query: what materials were used in ancient greek architecture

pos: Ancient Greek architecture of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned ancient Greek architecture. Deposits of high quality potter's clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels, but also roof tiles and architectural decoration. The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took

pos: Ancient Egyptian architecture end of the old Empire, the usage of these tombs were abandoned. Ancient Egyptian architecture Ancient Egyptian architecture is the architecture of one of the most influential civilizations throughout history, which developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural monuments along the Nile, including pyramids and temples. Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities. From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal

pos: Ancient Egyptian architecture Ancient Egyptian architecture Ancient Egyptian architecture is the architecture of one of the most influential civilizations throughout history, which developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural monuments along the Nile, including pyramids and temples. Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities. From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary

pos: Ancient Greek architecture and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted Ancient Greek styles closely. The mainland and islands of Greece are very rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked. There is an abundance

neg: Ancient Roman architecture Ancient Roman architecture Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans , but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire,

neg: Etruscan architecture Etruscan architecture Etruscan architecture was created between about 700 BC and 200 BC, when the expanding civilization of ancient Rome finally absorbed Etruscan civilization. The Etruscans were considerable builders in stone, wood and other materials of temples, houses, tombs and city walls, as well as bridges and roads. The only structures remaining in quantity in anything like their original condition are tombs and walls, but through archaeology and other sources we have a good deal of information on what once existed. From about 630 BC, Etruscan architecture was heavily influenced by Greek architecture, which was itself developing through the same

neg: Ancient Greek art of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek "πολυχρωμία", "πολύ" = many and "χρώμα" = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases. Although the word "polychrome" is created from the combining of two Greek words, it was not used in ancient Greece. The term was coined in the early nineteenth century by Antoine Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy. Painting was also used to enhance the visual aspects of architecture. Certain parts of the superstructure of Greek temples were habitually painted since

neg: Ancient Greek architecture roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete. Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in ancient Roman architecture. Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice as long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly

neg: Ancient Greek sculpture only for architectural sculpture and decoration. Plaster or stucco was sometimes used for the hair only. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. Many statues were given jewellery, as can be seen from the holes for attaching it, and held weapons or other objects in different materials. Ancient Greek sculptures were originally painted bright colors; they only appear white today because the

neg: Nubian architecture Nubian architecture Nubian architecture is diverse and ancient. Permanent villages have been found in Nubia which date from 6000 BC. These villages were roughly contemporary with the walled town of Jericho in Palestine. The earliest Nubian architecture used perishable materials, wattle and daub, mudbrick, animal hide and other light and supple materials. Early Nubian architecture consisted of speos, structures derived from carving of rock, an innovation of the A-Group culture (c. 3500-2374 BCE), as seen in the Sofala Cave rock-cut temple. Ancient Egyptians made widespread use of speos during the New Kingdom of Egypt. Two types of A-Group graves exist.

neg: Ancient Greek art Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) until the 7th century, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. Since most Greek buildings in the Archaic and Early Classical periods were made of wood or mud-brick, nothing remains of them except a few ground-plans, and there are almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of buildings. Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the surviving buildings of the Late Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods (since ancient Roman architecture heavily used Greek styles), and from

neg: Ancient Greek temple Ancient Greek temple Greek temples (, semantically distinct from Latin , "temple") were structures built to house deity statues within Greek sanctuaries in ancient Greek religion. The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since the sacrifices and rituals dedicated to the respective deity took place outside them, within the wider precinct of the sanctuary, which might be large. Temples were frequently used to store votive offerings. They are the most important and most widespread building type in Greek architecture. In the Hellenistic kingdoms of Southwest Asia and of North Africa, buildings erected to fulfill the functions of a

neg: Death in ancient Greek art Death in ancient Greek art The theme of death within ancient Greek art has continued from the Early Bronze Age all the way through to the Hellenistic period. The Greeks used architecture, pottery, and funerary objects as different mediums through which to portray death. These depictions include mythical deaths, deaths of historical figures, and commemorations of those who died in war. This page includes various examples of the different types of mediums in which death is presented in Greek art. Greek heroa were tombs dedicated to both mythological and actual heroes of the Ancient Greek world. These tombs contained the

neg: French architecture external Greek architecture and by the late Republic, the architectural style developed its own highly distinctive style by introducing the previously little-used arches, vaults and domes. A crucial factor in this development, coined the Roman Architectural Revolution, was the invention of concrete. Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Notable examples in France

neg: Ancient Roman architecture military engineering. By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale. The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture. Ancient Roman architecture Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans , but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were

neg: Classical order Ancient Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These three were adopted by the Romans, who modified their capitals. The Roman adoption of the Greek orders took place in the 1st century BC. The three Ancient Greek orders have since been consistently used in neo-classical European architecture. Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earliest order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the Doric and Ionic orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic in eastern Greece and the Doric in the west and mainland. Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to

neg: Architecture of Rome and bricks, but ever since about 100 BC and the Roman Empire, marble and gold were more widely used as decoration themes in the architecture of Rome, especially in temples, palaces, fora and public buildings in general. Most buildings, just like in Classical Athens, had caryatids and atlantises supporting balconies or structures, mainly representing standing women or muscular men. The caryatids found in ancient Roman architecture were mainly copies of the Greek ones, just like in the Forum of Augustus. Temples in ancient Roman architecture were usually raised with an elongated staircase, and were usually built on a podium or

