query: what caused the collapse of the roman republic

pos: Crisis of the Roman Republic Crisis of the Roman Republic The crisis of the Roman Republic refers to an extended period of political instability and social unrest that culminated in the demise of the Roman Republic and the advent of the Roman Empire, from about 134 BC to 44 BC. The exact dates of the Crisis are unclear because "Rome teetered between normality and crisis" for many decades. Likewise, the causes and attributes of the crisis changed throughout the decades, including the forms of slavery, brigandage, wars internal and external, land reform, the invention of excruciating new punishments, the expansion of Roman citizenship, and even

pos: History of Medieval Cumbria hospitable climate" up to the end of the 6th century. At the end of the 6th century, however, the pollen records show quite a dramatic decline in human activity in some areas - factors accounting for this may include the after-effects of a visitation of the plague c. 547. The collapse of Roman control had caused famine in the North; this led to "brigandage and the collapse of food production". As a consequence, there was an increased pool of people who became slaves. Cumbria is likely to have become an international exporter of slaves, helping to pay for the exotic

neg: Karl Dietrich Bracher frühen römischen Kaiserzeit" which concerned the downfall of the Roman Republic and the rise of Augustus. His 1955 book "Die Auflösung der Weimarer Republik" ("The Disintegration of the Weimar Republic") is his best known book, in which he ascribed the collapse of German democracy not to the "Sonderweg" ("special path" of German historical development) or other impersonal forces but to human action that followed conscious choice. In that book, Bracher rejected not only the "Sonderweg" thesis, but also the Marxist theory of National Socialism as the result of a capitalist "conspiracy", the theory that the Treaty of Versailles caused the

neg: Roman economy paid off immediately, and began confiscating property from the wealthy land-owners. By restricting loans for land purchasing, and the demand to pay loans in full, debtors were forced to sell off their property and real estate, which drastically dropped real estate and land prices. Paired with Tiberius' credit restriction policies and the Senate naively demanding that people continue to invest in land despite what was going on, massive deflation occurred which ultimately cause the market to collapse. Roman economy During the Roman Republic, the Roman economy was largely agrarian, centered on the trading of commodities such as grain and wine.

neg: Hellenistic period because it posed no threat); and left the Ptolemaic kingdom to decline quietly, while acting as a protector of sorts, in as much as to stop other powers taking Egypt over (including the famous line-in-the-sand incident when the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to invade Egypt). Eventually, instability in the near east resulting from the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Seleucid Empire caused the Roman proconsul Pompey the Great to abolish the Seleucid rump state, absorbing much of Syria into the Roman Republic. Famously, the end of Ptolemaic Egypt came as the final act in the republican

neg: Macedonia (region) cities against what was termed a "betrayal" by Greece's allies. Papandreou supported and encouraged the demonstrations, boosting his own popularity by taking the "hard line" against the Republic of Macedonia. In February 1994, he imposed a total trade embargo on the country, with the exception of food, medicines and humanitarian aid. The effect on the Republic of Macedonia's economy was limited, mainly because the real damage to its economy had been caused by the collapse of Yugoslavia and the loss of central European markets due to the war. Also, many Greeks broke the trade embargo by entering through Bulgaria. However,

neg: Gaius Marius citizens, was a pivotal step leading in short order to the collapse of the Republic. Marius set the precedent of recruiting among the poor and then granting these veterans land upon the conclusion of the campaign. Thus the legions became more loyal to their generals than to the state. The loyalty of such legions is what allowed Marius himself, Sulla, and about 40 years later Marius' nephew Julius Caesar to march on Rome itself. The struggle between Marius and Sulla led to the deaths of numerous distinguished Roman senators, equestrians and unknown thousands of Roman soldiers and citizens. It set

neg: Deforestation during the Roman period loss of timber had denuded the hills and plains surrounding Athens and caused massive soil erosion." Cicero also noted "we (humans) are the masters of what the earth produces," and "all things in this world which men employ have been created and provided for the sake of men." Tainter argued that "deforestation did not cause the Roman collapse," but that one could make a case as to being a part of it. As Williams wrote, it is more likely that constant war, ravaging epidemics, rebellion, invasion from outside, a declining population, and an excessive degree of urbanization, separately or in

neg: Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis from the tribunes of the people. The passing of the "lex Gabinia", followed by the "lex Manilia", proved that Sulla's intended new constitution, designed to stop any one man from gaining immense power, was not working, and was thus a milestone in the collapse of the Roman Republic. Before the law, commands were assigned over individual provinces. Unlike those assignments, this law took the unprecedented act of granting command over what was almost the entire empire to one man. During the Roman Empire, the law served as precedent for Augustus' receipt of greater proconsular authority over the entire empire in

