query: where is staphylococcus aureus found in the human body

pos: Staphylococcus aureus promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, and the expression of a cell-surface protein that binds and inactivates antibodies. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of "S. aureus" such as methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" (MRSA) is a worldwide problem in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development, no vaccine for "S. aureus" has been approved. An estimated 20% to 30% of the human population are long-term carriers of "S. aureus" which can be found as part of the normal skin flora, in the nostrils, and as a normal inhabitant of the lower reproductive tract of women. "S. aureus"

pos: Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of the Firmicutes, and it is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. Although "S. aureus" usually acts as a commensal of the human microbiota it can also become an opportunistic pathogen, being a common cause of skin infections including abscesses, respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning. Pathogenic strains often

pos: Staphylococcus aureus and Drug Administration in February 2014. In 2015, Pfizer has commenced a phase 2b trial regarding the SA4Ag vaccine. Phase 1 results published in February 2017 showed a very robust and secure immunogenicity of SA4Ag. Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, a former division of Novartis and now part of GlaxoSmithKline, published in 2015 promising pre-clinical results of their four-component "Staphylococcus aureus" vaccine, 4C-staph. Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of the Firmicutes, and it is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the

pos: Commensalism condition called aspergillosis can occur, in which populations of "Aspergillus" grow out of control. "Staphylococcus aureus", a common bacterial species, is known best for its numerous pathogenic strains that can cause numerous illnesses and conditions. However, many strains of "S. aureus" are metabiotic commensals, and are present on roughly 20 to 30% of the human population as part of the skin flora. "S. aureus" also benefits from the variable ambient conditions created by the body's mucous membranes, and as such can be found in the oral and nasal cavities, as well as inside the ear canal. Other "Staphylococcus" species including

pos: Staphylococcus aureus of "S. aureus" drives inflammation of atopic dermatitis; "S. aureus" is believed to exploit defects in the skin barrier of persons with atopic dermatitis, triggering cytokine expression and therefore exacerbating symptoms. "S. aureus" is also responsible for food poisoning. It is capable of generating toxins that produce food poisoning in the human body. Its incubation period lasts one to six hours, with the illness itself lasting from 30 minutes to 3 days. Preventive measures one can take to help prevent the spread of the disease include washing hands thoroughly with soap and water before preparing food. Stay away from any

pos: Staphylococcus aureus promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, and the expression of a cell-surface protein that binds and inactivates antibodies. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of "S. aureus" such as methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" (MRSA) is a worldwide problem in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development, no vaccine for "S. aureus" has been approved. An estimated 20% to 30% of the human population are long-term carriers of "S. aureus" which can be found as part of the normal skin flora, in the nostrils, and as a normal inhabitant of the lower reproductive tract of women. "S. aureus"

pos: Boil is needed. Staphylococcus aureus has the ability to acquire antimicrobial resistance easily, making treatment difficult. Knowledge of the antimicrobial resistance of "S. aureus" is important in the selection of antimicrobials for treatment. Boil A boil, also called a furuncle, is a deep folliculitis, infection of the hair follicle. It is most commonly caused by infection by the bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus", resulting in a painful swollen area on the skin caused by an accumulation of pus and dead tissue. Boils which are expanded are basically pus-filled nodules. Individual boils clustered together are called carbuncles. Most human infections are caused by coagulase-positive

pos: Staphylococcus aureus chronic biofilm infections on medical implants, and the repressor of toxins is part of the infection pathway. "S. aureus" can lay dormant in the body for years undetected. Once symptoms begin to show, the host is contagious for another two weeks, and the overall illness lasts a few weeks. If untreated, though, the disease can be deadly. Deeply penetrating "S. aureus" infections can be severe. Skin infections are the most common form of "S. aureus" infection. This can manifest in various ways, including small benign boils, folliculitis, impetigo, cellulitis, and more severe, invasive soft-tissue infections. "S. aureus" is extremely prevalent

pos: Staphylococcus aureus gut mucosa. "S. aureus", along with similar species that can colonize and act symbiotically but can cause disease if they begin to take over the tissues they have colonized or invade other tissues, have been called "pathobionts". While "S. aureus" usually acts as a commensal bacterium, asymptomatically colonizing about 30% of the human population, it can sometimes cause disease. In particular, "S. aureus" is one of the most common causes of bacteremia and infective endocarditis. Additionally, it can cause various skin and soft-tissue infections, particularly when skin or mucosal barriers have been breached. "S. aureus" infections can spread through contact

pos: Staphylococcus lugdunensis it shares with "S. aureus", but unlike "S. aureus", it does not produce a free coagulase. In the laboratory, it can give a positive slide-coagulase test but a negative tube-coagulase test. It is fairly easy to identify because, unlike the great majority of staphylococci, it decarboxylates ornithine and is positive for pyrrolidonyl arylamidase. In the past, it was frequently misidentified as "S. hominis", "S. aureus", or other species. It occurs as a commensal on human skin, but has been recorded as a cause of serious human infections, such as osteomyelitis, arthritis, septicaemia, wound infections, and aggressive endocarditis. It is generally

pos: Staphylococcus aureus host immunity and the bacterium's ability to evade host innate immunity. Nasal carriage is also implicated in the occurrence of staph infections. Spread of "S. aureus" (including MRSA) generally is through human-to-human contact, although recently some veterinarians have discovered the infection can be spread through pets, with environmental contamination thought to play a relatively unimportant part. Emphasis on basic hand washing techniques are, therefore, effective in preventing its transmission. The use of disposable aprons and gloves by staff reduces skin-to-skin contact, so further reduces the risk of transmission. Recently, myriad cases of "S. aureus" have been reported in hospitals across

pos: Balasubramanian Gopal Molecular Biophysics Unit of IISc as a member of "Lab 301" where he and his colleagues are engaged in researches on "structural and mechanistic aspects of membrane-associated proteins involved in inter-cell communication, transcriptional regulation and mediate antimicrobial resistance." Gopal is known to have done considerable research in molecular biophysics and has contributed to widening our understanding of the cell wall synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus, a common gram-positive bacterium found in human respiratory tract and skin. He has published his research findings as articles in peer-reviewed journals and Google Scholar, an online article repository has listed 77 of them. He has

pos: Panton–Valentine leukocidin Panton–Valentine leukocidin Panton–Valentine leukocidin (PVL) is a cytotoxin—one of the β-pore-forming toxins. The presence of PVL is associated with increased virulence of certain strains (isolates) of "Staphylococcus aureus". It is present in the majority of community-associated Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (CA-MRSA) isolates studied and is the cause of necrotic lesions involving the skin or mucosa, including necrotic hemorrhagic pneumonia. PVL creates pores in the membranes of infected cells. PVL is produced from the genetic material of a bacteriophage that infects "Staphylococcus aureus", making it more virulent. It was initially discovered by Van deVelde in 1894 due to its ability to lyse

pos: Acrodermatitis enteropathica may be secondarily infected by bacteria such as "Staphylococcus aureus" or fungi such as "Candida albicans". These skin lesions are accompanied by diarrhea. Acrodermatitis enteropathica, in terms of genetics, indicates that a mutation of the SLC39A4 gene on chromosome 8 q24.3 is responsible for the disorder.The SLC39A4 gene encodes a transmembrane protein that serves as a zinc uptake protein. The features of the disease usually start manifesting as an infant is weaned from breast milk. Zinc is very important as it is involved in the function of approximately 100 enzymes in the human body. The diagnosis of an individual with