neg: Sacred architecture reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years and its numerous temples comprise what may be the largest religious structure ever built. Ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia. Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns. With the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods (Roman architecture heavily copied Greek). Since

neg: Al-Azhar Mosque wish to see al-Azhar stand as a bulwark against ultra-conservative Islamists (known as Salafists), and those that hope to see al-Azhar become wholly independent from the state and in complete control of its finances, leadership, and further that it be placed in charge of the religious ministries of the state. The architecture of al-Azhar is closely tied to the history of Cairo. Materials taken from multiple periods of Egyptian history, from the Ancient Egyptians, through Greek and Roman rule, to the Coptic Christian era, were used in the early mosque structure, which drew on other Fatimid structures in Ifriqiya. Later

neg: Church of St. Peter and Paul, Arese its new bells were consecrated. The final decorative and executive project was assigned to the architect Zanchetta, who was inspired by the Neoclassical architecture used in Milan at that time. Zanchetta reused the classical style, inspired by Ancient Greek architecture (especially Doric and Ionic). He studied the ancient architecture and recreated a more modern and authentic style. The building evidences a dramatic use of columns. These were are not used to carry the weight of the building’s structure but as a graphical and decorative element. The church has a salient structure and three aisles. The facade is an example of

neg: Diccionario Griego-Español new bilingual dictionary from Ancient Greek into a modern language. Such a dictionary necessarily had to be based on a wider collection of materials, as well as on a new careful study and organization of those materials according to modern lexicographical criteria, taking advantage of recent advances in linguistics. Earlier editions of LSJ's dictionary, though regularly used by Greek scholars, were in many senses out of date, in spite of supplements, and the Greek lexicon required a thorough revision. That revision involved, first, incorporating Mycenaean Greek and Patristic writings, as well as personal and place names, which were all absent

neg: Gospel riots The language taught (very ineffectively) in schools was full, un-simplified Ancient Greek (although the pupils were not told that they were learning an ancient language; they were told they were simply learning to read and write). Almost all published writing was in "katharevousa", using vocabulary from Ancient Greek, and looking very much like it on the page. Judging solely from written materials, then, it might indeed appear that modern Greece used the same language as the old Byzantine Empire, and was therefore the true heir to its glory and its former territories. The uncomfortable gap between this constructed image and

neg: Ancient Greek architecture upper one which carried the columns was the "stylobate". Masonry walls were employed for temples from about 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was usually employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints. The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever being used. Blocks, particularly those of columns and parts of the building bearing loads were sometimes fixed in place or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods

neg: Ancient Greek art style with numerous detailed conventions that were largely adopted by Roman architecture and are still followed in some modern buildings. It used a vocabulary of ornament that was shared with pottery, metalwork and other media, and had an enormous influence on Eurasian art, especially after Buddhism carried it beyond the expanded Greek world created by Alexander the Great. The social context of Greek art included radical political developments and a great increase in prosperity; the equally impressive Greek achievements in philosophy, literature and other fields are well known. The earliest art by Greeks is generally excluded from "ancient Greek art",

neg: Semi-dome Semi-dome In architecture, a semi-dome (or half-dome) is a half dome that covers a semi-circular area in a building. Semi-domes are a common feature of apses in Ancient Roman and traditional church architecture, and in mosques and iwans in Islamic architecture. A semi-dome, or the whole apse, may also be called a conch after the scallop shell often carved as decoration of the semi-dome (all shells were conches in Ancient Greek), though this is usually used for subsidiary semi-domes, rather than the one over the main apse. Small semi-domes have been often decorated in a shell shape from ancient times,

neg: Fluting (architecture) the hollowed-out grooves appear to have been re-filled with a cylindrical element, it may be referred to as "cabled fluting". This decorative element is not used in Doric order columns. Cabled fluting may have been used to prevent wear and damage to the sharp edges of the flutes along the bottom part of the column. While Greek temples employed columns for load-bearing purposes, Roman architects used columns more often as decorative elements. Fluting was used in both Greek and Roman architecture. Persian style columns do not follow the Classical orders, but were developed during the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Persia.

neg: Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek architecture The architecture of ancient Greece is the architecture produced by the Greek-speaking people ("Hellenic" people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, and the parthenon is a prime example of this, mostly as ruins but many substantially intact. The second important type of building that

neg: Etruscan civilization deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo-European system: Tin or Tinia, the sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were taken into the Etruscan system: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in art motifs. Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from the external appearance of Greek architecture. In turn, Ancient Roman architecture began with Etruscan styles, and then accepted still further Greek influence. Roman temples

neg: Ancient Greek architecture Cnidos (c. 350 BC). Little is known of Mycenaean wooden or domestic architecture and any continuing traditions that may have flowed into the early buildings of the Dorian people. The Minoan architecture of Crete, was of trabeated form like that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, but the columns were of very different form to Doric columns, being narrow at the base and splaying upward. The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have developed independently. As with Minoan architecture, ancient Greek domestic architecture centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades. This form was

