNA) with a direct function, or an intermediate messenger (mRNA) that is then translated into protein. Each of these steps is controlled by specific sequence elements, or regions, within the gene. Every gene, therefore, requires multiple sequence elements to be functional.

neg: Environmental DNA in which the sample is analyzed and uses previously studied DNA libraries to determine what organisms are present (e.g. BLAST). The analysis of eDNA has great potential, not only for monitoring common species, but to genetically detect and identify other extant species that could influence conservation efforts. This method allows for biomonitoring without requiring collection of the living organism, creating the ability to study organisms that are invasive, elusive, or endangered without introducing anthropogenic stress on the organism. Access to this genetic information makes a critical contribution to the understanding of population size, species distribution, and population dynamics for species

neg: Centromere fragments. There are two types of centromeres. In regional centromeres, DNA sequences contribute to but do not define function. Regional centromeres contain large amounts of DNA and are often packaged into heterochromatin. In most eukaryotes, the centromere's DNA sequence consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (e.g. satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical. In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called α-satellite (or alphoid), although a number of other sequence types are found in this region. Point centromeres are smaller and more compact. DNA sequences are both necessary and sufficient to

neg: Epigenetic regulation of transposable elements in the plant kingdom the machinery generated by neighboring transposons of the same class. An example of this would be MITEs, miniature inverted repeat transposable elements, which, while having both TIRs and TSDs, cannot produce transposase. These are particularly prevalent in plants, and are thought to be derived from deletions in the more autonomous DNA transposons. Similarly, these types of transposons can become non-autonomous by capturing or replicating pieces of host DNA. Another variety of transposons, discovered in 2001, which can also potentially capture host DNA. Helitrons are thought to replicate via a "rolling circle", in which transposase links the helitron to two distinct

neg: Repeated sequence (DNA) evidence. For instance in human, mouse and fly, several classes of repetitive elements present a high tendency for co-localization within the nuclear space, suggesting that DNA repeats positions can be used by the cell as a genome folding map. Tandem repeat sequences, particularly trinucleotide repeats, underlie several human disease conditions. Trinucleotide repeats may expand in the germline over successive generations leading to increasingly severe manifestations of the disease. The disease conditions in which expansion occurs include Huntington’s disease, fragile X syndrome, several spinocerebellar ataxias, myotonic dystrophy and Friedrich ataxia. Trinucleotide repeat expansions may occur through strand slippage during DNA replication

neg: Mimivirus lipid layer surrounding the central core is present in all other NCLDV viruses, so this features may also be present in mimivirus. Several mRNA transcripts can be recovered from purified virions. Like other NCLDVs, transcripts for DNA polymerase, a capsid protein and a TFII-like transcription factor were found. However, three distinct aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzyme transcripts and four unknown mRNA molecules specific to mimivirus were also found. These pre-packaged transcripts can be translated without viral gene expression and are likely to be necessary to Mimivirus for replication. Other DNA viruses, such as the "Human cytomegalovirus" and "Herpes simplex virus type-1",

neg: DNA read errors interest. Given sequence 1, we can determine the nodes of size 7, or 7-mers, that will be in the graph. These 7-mers then create the graph shown in figure 1. The graph shown in figure 1 is a very simple version of what a graph could look like... This graph is formed by taking the last 6 elements of the 7-mer and linking it to the node whose first 6 elements are the same. Figure 1 is the most simplistic a de Bruijn graph can be, since each node has exactly one path into it and one path out. Most

neg: Nuclear organization of nucleic acids, with two bound and opposing nucleic acids referred to as DNA base pairs. In order for DNA to pack inside the tiny cell nucleus, each strand is wrapped around histones, forming nucleosome structures. These nucleosome pack together to form chromosomes. Depending on the eukaryote, there are multiple independent chromosomes of varying sizes within each nucleus - for example, humans have 46 while giraffes have 30. Within regions of the chromosome, the order of the DNA base pairs makes up specific elements for gene expression and DNA replication. Some of the more common elements include protein coding genes

neg: Parasitic chromosome if the chromosome is able to act like a selfish DNA element, it can spread throughout a population. An example of a parasitic chromosome is the b24 chromosome in grasshoppers. Parasitic chromosome "Parasitic chromosomes" are "selfish" chromosomes that propagate throughout cell divisions, even if they have no benefit to the overall organism's survival. Parasitic chromosomes can persist even if slightly detrimental to survival, as is characteristic of some selfish genetic elements. Parasitic Chromosomes are often B chromosomes, such that they are not necessarily present in the majority of the species population and are not needed for basic life functions, in