pos: Host tropism an ideal environment for continued bacterial colonization. More than an estimated 30% of the world population is colonized by "Staphylococcus aureus", a microorganism capable of causing skin infections, nosocomial infections, and food poisoning due to its tropism for human skin and soft tissue. The "S. aureus" clonal complex CC121 is known to exhibit multi-host tropism for both humans and rabbits. This is thought to be do to a single nucleotide mutation that evolved the CC121 complex into ST121 clonal complex, the clone capable of infecting rabbits. Enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic "Escherichia coli" (EPEC and EHEC respectively) exhibit tropism for human gut

pos: Boil Boil A boil, also called a furuncle, is a deep folliculitis, infection of the hair follicle. It is most commonly caused by infection by the bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus", resulting in a painful swollen area on the skin caused by an accumulation of pus and dead tissue. Boils which are expanded are basically pus-filled nodules. Individual boils clustered together are called carbuncles. Most human infections are caused by coagulase-positive "S. aureus" strains, notable for the bacteria's ability to produce coagulase, an enzyme that can clot blood. Almost any organ system can be infected by "S. aureus". Boils are bumpy, red, pus-filled

pos: Staphylococcus aureus reproductive process involving DNA transfer from one bacterium to another through the intervening medium, and the integration of the donor sequence into the recipient genome by homologous recombination. "S. aureus" was found to be capable of natural genetic transformation, but only at low frequency under the experimental conditions employed. Further studies suggested that the development of competence for natural genetic transformation may be substantially higher under appropriate conditions, yet to be discovered. In humans, "S. aureus" is not part of the normal microbiota present in the upper respiratory tract, rather it is a colonization and on skin and in the

pos: Atopy and the loss of the barrier function of normal skin. It may be possible that the filaggrin mutations and the loss of the normal skin barrier expose crevices that make it possible for "Staphylococcus aureus" to colonize the skin. Atopic eczema is often associated with genetic defects in genes that control allergic responses. Thus, some investigators have proposed that atopic eczema is an allergic response to increased "Staphylococcus aureus" colonization of the skin. A hallmark indicator of atopic eczema is a positive “wheal-and-flare” reaction to a skin test of "S. aureus" antigens. In addition, several studies have documented that an

pos: Bacteremia gram-positive bacteria that can enter the bloodstream. These bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the gastrointestinal tract. "Staphylococcus aureus" is the most common cause of healthcare-associated bacteremia in North and South America and is also an important cause of community-acquired bacteremia. Skin ulceration or wounds, respiratory tract infections, and IV drug use are the most important causes of community-acquired staph aureus bacteremia. In healthcare settings, intravenous catheters, urinary tract catheters, and surgical procedures are the most common causes of staph aureus bacteremia. There are many different types of streptococcal species that can cause bacteremia. "Group A streptococcus"

neg: Staphylococcus aureus the body or on human tissue. It is commonly found with another pathogen, "Candida albicans", forming multispecies biofilms. The latter is suspected to help "S. aureus" penetrate human tissue. A higher mortality is linked with multispecies biofilms. "S. aureus" biofilm is the predominant cause of orthopedic implant-related infections, but is also found on cardiac implants, vascular grafts, various catheters, and cosmetic surgical implants. After implantation, the surface of these devices becomes coated with host proteins, which provide a rich surface for bacterial attachment and biofilm formation. Once the device becomes infected, it must by completely removed, since "S. aureus" biofilm

neg: Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus "Enterococcus faecalis" recovered from the same catheter tip. The "vanA" gene was later found to be encoded within a transposon located on a plasmid carried by the VRSA isolate. This transposon, Tn"1546", confers "vanA"-type vancomycin resistance in enterococci. The definition of hVISA according to Hiramatsu et al. is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus that gives resistance to vancomycin at a frequency of 10 colonies or even higher. Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Vancomycin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" are strains of "Staphylococcus aureus" that have become resistant to the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin. Strains of hVISA and VISA do not have resistant genes found in "Enterococcus"

neg: Vertebral osteomyelitis ability to start anywhere in the body and spread to other regions through the bloodstream. A number of bacterial strains can enter the body in this manner, making the origin of the infection hard to trace; thus, for many patients with the infection, this characteristic can delay an accurate diagnosis and prolong suffering. The most common microorganism associated with vertebral osteomyelitis is the bacteria "staphylococcus aureus". Another strain of "staphylococcus aureus", commonly known as "Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA), is a particularly harmful microorganism that is more difficult to treat than other related strains. "Streptococcus equisimilis" may also be responsible for

neg: Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Vancomycin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" are strains of "Staphylococcus aureus" that have become resistant to the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin. Strains of hVISA and VISA do not have resistant genes found in "Enterococcus" and the proposed mechanisms of resistance include the sequential mutations resulting in a thicker cell wall and the synthesis of excess amounts of D-ala-D-ala residues. VRSA strain acquired the vancomycin resistance gene cluster "vanA" from VRE. The diagnosis of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus can be done with disk diffusion(and VA screen plate) For isolates with a Vancomycin MIC , an alternative to Vancomycin should be used. The approach

neg: Lysostaphin Lysostaphin Lysostaphin (, "glycyl-glycine endopeptidase") is a "Staphylococcus simulans" metalloendopeptidase (crystal structure of lysostaphin). It can function as an antimicrobial against "Staphylococcus aureus". Lysostaphin is a 27 KDa glycylglycine endopeptidase, an antibacterial enzyme which is capable of cleaving the crosslinking pentaglycine bridges found in the cell wall peptidoglycan of certain "Staphylococci". Lysostaphin was first isolated from a culture of "Staphylococcus simulans" by Schindler and Schuhardt in 1964. "S. aureus" cell walls contain high proportions of pentaglycine, making lysostaphin a highly effective agent against both actively growing and quiescent bacteria. "Staphylococcal" infections of both "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Staphylococcus epidermidis" continue to

neg: Cimex lectularius can use body temperature, moisture, carbon dioxide and visual cues to locate a host. (Siljander) "C. lectularius" is found all over the world in almost every area that has been colonized by humans. Cimex lectularius Cimex lectularius is a species of Cimicidae (bed bugs). Its primary hosts are humans, and it is one of the world's major "nuisance pests". Although bed bugs can be infected with at least 28 human pathogens, no studies have found that the insects are capable of transmitting any of these to humans. They have been found with methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) and with vancomycin-resistant "Enterococcus

neg: Vertebral osteomyelitis the body or from a bone bank, where bone fragments are harvested from deceased donors. The new bone graft is secured in the appropriate spinal region through the use of supporting rods and screws, most of which are made from titanium. Rods of this material promote healing and fusion of the bones more efficiently than stainless steel rods and are also more visible on MRI. Mortality rates are noted to be higher in patients whose infection is due to the bacteria "staphylococcus aureus". However, if diagnosed quickly and treated correctly, patients with "staphylococcus aureus" experience better outcomes than those with

neg: Staphylococcus aureus "S. aureus" infections were fatal in the majority of patients. However, doctors discovered that the use of penicillin could cure "S. aureus" infections. Unfortunately, by the end of the 1940s, penicillin resistance became widespread amongst this bacterium population and outbreaks of the resistant strain began to occur. "Staphylococcus aureus" can be sorted into ten dominant human lineages. There are numerous minor lineages as well, but these are not seen in the population as often. Genomes of bacteria within the same lineage are mostly conserved, with the exception of mobile genetic elements. Mobile genetic elements that are common in "S. aureus"