neg: Surgical suture suture materials were used, debated, and remained largely unchanged. Needles were made of bone or metals such as silver, copper, and aluminium bronze wire. Sutures were made of plant materials (flax, hemp and cotton) or animal material (hair, tendons, arteries, muscle strips and nerves, silk, and catgut). The earliest reports of surgical suture date to 3000 BC in ancient Egypt, and the oldest known suture is in a mummy from 1100 BC. A detailed description of a wound suture and the suture materials used in it is by the Indian sage and physician Sushruta, written in 500 BC. The Greek

neg: Culture of Greece Volanakis and Theodoros Vryzakis. Ancient Greek monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites

neg: Death in ancient Greek art gold jewelry, and both boasted their family's wealth. The hellenistic stelai from Demetrias used art styles and sculpting techniques from the Hellenistic period to commemorate the deceased. Marble and stone stele were decorated with full and diverse colors which were used to depict both scenes from life and scenes from myth. By looking at grave stele such as "Aphrodeisia, Daughter of Theudotos," we can learn what life and art for Greeks during the hellenistic period was like. Death in ancient Greek art The theme of death within ancient Greek art has continued from the Early Bronze Age all the way

neg: Bucranium Bucranium Bucranium (plural "bucrania"; Latin, from Greek "βουκράνιον", referring to the skull of an ox) was a form of carved decoration commonly used in Classical architecture. The name is generally considered to originate with the practice of displaying garlanded, sacrificial oxen, whose heads were displayed on the walls of temples, a practice dating back to the sophisticated Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük in eastern Anatolia, where cattle skulls were overlaid with white plaster. In ancient Rome, bucrania were frequently used as metopes between the triglyphs on the friezes of temples designed with the Doric order of architecture. They were also used

neg: Conservation and restoration of ancient Greek pottery vase painter known as the Affecter Painter. Treatment of the vase in the 1980s provided the conservation field with significant insight into the history of the restoration of Greek vases. Conservators discovered that the amphora had been broken and repaired in antiquity. Samples of burial dirt found within holes in the vase proved that the repairs were made prior to the vase being used in an ancient funeral. Conservators also discovered that the vase was restored in the late19th century with materials and methods typical of the time period. Plaster, replacement pieces of terracotta, and extensive overpainting had been used

neg: Ancient Roman architecture more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. Concrete is arguably the Roman contribution most relevant to modern architecture. The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies. They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the Etruscans in Italy. (see Marzabotto) The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall

neg: Imbrex and tegula Imbrex and tegula The imbrex and tegula (plurals imbrices and tegulae) were overlapping roof tiles used in ancient Greek and Roman architecture as a waterproof and durable roof covering. They were made predominantly of fired clay, but also sometimes of marble, bronze or gilt. In Rome, they replaced wooden shingles, and were used on almost every type of structure, from humble outbuildings to grand temples and public facilities. The tegula (Greek solenes) was a plain flat tile, or a flat tile with raised edges, which was laid flat upon the roof, while the imbrex (Greek kalupter) was a semi-cylindrical roofing

neg: Peristyle Greek term "peristyle" to describe similar, earlier structures in ancient Egyptian palace architecture and in Levantine houses known as liwan houses. Peristyle In Hellenistic Greek and Roman architecture a peristyle (; from Greek ) is a continuous porch formed by a row of columns surrounding the perimeter of building or a courtyard. Tetrastoon () is a rarely used archaic term for this feature. The peristyle in a Greek temple is a peristasis. In the Christian ecclesiastical architecture that developed from the Roman basilica, a courtyard peristyle and its garden came to be known as a cloister. In rural settings, a

neg: Greek Baths in ancient Olympia well was gradually transformed into a luxurious space with more complex architecture and ample decorations and mosaics. In the Roman period, the water supply and drainage systems were perfected. There were both hot and cold baths, as was common in training areas and sport competition venues. The Greek Baths were built to service the needs of the athletes, since they used them to wash after training or after the Ancient Olympic Games. In those days, athletes would rub their body with oil and then throw dust on it during training, in order to improve their performance. This was a time-consuming

neg: Post and lintel capitals, to help spread the load, is common to many traditions. The trabeated system is a fundamental principle of Neolithic architecture, ancient Indian architecture, ancient Greek architecture and ancient Egyptian architecture. Other trabeated styles are the Persian, Lycian, Japanese, traditional Chinese, and ancient Chinese architecture, especially in northern China, and nearly all the Indian styles. The traditions are represented in North and Central America by Mayan architecture, and in South America by Inca architecture. In all or most of these traditions, certainly in Greece and India, the earliest versions developed using wood, which were later translated into stone for larger

neg: Ancient Chinese wooden architecture decorated using various materials and techniques. Simple ceiling ornamentations in ordinary buildings were made of wooden strips and covered with paper. More decorative was the lattice ceiling, constructed of woven wooden strips or sorghum stems fastened to the beams. Because of the intricacy of its ornamentation, elaborate cupolas were reserved for the ceilings of the most important structures such as tombs and altars, although it is not clear what the spiritual beliefs of the early Chinese were, as altars appear to have served as burial sites. In traditional Chinese architecture, the layered pieces of the ceiling are held together by