neg: Embouchure collapse brass players can suffer embouchure collapse, and the subjective (not static) nature of mouthpiece pressure, knowledge of mouthpiece pressure as a cause of embouchure collapse is limited. Embouchure collapse caused by focal dystonia can be diagnosed medically; embouchure collapse caused by embouchure overuse, however, is generally speaking not considered to be a specifically medical issue. A difficulty in diagnosis is that when a brass player describes the symptoms to a doctor or dentist (as is often the case), the medical practitioner does not fully understand what the patient means. This is because brass players learn their embouchure by "feel," and

neg: Perugia Sangallo the Younger ""ad coercendam Perusinorum audaciam"." In 1797, the city was conquered by French troops. On 4 February 1798, the "Tiberina Republic" was formed, with Perugia as capital, and the French tricolour as flag. In 1799, the Tiberina Republic merged to the Roman Republic. In 1832, 1838 and 1854, Perugia was hit by earthquakes. Following the collapse of the Roman republic of 1848–49, when the Rocca was in part demolished, it was seized in May 1849 by the Austrians. In June 1859 the inhabitants rebelled against the temporal authority of the Pope and established a provisional government, but the

neg: Constitution of the Roman Republic along with an obstructionist central government, meant a huge number of malcontent soldiers willing to take up arms against the state. Adding in the institutionalisation of violence as a means to obstruct or force political change (e.g. the deaths of the Gracchi and Sulla's dictatorship, respectively), the Republic was caught in an ever more violent and anarchic struggle between the Senate, assemblies at Rome, and the promagistrates. It would only be resolved by civil war, a war which the promagistrate governors and their troops would win, and in doing so, collapse the Republic. Constitution of the Roman Republic The constitution

neg: History of the East–West Schism part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, until 751. Thus, the political unity of what had been the Roman Empire fell. In the West, the collapse of civil government left the Church practically in charge in many areas, and bishops took to administering secular cities and domains. In other areas, Christianity became mostly subject to the laws and customs of nations that owed no allegiance to the emperor. These Germanic peoples, particularly the Franks, influenced and changed the Latin Church. Many other factors caused the East and West to drift further apart. The dominant language of the West was Latin, whilst

neg: Maximinus Thrax Alexander. They planned to elevate Quartinus, but their leader Macedo changed sides and murdered Quartinus instead, although this was not enough to save his own life. The accession of Maximinus is commonly seen as the beginning of the "Crisis of the Third Century" (also known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis"), the commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by three simultaneous crises: external invasion, internal civil war, and economic collapse. Maximinus' first campaign was against the Alemanni, whom he defeated despite heavy Roman casualties in a

neg: Direct democracy boulê, and law courts controlled the entire political process, and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. Modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system. Also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome, specifically the Roman Republic, beginning around 509 BC. Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire. Indeed, the Senate, formed in the first days of the city, lasted through the Kingdom, Republic, and Empire,

neg: Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic quickly. That increased monetary velocity and caused an ever-faster increase in prices, creating a vicious cycle. The government and the banks had two unacceptable alternatives. If they stopped inflation, there would be immediate bankruptcies, unemployment, strikes, hunger, violence, collapse of civil order, insurrection and possibly even revolution. If they continued the inflation, they would default on their foreign debt. However, attempting to avoid both unemployment and insolvency ultimately failed when Germany had both. Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic Hyperinflation affected the German Papiermark, the currency of the Weimar Republic, between 1921 and 1923. It caused considerable internal political instability in

neg: Marriage in ancient Rome Following the collapse of the Republic, laws pertaining to marriage, parenting, and adultery were part of Augustus' program to restore the "mos maiorum" (traditional social norms), while consolidating his power as princeps and "paterfamilias" of the Roman state. Marriage and remarriage had become less frequent; and the citizen birth-rate had fallen, particularly among the wealthier, more leisured classes. Augustan law pertaining to marriage and family life encouraged marriage and having children, and punished adultery as a crime. The new legislation formalised and enforced what had been considered a traditional, moral duty to family and the State; all men between 25

