query: who did the treaty of versailles blame for the war

pos: Treaty of Versailles Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage" during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty required Germany to disarm, make ample territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had

pos: Paris Peace Conference, 1919 Germany and her allies". This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay (it paid only a small portion before reparations ended in 1931). As the conference's decisions were enacted unilaterally, and largely on the whims of the Big Four, for its duration Paris was effectively the center of a world government, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany's military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on Germany's shoulders –

pos: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles drafters did not intend to convey a moral judgement of Germany", the article has "almost universally" became known as the war guilt clause of the treaty. Margaret MacMillan wrote that the German public's interpretation of Article 231 as unequivocally ascribing the fault for the war to Germany and her allies, "came to be the object of particular loathing in Germany and the cause of uneasy consciences among the Allies." The Allies never expected such a hostile reaction, for "no one thought there would be any difficulty over the clauses themselves." Stephen Neff wrote that "the term 'war guilt' is a

neg: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom but proved a failure and were dropped in 1936. Germany was the difficult case. By 1930 British leaders and intellectuals largely agreed that all major powers shared the blame for war in 1914, and not Germany alone as the Treaty of Versailles specified. Therefore, they believed the punitive harshness of the Treaty of Versailles was unwarranted, and this view, adopted by politicians and the public, was largely responsible for supporting appeasement policies down to 1938. That is, German rejections of treaty provisions seemed justified. By late 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's

neg: Churchill, Hitler and the Unnecessary War towards Germany and argues that German efforts to revise Versailles were both moral and just. Buchanan calls those historians who blame Germany for the two world wars "court historians" who he argues have created a myth of sole German guilt for the world wars. By contrast to his opposition to Versailles, Buchanan wrote that by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Germany had merely applied to that "prison house of nations," Russia, the principle of self-determination, releasing from Russian rule Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Caucasus (largely modern Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan). Buchanan says that Hungary, which lost

neg: Interwar Britain of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy was to "appease" them in the hopes they would be satiated. League-authorized sanctions against Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia had support in Britain but proved a failure and were dropped in 1936. Germany was the difficult case. By 1930 British leaders and intellectuals largely agreed that all major powers shared the blame for war in 1914, and not Germany alone as the Treaty of Versailles specified. Therefore, they believed the punitive harshness of the Treaty of Versailles was unwarranted, and this view, adopted by politicians and the public, was largely

neg: Harry Elmer Barnes into other languages, and funded his trip to Germany in 1926. During Barnes' 1926 trip to Germany, the writer was welcomed for his efforts to, as Barnes described it, "clear Germany of the dishonour and fraud of the war-guilt clause of the Treaty of Versailles". During his European trip, Barnes met with the former German Emperor, Wilhelm II, at his estate in the Netherlands. According to Barnes, the ruler said that he "was happy to know that I did not blame him for starting the war in 1914." However, Barnes added, "He disagreed with my view that Russia and France

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles Article 231, often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers. The article did not use the word "guilt" but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations for the war. Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty. It specified: Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the

neg: Aftermath of World War I a socialist revolution which led to the brief establishment of a number of communist political systems in (mainly urban) parts of the country, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and the creation of the Weimar Republic. On 28 June 1919 the Weimar Republic was forced, under threat of continued Allied advance, to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Germany viewed the one-sided treaty as a humiliation and as blaming it for the entire war. While the intent of the treaty was to assign guilt to Germany to justify financial reparations, the notion of blame took root as a political issue in

neg: Ernest Bennett (politician) the terms of the Versailles Treaty (concluding the First World War in 1919), which he considered to be inconsistent with Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (the basis of the Armistice with Germany), too harsh and liable to sow the seeds of renewed conflict. Quite apart from the excessive financial burden that the reparations placed on Germany, Bennett believed that the Treaty put too much blame on Germany for starting the War, when in reality the whole of Europe had been dragged into unintended global conflict by a multitude of bilateral treaties and alliances triggered by a relatively local dispute between Serbia

neg: Peace treaty the United Nations headquarters. Famous examples include the Treaty of Paris (1815), signed after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, and the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War conflict between Germany and the Western Allies. This is held to have ended World War I completely, but in fact that did not happen until the Allies concluded peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1920 through the Treaty of Sèvres. The Versailles treaty is possibly the most notorious of peace treaties, in that it is "blamed" by many historians for the rise of National Socialism in Germany and

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1871) insisted that the territory was necessary as a defensive barrier. Bismarck opposed the annexation because he did not wish to make Germany a permanent enemy of France. The portion annexed of Alsace-Lorraine was later slightly reduced at the Treaty of Frankfurt, allowing France to retain the Territory of Belfort. Treaty of Versailles (1871) The Treaty of Versailles of 1871 ended the Franco-Prussian War and was signed by Adolphe Thiers, of the French Third Republic, and Otto von Bismarck, of the German Empire on 26 February 1871. This was a preliminary treaty used to solidify the initial armistice of 28 January