neg: Tortoiseshell and other materials, and this continues. The synthetic Delrin has been used especially for guitar picks. Brands of synthetic substitutes for tortoiseshell include Tortoloid and Tor-tis. Tortoiseshell has been used since ancient times, and the ancient Greek chelys or lyre often used a whole shell to form its body. Inlaid veneers of tortoiseshell were popular with wealthy ancient Romans for furniture, especially couches for dining, and for small items. The "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", probably a work of the 1st century AD, distinguishes between shell from different species, with that regarded as the best probably the hawksbill. André Charles

neg: Gibson Methodist Episcopal Church Style came into favor in the 1830s. Yet, often there are houses who show traces of the Georgian influences. However, the earliest example of Greek Revival Styling was built in Philadelphia in 1798 which was the Latrobe's Bank of Pennsylvania. The Greek Styling did not reach the Deep South till the very last. However, once it reached the United States, fine stone was no longer used. Instead deTocqueville's materials, “painted wood” and “white washed bricks” were used. Greek Revival Architecture was associated with the “white columned look” in Greece, but that did was not common in Louisiana. In certain southern

neg: Materiality (architecture) Materiality (architecture) Materiality in architecture is the concept of, or applied use of, various materials or substances in the medium of building. Material is a relative term in architectural design and so may be used to designate materials which are considered to be virtual, (such as photographs, images or text) or other materials which are natural. Some materials may be considered as combinations of the two. Certain veneers which are composed of images printed on plastic are a good example of this. Observationally therefore, virtual materials can be said not to exist without a natural physical substrate. Therefore, what separates

neg: Ancient Greek art Ancient Greek art Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery. Greek architecture, technically very simple, established a harmonious

neg: Conservation and restoration of ancient Greek pottery 20th century generally attempted to restore vessels to a near pristine state and hide any evidence of past damage. Archaeological discoveries and a surge in the popularity of ancient Greek art in the 18th and 19th centuries created a high demand for objects and artifacts. The customary restoration method started with reassembling vessel fragments. Missing fragments were replaced with new glazed and fired pieces of pottery and gaps were filled in with plaster. The surface was then painted, sometimes extensively. Materials used included shellac, protein glues, oil paints, gypsum, plaster of Paris, barium sulphate, calcite, clay, kaolin, and waterglass (calcium

neg: Ancient Greek architecture ship being a well-known example. The Pergamon Altar (c. 180–160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long by 2.3 metres high) of figures in very high relief. The frieze represents the battle for supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dramatic devices: frenzy, pathos and triumph, to convey the sense of conflict. Ancient Greek architecture The architecture of ancient Greece is the architecture produced by the Greek-speaking people ("Hellenic" people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st

neg: Jean-Pierre Adam architecture entitled "Roman Building: Materials and Techniques". Previously, he had also excavated the Tomb of Akhethetep in Saqqarah along with Christiane Ziegler and Guillemette Andreu-Lanoë between 1991 and 1999, publishing their findings in a book. He has authored books on Greek architecture "L'architecture militaire grecque" (2000) as well as on Ancient Egypt, "Les pyramides d'Égypte". He has conducted research at the Institute de Recherche d' Architecture Antique. As of 2013, he was teaching at the Ecole du Louvre, the Ecole de Chaillot and the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL); he had also held positions in Paris, Rome and the

neg: Imbrex and tegula at Athens, and the Serapeum at Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli). Still more expensive and magnificent tiles were made of bronze and gilt. Imbrex and tegula The imbrex and tegula (plurals imbrices and tegulae) were overlapping roof tiles used in ancient Greek and Roman architecture as a waterproof and durable roof covering. They were made predominantly of fired clay, but also sometimes of marble, bronze or gilt. In Rome, they replaced wooden shingles, and were used on almost every type of structure, from humble outbuildings to grand temples and public facilities. The tegula (Greek solenes) was a plain flat tile, or a

neg: Ancient Greek architecture were often set with a row of lion's masks, with open mouths that ejected rainwater. From the Late Classical period, acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures. In the three orders of ancient Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration, be it a simple half round "astragal", a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which it is a part. In the Doric order, there is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an arbitrary way. The sculpture is always located in several predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment.

neg: Ancient Greek architecture geometrical progression, the so-called "Golden mean". The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed by ancient Greek architects as particularly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical

neg: Ivory carving made of a mixture of ivory, usually for the flesh parts, and other materials, usually gilded, for the clothed parts, and were used for many of the most important cult statues in Ancient Greece and other cultures. These included the huge Athena Parthenos, the statue of the Greek goddess Athena made by Phidias and the focus of the interior of the Parthenon in Athens. Ivory will survive very well if dry and not hot, but in most climates does not often long survive in the ground, so that our knowledge of Ancient Greek ivory is restricted, whereas a reasonable number

neg: Ancient Greek architecture This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in the 6th century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella rise higher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported directly by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architecture only in the 3rd century BC. Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the rise of stone

neg: Greece temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century, that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. The art production continued also during the