neg: History of local government in Scotland of stewards ("maer" in Gaelic), hence the powerful governors were "great stewards" ("mormaer" in Gaelic). Northumbrian pressure caused Rheged to collapse, establishing Galloway as an independent state. Strathclyde took the opportunity created by Rheged's collapse to expand towards the south east, into what is now northern Cumbria. Records are unclear, but it seems that Scotii raids lead to Galloway submitting to the authority of Alba, and the transfer of Carrick from Strathclyde to Galloway. Danish invasions caused the power of Northumbria to collapse, and ultimately its lands to become parts of a unified England. Meanwhile, Norse invasions of the islands

neg: 2008 Shanxi mudslide the collapse. 2008 Shanxi mudslide The 2008 Shanxi mudslide was caused by the collapse of an unlicensed mine landfill in Xiangfen county, Linfen, Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China which caused 277 dead, 4 missing and 33 injured. Around 8:00 a.m. on September 8, 2008, the retaining wall of a waste iron ore reservoir collapsed after torrential rain, causing a major mudslide which inundated a village and crowded marketplace. The unlicensed Tashan Mine was operated by the Tashan Mining Company. The ore reservoir was built in the 1980s, halfway up a mountain, about 50 meters above an office building, marketplace

neg: Roman law Roman constitution. The constitution of the Roman Republic was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, and was constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic. Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution was progressively eroding. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator Cicero, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the republic. When the Roman Republic ultimately fell in the years following the Battle of Actium and Mark Antony's suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first Roman

neg: History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel revolt, but eventually gave their support to the Maccabees. The Jews prevailed with the expulsion of the Syrians and the establishment of an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean dynasty. The Maccabean Revolt led to a twenty-five-year period of Jewish independence due to the steady collapse of the Seleucid Empire under attacks from the rising powers of the Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire. The Hasmonean dynasty of priest-kings ruled Judea with the Pharisees, Saducees and Essenes as the principal social movements. As part of their struggle against Hellenistic civilization, the Pharisees established what may have been the world's first

neg: Ancient Rome Ancient Rome In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire until the fall of the western empire. The civilization began as an Italic settlement in the Italian peninsula, dating from the 8th century BC, that grew into the city of Rome and which subsequently gave its name to the empire over which it ruled and to the widespread civilisation the empire developed. The Roman empire expanded

neg: Western Roman Empire to as "barbarian kingdoms" founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and

neg: Crimean People's Republic Crimean People's Republic The Crimean People's Republic () () existed from December 1917 to January 1918 in the Crimean Peninsula, a territory currently disputed between the Russian Federation and Ukraine. In its founding, the Crimean People's Republic was one of many short-lived attempts to create new states after the Russian Revolution of 1917 had caused the Russian Empire to collapse. The Crimean People's Republic was declared by the initiative of the Qurultay of Crimean Tatars, which stipulated the equality of all ethnicities within the peninsula; the largest proportion of people living in the Crimea at the time were Russian (then

neg: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire other barbarians. Another theory is that gradual environmental degradation caused population and economic decline. Deforestation and excessive grazing led to erosion of meadows and cropland. Increased irrigation without suitable drainage caused salinization, especially in North Africa. These human activities resulted in fertile land becoming nonproductive and eventually increased desertification in some regions. Many animal species become extinct. The recent research of Tainter stated that "deforestation did not cause the Roman collapse", although it could be a minor contributing factor. Also, high taxes and heavy slavery are another reason for decline as they forced small farmers out of business and into

neg: Roman Republic as in public, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar" making him the first Roman Emperor. The constitutional history of the Roman Republic began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509, and ended with constitutional reforms that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27. The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a constantly-evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated. Throughout the history of the Republic, changes in the constitution were driven by conflicts of interest between the aristocracy and

neg: Roman–Volscian wars Mater might also have been invented. But despite these later embellishments there are no fundamental reasons why Antium should not have fought against Rome in 341. The Volsci joined the Latins in their final bid to shake off Roman dominion, the Latin War, 340 - 338, but Rome was once again victorious and the Volscian cities were incorporated into the Roman Republic with varying degrees of political rights. Roman reversals in the Samnite Wars caused some unrest among the Volsci but had no lasting impact. Roman–Volscian wars The Roman–Volscian wars were a series of wars fought between the Roman Republic

neg: Helvetic Republic Republic. Instability in the Republic reached its peak in 1802–1803, which included the ' uprising and the ' civil war of 1802. By then, it was 12 million francs in debt having started with a treasury of 6 million francs. This together with local resistance caused the Helvetic Republic to collapse, and its government took refuge in Lausanne. At that time, Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul of France, summoned representatives of both sides to Paris in order to negotiate a solution. Although the Federalist representatives formed a minority at the conciliation conference, known as the "Helvetic Consulta", Bonaparte characterised Switzerland