neg: Paul Gyorgy human gut flora. Further testing revealed the presence of factors in human breast milk that acted as essential growth promoting factors to the "L. bifidus" variant"." In 1962, Gyorgy also discovered anti-staphylococcus properties of human breast milk. He injected mice with different doses of virulent "Staphylococcus aureus" and found that those given human breast milk obtained protection from infection, resulting in a higher survival rate than those that were given only cow's milk. Gyorgy married Margaret John on October 23, 1920 in Weimar, Germany. The couple had three sons: Hans, who became an organic chemist, Michael, who became a physicist,

neg: Aureolysin been demonstrated that aureolysin has impact for bacterial survival in human whole blood. Aureolysin is also up-regulated upon phagocytosis and promotes intracellular survival. "S. aureus" prefers to establish a chronic,or long lasting infection within a host. While promoting dissemination and counteracting immune mechanisms, aureolysin also regulates secreted virulence factors to control the pathogenicity of the bacterium. By inactivation of PSMs and α-toxins, aureolysin may suppress the pathogenic impact of the bacteria allowing for a chronic infection to be established. Aureolysin Aureolysin (, "protease III, staphylococcal metalloprotease," "Staphylococcus aureus neutral proteinase") is an extracellular metalloprotease expressed by "Staphylococcus aureus". This protease

neg: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) ( or ) refers to a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of "Staphylococcus aureus". MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. MRSA is any strain of "S. aureus" that has developed, through horizontal gene transfer and natural selection, multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. β-lactam antibiotics are a broad spectrum group which includes some penams – penicillin derivatives such as methicillin and oxacillin, and cephems such as the cephalosporins. Strains unable to resist these antibiotics are classified as methicillin-susceptible "S. aureus", or MSSA. MRSA is

neg: Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin 'Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin is a toxin produced by "Staphylococcus aureus". It has a wide spectrum of cytolytic activity. It is among other toxins produced by S. aureus and is part of the phenol-soluble modulin peptide family. Its alpha-helical, amphipathic structure gives it detergent-like properties, allowing it to disrupt and attach to the cytoplasmic membrane of a cell non-specifically, without a receptor, and integrate into the membrane. Delta toxin degrades the membrane on contact and forms short-lived pores, causing cell lysis and subsequent cell death. S. aureus delta toxin is encoded for by the hld gene.

neg: Staphylococcus aureus quickly heal. These tests suggest the "Staphylococcus" strains use staphyloxanthin as a defence against the normal human immune system. Drugs designed to inhibit the production of staphyloxanthin may weaken the bacterium and renew its susceptibility to antibiotics. In fact, because of similarities in the pathways for biosynthesis of staphyloxanthin and human cholesterol, a drug developed in the context of cholesterol-lowering therapy was shown to block "S. aureus" pigmentation and disease progression in a mouse infection model. Depending upon the type of infection present, an appropriate specimen is obtained accordingly and sent to the laboratory for definitive identification by using biochemical

neg: SaPI to carry the gene encoding toxic shock syndrome toxin. Other SaPI subtypes have been found to provide host Staphylococcus strains with the ability to coagulate animal host blood plasma by coding for different alleles of a von Willebrand factor-binding protein. This virulence factor may help "S. aureus" adapt to distinct animal hosts such as horses or ruminants. SaPI SaPIs ("Staphylococcus aureus" or superantigen pathogenicity islands) are a family of mobile genetic elements resident in the genome of some strains of "Staphylococcus aureus". Much like bacteriophages, SaPIs can be transferred to uninfected cells and integrate into the host chromosome. Unlike the

neg: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus years in MRSA in eastern countries and studies are ongoing in western countries. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) ( or ) refers to a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of "Staphylococcus aureus". MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. MRSA is any strain of "S. aureus" that has developed, through horizontal gene transfer and natural selection, multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. β-lactam antibiotics are a broad spectrum group which includes some penams – penicillin derivatives such as methicillin and oxacillin, and cephems such as the cephalosporins. Strains unable to

neg: Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin 23 carbons long were inhibitory. The length of the fatty acid chain could be related to the binding of the toxin to the membrane to be effective, as those phospholipids with longer tails prevent the toxin from getting close enough to the membrane. Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin 'Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin is a toxin produced by "Staphylococcus aureus". It has a wide spectrum of cytolytic activity. It is among other toxins produced by S. aureus and is part of the phenol-soluble modulin peptide family. Its alpha-helical, amphipathic structure gives it detergent-like properties, allowing it to disrupt and attach to the

neg: Folliculitis decalvans the variable domain of T-cell receptors. Nonetheless "Staphylococcus aureus" can by found in almost all patients affected by this disorder, while it is only seen in 20–30% of non-affected people. As Staphylococcus aureus is not always found in people that suffer from folliculitis decalvans, other factors must be present. Through examinations in families it was found that there is a family connection to the occurrences, which leads to the conclusion that there is a genetic predisposition for it; for example, patients with folliculitis decalvans could have a hereditary different opening of the hair follicle that could facilitate the lodging of

neg: SaPI SaPI SaPIs ("Staphylococcus aureus" or superantigen pathogenicity islands) are a family of mobile genetic elements resident in the genome of some strains of "Staphylococcus aureus". Much like bacteriophages, SaPIs can be transferred to uninfected cells and integrate into the host chromosome. Unlike the bacterial viruses, however, integrated SaPIs are mobilized by host infection with "helper" bacteriophages (specific SaPIs may require specific helper bacteriophages for mobilization, though Staphylococcus phage 80alpha appears to mobilize all known SaPIs). One particular SaPI, SaPI1, is encapsidated in and exits the host cell in particles assembled from proteins encoded by its helper phage. SaPIs were found

neg: Dlawer Ala'Aldeen development of various bacterial pathogens, particularly "Neisseria meningitidis" (causes meningitis and septicemia) and "Campylobacter jejuni" (most common cause of food poisoning). He and his research group discovered a number of bacterial virulence factors and identified their human target receptors. They have also studied the human genetic response to bacteria as well as the population genetics and genome evolution of "N. meningitidis", "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Ala'Aldeen has published extensively in international scientific journals and co-authored three books in microbiology, "Staphylococcus Aureus": molecular and clinical aspects; Molecular and Clinical Aspects of Bacterial Vaccine Development; and Medical Microbiology. He also holds

neg: Staphylococcus aureus for resistance to all β-lactam antibiotics, and obviates their clinical use during MRSA infections. Studies have explained that this mobile genetic element has been acquired by different lineages in separate gene transfer events, indicating that there is not a common ancestor of differing MRSA strains. For example, community- associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) and livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) were found to have originated and progressed independently from MRSA found in hospitals. As such, the glycopeptide vancomycin is often deployed against MRSA. In addition, linezolid-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" was discovered in 2001. This strain was found to contain mutations in the gene coding for ribosomal

neg: Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus identified in Japan in 1996 and has since been found in hospitals elsewhere in Asia, as well as in the United Kingdom, France, the U.S., and Brazil. It is also termed GISA (glycopeptide-intermediate "Staphylococcus aureus"), indicating resistance to all glycopeptide antibiotics. These bacterial strains present a thickening of the cell wall, which is believed to reduce the ability of vancomycin to diffuse into the division septum of the cell required for effective vancomycin treatment. High-level vancomycin resistance in "S. aureus" has been rarely reported. "In vitro" and "in vivo" experiments reported in 1992 demonstrated that vancomycin resistance genes from "Enterococcus