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles concluded that Germany was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the war. Albertini's work, rather than spurring on new debate, was the culmination of the first research phase into the war guilt question. The issue came back between 1959 and 1969, when Fritz Fischer in "Germany's Aims in the First World War" and "War of Illusions" "destroyed the consensus about shared responsibility for the First World War" and "placed the blame ... firmly on the shoulders of the Wilhelmine elite." By the 1970s, his work "had emerged as the new orthodoxy on the origins of the First World War". In

neg: Nazism and race to "German blood". Hitler shifted the blame of Germany's loss in the First World War upon "enemies from within". In the face of economic hardship as triggered by the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Jews who resided in Germany were blamed for sabotaging the country. The Nazis therefore classified them as the most inferior race and used derogatory terms "Untermensch" (sub-human) and "Schwein" (pig). To expand the "Lebensraum" (living space) for Germans, the Nazis later applied this classification to Slavs, mainly the Poles, Serbs and Russians, along with Romani (Gypsies) east of Germany. Within the subhuman hierarchy, Slavs were generally classified

neg: Economy of Nazi Germany war with France at the time, but it did not. Still, the fear that war might come before Germany was prepared for it served to create a sense of urgency and reinforced the rearmament program. The army and the navy prepared to quickly expand their capacity and manpower. Plans were made to secretly build an air force (forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles), and the army prepared to introduce conscription within two years and grow to 300,000 soldiers by 1937 (also in violation of the Treaty of Versailles). At first, the navy did not benefit much from these rearmament plans,

neg: Paul W. Schroeder of history at Concordia Senior College from 1958 to 1963, after which he was hired at the University of Illinois. In a 1972 essay entitled, "World War I as a Galloping Gertie", Schroeder contrary to established historical opinion and Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles laid the blame for the First World War on Britain's doorstep. Schroeder characterized the political events leading up to the war as a "Galloping Gertie," a metaphor which described political events as escalating out of control, pulling and pushing all five Great Powers into an unwanted war. Schroeder's research highlighted the fact that Britain

neg: Tanks in the German Army end of the war. In the end, time running out on the new designs and the limitations of the A7V design, and being a part of the losing side of a war and fighting on the defensive, all led to a very average first try in the realm of tank design for the Germans. The post-World War I Treaty of Versailles of 1919 prohibited the design, manufacture and deployment of tanks within the Reichswehr. When Imperial Germany fell to the Allies, the victors pushed for severe restrictions on the country's war-making capabilities and Germany took the brunt of the blame

neg: Little Treaty of Versailles Little Treaty of Versailles Little Treaty of Versailles or the Polish Minority Treaty was one of the bilateral Minority Treaties signed between minor powers and the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. The Polish treaty was signed on 28 June 1919, the same day as the main Treaty of Versailles was signed, which is the reason for one of its names. It was the first of the Minority Treaties and served as a template for the subsequent ones; together with Articles 87-93 of Treaty of Versailles, it also formally established Poland as a sovereign and

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1757) Treaty of Versailles (1757) The Treaty of Versailles was a diplomatic agreement signed between Austria and France at the Palace of Versailles on 1 May 1757 during the Seven Years' War. It expanded on the 1756 First Treaty of Versailles, which had established the Franco-Austrian Alliance. It is thus commonly known as the Second Treaty of Versailles. In the new treaty, France agreed to assist Austria in regaining the province of Silesia from Prussia in exchange for Austria ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France at the war's conclusion, the acquisition of which had long been a goal of the French

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1757) against Great Britain and had also prompted a financial crisis in Paris. Treaty of Versailles (1757) The Treaty of Versailles was a diplomatic agreement signed between Austria and France at the Palace of Versailles on 1 May 1757 during the Seven Years' War. It expanded on the 1756 First Treaty of Versailles, which had established the Franco-Austrian Alliance. It is thus commonly known as the Second Treaty of Versailles. In the new treaty, France agreed to assist Austria in regaining the province of Silesia from Prussia in exchange for Austria ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France at the war's conclusion,

neg: Presidency of Calvin Coolidge each other. Germany also agreed to arbitrate its eastern boundaries with the states created in the Treaty of Versailles. Coolidge's primary foreign policy initiative was the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928, named for Secretary of State Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The treaty, ratified in 1929, committed signatories—the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan—to "renounce war, as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another." The treaty did not achieve its intended result—the outlawry of war—but it did provide the founding principle for international law after World War II. Coolidge's policy of

neg: Treaty of Versailles [that] came in 1943" leading to the development of the V-2 rocket. Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles () was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which directly led to World War I. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the

neg: Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles () was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which directly led to World War I. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris

neg: Pacifism Neighbors with Germany, Hitler's spreading influence and territory posed an enormous threat to French livelihood. The French countryside had been devastated during World War One and the entire nation was reluctant to subject their territory to the same treatment. Though all countries in the First World War had suffered great losses, France was one of the most devastated and did not want a second war. As Germany dealt with the burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, a conflict arose in the 1930s between German Christianity and German nationalism. Many Germans found the terms of the Treaty of Versailles debilitating and

neg: Churchill, Hitler and the Unnecessary War "Americans blamed the 'Merchants of Death' – the war profiteers – and the British propagandists" who created the myth of the Rape of Belgium. Buchanan calls the British "hunger blockade" of Germany in World War I "criminal" and accepts British economist John Maynard Keynes, who wrote in his 1919 "The Economic Consequences of the Peace" that the reparations that were imposed on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles were "impossible" to pay. Buchanan argues that World War II could have been avoided if the Treaty of Versailles had not been so harsh towards Germany. Buchanan views the treaty as unjust

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles that German opposition "is based upon a text which has no legal validity whatsoever, and which Germany never signed at all." Sidney Fay was the "most outspoken and influential critic" of the article. In 1928, he concluded that all of Europe shared the blame for the war and that Germany had no intention of launching a general European war in 1914. In 1937, E. H. Carr commented that "in the passion of the moment" the Allied Powers had "failed to realize that this extorted admission of guilt could prove nothing, and must excite bitter resentment in German minds." He concluded

neg: Pierre Renouvin of the war had immense political implications because the German government kept on insisting that because of the Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles was the "war guilt clause", the entire treaty rested upon Article 231, and if it could be proven that Germany was not responsible for the war, the moral basis of Versailles would be undermined. As such, the "Auswärtiges Amt" had a War Guilt Section, devoted solely to proving that the "Reich" was not responsible for the war of 1914, and funded the work of Americans like Barnes who likewise was determined that it was the