neg: Roman assemblies between the senate, the legislative branch, and the executive branch. This led to the collapse of the republic, and the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BC. Under the empire, the powers that had been held by the assemblies were transferred to the senate. While the assemblies eventually lost their last semblance of political power, citizens continued to gather into them for organizational purposes. Eventually, however, the assemblies were ultimately abandoned. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. While one assembly, the Curiate Assembly, had some legislative powers, these powers involved

neg: Civic virtue their government's. In a republic, by contrast, people must be "persuaded" to submit their own interests to the government, and this voluntary submission constituted the 18th century's notion of civic virtue. In the absence of such persuasion, the authority of the government would collapse, and tyranny or anarchy were imminent. Authority for this ideal was found once more among the classical, and especially the Roman, political authors and historians. But since the Roman writers wrote during a time when the Roman republican ideal was fading away, its forms but not its spirit or substance being preserved in the Roman Empire,

neg: Roman Republic of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city. Sulla's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic, and caused the founding of the Roman Empire. Several years later, in 88, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was not defeated and won. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected

neg: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain usefulness and prestige due to the collapse of the Roman economy and administration. All linguistic evidence from Roman Britain suggests that most inhabitants spoke British Celtic and/or British Latin. However, by the eighth century, when extensive evidence for the post-Roman language situation is next available, it is clear that the dominant language in what is now eastern and southern England was Old English, whose West Germanic predecessors were spoken in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany. Old English then continued spreading westwards and northwards in the ensuing centuries. This development is strikingly different from, for example, post-Roman Gaul,

neg: Hoxne Hoard chain, have vacant places presumed to be where pearls were set, and show elemental sulphur as adhesive or filler. The Hoxne Hoard was buried during a period of great upheaval in Britain, marked by the collapse of Roman authority in the province, the departure of the majority of the Roman army, and the first of a wave of attacks by the Anglo-Saxons. Attacks on Italy by the Visigoths around the turn of the fifth century caused the general Stilicho to recall Roman army units from Rhaetia, Gaul, and Britannia. While Stilicho held off the Visigoth attack, the Western provinces were

neg: Houston Stewart Chamberlain become too tolerant of Semites like the Jews, and this was the cause of the downfall of the Roman empire. Chamberlain argued that it was due to miscegenation that the Jews had caused the Aryan Roman Empire to go into decline and collapse. Chamberlain wrote that the "African half breed soldier emperor" Caracalla had granted Roman citizenship to all the subjects in the Empire regardless of race or religion in 212 AD, and as result of this, the Romans had freely mixed with Semitic and African peoples, leading Chamberlain to conclude: "Like a cataract the alien blood poured down into

neg: Colonization as Roman colonies, such as Cologne, Germany, originally called "Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium" by the Romans, and the British capital city of London, which the Romans founded as "Londinium". The decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw (and was partly caused by) the large-scale movement of people in Eastern Europe and Asia. This is largely seen as beginning with nomadic horsemen from Asia (specifically the Huns) moving into the richer pasture land to the west, thus forcing the local peoples there to move further west and so on until eventually the Goths were forced to cross into the Roman

neg: Roman infantry tactics earlier skirmishing. Nevertheless, an advance by its left wing drove back the Romans, who counterattacked on the right flank and made some progress against a somewhat disorganized Macedonian left. However the issue was still in doubt, until an unknown tribune (officer) detached 20 maniples from the Roman line and made an encircling attack against the Macedonian rear. This caused the enemy phalanx to collapse, securing a rout for the Romans. The more flexible, streamlined legionary organization had exploited the weaknesses of the densely packed phalanx. Such triumphs secured Roman hegemony in Greece and adjoining lands. At Pydna the contenders deployed

neg: Caecilia Paulina at least in her time married to the Emperor. She lived during the Crisis of the Third Century, a time of the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire, caused by three simultaneous crises: external invasion, internal civil war, and economic collapse. While the 4th century historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote about Paulina in his book on the Gordian emperors, this part of his work was lost, only the sections of his "History" covering the period 353–378 are extant. In a later passage, however, Marcellinus refers to the Empress as the good wife of the difficult husband who had: Paulina

neg: Roman economy the veterans' pension fund "(aerarium militare)". Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire. With the conclusion of the Third Mithridatic War in 63 BC, the Roman Republic now incorporated the Kingdom of Pontus, Cilicia, most of Syria, and the island of Crete into its growing dominion, as well as turning