neg: SprD SprD In molecular biology SprD (Small pathogenicity island RNA D) is a non-coding RNA expressed on pathogenicity islands in "Staphylococcus aureus". It was identified "in silico" along with a number of other sRNAs (SprA-G) through microarray analysis which were confirmed using a Northern blot. SprD has been found to significantly contribute to causing disease in an animal model. SprD is located between genes "scn" and "chp" in the innate immune evasion cluster (IEC) of the "S. aureus" genome. Its placement within this region was the first indication of a virulence-factor regulatory function. SprD binds with "sbi" ("Staphylococcus aureus" binder of

neg: Carbuncle Carbuncle A carbuncle is a cluster of boils caused by bacterial infection, most commonly with "Staphylococcus aureus" or "Streptococcus pyogenes". The presence of a carbuncle is a sign that the immune system is active and fighting the infection. The infection is contagious and may spread to other areas of the body, or other people; those living in the same residence may develop carbuncles at the same time. In the early 21st century, infection involving methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become more common. A carbuncle is a cluster of several boils, which is typically filled with purulent exudate (dead neutrophils, phagocitized

neg: Hormuzakia aggregata and deserts of Sicily, North East Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula, Libya, Algeria, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel, Rhodes, Saudi Arabia and the East Aegean Islands. The roots of "Hormuzakia aggregata" contain anchusin or alkannin (alkanet red), a red-brown resinoid pigment. Alkannin is an antioxidant and has an antimicrobial effect against "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Staphylococcus epidermidis". It is also known to have wound healing, antitumor, and antithrombotic properties. Alkannin is also found in the Chinese herbal medicine plant "Lithospermum erythrorhizon", the red-root gromwell. The dried root is a Chinese herbal medicine with various antiviral and biological activities, including inhibition of human

neg: SCCmec is the "ccr" gene complex including genes coding for recombinases. The "mec" complex is divided further into five types (I through V) based on the arrangement of regulatory genetic features such as "mecR1", an inducer. The SCC"mec" found in methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" likely originated in coagulase-negative staphylococcal species and was acquired by "S. aureus". Staphylococcal strains isolated from pig farms were found to carry several different types of SCC"mec", suggesting that they may serve as a reservoir of these elements. SCCmec SCC"mec, or staphylococcal cassette chromosome "mec, is a mobile genetic element of "Staphylococcus" bacterial species. This genetic sequence includes

neg: Staphopain A (Staphylococcus aureus) Staphopain A (Staphylococcus aureus) Staphopain A (, "ScpA", "ScpA", "staphylopain A", "staphylococcal cysteine proteinase") is a secreted cysteine protease produced by "Staphylococcus aureus". It was first identified in the S. aureus V8 strain as a papain-like cysteine protease. The protease distinguishes itself from the other major proteases of S. aureus in its very broad specificity and its ability to degrade elastin. Staphopain A expressed from the gene "scpA" within the "scp" operon. The operon also contains the gene "scpB" for staphostatin A (specific inhibitor of staphopain A), downstream of "scpA". Staphopain A is largely co-expressed with the other three major

neg: Foodborne illness while "Staphylococcus aureus" has a relatively high estimate. In the case of "Salmonella" a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers, as "Salmonellae" are very sensitive to acid. An unusually high stomach pH level (low acidity) greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100. Asymptomatic subclinical infection may help spread these diseases, particularly "Staphylococcus aureus", "Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, V. cholerae," and "Yersinia". For example, as of 1984 it was estimated that in the United States, 200,000 people were

neg: Anthracimycin for its potent activity against "Bacillus anthracis" (strain UM23C1-1), which is known to cause the human infectious disease anthrax, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.031 ug/mL. It was also initially found to have activity against other Gram-positive genera such as staphylococci, enterococci, and streptococci, but was not active against Gram-negative strains. In a follow-up study, anthracimycin was screened against a panel of "Staphylococcus aureus" strains both "in vivo" and "in vitro." All strains of "S. aureus" tested were susceptible to anthracimycin at MIC values of less than or equal to 0.25 mg/L. This included strains of methicillin-susceptible, methicillin-resistant

neg: Staphopain A (Staphylococcus aureus) phenotype of the bacteria via cleavage of surface proteins and by preventing biofilm formation. Staphopain A (Staphylococcus aureus) Staphopain A (, "ScpA", "ScpA", "staphylopain A", "staphylococcal cysteine proteinase") is a secreted cysteine protease produced by "Staphylococcus aureus". It was first identified in the S. aureus V8 strain as a papain-like cysteine protease. The protease distinguishes itself from the other major proteases of S. aureus in its very broad specificity and its ability to degrade elastin. Staphopain A expressed from the gene "scpA" within the "scp" operon. The operon also contains the gene "scpB" for staphostatin A (specific inhibitor of staphopain

neg: RsaOG RsaOG RsaOG (an acronym for RNA "S. aureus" Orsay G) is a non-coding RNA that was discovered in the pathogenic bacteria "Staphylococcus aureus" N315 using a large scale computational screening based on phylogenetic profiling. It was first identified, but not named, in 2005. RsaOG has since been identified in other strains of "Staphylococcus aureus" under the name of RsaI, it has also been discovered in other members of the "Staphylococcus" genus (such as "Staphylococcus carnosus") but in no other bacteria. The RsaOG gene is conserved in all Staphylococcaceae sequenced genomes, its secondary structure contains two highly conserved unpaired sequences which

neg: Macrococcus diameter compared to "Staphylococcus aureus") and their positive cytochrome c oxidase reaction. Species in this genus are resistant to bacitracin and lysozyme and sensitive to furazolidone. The DNA base content is 38–45 mol% G+C. The cell walls lack teichoic acid. They are usually unencapsulated. The type species is "Macrococcus equipercicus". The first genome of this genus was sequenced in 2009 This genus is the closest known relation of the genus "Staphylococcus". Within the "Staphylococcus" genus, the closest relations of the "Macrococcus" appear to be the "Staphylococcus scuri" group. This genus is not known to cause human disease. A methicillin resistance

neg: Fibronectin binding protein A are essential in the formation of biofilms by community-associated methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" strain LAC. They are specifically involved in primary attachment. Fibronectin binding protein A Fibronectin binding protein A (FnBPA) is a "Staphylococcus aureus" MSCRAMM cell surface-bound protein that binds to both fibronectin and fibrinogen. It is an adhesin which enables "Staphylococcus aureus" ("S. aureus") to adhere to host cells of another organism, and an invasin facilitating its internalisation into these cells. This is true over a range of different cell types. The FnBP alone is capable of providing this invasive property, without the requirement of co-receptors. Even FnBP coated

neg: Staphylococcus aureus the bacterium's ability to be carried in the nasopharynx of humans without causing symptoms or infection. This allows it to be passed throughout the human population, increasing its fitness as a species. However, only approximately 50% of the human population are carriers of "S. aureus", with 20% as continuous carriers and 30% as intermittent. This leads scientists to believe that there are many factors that determine whether "S. aureus" is carried asymptomatically in humans, including factors that are specific to an individual person. According to a 1995 study by Hofman et al., these factors may include age, sex, diabetes, and

neg: Helenalin shown to selectively inhibit the transcription factor NF-κB, which plays a key role in regulating immune response, through a unique mechanism. "In vitro", it is also a potent, selective inhibitor of human telomerase—which may partially account for its antitumor effects—has anti-trypanosomal activity, and is toxic to "Plasmodium falciparum". Animal and "in vitro" studies have also suggested that helenalin can reduce the growth of "Staphylococcus aureus" and reduce the severity of "S. aureus" infection. Helenalin Helenalin, or(±)-4-Hydroxy-4a,8-dimethyl-3,3a,4a,7a,8,9,9a-octahydroazuleno[6,5-b<nowiki>]</nowiki>furan-2,5-dione, is a toxic sesquiterpene lactone which can be found in several plants such as "Arnica montana" and "Arnica chamissonis" subsp. "foliosa". Helenalin is responsible