neg: Tholos (architecture) Tholos (architecture) A tholos (pl. "tholoi"), from Ancient Greek θόλος, meaning "dome"), in Latin tholus (pl. "tholi"), is an architectural feature that was widely used in the classical world. It is a round structure, usually built upon a couple of steps (a podium), with a ring of columns supporting a domed roof. It differs from a monopteros (Ancient Greek:ὁ μονόπτερος from the Polytonic: μόνος, "only, single, alone", and , "wing") a circular colonnade supporting a roof but without any walls, which therefore does not have a cella. In Greece, the Tholos is a round temple of Greek 'peripteral' design completely

neg: Ancient Greek art we have descriptions of many compositions. They were collected and often displayed in public spaces. Pausanias describes such exhibitions at Athens and Delphi. We know the names of many famous painters, mainly of the Classical and Hellenistic periods, from literature (see expandable list to the right). The most famous of all ancient Greek painters was Apelles of Kos, whom Pliny the Elder lauded as having "surpassed all the other painters who either preceded or succeeded him." Unfortunately, due to the perishable nature of the materials used and the major upheavals at the end of antiquity, not one of the famous

neg: Torsion siege engine were fairly obvious problems. Thereon, a gradual refinement over the succeeding centuries provided the adjustments given in the chart below. Marsden’s description of torsion machine development follows the general course that Heron of Alexandria lays out, but the Greek writer does not give any dates, either. Marsden’s chart below gives his best approximations of the dates of machine development. Only a few specific designs of torsion catapults are known from ancient and medieval history. The materials used are just as vague, other than stating wood or metal were used as building materials. The skein that comprised the spring, on the

neg: Obelisk upright, inscribed and sculpted stones. Obelisks were prominent in the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrance of the temples. The word "obelisk" as used in English today is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the Greek traveller, was one of the first classical writers to describe the objects. A number of ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the "Unfinished Obelisk" found partly hewn from its quarry at Aswan. These obelisks are now dispersed around the world, and fewer than half of them remain in Egypt. The earliest temple

neg: Ancient South Arabian art motifs begin to develop, the second sees the individual artistic forms become canonised, and in the last period there is some influence from foreign styles, particularly Greek art. Unlike Mesopotamia, ancient South Arabia was dominated by stone buildings. Only in the coastal areas and the Hadhramaut capital of Shabwa were there also large numbers of mudbrick structures. For monumental buildings, large hewn blocks of stone were used, which were fitted together without mortar and unhewn stone which required mortar. Lime mortar, mud, and asphalt were used as binding materials. In tall walls, vertical lead props and horizontal pins and brackets

neg: Ancient Greek architecture for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have been illuminated by skylights. On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as being of a particular type, with two terms: one describing the number of columns across the entrance front, and the other defining their distribution. Examples: The ideal of proportion that was used by ancient Greek architects in designing temples was not a simple mathematical progression using a square module. The math involved a more complex

neg: Ancient Greek architecture so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles. Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the [Greek] temple ... placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building". The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece

neg: Amphora methods. <br> Amphora An amphora (; Greek: ἀμφορεύς, "amphoréus"; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container of a characteristic shape and size, descending from at least as early as the Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine. They are most often ceramic, but examples in metals and other materials have been found. Versions of the amphorae were one of many shapes used in Ancient Greek vase painting. The amphora complements the large storage container, the pithos, which makes available capacities

neg: Amphora Amphora An amphora (; Greek: ἀμφορεύς, "amphoréus"; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container of a characteristic shape and size, descending from at least as early as the Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine. They are most often ceramic, but examples in metals and other materials have been found. Versions of the amphorae were one of many shapes used in Ancient Greek vase painting. The amphora complements the large storage container, the pithos, which makes available capacities between one-half

neg: Pilaster single unit. The fashion of using this element from ancient Greek and Roman architecture was adopted in the Italian Renaissance, gained wide popularity with Greek Revival architecture, and continues to be seen in some modern architecture. Pilaster is frequently also referred to as a non-ornamental, load-bearing architectural element in non-classical architecture where a structural load must be carried by a wall or column next to a wall and the wall thickens to accommodate the structural requirements of the wall. Pilaster The pilaster is an in classical architecture used to give the appearance of a supporting column and to articulate an

neg: Classical order have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into Sicily where it was the chief order for monumental architecture for 800 years. Early Greeks were no doubt aware of the use of stone columns with bases and capitals in Ancient Egyptian architecture, and that of other Near Eastern cultures, although there they were mostly used in interiors, rather than as a dominant feature of all or part of exteriors, in the Greek style. The Doric

neg: Conservation and restoration of ancient Greek pottery from water and dirt. The following techniques are used by conservators to evaluate the condition of ancient Greek pottery and determine appropriate treatment. Examination is the first step in the conservation process. Conservators begin the evaluation of an object with careful visual inspection to identify areas of weakness, loss, delamination, discoloration, or old repairs. Further examination with a low power microscope can help conservators identify materials and technical features, such as pigment, gilding, or added clay. When exposed to invisible UV light, many types of materials will display certain colors of visible light. This can enable conservators to identify areas