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1756) Treaty of Versailles (1756) The Treaty of Versailles, also known as the First Treaty of Versailles, was a diplomatic agreement between Austria and France. It was signed on 1 May 1756 at the Palace of Versailles. The two countries offered mutual assistance if attacked by Great Britain or Prussia, The Franco-Austrian Alliance, which lasted in some form or another for the next 30 years, was established. Within months of the agreement, France and Austria found themselves engaged in the Seven Years' War against the Anglo-Prussian Alliance, which was to last until 1763. Along with the Westminster Convention, the treaty formed

neg: Little Treaty of Versailles 10 January 1920. Poland renounced it at the League of Nations forum in Geneva on 13 September 1934. Little Treaty of Versailles Little Treaty of Versailles or the Polish Minority Treaty was one of the bilateral Minority Treaties signed between minor powers and the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. The Polish treaty was signed on 28 June 1919, the same day as the main Treaty of Versailles was signed, which is the reason for one of its names. It was the first of the Minority Treaties and served as a template for the subsequent

neg: Remilitarization of the Rhineland bombing as a way of war, and a non-aggression pact with France if the other powers agreed to accept the remilitarization. In his address to the "Reichstag", Hitler began with a lengthy denunciation of the Treaty of Versailles as unfair to Germany, claimed that he was a man of peace who wanted war with no-one, and argued that he was only seeking equality for Germany by peacefully overturning the unfair Treaty of Versailles. Hitler claimed that it was unfair that because of Versailles a part of Germany should be demilitarized whereas in every other nation of the world a government

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1756) part of the Diplomatic Revolution, which realigned the alliance systems of the major powers of Europe in the run-up to the war. It was ostensibly defensive, but British agents suspected that there were secret clauses that were more wide-ranging than the document actually publicised. The Second Treaty of Versailles, promising even closer co-operation between the two states, was agreed at Versailles in 1757. Treaty of Versailles (1756) The Treaty of Versailles, also known as the First Treaty of Versailles, was a diplomatic agreement between Austria and France. It was signed on 1 May 1756 at the Palace of Versailles. The

neg: Philander C. Knox from 1917 until his death in 1921. While a Senator, he was highly critical of the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I, saying "this Treaty does not spell peace but war — war more woeful and devastating than the one we have but now closed". At the 1920 Republican National Convention, Knox was considered a potential compromise candidate who could unite the progressive and conservative factions of the party. Many thought that California Senator Hiram Johnson would release his delegates to back his friend Knox, but Johnson never did. Warren G. Harding instead emerged as the compromise candidate, and

neg: World War I a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it, and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921

neg: Remilitarization of the Rhineland John Maynard Keynes had published his best-selling book "The Economic Consequences of the Peace" in 1919—in which Keynes depicted Versailles as an unbearably harsh "Carthaginian peace" imposed by the vindictive Allies—an increasingly large segment of British public opinion had become convinced that the Treaty of Versailles was deeply "unjust" to Germany. By 1936, when German troops marched back into the Rhineland, the majority of British people believed that Hitler was right to violate the "unjust" Versailles treaty, and it would be morally wrong for Britain to go to war to uphold the "unjust" Treaty of Versailles. The British War Secretary

neg: Peace congress Treaty of Versailles. On 28 June 1919, the Covenant was signed by 44 states, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. Despite American President Woodrow Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919, the United States did not join the League. The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty came into force. In November, the headquarters of the League moved to Geneva,

neg: Treaty of Versailles to Germany. Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception" rather than the "reality" of the Versailles treaty that mattered. Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes" created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated "German Reich" were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that

neg: 7.92×57mm Mauser its Mauser rifles with barrels chambered for the new 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge. After World War I the Treaty of Versailles imposed comprehensive and complex restrictions upon the post-war German armed forces (the "Reichswehr"). According to the treaty the "Reichswehr" could on a limited scale continue using the 7.92×57mm Mauser as their service cartridge. The Treaty of Versailles however effectively nixed the civilian use of 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered rifles by German hunters and sport shooters. During the mid 1930s Germany stopped obeying the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles and gradually the civilian use of 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered rifles by

neg: U.S.–German Peace Treaty (1921) U.S.–German Peace Treaty (1921) The U.S.—German Peace Treaty is a peace treaty between the U.S. and German governments, signed in Berlin on August 25, 1921, in the aftermath of World War I. The main reason for the conclusion of that treaty was the fact that the U.S. Senate did not consent to ratification of the multilateral peace treaty signed in Versailles, thus leading to a separate peace treaty. Ratifications were exchanged in Berlin on November 11, 1921, and the treaty became effective on the same day. The treaty was registered in "League of Nations Treaty Series" on August 12, 1922.

neg: Dietrich Eckart opposed the Treaty of Versailles, which he viewed as treason, and was a proponent of the so-called stab-in-the-back legend ("Dolchstoßlegende"), according to which the Social Democrats and Jews were to blame for Germany's defeat in the war. In January 1919, Eckart, Feder, Anton Drexler and Karl Harrer founded the "Deutsche Arbeiterpartei" (German Workers' Party - DAP), which to increase its appeal to larger segments of the population, in February 1920 changed its name to the "Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei" (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP); more commonly known as the Nazi Party. He was the original publisher of the party

neg: U.S.–German Peace Treaty (1921) on August 10, 1922, which provided for the establishment of a mixed U.S.-German commission to decide amount of reparations to be paid by the German government to the U.S. U.S.–German Peace Treaty (1921) The U.S.—German Peace Treaty is a peace treaty between the U.S. and German governments, signed in Berlin on August 25, 1921, in the aftermath of World War I. The main reason for the conclusion of that treaty was the fact that the U.S. Senate did not consent to ratification of the multilateral peace treaty signed in Versailles, thus leading to a separate peace treaty. Ratifications were exchanged

neg: Fliegerführer Atlantik in clandestine development programs in Russia. In the early 1920s the navy spent one-sixth of what the army spent on aviation. The Treaty of Versailles banned most aspects of aerial development in Germany. For all of its diligence the treaty did not prohibit naval exercises with aircraft. The loophole allowed for the development of aircraft in the naval sphere of influence. The Paris Treaty of 1926 restated the terms of the treaty in Versailles but relented over the issue of air defence. Germany would be permitted to develop air defence systems to guard against aerial aggression. Although this did not