neg: Enterotoxin "Staphylococcus aureus" and "E. coli". The drug linaclotide, used to treat some forms of constipation, is based on the mechanism of enterotoxins. Enterotoxins can be formed by the bacterial pathogens "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Bacillus cereus" and can cause Staphylococcal Food Poisoning and "Bacillus cereus" diarrheal disease, respectively. Staphylococcal enterotoxins and streptococcal exotoxins constitute a family of biologically and structurally related pyrogenic superantigens. Staphylococcal enterotoxins are mainly produced by "Staphylococcus aureus." However, it has been suggested that "staphylococci" other than "S. aureus" can contribute to Staphylococcal Food Poisoning by forming enterotoxins. Streptococcal exotoxins are produced by "Streptococcus pyogenes". These toxins share

neg: Staphylococcus aureus Scottish surgeon, discovered that "Staphylococcus" can cause wound infections after noticing groups of bacteria in pus from a surgical abscess during a procedure he was performing. He named it "Staphylococcus" after its clustered appearance evident under a microscope. Then, in 1884, German scientist Friedrich Julius Rosenbach identified "Staphylococcus aureus", discriminating and separating it from "Staphylococcus albus", a related bacterium. In the early 1930s, doctors began to use a more streamlined test to detect the presence of an "S. aureus" infection by the means of coagulase testing, which enables detection of an enzyme produced by the bacterium. Prior to the 1940s,

neg: Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin was first shown that single-stranded nucleic acids can be detected by electrophysiology measurements as they translocate through an alpha-hemolysin pore embedded in a lipid bilayer. This was an important milestone in the development of nanopore sequencing. Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin Alpha-toxin, also known as alpha-hemolysin (Hla), is the major cytotoxic agent released by bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus" and the first identified member of the pore forming beta-barrel toxin family. This toxin consists mostly of beta-sheets (68%) with only about 10% alpha-helices. The "hla" gene on the "S. aureus" chromosome encodes the 293 residue protein monomer, which forms heptameric units on the

neg: Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin Alpha-toxin, also known as alpha-hemolysin (Hla), is the major cytotoxic agent released by bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus" and the first identified member of the pore forming beta-barrel toxin family. This toxin consists mostly of beta-sheets (68%) with only about 10% alpha-helices. The "hla" gene on the "S. aureus" chromosome encodes the 293 residue protein monomer, which forms heptameric units on the cellular membrane to form a complete beta-barrel pore. This structure allows the toxin to perform its major function, development of pores in the cellular membrane, eventually causing cell death. Alpha-toxin has been shown to play a

neg: Nanofiber with silver nanoparticles can be used as effective antibiotics against bacteria such as "E. coli", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Staphylococcus aureus", and "methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus" found in burn wounds. Finally, charged biopolymers such as DNA can be incorporated into the multilayer assembly of nanofibers. Such modification can provide diverse drug releasing surface profiles of nanofibers for different medical contexts. Although pathologic examination is the current standard method for molecular characterization in testing for the presence of biomarkers in tumors, these single-sample analyses fail to account for the diverse genomic nature of tumors. Considering the invasive nature, psychological stress, and the financial burden

neg: Classical complement pathway complement activation has also been shown to combat Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Certain variants of the IgM antibody were found to bind the Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" these IgM were found to be critical in complement activation through the classical pathway and subsequent destruction of the bacteria. Therapies that utilize classical complement activation have been shown to be effective in targeting and killing cancer cells and destroying tumors. Tachyplesin, a small peptide, has been shown to exhibit these effects. When injected into target tissue encourages recruitment of C1q and activates downstream events, eventually leading to the formation of the C5b-9 complex which

neg: Staphylococcal infection of the infected area. However, many strains of this bacterium have become resistant to the available regimens of antibiotics— for those suffering these kinds of infection, the body's own immune system is the only defense against the disease. If that system is weakened or compromised, the disease may progress rapidly. "Other infections include:" The main coagulase-positive staphylococcus is Staphylococcus aureus, although not all strains of Staphylococcus aureus are coagulase positive. These bacteria can survive on dry surfaces, increasing the chance of transmission. S. aureus is also implicated in toxic shock syndrome; during the 1980s some tampons allowed the rapid growth

neg: Rifampicin methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) in combination with other antibiotics, including in difficult-to-treat infections such as osteomyelitis and prosthetic joint infections. As of 2012, if rifampicin combination therapy was useful for pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis was unclear. A meta-analysis concluded that adding adjunctive rifampicin to a β-lactam or vancomycin may improve outcomes in staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. However, a more recent trial found no benefit from adjunctive rifampicin. It is also used as preventive treatment against "Neisseria meningitidis" (meningococcal) infections. Rifampicin is also recommended as an alternative treatment for infections by the tick-borne pathogens "Borrelia burgdorferi" and "Anaplasma phagocytophilum" when treatment with doxycycline

neg: Goldenseal not support claims that goldenseal is effective in treating cancer or other diseases. Goldenseal can have toxic side effects, and high doses can cause death." Even though not enough research has been completed to determine the plant's efficacy, some experiments have shown that goldenseal is effective at reducing infection and potentially useful in the prevention and treatment of MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant "Staphylococcus Aureus"). Although the 2012 article, "Quorum Quenching and Antimicrobial Activity of Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)", found evidence of efficacy ("a demonstrated quorum-quenching activity against several clinically-relevant MRSA isolates (USA300 strains)") it did not evaluate the

neg: Oxacillin Oxacillin Oxacillin sodium (trade name Bactocill) is a narrow-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic of the penicillin class developed by Beecham. Oxacillin is a penicillinase-resistant β-lactam. It is similar to methicillin, and has replaced methicillin in clinical use. Other related compounds are nafcillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and flucloxacillin. Since it is resistant to penicillinase enzymes, such as that produced by "Staphylococcus aureus", it is widely used clinically in the US to treat penicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus". However, with the introduction and widespread use of both oxacillin and methicillin, antibiotic-resistant strains called methicillin-resistant and oxacillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA/ORSA) have become increasingly prevalent worldwide. MRSA/ORSA is treated

neg: Cutibacterium acnes as "Staphylococcus aureus". Preliminary research shows healthy pores are only colonized by "C. acnes", while unhealthy ones universally include the nonpore-resident "Staphylococcus epidermidis", amongst other bacterial contaminants. Whether this is a root causality, just opportunistic and a side effect, or a more complex pathological duality between "C. acnes" and this particular "Staphylococcus" species is not known. "C. acnes" has also been found in corneal ulcers, and is a common cause of chronic endophthalmitis following cataract surgery. Rarely, it infects heart valves leading to endocarditis, and infections of joints (septic arthritis) have been reported. Furthermore, "Cutibacterium" species have been found in

neg: Totarol inhibiting microorganisms by itself, (+)-totarol exhibits inhibitory synergy with currently used antimicrobial drugs: (+)-totarol potentiates isonicotinic acid hydrazide against various Mycobactiera.; methicillin against "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" and "Staphylococcus aureus"; and anacardic acid and erythromycin against "Staphylococcus aureus". In nature, (+)-totarol is a key player in gymnosperm’s defense against harmful microbes: gymnosperms that produce (+)-totarol are increasingly resistant to rotting. Table 1. Antibacterial activity of (+)-totarol against microorganisms Although (+)-totarol exhibits antimicrobial properties, the mode of action is unclear and various methods of inhibitory action have been proposed. In "Staphylococcus aureus" strains resistant to penicillin via creation of penicillin binding protein 2’