neg: Ancient Greek verbs three tenses are used, and they distinguish aspect only, not time: The optative mood likewise uses these three tenses, but there is also a future optative, used mainly to report indirectly what would be a future indicative in direct speech. Ancient Greek has no perfect progressive or past perfect progressive. Thus, the meaning "he has been doing" is typically expressed with the present tense, and "he had been doing (earlier)" is expressed with the imperfect tense: For further information on the endings, see Ancient Greek grammar (tables). Dictionaries of Ancient Greek usually give six principal parts for any verb. For

neg: Classical architecture The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word "petrification" is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, mainly with reference to developments in the Greek world. During the Archaic and early Classical periods (about the 6th and early 5th centuries BC), the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. A widely accepted theory in classical studies

neg: Economy of ancient Greece metal in the region. The mines of the Pangaeon hills allowed the cities of Thrace and Macedon to mint a large quantity of coins. Laurium's silver mines provided the raw materials for the "Athenian owls", the most famous coins of the ancient Greek world. Less-valuable bronze coins appeared at the end of the 5th century. Coins played several roles in the Greek world. They provided a medium of exchange, mostly used by city-states to hire mercenaries and compensate citizens. They were also a source of revenue as foreigners had to change their money into the local currency at an exchange

neg: Conservation and restoration of ancient Greek pottery object's history." Most ancient Greek pottery is terracotta, a type of earthenware fired clay ceramic. The composition of minerals, metal, organic and other inorganic materials in the clay varies depending on its source. These variations impact the color of the clay before and after firing. Iron is the most common material found in clay, and can add red, grey, or buff coloring to the object. Pottery can be course wares, which are undecorated or only minimally decorated utilitarian vessels, or fine wares, which are decorated, finely potted, and used for a variety of purposes, including ceremonial use. Vase paintings were

neg: Ancient Greek art and from the plant world the stylized acanthus leaves, volute, palmette and half-palmette, plant scrolls of various kinds, rosette, lotus flower, and papyrus flower. Originally used prominently on Archaic vases, as figurative painting developed these were usually relegated to serve as borders demarcating edges of the vase or different zones of decoration. Greek architecture was notable for developing sophisticated conventions for using mouldings and other architectural ornamental elements, which used these motifs in a harmoniously integrated whole. Even before the Classical period, this vocabulary had influenced Celtic art, and the expansion of the Greek world after Alexander, and the export

neg: Architecture of Denmark Erechtheion and the Parthenon as freestanding buildings released from the traditional urban plan of closed streets, he completed the work in 1848. He also incorporated aspects of ancient Egyptian architecture into his design, though "the plan as a whole... is neither Egyptian nor Greek, but Bindesbøll's own." With the arrival of Historicism in the second half of the century, special importance was attached to high standards of craftsmanship and proper use of materials. This can be seen in Copenhagen's University Library (1861) designed by Johan Daniel Herholdt and inspired by St Fermo's Church in Verona. Vilhelm Dahlerup was one of

neg: Vestibule (architecture) the use of doors and curtains also added security and privacy from the outside. The Classical Period marked a change in the need for privacy in Greek society, which ultimately led to the design and use of vestibules in Greek homes. In ancient Roman architecture, where the term originates, a vestibule was a space between the interior of a building and the street. Vestibules were common in ancient architecture. A Roman house was typically divided into two different sections. The first front section, or the public part, was introduced with a vestibule. These vestibules contained two rooms, which usually served

neg: Ancient Rome the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets. Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture,

neg: Imperial Palace Hall Reconstruction all reflective of the Qing Dynasty. The architecture of this time period is also filled with symbolism, as with most eras in Chinese architecture. Traditionally, wooden buildings were a place for the living to use while stone construction was used to house the dead (see ROM's Ming Tomb). The hall was built using the traditional methods and materials of Ancient Chinese wooden architecture. The original palace is 5 bays wide and 4 bays deep. A "bay" is the space between each large support column. This unique construction allows for the columns to support the weight of the roof without the

neg: Chigi Chapel based on the style of the ancients, [...] nevertheless the ornamentation is not done using raw materials of similar expense to those used by the ancients, who, it seems, realized what they envisaged with endless amounts of money and whose will alone surmounted every difficulty." As a painter Raphael was naturally atracted to the vivid colours of the different kinds of stones available in Rome since the antiquity, and his patron, Agostino Chigi was one of the few people rich enough to finance a project that aimed to recreate the largely lost chromatic exuberance of ancient architecture. At the time

neg: Early Christian art and architecture challenged by Paul Corby Finney's analysis of early Christian writing and material remains (1994). This distinguishes three different sources of attitudes affecting early Christians on the issue: "first that humans could have a direct vision of God; second that they could not; and, third, that although humans could see God they were best advised not to look, and were strictly forbidden to represent what they had seen". These derived respectively from Greek and Near Eastern pagan religions, from Ancient Greek philosophy, and from the Jewish tradition and the Old Testament. Of the three, Finney concludes that "overall, Israel's aversion to