neg: David Reich (geneticist) the Caucauses, in present day Iran or Armenia: "Ancient DNA available from this time in Anatolia shows no evidence of steppe ancestry similar to that in the Yamnaya (although the evidence here is circumstantial as no ancient DNA from the Hittites themselves has yet been published). This suggests to me that the most likely location of the population that first spoke an Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus Mountains, perhaps in present-day Iran or Armenia, because ancient DNA from people who lived there matches what we would expect for a source population both for the Yamnaya and for ancient

neg: Carcinogenesis the second level of the figure. The central elements of DNA damage, epigenetic alterations and deficient DNA repair in progression to cancer are shown in red. A deficiency in DNA repair would cause more DNA damages to accumulate, and increase the risk for cancer. For example, individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes (see article DNA repair-deficiency disorder) are at increased risk of cancer with some defects causing up to 100% lifetime chance of cancer (e.g. p53 mutations). Such germ line mutations are shown in a box at the left of the figure, with an

neg: Mahābhūta a non-empirical category is incongruous in the context of early Buddhism. Rūpa is not a substratum or substance which has sensibility as a property. It functions in early Buddhist thought as perceivable physicality. Matter, or rūpa, is defined in its function; what it does, not what it is. As such, the four great elements are conceptual abstractions drawn from the sensorium. They are sensorial typologies, and are not metaphysically materialistic. They are not meant to give an account of matter as constitutive of external, mind-independent reality. The Four Elements are used in Buddhist texts to both elucidate the concept of

neg: Gene structure enzyme, preventing transcription. Riboswitches are another important regulatory sequence commonly present in prokaryotic UTRs. These sequences switch between alternative secondary structures in the RNA depending on the concentration of key metabolites. The secondary structures then either block or reveal important sequence regions such as RBSs. Introns are extremely rare in prokaryotes and therefore do not play a significant role in prokaryotic gene regulation. Gene structure Gene structure is the organisation of specialised sequence elements within a gene. Genes contain the information necessary for living cells to survive and reproduce. In most organisms, genes are made of DNA, where the particular

neg: Inverted repeat suggest that irrespective of the comparative shortage of repeat elements in prokaryotic genomes, they nevertheless contain hundreds or even thousands of large repeats. Current genomic analysis seem to suggest the existence of a large excess of perfect inverted repeats in many prokaryotic genomes as compared to eukaryotic genomes. Recently (2017) was found that inverted repeats are present in DNA of all mitochondrial and plastid genomes sequenced so far and are enriched especially in important regulatory regions like replication origin and D-loops. For quantification and comparison of inverted repeats between several species, namely on archaea, see Pseudoknots are common structural motifs

neg: Saraton Theatre extensions of the lower landing are the toilets, each with an illuminated frosted glass panel (above the door) painted with either a man or woman dressed in cocktail or evening dress.of the period. The ceiling is in fibrous plaster that, apart from flat sections, uses four decorative elements of what might be termed late Art Deco, but not Art Moderne. They are flat ribs, ribs of cross fluting, longitudinal panels of shallow Vee section, and longitudinal flutings. The small cornice is also fluted vertically. The ceiling is painted all-over cream at present. The candy bar, recessed off the northern side

neg: Repeated sequence (DNA) or during DNA repair synthesis. major categories of repeated sequence or repeats: In primates, the majority of LINEs are LINE-1 and the majority of SINEs are Alu's. SVAs are hominoid specific. In prokaryotes, CRISPR are arrays of alternating repeats and spacers. "Note: The following are covered in detail in "Computing for Comparative Microbial Genomics"." Repeated sequence (DNA) Repeated sequences (also known as repetitive elements, or repeats) are patterns of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) that occur in multiple copies throughout the genome. Repetitive DNA was first detected because of its rapid reassociation kinetics. In many organisms, a significant fraction of

neg: Epigenetics of diabetes Type 2 A possible link between DNA methylation and insulin resistance was shown through monozygotic twin comparisons and bisulfite pyrosequencing to measure the global DNA methylation of Alu repeats in peripheral blood leukocytes. Alu elements are known to create genomic instability and affect gene expression, and have been implicated in numerous human diseases. Epigenetic alterations arising during the lifetime of monozygotic twins in Alu repeats resulted in an increase in genomic s instability, and consequently cause insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. show that methylation levels at all four CpG sites displayed an increase in Alu methylation. This study provides the first

neg: Human nutrition individuals in severe catabolic distress, and those are called conditionally essential. A vegetarian diet can adequately supply protein, support pregnancy, childhood and athletic endeavors, and lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned – including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body.