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles war. German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty. The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany. The article, with the signatory's name changed, was also included in the treaties signed by Germany's allies who did not view the clause with the same disdain as the Germans did. American diplomat John Foster Dulles—one of the two authors of the

neg: William Borah In the Senate, Borah became one of the progressive insurgents who challenged President William Howard Taft's policies, though Borah refused to support former president Theodore Roosevelt's third-party bid against Taft in 1912. Borah reluctantly voted for war in 1917 and, once it concluded, he fought against the Versailles treaty, and the Senate did not ratify it. Remaining a maverick, Borah often fought with the Republican presidents in office between 1921 and 1933, though Coolidge offered to make Borah his running mate in 1924. Borah campaigned for Hoover in 1928, something he rarely did for presidential candidates and never did again.

neg: Hall of Mirrors of Mirrors as the location wherein was signed the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I on 28 June 1919. The Hall of Mirrors is still used for state occasions of the Fifth Republic, such as receptions for visiting heads of state. Hall of Mirrors The Hall of Mirrors ( or ) is the central gallery of the Palace of Versailles in Versailles, France. Within the hall, the German Empire was declared in 1871 (Deutsche Reichsgründung) and the Treaty of Versailles signed by the victorious powers of World War I in 1919. As the principal and most remarkable feature

neg: Armenian Genocide recognition Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria, did not include any reference to “laws of humanity”, instead basing the charges on violations of “laws and customs of war”, The Sèvres Peace Treaty with Turkey did so. In addition to the Articles 226-228, concerning customs of war (corresponding to Articles 228-230 of the Treaty of Versailles), the Sèvres Treaty also contained an additional Article 230, obviously in compliance with the Allied ultimatum of May 24 1915 in regard to committed “crimes against humanity and civilization”. In 1985, the United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities received a report from Special

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1758) Treaty of Versailles (1758) The Treaty of Versailles of 1758, also called the Third Treaty of Versailles, confirmed the earlier treaties that had been signed at Versailles in 1756 and 1757 between Austria and France. However, it also revoked the 1757 treaty's agreement to create an independent state in the Southern Netherlands, ruled by Philip, Duke of Parma; it would remain under Austrian rule. France, which was expecting a swift victory against Prussia because of a coalition with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Saxony, was caught up with the reality of the war. Although the decision to install a Bourbon monarch

neg: Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson addressed the issue as Point 8 in his Fourteen Points speech, expressing the will of the United States to the restitution of the region to France. Thus Alsace-Lorraine returned to the French Republic under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The Germans accepted to surrender under the term of the American proposal. Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) The Treaty of Frankfurt (; ) was a peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on 10 May 1871, at the end of the Franco-Prussian War. The treaty did the following: The treaty also established the terms for the following: The German

neg: German–Polish customs war "tacit Optants". According to the Minorities Treaty (also called the "Little Versailles Treaty") signed by Poland, all former citizens of partitioning powers who rejected Polish citizenship had to leave the country by 10 January 1923. This concerned citizens of Russia, Hungary, Austria and Germany, though in the case of Germans opting for German citizenship, there was no precise date established for them to leave. Per the treaty of Versailles, the victorious countries, including Poland, were authorized to liquidate the property of German nationals. Helmut Lippelt writes that Germany used the existence of the German minority in Poland for political purposes

neg: Nazi Germany Treaty of Mutual Assistance as a pretext to order the army to march 3,000 troops into the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in violation of the Versailles Treaty. As the territory was part of Germany, the British and French governments did not feel that attempting to enforce the treaty was worth the risk of war. In the one-party election held on 29 March, the NSDAP received 98.9 percent support. In 1936, Hitler signed an Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and a non-aggression agreement with Mussolini, who was soon referring to a "Rome-Berlin Axis". Hitler sent military supplies and assistance to the

neg: Axis powers Italian seizure of Fiume result in war between Italy and Yugoslavia. The German ambassador to Italy in 1924 reported that Mussolini saw a nationalist Germany as an essential ally for Italy against France, and hoped to tap into the desire within the German army and the German political right for a war of revenge against France. During the Weimar Republic, the German government did not respect the Treaty of Versailles that it had been pressured to sign, and various government figures at the time rejected Germany's post-Versailles borders. General Hans von Seeckt (head of the "Reichswehr" command from 1920 to

neg: Kingdom of Italy Minister David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau and United States President Woodrow Wilson in Versailles to discuss how the borders of Europe should be redefined to help avoid a future European war. The talks provided little territorial gain to Italy because during the peace talks Wilson promised freedom to all European nationalities to form their own nation states. As a result, the Treaty of Versailles did not assign Dalmazia and Albania to Italy as had been promised in the Treaty of London. Furthermore, the British and French decided to divide the German overseas colonies into mandates of

neg: Panzer I of many of the then-obsolete PzKpfw Is and PzKpfw IIs were repurposed as gun turrets on specially built defensive bunkers, particularly on the Atlantic Wall. The post-World War I Treaty of Versailles of 1919 prohibited the design, manufacture and deployment of tanks within the Reichswehr. Paragraph Twenty-four of the treaty provided for a 100,000-mark fine and imprisonment of up to six months for anybody who "[manufactured] armoured vehicles, tanks or similar machines, which may be turned to military use". Despite the manpower and technical limitations imposed on the German Army by the Treaty of Versailles, several Reichswehr officers established a

neg: The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors record the proceedings. The work was the most expensive of the British public art commissions associated with the First World War: Orpen was paid £3,000: by comparison, John Singer Sargent received £300 for his much larger painting "Gassed". The painting depicts the signature of the Treaty of Versailles by representatives from Germany on 28 June 1919, to formally end the First World War. It is a group portrait depicting soldiers, diplomats and politicians who attended the conference, at the point when the treaty was signed in the opulent surroundings of Louis XIV's Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.