neg: Ancient Rome and "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum", all by Theodor Mommsen, became very important milestones. Later the work "Greatness and Decline of Rome" by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The Russian work "Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи" ("The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire") by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic. Ancient Rome In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in

neg: Christianisation of Scotland schools and providing a small educated elite, who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society. Christianisation of Scotland The Christianisation of Scotland was the process by which Christianity spread in what is now Scotland, which took place principally between the fifth and tenth centuries. Christianity was probably introduced to what is now Lowland Scotland by Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia. After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century, Christianity is presumed to have survived among the British enclaves in the south of what is now Scotland,

neg: Praefectus urbi Praefectus urbi The praefectus urbanus, also called praefectus urbi or urban prefect in English, was prefect of the city of Rome, and later also of Constantinople. The office originated under the Roman kings, continued during the Republic and Empire, and held high importance in late Antiquity. The office survived the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, and the last urban prefect of Rome, named Iohannes, is attested in 599. In the East, in Constantinople, the office survived until the 13th century. According to Roman tradition, in 753 BC when Romulus founded the city of Rome and instituted the monarchy, he

neg: Heinz Rutha "chaos of a gigantic collapse". In late October 1918, the Italians started a new offensive which caused the collapse of the Imperial Austrian and Royal Hungarian Army, which simply disintegrated with men abandoning their posts to head home. In 1919, Rutha returned home to the Sudetenland, which together with the rest of the Austrian crownland of Bohemia was now part of the new republic of Czechoslovakia, a state that Rutha was very hostile to. Active in the "Wandervogel", Rutha came to envision his own ideas of a """," influenced in part by the rise of national self-awareness on the part

neg: Roman Republic beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the 2nd century, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population, partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it did not have to do in the past. The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur,

neg: Polish Corridor independent Polish republic was declared in Western Galicia on 3 November 1918, the same day Austria signed the armistice. The collapse of Imperial Germany's Western Front, and the subsequent withdrawal of her remaining occupation forces after the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November allowed the republic led by Roman Dmowski and Józef Piłsudski to seize control over the former Congress Polish areas. Also in November, the revolution in Germany forced the Kaiser's abdication and gave way to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. Starting in December, the Polish-Ukrainian War expanded the Polish republic's territory to include Volhynia and parts of

neg: French Third Republic ("La France libre") and Philippe Pétain's Vichy France ("L'État français"). Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least"; however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution. On the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. In spite of France's sharply divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for seventy years, which as of 2018 makes it the longest lasting system of government in France since the collapse of

neg: Prorogatio extended. Sometimes men who held no elected public office — that is, private citizens ("privati") — were given "imperium" and prorogued, as justified by perceived military emergencies. By the Late Republic, prorogation of provincial assignments had become the norm; by enabling individuals to accumulate disproportionate military power and wealth, the practice contributed to the breakdown of constitutional checks and balances and to the civil wars that led to the collapse of the Republic. In his study of the praetorship in the Republic, T. Corey Brennan has argued that originally prorogation was of two types, granted either by the Roman People

neg: Sulla's first civil war Italy. Subjects of the Roman Republic, these Italian provincials might be called to arms in its defence or might be subjected to extraordinary taxes, but they had no say in the expenditure of these taxes or in the uses of the armies that might be raised in their territories. The Social War was, in part, caused by the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger. His reforms were intended to grant to the Roman allies in Italy full Roman citizenship, which would have given the provincials a say in the external and internal policies of the Roman Republic. When Drusus

neg: Treaty of Versailles (1871) Napoleon of the French Second Empire, at the Battle of Sedan. This caused the collapse of Louis Napoleon's empire, which was replaced by the French Republic of National Defense (subsequently renamed the Third Republic) in 1870. The Government of National Defense served as an interim governing body before the Third Republic could hold elections, and received unfavorable responses from Parisians as it was unable to break the siege. Statesmen evacuated to establish offices in Bordeaux and Tours, which left French government officials unable to communicate, further upsetting the structure of the state and weakening the government. While the French government

neg: Switzerland in the Napoleonic era Gallen in early October. Suvorov was forced to lead his men over the Alps to the Vorarlberg, resulting in additional losses. Instability in the Republic reached its peak in 1802–03—including the "Stecklikrieg" civil war of 1802. Together with local resistance, financial problems caused the Helvetic Republic to collapse, and its government took refuge in Lausanne. Due to the instability of the situation, the Helvetic Republic had over 6 constitutions in a period of 4 years. At that time Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul of France, summoned representatives of both sides to Paris in order to negotiate a solution. Although the