neg: Advanced maternal age breaks. This repair system is referred to as homologous recombinational repair, and it is especially active during meiosis. Meiosis is the general process by which germ cells are formed in eukaryotes, and it appears to be an adaptation for efficiently removing damages in germ line DNA by homologous recombinational repair (see Origin and function of meiosis also). Human primary oocytes are present at an intermediate stage of meiosis, that is prophase I (see Oogenesis). Titus et al. also showed that expression of four key DNA repair genes that are necessary for homologous recombinational repair ("BRCA1", "MRE11", "Rad51" and "ATM") decline

neg: DUF2800 RNA motif DUF2800 RNA motif The DUF2800 RNA motif is a conserved RNA structure that was discovered by bioinformatics. DUF2800 motif RNAs are found in Firmicutes. DUF2800 RNAs are also predicted in the phyla Actinobacteria and Synergistetes, although these RNAs are likely the result of recent horizontal gene transfer or conceivably sequence contamination. The DUF2800 motif usually occurs upstream of operonss that often contain genes encoding a DUF2800 or DUF2815 conserved protein domain. These locations suggest that DUF2800 motif RNAs function as cis-regulatory elements. However, DUF2800 and DUF2815 typical occur within phages, suggesting that DUF2800 motif RNAs are present in prophage DNA.

neg: Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) both endonuclease and reverse transcriptase activities. This enables the LINE mRNA to be reverse-transcribed into DNA and integrated into the genome based on the sequence-motifs recognized by the protein’s endonuclease domain. Furthermore, SINEs are known to share sequence homology with LINES which gives a basis by which the LINE machinery can reverse transcribe and integrate SINE transcripts. Alternately, some SINEs are believed to use a much more complex system of integrating back into the genome; this system involves the use random double-stranded DNA breaks (rather than the endonuclease coded by related long-interspersed nuclear elements creating an insertion-site). These DNA breaks

neg: Henk Buck in the scientific magazine "Nucleosides, Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids" in which he tries to retrace what happened, and he goes as far as to claim that the investigating committees were wrong. To this day, however, nobody produced pure phosphate methylated DNA strands in the quality Goudsmit required. All the efforts from Miller, Van Boeckel and Buck resulted in short instable fragments. Recent researches in this field are based on methyl phosphonate or phosphorothioate DNA. At present (2008) only one antisense medication exists, based on phosphorothioate oligonucleotide: Fomivirsen. Henk Buck Henk Buck (born Dordrecht, 1930) is an organic chemist. He studied

neg: Regulator gene site where the transcription machinery assembles and transcription of the gene begins. Enhancers turn on the promoters at specific locations, times, and levels and can be simply defined as the “promoters of the promoter.” Silencers are thought to turn off gene expression at specific time points and locations. Insulators, also called boundary elements, are DNA sequences that create cis-regulatory boundaries that prevent the regulatory elements of one gene from affecting neighboring genes. The general dogma is that these regulatory elements get activated by the binding of transcription factors, proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences, and control mRNA transcription. There

neg: GFAJ-1 that the potassium levels in basal ML60 medium may be too low to support growth. Redfield after finding and addressing further issues (ionic strength, pH and the use of glass tubes instead of polypropylene) found that arsenate marginally stimulated growth, but didn't affect the final densities of the cultures, unlike what was claimed. Subsequent studies using mass spectrometry by the same group found no evidence of arsenate being incorporated into the DNA of GFAJ-1. Arsenate esters, such as those that would be present in DNA, are generally expected to be orders of magnitude less stable to hydrolysis than corresponding phosphate

neg: Multicopy single-stranded DNA horizontal and vertical transfer. Since it is not known whether retron sequences "per se" represent mobile elements, retrons are functionally defined by their ability to produce msDNA while deliberately avoiding speculation about other possible activities. The function of msDNA remains unknown even though many copies are present within cells. Knockout mutations that do not express msDNA are viable, so the production of msDNA is not essential to life under laboratory conditions. Over-expression of msDNA is mutagenic, apparently as a result of titrating out repair proteins by the mismatched base pairs that are typical of their structure. It has been suggested