neg: Virtual colony count case, VCC "virtual survival" results are equivalent to the "survival" results of a traditional colony count bactericidal assay. VCC was initially employed to quantify the antibacterial activity of peptides against six strains of "Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Enterobacter aerogenes". Commonly, a standard Gram-negative and Gram-positive quality control strain are compared. "Escherichia coli" ATCC 25922 and "Staphylococcus aureus" ATCC 29213 have been used as the standard Gram-negative and Gram-positive strains, respectively. VCC has also been applied to "Bacillus anthracis", the causative agent of anthrax. The initial virtual colony count study measured the activity of all six human alpha

neg: Staphylococcus schleiferi" subsp. "coagulans". These species belong to two separate groups – the "S. aureus" ("S. aureus" alone) group and the "S. hyicus-intermedius" group (the remaining five). An eighth species has also been described – "Staphylococcus leei" – from patients with gastritis. "S. aureus" is coagulase-positive, meaning it produces coagulase. However, while the majority of "S. aureus" strains are coagulase-positive, some may be atypical in that they do not produce coagulase. "S. aureus" is catalase-positive (meaning that it can produce the enzyme catalase) and able to convert hydrogen peroxide (HO) to water and oxygen, which makes the catalase test useful to

neg: Hydnocarpus wightiana seed oil a role in preventing multidrug resistance among some bacteria such as "Staphylococcus aureus". It enhances the action of berberine (which is not found in chaulmoogra oil) by preventing its removal from within "Staphylococcus aureus" bacterial cells. Thus using the oil or an extract of the hydnocarpic acid in combination with extracts from other plants could help increase antimicrobial activity due to synergistic effects. In view of its anti-mycobacterial activity, in 1922 it was also experimentally tried on other conditions caused by mycobacteria such as tuberculous laryngitis. Fruits are plucked by climbing the tree or using long sticks with a sickle

neg: Staphylococcus aureus smoking. They also determined some genetic variations in humans that lead to an increased ability for "S. aureus" to colonize, notably a polymorphism in the glucocorticoid receptor gene that results in larger corticoid production. In conclusion, there is evidence that any strain of this bacterium can become invasive, as this is highly dependent upon human factors. Though "S. aureus" has quick reproductive and micro-evolutionary rates, there are multiple barriers that prevent evolution with the species. One such barrier is AGR, which is a global accessory gene regulator within the bacteria. This such regulator has been linked to the virulence level

neg: SpAB protein domain and decreased mobility entropy in the more compact denatured state. SpAB protein domain In molecular biology, the domain B, refers to the immunoglobulin-binding domain found in the "Staphylococcus aureus" virulence factor protein A (SpA). Hence, it is abbreviated to SpA. SpA enables the"Staphylococcus aureus" bacteria to evade the host's immune system through the disruption of opsonization and phagocytosis. It does this though SpA binding to the Fc fragment of IgG. The B domain of SpA (SpAB) consists of three a-helices which are retained upon interaction with the Fc fragment of IgG. Protein A contains five highly homologous immunoglobulin (Ig)-binding domains

neg: SpAB protein domain SpAB protein domain In molecular biology, the domain B, refers to the immunoglobulin-binding domain found in the "Staphylococcus aureus" virulence factor protein A (SpA). Hence, it is abbreviated to SpA. SpA enables the"Staphylococcus aureus" bacteria to evade the host's immune system through the disruption of opsonization and phagocytosis. It does this though SpA binding to the Fc fragment of IgG. The B domain of SpA (SpAB) consists of three a-helices which are retained upon interaction with the Fc fragment of IgG. Protein A contains five highly homologous immunoglobulin (Ig)-binding domains in tandem (designated domains E, D, A, B and C),

neg: MecA (gene) identical to the mecA homologue found in "Staphylococcus fleurettii," the most significant candidate for the origin of the mecA gene on the staphylococcal cassette chromosome. Since this gene is contained in the genome of "S. fleurettii", there is no way to justify this species to create the cassette chromosome. MecA (gene) The "mecA" gene is a gene found in bacterial cells which allows a bacterium to be resistant to antibiotics such as methicillin, penicillin and other penicillin-like antibiotics. The most commonly known carrier of the "mecA" gene is the bacterium known as Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA). In "Staphylococcus" species, "mecA"

neg: Flucloxacillin resistance to it and other narrow-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics including methicillin. Such organisms include methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus", which has developed resistance to flucloxacillin and other penicillins by having an altered penicillin-binding protein. Flucloxacillin Flucloxacillin (INN) or floxacillin (USAN) is a narrow-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic of the penicillin class. It is used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria. Unlike other penicillins, flucloxacillin has activity against beta-lactamase-producing organisms such as "Staphylococcus aureus" as it is beta-lactamase stable. However, it is ineffective against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). It is very similar to dicloxacillin; they are considered interchangeable. Flucloxacillin is supplied under a variety

neg: Acanthamoeba human disease are also able to infect and replicate within "Acanthamoeba" species. These include "Legionella pneumophila", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", and some strains of "Escherichia coli" and "Staphylococcus aureus". For some of these bacteria, replication inside "Acanthamoeba" has been associated with enhanced growth in macrophages, and increased resistance to some antibiotics. Furthermore, due to the high prevalence of "Acanthamoeba" in the environment, these amoebae have been proposed to serve as an environmental reservoir for some human pathogens. "A. castellanii" can be found at high densities in various soil ecosystems. It preys on bacteria, but also fungi and other protozoa. This species is

neg: Staphylococcus aureus intravascular devices such as catheters, hemodialysis machines, or injected drugs. Once the bacteria have entered the bloodstream, they can infect various organs, causing infective endocarditis, septic arthritis, and osteomyelitis. This disease is particularly prevalent and severe in the very young and very old. Without antibiotic treatment, "S. aureus" bacteremia has a case fatality rate around 80%. With antibiotic treatment, case fatality rates range from 15% to 50% depending on the age and health of the patient, as well as the antibiotic resistance of the "S. aureus" strain. "S. aureus" is often found in biofilms formed on medical devices implanted in

neg: Apolipoprotein B as part of the chylomicron remnant, where it is endocytosed and degraded. Very low-density lipoproteins and low-density lipoproteins interfere with the quorum sensing system that upregulates genes required for invasive "Staphylococcus aureus" infection. The mechanism of antagonism entails binding ApoB, to a "S. aureus" autoinducer pheromone, preventing signaling through its receptor. Mice deficient in ApoB are more susceptible to invasive bacterial infection. Overproduction of apolipoprotein B can result in lipid-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and insulin resistance in the liver. ApoB100 is found in lipoproteins originating from the liver (VLDL, IDL, LDL). Importantly, there is one ApoB100 molecule per hepatic-derived lipoprotein.