neg: Historiography of World War II Versailles that was sufficiently onerous to ensure that the overwhelming majority of Germans would always hate it, but insufficiently onerous in that it failed to destroy Germany's potential to be a Great Power once more. In this way, Taylor argued that the Versailles Treaty was destabilising, for sooner or later the innate power of Germany that the Allies had declined to destroy in 1918–1919 would inevitably reassert itself against the Versailles Treaty and the international system established by Versailles that the Germans regarded as unjust and thus had no interest in preserving. Though Taylor argued that the Second World War

neg: World War I reparations December 1922, Poincaré was faced with Anglo-American-German hostility; coal supplies for French steel production were running low. Exasperated with Britain's failure to act, he wrote to the French ambassador in London: Judging others by themselves, the English, who are blinded by their loyalty, have always thought that the Germans did not abide by their pledges inscribed in the Versailles Treaty because they had not frankly agreed to them ... We, on the contrary, believe that if Germany, far from making the slightest effort to carry out the treaty of peace, has always tried to escape her obligations, it is because

neg: Allies of World War I who negotiated the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 included France, Britain, Italy, Japan and the US; Part One of the Treaty agreed to the establishment of the League of Nations on 25 January 1919. This came into being on 16 January 1920 with Britain, France, Italy and Japan as permanent members of the Executive Council; the US Senate voted against ratification of the Treaty of Versailles on 19 March, thus preventing American participation. For much of the 19th century, Britain sought to maintain the European balance of power without formal alliances, a policy known as splendid isolation. This left it

neg: A. J. P. Taylor overwhelming majority of Germans would always hate it, but insufficiently onerous in that it failed to destroy Germany's potential to be a Great Power once more. In this way, Taylor argued that the Versailles Treaty was destabilising, for sooner or later the innate power of Germany that the Allies had declined to destroy in 1918–1919 would inevitably reassert itself against the Versailles Treaty and the international system established by Versailles that the Germans regarded as unjust and thus had no interest in preserving. Though Taylor argued that the Second World War was not inevitable and that the Versailles Treaty was

neg: Allies of World War II the war ended, the Allied nations became the basis of the modern United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I and cooperation of the victorious powers at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar Republic's legitimacy became shaken. However, the 1920s were peaceful. With the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression, political unrest in Europe soared including the rise in support of revanchist nationalists in Germany who blamed the severity of the economic crisis on the Treaty of Versailles. By the

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles these views, the historical consensus is that the article and the treaty, did not cause the rise of Nazism but that an unconnected rise in extremism and the Great Depression led to the NSDAP gaining greater electoral popularity and then being maneuvered into office. Fritz Klein wrote that while there was a path from Versailles to Hitler, the former did not make "Hitler's takeover of power inevitable" and that "the Germans had a choice when they decided to take this path. In other words, they did not have to. Hitler's victory was not an unavoidable result of Versailles." In 1926,

neg: Treaty of Versailles any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them. Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles. Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles accept sole guilt for the preceding war". Klaus Schwabe wrote that the article's influence went far beyond the discussion of war guilt. By "refusing to acknowledge Germany's 'war guilt' the new German government implicitly exonerated the old monarchial order" and more importantly failed "to dissociate itself from the old regime." In doing so "it undermined its claim that post-revolutionary Germany was a historic new democratic beginning deserving credit at the peace conference." Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles Article 231, often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1871) Treaty of Versailles (1871) The Treaty of Versailles of 1871 ended the Franco-Prussian War and was signed by Adolphe Thiers, of the French Third Republic, and Otto von Bismarck, of the German Empire on 26 February 1871. This was a preliminary treaty used to solidify the initial armistice of 28 January 1871 between the two states. It was later ratified by the Treaty of Frankfurt on 10 May of the same year. The 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt made the decline of France obvious to the rest of the continent, and at the same time demonstrated the strength of a unified

neg: The Big Four (World War I) punishment put on Germany. While the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference made up more than twenty nations, the Big Four entered Versailles and were leading architects of the Treaty of Versailles which was signed by Germany; the Treaty of St. Germain, with Austria; the Treaty of Neuilly, with Bulgaria; the Treaty of Trianon, with Hungary; and the Treaty of Sèvres, with the Ottoman Empire. During the decision-making of the Treaty of Versailles, Orlando temporarily pulled out of the conference because Italian demands were not met, leaving the other three countries as the sole major architects of the talk, referred

neg: Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War that Germany had conducted a defensive war. On 16 June 1919, Georges Clemenceau, the French president, presented an ultimatum to Germany—if it did not accept the peace treaty, war would recommence—and on 28 June 1919 Germany accepted the Versailles Treaty. The immediate need to refute war guilt was replaced by a long-term project agreed by Cabinet on 21 July 1919 to shift attention from war guilt to a debate about European affairs since 1870, helped by Dutch and British papers excerpting from Kautsky on 10 December 1919. This project had three editors: Mendelssohn-Bartoldy, Lepsius, and Thimme (Director and "special advisor";