neg: Conserved non-coding sequence following DNA replication and inserting into target sites which have not yet been replicated, the number of transposons in the genome can increase. Retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase to generate a cDNA from the TE transcript. These are further divided into long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons, long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), and short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs). In LTR retrotransposons, after the RNA template is degraded, a DNA strand complementary to the reverse-transcribed cDNA returns the element to a double-stranded state. Integrase, an enzyme encoded by the LTR retrotransposon, then reincorporates the element at a new target site. These elements are

neg: Retrotransposon Retrotransposon Retrotransposons (also called transposons via RNA intermediates) are genetic elements that can amplify themselves in a genome and are ubiquitous components of the DNA of many eukaryotic organisms. These DNA sequences use a "copy-and-paste" mechanism, whereby they are first transcribed into RNA, then converted back into identical DNA sequences using reverse transcription, and these sequences are then inserted into the genome at target sites. Retrotransposons form one of the two subclasses of transposons, where the others are DNA transposons, which does not involve an RNA intermediate. Retrotransposons are particularly abundant in plants, where they are often a principal component

neg: Actin to tubulin. Bacteria therefore possess a cytoskeleton with homologous elements to actin (for example, MreB, ParM, and MamK), even though the amino acid sequence of these proteins diverges from that present in animal cells. However, MreB and ParM have a high degree of structural similarity to eukaryotic actin. The highly dynamic microfilaments formed by the aggregation of MreB and ParM are essential to cell viability and they are involved in cell morphogenesis, chromosome segregation, and cell polarity. ParM is an actin homologue that is coded in a plasmid and it is involved in the regulation of plasmid DNA. ParMs from

neg: The Order of the Stick are often player characters in "D&D", such as dwarves and gnomes, have both dark- and light-skinned members as well. Most of the seen Southern Lands seem to be mountainous, rocky and barren, though what seems to be a more tropical forested nation and a colder region have briefly been seen. The people of the Southern Lands are significantly different ethnically and culturally, with nations roughly analogous to real-world Asian cultures such as China and India, the most prominent of which was Azure City, which greatly resembled feudal Japan (though a few Chinese elements were present). Four separate areas in the

neg: Recombinant DNA cloning involves replication of the DNA within a living cell, while PCR replicates DNA in the test tube, free of living cells. The other difference is that cloning involves cutting and pasting DNA sequences, while PCR amplifies by copying an existing sequence. Formation of recombinant DNA requires a cloning vector, a DNA molecule that replicates within a living cell. Vectors are generally derived from plasmids or viruses, and represent relatively small segments of DNA that contain necessary genetic signals for replication, as well as additional elements for convenience in inserting foreign DNA, identifying cells that contain recombinant DNA, and, where

neg: ESMoA ESMoA ESMoA is an "art laboratory" located in El Segundo, California. Its mission is to spread the spark of creativity through the display and education of visual arts. Rather than a classical museum, ESMoA has functioned as a catalyst for creative thinking offering three unique Experiences per year. The Experiences present a variety of media, including sculpture, painting, works on paper, performances, and photography. The Experiences are thematic and conceptual, rather than chronological. Transdisciplinary, International, Dynamic and Open are key elements of ESMoA’s DNA. ESMoA focuses on art education for students, families, and adults, and admission, is free. These activities

neg: Mount Kimbie silverware," clarifying that "their rhythms are still dubstep in DNA-- deftly syncopated, slightly off-center, ambiguously danceable-- but most of what they lay on top of the beat sounds like it's being dragged out from places dubstep usually doesn't go: R&B, post-rock, IDM". The duo use field recordings to form major elements of their music. "It’s amazing what you can pick up with a field microphone. I mean, you might just hear someone riding around but when you slow it down it’s almost like there’s a beat to it. And then just taking little pockets of that rhythm and stretching it

neg: Law School Admission Test game begins by outlining the premise ("there are five people who might attend this afternoon's meeting") and establishing a set of conditions governing the relationships among the subjects ("if Amy is present, then Bob is not present; if Cathy is present, then Dan is present..."). The examinee is then asked to draw conclusions from the statements ("What is the maximum number of people who could be present?"). What makes the games challenging is that the rules do not produce a "single" "correct" set of relationships among all elements of the game; rather, the examinee is tested on their ability to