neg: Epimerox targets the allosteric site of the bacterial 2-epimerase, low human toxicity is expected since the human 2-epimerase does not have this site. Although epimerox was originally developed specifically to target "Bacillus anthracis", the bacterium that causes anthrax, it was found that it is also effective against methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA), and many other Gram-positive bacteria. No bacteria could be identified that were resistant to the compound (resistance frequency of <10). Thus, epimerox is an antibiotic with low resistance potential. Therefore, 2-epimerase is a new antibiotic target to which resistance is a rare event. 2-Epimerase was discovered as a target because

neg: Staphylococcus aureus It has been proposed that one possible reason for the great deal of heterogeneity within the species could be due to its reliance on heterogeneous infections. This occurs when multiple different types of "S. aureus" cause an infection within a host. The different strains can secrete different enzymes or bring different antibiotic resistances to the group, increasing its pathogenic ability. Thus, there is a need for a large number of mutations and acquisitions of mobile genetic elements. Another notable evolutionary process within the "S. aureus" species is its co-evolution with its human hosts. Overtime, this parasitic relationship has led to

neg: Phenol-soluble modulin Phenol-soluble modulin Phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) are a family of protein toxins that are soluble in phenols that are produced by "staphylococcus" bacteria. In all species of "Staphylococcus", including "Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus" (MRSA)"," they are encoded within the core genome and are an important virulence factor. As they are part of the core genome and not found on mobile genetic elements, all species of "Staphylococcus" carry these genes. MRSA production of PSMs is thought to be a possible cause of severe infections. PSM production is higher in community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) than in healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA), and consequently CA-MRSA associated osteomyelitis is

neg: Hemolysin look at the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus as a specific example of pore-forming hemolysin production. "Staphylococcus aureus" is a pathogen that causes many infectious diseases such as pneumonia and sepsis. It produces a ring-shaped complex called a staphylococcal alpha-hemolysin pore. In nature, "Staphylococcus aureus" secretes alpha-hemolysin monomers that bind to the outer membrane of susceptible cells. Upon binding, the monomers oligomerize to form a water-filled transmembrane channel that facilitates uncontrolled permeation of water, ions, and small organic molecules. Rapid discharge of vital molecules such as ATP, dissipation of the membrane potential and ion gradients, and irreversible osmotic swelling leading to the

neg: Listeria ivanovii clear or double zone of haemolysis, producing a so-called positive Christie-Atkins-Munch-Petersen (CAMP) reaction with "Rhodococcus equi" but not with haemolytic "Staphylococcus aureus". Infection with "L. ivanovii" can lead to septicemic disease with enteritis, neonatal sepsis and even abortion. Pregnant ruminants are therefore most at risk. In January 2007, a 55-year-old man was hospitalized in Paris, France. After examination he was thought to have listeriosis. Both blood and stool samples were taken. "L. ivanovii" was identified, thus characterizing the species as an enteric opportunistic human pathogen. As "L. ivanovii" is usually only found in ruminants and human infection is extremely rare,

neg: Tracy Palmer of protein transporter– the Type VII secretion system (T7SS) in the human pathogen "Staphylococcus aureus". Her group have demonstrated for the first time that the T7SS is involved in interbacterial competition by showing that the "S. aureus" T7SS secretes a large nuclease toxin, which inhibits the growth of closely related "S. aureus" strains. Her former doctoral students include Joanna Fyans, Jennifer Dow, François Cléon, Kristoffer Moore, Fiona Tooke, and Franziska Jäger. Palmer was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2018 for “substantial contributions to the improvement of natural knowledge”. She was elected a Fellow of the Royal

neg: Staphylococcus have been implicated in human infections, notably "S. lugdunensis", "S. schleiferi", and "S. caprae". Common abbreviations for coagulase-negative staphylococci are CoNS, CNS, or CNST. The American Society for Microbiology abbreviates coagulase-negative staphylococci as "CoNS". The first "S. aureus" genomes to be sequenced were those of N315 and Mu50, in 2001. Many more complete "S. aureus" genomes have been submitted to the public databases, making it one of the most extensively sequenced bacteria. The use of genomic data is now widespread and provides a valuable resource for researchers working with "S. aureus". Whole genome technologies, such as sequencing projects and microarrays,

neg: Cefodizime of cytokines in the stimulated cells. A 1992 study conducted in vitro susceptibility studies for cefodizime and found that gram negative bacteria with consistent susceptibility include: "Enterobacteriaceae" including "E. coli", "Klebsiella pneumonia", "Morganella morganii", "Proteus mirabilis", "P. vulgaris", "Shigella sonnei", "Yersinia enterocolitica", "Salmonella", "Haemophilus influenzae", "Moraxella catarrhalis", "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", and "Neisseria meningitidis". "In vitro" susceptible gram positive bacteria include: methicillin-sensitive "Staphylococcus aureus", and "Streptococcus agalactiae", "S. pneumoniae" and "S. pyogenes". Cefodizime was shown to be ineffective "in vitro" against "Enterobacter spp.", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", and "Xanthomonas maltophilia". Gram positive bacteria it was inactive against include "Staphylococcus epidermidis" and "methicillin-resistant "Streptococcus aureus".

neg: Staphylococcus aureus in biofilms. A class of enzymes have been found to have biofilm matrix-degrading ability, thus may be used as biofilm dispersal agents in combination with antibiotics. "S. aureus" can survive on dogs, cats, and horses, and can cause bumblefoot in chickens. Some believe health-care workers' dogs should be considered a significant source of antibiotic-resistant "S. aureus", especially in times of outbreak. In a 2008 study by Boost, O’Donoghue, and James, it was found that just about 90% of "S. aureus" colonized within pet dogs presented as resistant to at least one antibiotic. The nasal region has been implicated as the

neg: Osteomyelitis system, first infecting the synovium (due to its higher oxygen concentration) before spreading to the adjacent bone. In tubercular osteomyelitis, the long bones and vertebrae are the ones that tend to be affected. "Staphylococcus aureus" is the organism most commonly isolated from all forms of osteomyelitis. Bloodstream-sourced osteomyelitis is seen most frequently in children, and nearly 90% of cases are caused by "Staphylococcus aureus". In infants, "S. aureus", Group B streptococci (most common) and "Escherichia coli" are commonly isolated; in children from one to 16 years of age, "S. aureus", "Streptococcus pyogenes", and "Haemophilus influenzae" are common. In some subpopulations,

neg: Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin no longer able to form pores protects against "S. aureus" pneumonia in mice. Also, introduction of alpha-toxin specific antibodies into an unimmunized animal protects against subsequent infection. Cultures of human lung epithelial cells incubated with anti-alpha-toxin and infected with "S. aureus" showed marked reductions in cellular damage when compared to control cells. As many strains of "S. aureus" are proving to be resistant to most available antibiotics, specific targeting of virulence factors with antibodies may be the next step to treating this pathogen. Alpha-hemolysin has been used extensively in academic research as a single molecule nanopore sensor. In 1996 it

neg: Fibronectin binding protein A Fibronectin binding protein A Fibronectin binding protein A (FnBPA) is a "Staphylococcus aureus" MSCRAMM cell surface-bound protein that binds to both fibronectin and fibrinogen. It is an adhesin which enables "Staphylococcus aureus" ("S. aureus") to adhere to host cells of another organism, and an invasin facilitating its internalisation into these cells. This is true over a range of different cell types. The FnBP alone is capable of providing this invasive property, without the requirement of co-receptors. Even FnBP coated beads have been shown to become internalised into cells "S. aureus" is able to bind to host cells in the absence

neg: Cimex lectularius Cimex lectularius Cimex lectularius is a species of Cimicidae (bed bugs). Its primary hosts are humans, and it is one of the world's major "nuisance pests". Although bed bugs can be infected with at least 28 human pathogens, no studies have found that the insects are capable of transmitting any of these to humans. They have been found with methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) and with vancomycin-resistant "Enterococcus faecium" (VRE), but the significance of this is still unknown. Investigations into potential transmission of HIV, MRSA, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and hepatitis E have not shown that bed bugs can spread these