neg: Hitler family claimed that the German army, "undefeated in the field", had been "stabbed in the back" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the "November criminals". The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans perceived the treaty—especially Article 231, which declared Germany responsible for the war—as a humiliation. The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gains. On 14 March

neg: Causes of World War II In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the spirit of the Locarno Pact and the Stresa Front, Germany re-militarized the Rhineland on March 7, 1936. It moved German troops into the part of western Germany where, according to the Versailles Treaty, they were not allowed. France could not act because of political instability at the time. According to his official Biography, King Edward VIII, who thought the Versailles provision was unjust, ordered the government to stand down. After the Stresa Conference and even as a reaction to the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini attempted to expand the

neg: MG 34 – and high rate of fire (of up to 900 rounds per minute) was unmatched. It entered service in great numbers following Hitler's repudiation of the Versailles Treaty in 1936, and was first combat tested by German troops aiding Franco's Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. Nonetheless, the design proved too complex for mass production, and was supplemented by the cheaper and simpler MG 42, though both remained in service and production until the end of the war. After World War I the German military faced restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty restricted the German "Reichswehr" (Realm

neg: Billy Hughes Treaty of Versailles on behalf of Australia – the first time Australia had signed an international treaty. At Versailles, Hughes claimed: "I speak for 60 000 [Australian] dead". He asked of Woodrow Wilson; "How many do you speak for?" when the United States President failed to acknowledge his demands. Hughes, unlike Wilson or South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts, demanded heavy reparations from Germany, suggesting a staggering sum of £24,000,000,000 of which Australia would claim many millions to off-set its own war debt. Hughes frequently clashed with President Wilson, who described him as a "pestiferous varmint". Hughes demanded that Australia

neg: Aftermath of World War I the Allies; during the war, it had sent thousands of labourers to France. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Chinese delegation called for an end to Western imperialistic institutions in China, but was rebuffed. China requested at least the formal restoration of its territory of Jiaozhou Bay, under German colonial control since 1898. But the western Allies rejected China's request, instead granting transfer to Japan of all of Germany's pre-war territory and rights in China. Subsequently, China did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, instead signing a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921. The Austro-Hungarian and German

neg: Robert Latham Owen Party's nominee, who was decisive in his preference for Franklin Delano Roosevelt as his running mate. The Cox-Roosevelt slate went down to defeat by a landslide. Owen's later views on international affairs did not escape controversy. Though initially a firm supporter of the Treaty of Versailles, including its assertion of German responsibility for the outbreak of World War I, during 1923 his views changed radically under the influence of "revisionist" studies, including the publication of extensive (though incomplete) materials from the diplomatic archives of the pre-War Tsarist Russian Foreign Office. He made a major speech in the Senate on 18

neg: Charles Corbin who told him that Britain wanted to be a friend of France, was opposed to any nation dominating Europe, wanted to avoid another war and that aspects of the international system created by the Treaty of Versailles needed to be revised in the favor of Germany. For his part, Corbin in his usual polite and gentlemanly way made his clear his disagreement with the direction of British foreign policy, favoring an Anglo-French alliance that would uphold the system created by the Treaty of Versailles against efforts of Germany to challenge that system. In December 1937, when Vansittart was "kicked upstairs"

neg: Herbert von Dirksen to Berlin that Norman felt that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh on Germany and he was willing to support Germans efforts to revise Versailles by denying Poland loans. In November 1925, Dirksen lamented that war with Poland was not possible because of the Treaty of Versailles, which had disarmed Germany and because of the Franco-Polish alliance, saying if only Germany was rearmed, then he would be all for launching a war against Poland at once. In a memo to Stresemann on 29 December 1925, Dirksen argued that Germany should annex all of the parts of Poland that had

neg: Windham Wyndham-Quin, 4th Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl war correspondent for the London newspaper "The Daily Telegraph." He covered the Abyssinian War in Africa. In this capacity, he shared a tent with Henry Stanley of "The New York Herald". Dunraven became a special correspondent for a "big London daily" during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. He reported the Siege of Paris, saw the Third Carlist War and war in Turkey, and probably the Russo-Turkish War. Dunraven witnessed both the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, and later the signing of the Treaty of Versailles to end the Great War in 1919.

neg: Armistice of Versailles riots erupted in Paris as the German troops marched out. Armistice of Versailles The Armistice of Versailles that came into effect on 28 January 1871 brought to an end the active phase of the Franco-Prussian War. The signatories were Jules Favre, foreign minister in the provisional Government of National Defence, for the French and Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of the newly established German Empire, for Prussia and her allies. The suspension of hostilities initially lasted until 19 February, when it was extended through 26 February, when a preliminary peace treaty was signed, also at Versailles. The definitive Treaty of Frankfurt

neg: Armistice of Versailles Armistice of Versailles The Armistice of Versailles that came into effect on 28 January 1871 brought to an end the active phase of the Franco-Prussian War. The signatories were Jules Favre, foreign minister in the provisional Government of National Defence, for the French and Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of the newly established German Empire, for Prussia and her allies. The suspension of hostilities initially lasted until 19 February, when it was extended through 26 February, when a preliminary peace treaty was signed, also at Versailles. The definitive Treaty of Frankfurt was signed on 10 May. Although technically an armistice, the

neg: United States non-interventionism labeled the Fourteen Points. While this American proclamation was less triumphalist than the aims of some of its allies, it did propose in the final point, that a "general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike." After the war, Wilson traveled to Europe and stayed for months to labor on the post-war treaty; no president had previously enjoined such sojourn outside of the country. In that Treaty of Versailles, Wilson's "association" was formulated as the League of Nations. In

neg: World War I the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923. After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building

neg: Treaty of Versailles crowd outside the Palace of Versailles. In Paris proper, people rejoiced at the official end of the war, the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations. While France ratified the treaty and was active in the League, the jubilant mood soon gave way to a political backlash for Clemenceau. The French Right saw the treaty as being too lenient and saw it as failing to achieve all of France's demands. Left-wing politicians attacked the treaty and Clemenceau for being too harsh (the latter turning into a ritual condemnation of the treaty, for