neg: Warfare in ancient Greek art city-states. Themistoclean Walls were built quickly following the Greek victory of the Second Persian Wars, using destroyed sculptures and buildings to construct them. These re-purposed stones used in the building of Themistoclean walls is known as spolia. The Classical Period was also a time of Athenian control over Greece, powerwise, but also military wise and Athenian pottery was the most popular and well-spread over Greece. Aside from a build up of architecture, other aspects of Greek culture, such as grave markers, were also becoming monumental. A majority of sculpture during this period was more grand and celebrated triumph and the

neg: Ancient Greek sculpture Ancient Greek sculpture Ancient Greek sculpture is the sculpture of ancient Greece. Modern scholarship identifies three major stages in monumental sculpture. At all periods there were great numbers of Greek terracotta figurines and small sculptures in metal and other materials. The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of

neg: Letter case quadrilinear form in the 8th century. Over time, uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script. The earliest dated Greek lower-case text is the Uspenski Gospels (MS 461) in the year 835. The modern practice of capitalising the first letter of every sentence seems to be imported (and is rarely used when printing Ancient Greek materials even today). The individual type blocks used in hand typesetting are stored in shallow wooden or metal drawers known as "type cases". Each is subdivided into a number of compartments ("boxes") for the storage of different individual letters. The "Oxford Universal Dictionary on

neg: Ancient Roman architecture their position (e.g. architraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright position (e.g. columns). Transporting was done by land or water (or a combination of both), in the later case often by special-built ships such as obelisk carriers. For lifting operations, ancient cranes were employed since ca. 515 BC, such as in the construction of Trajan's Column. An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These were originally called "tekhenu" by the builders, the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the Greek 'obeliskos' to describe them, and

neg: Ancient Egyptian technology Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness on the Mohs scale. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, the lever moved and uplifted obelisks weighing more than 100 tons. Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrances of various monuments and important buildings, such as temples. In 1902, Encyclopædia Britannica wrote, "The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of Senusret I of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The word "obelisk" is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus,

neg: Ancient Greek architecture place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms. The light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular character of ancient Greek architecture. The light is often extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light and sharp shadows give a precision

neg: History of painting Minoan Crete. Ancient Greek art during the Greek Dark Age became far less complex, but the renewal of Greek civilization throughout the Mediterranean during Archaic Greece brought about new forms of Greek art with the Orientalizing style. Ancient Greece had skilled painters, sculptors (though both endeavours were regarded as mere manual labour at the time), and architects. The Parthenon is an example of their architecture that has lasted to modern days. Greek marble sculpture is often described as the highest form of Classical art. Painting on pottery of Ancient Greece and ceramics gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way

neg: Heated shot Navy regulations because they were so dangerous, although the American ship USS "Constitution" had a shot furnace installed for hot shot to be fired from her carronades. The French "Romaine"-class frigates originally also featured the device, but they proved impractical, dangerous to the ships themselves, and were later discarded. The idea of setting fire to enemy warships can be traced back to the ancient world, where fire arrows and incendiary materials such as Greek fire were used. In 54 BC, heated clay balls were used by the Britons to attack Roman encampments, while in medieval siege warfare, catapults were used

neg: Hellenistic influence on Indian art of Indian monumental stone architecture. Excavations in the ancient palace of Pataliputra have brought to light Hellenistic sculptural works, and Hellenistic influence appear in the Pillars of Ashoka at about the same period. According to John Boardman, there were Hellenistic influences on Indian stone architecture. However, the sites and sources of these influences are "not always properly identified or yet identifiable". Three broad theories have been proposed. One was held by early scholars such as Percy Brown in which stone Indian architecture used immigrant craftsmen experienced in the Persian Achaemenid imperial style, which included much Greek input, to which further

neg: Stable historical period and cultural styles of architecture. A wide range of building materials can be used, including masonry (bricks or stone), wood and steel. Stables can range in components, from a small building housing one or two animals to facilities at agricultural shows or race tracks that can house hundreds of animals. The stable is typically historically the second-oldest building type on the farm. The world’s oldest horse stables were discovered in the ancient city of Pi-Ramesses in Qantir, in Ancient Egypt, and were established by Ramesses II (c.1304-1237 BC). These stables covered approximately 182,986 square feet, had floors sloped

neg: Aztec architecture Aztec architecture Aztec architecture refers to the architectural remains of the Aztec civilization. Much of what is known about Aztec architecture comes from the structures that are still standing. These structures have survived through several centuries because of the strong materials used and the skill of the builders. Aztec cities often competed to construct the greatest temples in the Aztec empire and in the world. While doing so, instead of demolishing an old temple and building a new one at the site, they simply built "over" the old structure. Often, the temples were immense and very proportioned. Some temples have

neg: Technological history of the Roman military it in bridges as well as buildings. Some later Roman technologies were taken directly from Greek civilization. After the absorption of the ancient Greek city states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, the highly advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence and supplement the Empire. This included the military advances that the Greeks had made, as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments. However, the Romans made many significant technological advances, such as the invention of hydraulic cement and concrete. They used such new materials to great advantage in their structures,