neg: Staphylococcus aureus autolysin, and in its absence or targeted inhibition, the daughter cells remain attached to one another and appear as clusters. "S. aureus" is catalase-positive (meaning it can produce the enzyme catalase). Catalase converts hydrogen peroxide () to water and oxygen. Catalase-activity tests are sometimes used to distinguish staphylococci from enterococci and streptococci. Previously, "S. aureus" was differentiated from other staphylococci by the coagulase test. However, not all "S. aureus" strains are coagulase-positive and incorrect species identification can impact effective treatment and control measures. "Staphylococcus" is different from the similarly named and medically relevant genus "Streptococcus". Natural genetic transformation is a

neg: Andreas Peschel Germany in 1998 and was a post-doctoral scholar at the Medical Microbiology and Immunology Department, University of Utrecht, the Netherlands 1999-2000. He became an Assistant and Associate Professor at the University of Tübingen in 2001 and 2003, respectively. Since 2008 he is a Full Professor at the Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, part of the University of Tübingen. Peschel's research focuses on the biology and pathogenicity of the bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus", a major cause of severe human infections. Multidrug-resistant "S. aureus" such as methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" (MRSA) represent a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide demanding new

neg: Earwax of bacteria. Cerumen has been found to reduce the viability of a wide range of bacteria, including "Haemophilus influenzae", "Staphylococcus aureus", and many variants of "Escherichia coli", sometimes by as much as 99%. The growth of two fungi commonly present in otomycosis was also significantly inhibited by human cerumen. These antimicrobial properties are due principally to the presence of saturated fatty acids, lysozyme and, especially, to the slight acidity of cerumen (pH typically around 6.1 in normal individuals). Conversely, other research has found that cerumen can support microbial growth and some cerumen samples were found to have bacterial counts as

neg: Staphylococcus both of which were previously considered variants of "S. aureus". A new coagulase negative species - "Staphylococcus edaphicus" - has been isolated from Antarctica. This species is probably a member of the "S. saprophyticus" group. "S. aureus" subsp. "aureus" "S. aureus" subsp. "anaerobius" "S. capitis" subsp. "capitis" "S. capitis" subsp. "urealyticus" "S. carnosus" subsp. "carnosus" "S. carnosus" subsp. "utilis" "S. cohnii" subsp. "cohnii" "S. cohnii" subsp. "urealyticus" "S. equorum" subsp. "equorum" "S. equorum" subsp. "linens" "S. hominis" subsp. "hominis" "S. hominis" subsp. "novobiosepticus" "S petrasii" subsp." croceilyticus" "S petrasii" subsp. "jettensis" "S petrasii" subsp. "petrasii" "S petrasii" subsp. "pragensis" "S.

neg: Raw meat and they differ according to the source, whether it be mammalian, poultry or seafood. Some disease-carrying pathogens found in beef are "Salmonellas", "Escherichia coli", "Shigella", "Staphylococcus aureus", and "Listeria monocytogenes". Different varieties of "Salmonellas" are often found in contaminated poultry. Seafood itself can also contain a wide variety of pathogens. The most common pathogen in raw oysters is "Vibrio" gastroenteritis, while "Salmonella", "Plesiomonsas shielloides", and "staphylococcus" are found in contaminated raw shrimp, and "Vibrio cholerae" has been found in raw crabmeat. Many of the symptoms that result from these diseases involve intestinal damage and can have potentially fatal effects for

neg: Staphylococcus aureus America. Transmission of the pathogen is facilitated in medical settings where healthcare worker hygiene is insufficient. "S. aureus" is an incredibly hardy bacterium, as was shown in a study where it survived on polyester for just under three months; polyester is the main material used in hospital privacy curtains. The bacteria are transported on the hands of healthcare workers, who may pick them up from a seemingly healthy patient carrying a benign or commensal strain of "S. aureus", and then pass it on to the next patient being treated. Introduction of the bacteria into the bloodstream can lead to various

neg: Pseudomonas aeruginosa are generalized inflammation and sepsis. If such colonizations occur in critical body organs, such as the lungs, the urinary tract, and kidneys, the results can be fatal. Because it thrives on moist surfaces, this bacterium is also found on and in medical equipment, including catheters, causing cross-infections in hospitals and clinics. It is also able to decompose hydrocarbons and has been used to break down tarballs and oil from oil spills. "P. aeruginosa" is not extremely virulent in comparison with other major pathogenic bacterial species – for example "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Streptococcus pyogenes" – though "P. aeruginosa" is capable of

neg: Staphylococcus aureus aureus" biofilms also have high resistance to host immune response. Though the exact mechanism of resistance is unknown, "S. aureus" biofilms have increased growth under the presence of cytokines produced by the host immune response. Host antibodies are less effective for "S. aureus" biofilm due to the heterogeneous antigen distribution, where an antigen may be present in some areas of the biofilm, but completely absent from other areas. Protein A is anchored to staphylococcal peptidoglycan pentaglycine bridges (chains of five glycine residues) by the transpeptidase sortase A. Protein A, an IgG-binding protein, binds to the Fc region of an antibody.

neg: Aureolysin Aureolysin Aureolysin (, "protease III, staphylococcal metalloprotease," "Staphylococcus aureus neutral proteinase") is an extracellular metalloprotease expressed by "Staphylococcus aureus". This protease is a major contributor to the bacterium's virulence, or ability to cause disease, by cleaving host factors of the innate immune system as well as regulating S. aureus secreted toxins and cell wall proteins. To catalyze its enzymatic activities, aureolysin requires zinc and calcium which it obtains from the extracellular environment within the host. Aureolysin is expressed from the gene "aur", which is located on a monocistronic operon. The gene exists in two allelic forms but the sequence is

neg: Staphylococcus aureus This changes the charge or sterically hinders the antibiotic, decreasing its ribosomal binding affinity. In "S. aureus", the best-characterized aminoglycoside-modifying enzyme is aminoglycoside adenylyltransferase 4' IA ("ANT(4')IA"). This enzyme has been solved by X-ray crystallography. The enzyme is able to attach an adenyl moiety to the 4' hydroxyl group of many aminoglycosides, including kamamycin and gentamicin. Glycopeptide resistance is mediated by acquisition of the "vanA" gene, which originates from the Tn1546 transposon found in a plasmid in enterococci and codes for an enzyme that produces an alternative peptidoglycan to which vancomycin will not bind. Today, "S. aureus" has become resistant

neg: Petriella setifera setifera" has no known infectious properties for humans or other species. "Petriella" strains have rarely been associated with vertebrate infections. However, all species in the genus have not been fully analyzed for pathology. The fungus is known to have antifungal properties. Ethyl acetate extracts from the fungus show activity against fungal pathogens of plants including "Magnaporthe grisea" and "Fusarium oxysporum". The fungus also showed inhibitory effects on "Staphylococcus aureus". In-vitro, species of "Petriella" can produce immunosuppressive metabolites but none of the members of this group are regularly implicated in human disease. "Petriella setifera" was originally found on horse feces in

neg: Triclocarban at risk for superinfection. "In vitro", triclocarban has been found to be effective against various strains of "staphylococcus", "streptococcus", and "enterococcus" bacteria. It has been shown to be effective as an antibacterial even at very low levels. Triclocarban’s minimum inhibitory concentration has been found to range from 0.5 to 8 mg/L for these various strains. Triclocarban is only unquestionably bacteriostatic for gram-positive bacteria such as "Staphylococcus aureus", which suggests that the mechanism of triclocarban’s antibacterial activity is through its destabilization of bacterial cell walls. Exposure of organisms like fish, algae, and humans to low levels of triclocarban and other antibacterial