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles treaty within seven days or face the resumption of hostilities. The German government was divided on whether to sign or reject the peace treaty. On 19 June, Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann resigned rather than sign the treaty and was followed by Brockdorff-Rantzau and other members of the government, leaving Germany without a cabinet or peace delegation. After being advised by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg that Germany was in no condition to resume the war, President Friedrich Ebert and the new Chancellor, Gustav Bauer, recommended that the Weimar National Assembly ratify the treaty. The Assembly did so by a large majority,

neg: Erich Raeder resignation and later of aggression, a charge arising from his planning of the German invasion of Norway and Denmark, for conspiracy against the peace for his role in preparing Germany for war before 1939, and for war crimes by enforcing the Commando Order. Raeder's lawyer called three witnesses. The first was Carl Severing, the former SDP Prussian Interior Minister who testified that every government in the Weimar Republic had violated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, and the politicians of Weimar were well aware that officers like Raeder were violating Versailles. The second was the diplomat Baron Ernst von Weizsäcker, who

neg: Treaty of Versailles and contributed to a risk of political defeat at home. In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would

neg: Raymond Poincaré Treaty of Versailles. He was disturbed that British Prime Minister David Lloyd George did not share the French viewpoint, instead almost welcoming Rapallo as a chance to bring Soviet Russia into the international system. Poincaré came to believe by May 1922 that if Rapallo could not convince the British that Germany was out to undercut the Versailles system by whatever means necessary, then nothing would, in which case France would just have to act alone. Further adding to Poincaré's fears was the worldwide propaganda campaign started in April 1922 blaming France for World War I as a means of disproving

neg: German-speaking Community of Belgium were annexed by Belgium following Germany's defeat in World War I and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles. Thus they also became known as the ', "redeemed cantons". The peace treaty of Versailles demanded the "questioning" of the local population. People who were unwilling to become Belgians and wanted the region to remain a part of Germany were required to register themselves along with their full name and address with the Belgian military administration, headed by Herman Baltia, and many feared reprisals or even expulsion for doing so. In the mid-1920s, there were secret negotiations between Germany and the kingdom of

neg: Historiography of the causes of World War I to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles such as Sidney Bradshaw Fay, Tyler Barchek, Charles A. Beard and Harry Elmer Barnes produced works that claimed that Germany was not responsible for war. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which had seemingly assigned all responsibility for the war to Germany and thus justified the Allied claim to reparations, was invalid. A feature of American "revisionist" historians of the 1920s was a tendency to treat Germany as a victim of the war and the Allies as the aggressors. The objective of Fay and Barnes was to put an end to

neg: Western Front (World War I) The war along the Western Front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere. As a result, the terms of the peace were dictated by France, Britain and the United States, during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The result was the Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 by a delegation of the new German government. The terms of the treaty constrained Germany as an economic and military power. The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace-Lorraine to France, thus limiting the coal required by German industry. The Saar, which

neg: Raymond Poincaré French Army should have penetrated far deeper into Germany. At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, negotiating the Treaty of Versailles, he wanted France to wrest the Rhineland from Germany to put it under Allied military control. Poincaré wrote a memorandum for the conference, arguing that after the Franco-Prussian War, Germany occupied various French provinces and did not leave until it had received all of the indemnity exacted; whereas for the Great War, France wanted all reparations for damage caused. He further claimed that if the Allies did not occupy the Rhineland, they would at a later date find that

neg: Herbert von Dirksen the Treaty of Versailles by developing weapons that Versailles had forbidden Germany to have such as tanks and aircraft, but he wanted the German-Soviet military co-operation kept within its "proper limits". Since 1926, when the secret German-Soviet co-operation had become public knowledge following an exposé by "The Manchester Guardian", the subject was a contentious one that had strained relations with France, who did not appreciate Germany breaking Versailles to develop forbidden weapons that would one day be used against France. Dirksen wanted the development of weapons in the Soviet Union to be handled by private German companies working for the

neg: Raymond Poincaré governments were united by a common opposition to the international order created by Versailles, and therefore attacking Versailles as founded upon the alleged "Kriegsschuldlüge" ("war guilt lie") was an excellent way of creating doubts about the moral validity of the Versailles treaty among people around the world. The fact that Poincaré happened to be an extremely strong proponent of upholding Versailles, and a conservative anti-communist to boot, was an additional bonus from the German-Soviet viewpoint to attacking him as the alleged author of World War I. Finally during World War I, Vladimir Lenin had called for "revolutionary defeatism"; namely for

neg: Southern Schleswig on 1 February 1864 Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the Eider, sparking off the Second Schleswig War, after which Denmark had to cede Schleswig and Holstein according to the Treaty of Vienna. After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, victorious Prussia took control over all Schleswig and Holstein but was obliged by the Peace of Prague to hold a referendum in predominantly Danish-speaking Northern Schleswig, which it never did. After the German defeat in World War I, the Schleswig Plebiscites were decreed by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, in which the present-day German-Danish border was drawn. The border took effect on

neg: The Big Four (World War I) of France, persuaded the allies to agree to a unified command, and pushed the war vigorously until the final victory. Leading the French delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, Clemenceau insisted on Germany's disarmament and was never satisfied with the Versailles Treaty. He was the main antagonist of Woodrow Wilson, whose ideas he viewed as too idealistic." For nearly the final year of World War I he led France, and was one of the major voices behind the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference in the aftermath of the war. Clemenceau was hoping that there would be more