neg: Architecture of Italy architectural sites are now in evidence in Italy, with the exception of a few in Volterra, Tuscany and Perugia, Umbria. The Etruscans strongly influenced Roman architecture, as they too used to build temples, fora, public streets and aqueducts. The heavy pillars and porches created by the Etruscans, and their city gates were also a significant influence on Roman architecture. In Southern Italy, from the 8th century BC, the Greek colonists who created what was known as Magna Graecia used to build their buildings in their own style. The Greeks built bigger, better and more technologically advanced houses that people in

neg: Ancient Greek architecture to the details of landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the light on it. In this characteristic environment, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by precision of detail. The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour with the ever-changing light of day. Historians divide ancient Greek civilization into two eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic

neg: History of Crimea northern Crimea. In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, Scythian Neapolis was a city "with a mixed Scythian-Greek population, strong defensive walls and large public buildings constructed using the orders of Greek architecture". The city was eventually destroyed in the mid-3rd century AD by the Goths. The ancient Greeks were the first to name the region "Taurica" after the Tauri. As the Tauri inhabited only mountainous regions of southern Crimea, at first the name Taurica was used only to this southern part, but later it was extended to name the whole peninsula. Greek city-states began establishing colonies along the Black

neg: Ancient Roman architecture could penetrate through the clerestory windows. The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). After Christianity became the official religion, the basilica shape was found appropriate for the first large public churches, with the attraction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman temple form. The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served

neg: History of construction architecture. The Chinese followed the state rules for thousands of years so many of the ancient, surviving buildings were built with the methods and materials still used in the 11th century. Chinese temples are typically wooden timber frames on an earth and stone base. The oldest wooden building is the Nanchan Temple (Wutai) dating from 782 CE. However, Chinese temple builders regularly rebuild the wooden temples so some parts of these ancient buildings are of different ages. Traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses but rely only on post and lintel construction. An important architectural element are the dougong

neg: Greek Revival architecture 19th century, when the designs of Thomas Hope had influenced a number of decorative styles known variously as Neoclassical, Empire, Russian Empire, and Regency architecture in Britain. Greek Revival architecture took a different course in a number of countries, lasting until the Civil War in America (1860s) and even later in Scotland. Despite the unbounded prestige of ancient Greece among the educated elite of Europe, there was minimal direct knowledge of that civilization before the middle of the 18th century. The monuments of Greek antiquity were known chiefly from Pausanias and other literary sources. Visiting Ottoman Greece was difficult and

neg: Ancient Greek art of these have survived. Ancient Greek art has exercised considerable influence on the culture of many countries all over the world, above all in its treatment of the human figure. In the West Greek architecture was also hugely influential, and in both East and West the influence of Greek decoration can be traced to the modern day. Etruscan and Roman art were largely and directly derived from Greek models, and Greek objects and influence reached into Celtic art north of the Alps, as well as all around the Mediterranean world and into Persia. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests

neg: City Museum (Quito) City Museum (Quito) The City Museum (Museo de la Ciudad) is a museum in the colonial center of Quito, Ecuador. It is located on Garcia Moreno Street, between Morales and Rocafuerte. The museum was founded in 1998 and occupies the buildings of what was once the San Juan de Dios Hospital. The buildings were designated as a UNESCO Cultural World Heritage Site. and were restored in 1995 using the same materials as the original buildings to repair damaged areas. Ancient stone Doric columns, stone doorways and stone coverings in the patios are a highlight of the architecture. The museum chronicles

neg: Martyrium (architecture) in Aachen (ca. 792-805). Martyria that remain in something like their original form include the following: Other celebrated Martyria include: The origin of the name of the Christian martyrium is as follows: Ancient Greek "martys", "witness", to "martyrion", "testimony", to Late and Ecclesiastical Latin "martyrium". Martyrium (architecture) A martyrium (Latin) or martyrion (ancient Greek) (plural, "martyries" or "martyria") is a church of a specific architectural form, centered on a central element and thus built on a central plan, that is, of a circular or sometimes octagonal or cruciform shape. The oldest Christian martyria were built at "a site which bears

neg: St John's Lutheran Church, Bundaberg of form and detailing. American and Scandinavian influences were strong in Australia. During the 1950s and 1960s a similar rationalisation occurred within Christian religions in an effort to modernise approaches to religious practice. Churches became brighter and simpler in form and decorative treatments. They used new materials and forms while incorporating many traditional elements and symbols. Design responses included variations on the medieval church with simple massing, a rectangular nave stripped of apses, aisles and chapels, a dramatically lit sanctuary rear wall and simple belltower. Influenced by the architecture of Ancient Greece and the Modernist ideas of contemporary European architecture,

neg: Ancient Roman architecture where they hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used were often much larger than in modern concrete, amounting to rubble. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used

neg: Architecture of Madagascar Architecture of Madagascar The architecture of Madagascar is unique in Africa, bearing strong resemblance to the construction norms and methods of Southern Borneo from which the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar are believed to have immigrated. Throughout Madagascar and the Kalimantan region of Borneo, most traditional houses follow a rectangular rather than round form, and feature a steeply sloped, peaked roof supported by a central pillar. Differences in the predominant traditional construction materials used serve as the basis for much of the diversity in Malagasy architecture. Locally available plant materials were the earliest materials used and remain the most common among