neg: Maginot Line the "Reich". In 1926, "The Manchester Guardian" ran an exposé showing the "Reichswehr" had been developing military technology forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles in the Soviet Union, and the secret German-Soviet co-operation had started in 1921. The German statement following "The Manchester Guardian"'s article that Germany did not feel bound by the terms of Versailles and would violate them as much as possible gave much offence in France. Nonetheless, in 1927, the Allied Control Commission, which was responsible for ensuring that Germany complied with Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, was abolished as a goodwill gesture reflecting the

neg: Versailles, Yvelines was the "de facto" capital of the Kingdom of France for over a century, from 1682 to 1789, before becoming the cradle of the French Revolution. After having lost its status of royal city, it became the "préfecture" (regional capital) of the Seine-et-Oise département in 1790, then of Yvelines in 1968. It is also a Roman Catholic diocese. Versailles is historically known for numerous treaties such as the Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolution, and the Treaty of Versailles, after World War I. Today, the Congress of France – the name given to the body created when both

neg: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles war, on 4 September 1919, during his public campaign to rally American support for the Treaty of Versailles, Wilson commented that the treaty "seeks to punish one of the greatest wrongs ever done in history, the wrong which Germany sought to do to the world and to civilization, and there ought to be no weak purpose with regard to the application of the punishment. She attempted an intolerable thing, and she must be made to pay for the attempt." Regardless of the rhetoric, the American position was to create a balanced treaty that would appease everyone. Gordon Auchincloss, secretary to

neg: Washington Naval Treaty the treaties while Germany had renounced the Treaty of Versailles (Germany, which was not a party to the Washington Naval Treaty, had already had its navy limited in size by the Treaty of Versailles), making naval arms limitation increasingly difficult for the other signatories. Immediately after World War I, the United Kingdom had the world's largest and most powerful navy, followed by the United States and more distantly by Japan, France and Italy. The High Seas Fleet of defeated Germany had been interned by the British. The allies had differing opinions concerning the final disposition of the German fleet, with

neg: Treaty of Versailles the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris. Many in China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. Wellington Koo refused to sign the treaty and the Chinese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference was the only nation that did not sign the Treaty of Versailles at the signing ceremony. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China like the May 4th movement and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic's government and poisoned relations with the West. There was immense dissatisfaction with Duan Qirui’s government,

neg: Remilitarization of the Rhineland Germany's denunciation in March 1935 of Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, which had disarmed Germany. At the same time, Neurath wanted to provide an opening for the eventual remilitarization of the Rhineland, hence the conditional hedging of the promise to obey Locarno only as long as other powers did. Hitler always took the line (at least in public) that Germany did not consider itself bound by the "Diktat" of Versailles, but that Germany would respect any treaty that it willingly signed such as Locarno, under which Germany had promised to keep the Rhineland demilitarized forever; hence Hitler always

neg: Treaty of Versailles the guise of attempting to quell possible unrest by communists and in doing so violated the demilitarized zone. In response, French troops advanced further into Germany until the German troops withdrew. German officials conspired systematically to evade the clauses of the treaty, by failing to meet disarmament deadlines, refusing Allied officials access to military facilities, and maintaining and hiding weapon production. As the treaty did not ban German companies from producing war material outside of Germany, companies moved to the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Sweden. Bofors was bought by Krupp, and in 1921 German troops were sent to Sweden to test

neg: Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941) and the Treaty of Versailles assigned the modern and up-to-date city of Tsingtao and the Kiautschou Bay region to Japan. Subsequent recognition of this Allied betrayal sparked the nationalistic May Fourth Movement, which is regarded as a significant event in modern Chinese history. As a result, the Beiyang government refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles. World War I dealt a severe blow to Sino-German relations. Long established trade connections had been destroyed, financial structures and markets wrecked; of the almost three hundred German firms conducting business in China in 1913, only two remained in 1919. The Treaty of Versailles

neg: Hermann Dahlmann Loerzer with the adjutant's duties for one of the world's first fighter wings, Jagdgeschwader III. Through Loerzer, Dahlmann would come to better know Göring, who was Loerzer's friend. Dahlmann ended World War I as a decorated fighter ace credited with seven aerial victories. Nevertheless, he did not remain in German military aviation, which had been greatly restricted by the Treaty of Versailles. The decades between the World Wars were spent serving first in police duties, then as a civil servant. By 1 August 1939, when Dahlmann transferred back to aviation by joining the "Luftwaffe", he was the civil service equivalent

neg: Japanese entry into World War I siege as well as later in defeat. After Japanese troops stormed the city, the German dead were buried at Tsingtao and the remaining troops were transported to Japan where they were treated with respect at places like the Bandō Prisoner of War camp. In 1919, when the German Empire formally signed the Treaty of Versailles, all prisoners of war were set free and returned to Europe. Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, which stipulated harsh repercussions for Germany. In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany's islands north of the equator (the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, the Marianas, the

neg: Pierre Marie Laurent Forgues that hangs in the Gallerie des Batailles in Versailles. Forgues was with General Dessolles throughout the campaign until the Treaty of Lunéville, signed on 20th Pluviose, year 9 (9 February 1801) ended the conflict. General Dessolles was named a "Conseiller d'Etat" attached to the War Office and later appointed to the Administrative Council of the War Office. His ADC, Forgues did not accompany him to Paris, but remained with the Army of the Rhine, serving with General Mortier who was ordered to occupy Hanover, as stipulated by the Convention of Sulingen, signed on 3 June 1803. Forgues played an active