neg: Jewish–Ukrainian relations in Eastern Galicia hardship caused antagonism between the two communities and was a cause for Jewish emigration from Galicia. To an extent, increasing Ukrainian nationalism also contributed to greater self-awareness among the Jews of Galicia and served as an example for Jews adopting a nationalist or Zionist self-identification. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in November 1918, eastern Galicia came under the control of the West Ukrainian People's Republic, which controlled much of eastern Galicia for approximately nine months before losing its war against Poland. Although relations between Poles and the West Ukrainian People's Republic were antagonistic, those between the Republic and its Jewish

neg: Christianity in Medieval Scotland the population of what is now Scotland probably practised a form of Celtic polytheism. Evidence of Christian symbols and the destruction of the shrines of other religions, suggest that Roman occupation brought Christianity to the north of Britannia (the name they gave to the province under their control in the southern part of the island). From there it may have spread to parts of what they called Caledonia (roughly corresponding to what is now Scotland). After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century, four major circles of influence emerged in Northern Britain. In the east were the

neg: Christianisation of Scotland Christianisation of Scotland The Christianisation of Scotland was the process by which Christianity spread in what is now Scotland, which took place principally between the fifth and tenth centuries. Christianity was probably introduced to what is now Lowland Scotland by Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia. After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century, Christianity is presumed to have survived among the British enclaves in the south of what is now Scotland, but retreated as the pagan Anglo-Saxons advanced. Traditional narratives depict Scotland as largely converted by Irish missions associated with figures

neg: Roman Empire and games ("ludi)". Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. As the first Roman emperor, Augustus justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the "Genius", the divine tutelary of every individual.

neg: Two-front war One of the earliest examples of a two-front war occurred in the third century BC, when the Roman Republic fought the First Macedonian War contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage. Also, after the consolidation of the Roman Empire's frontier in the reign of Augustus, the Roman forces had to contend with multiple enemies in its frontiers: in the Rhine, Danube and Mesopotamia, with various examples of emperors (such as Septimius Severus and Aurelian) who marched their armies from one side of the empire to another to face them. In the later period, after the collapse of the Western

neg: Religion in ancient Rome at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt. In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the well-being of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration

neg: History of assassination stabbed him to death. When he was dying, Caesar is said to (in a play by Shakesphere) have looked at Brutus and say "Et tu, Brute?", or "And you, Brutus?". However, there is no record as to whether or not Caesar actually said these things. Soon after this, the Second Triumvirate was formed, ending in the collapse of the Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire by Augustus Caesar. Another Roman assassination was that of Caligula, the great-grandson of Augustus Caesar. He was overthrown by the military, had his head cut off, and was soon replaced by Claudius.

neg: Final War of the Roman Republic was named Augustus by the Senate and given unprecedented powers. Octavian, now Augustus, transformed the Republic into the Roman Empire, ruling it as the first Roman emperor. In the ensuing months and years, Augustus passed a series of laws that, while outwardly preserving the appearance of the Republic, made his position within it of paramount power and authority. He laid the foundations for what is now called the Roman Empire. From then on, the Roman state would be ruled by a Princeps (first citizen); in modern terms, Rome would from now on be ruled by Emperors. The Senate ostensibly still

neg: Roman–Parthian Wars Roman–Parthian Wars The Roman–Parthian Wars (66 BC – 217 AD) were a series of conflicts between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was the first series of conflicts in what would be 719 years of Roman–Persian Wars. Early incursions by the Roman Republic against Parthia were repulsed, notably at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BC). During the Roman Liberators' civil war of the 1st Century BC, the Parthians actively supported Brutus and Cassius, invading Syria, and gaining territories in the Levant. However, the conclusion of the second Roman civil war brought a revival of Roman

neg: Yemen Arab Republic Yemen Arab Republic The Yemen Arab Republic (YAR; '), also known as North Yemen or Yemen (Sana'a)"', was a country from 1962 to 1990 in the western part of what is now Yemen. Its capital was at Sana'a. It united with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (commonly known as South Yemen), on May 22, 1990, to form the current Republic of Yemen. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 after the Great War, northern Yemen became an independent state as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. On 27 September 1962, revolutionaries inspired by the Arab nationalist ideology of

neg: Yemen Arab Republic final merger. Yemen Arab Republic The Yemen Arab Republic (YAR; '), also known as North Yemen or Yemen (Sana'a)"', was a country from 1962 to 1990 in the western part of what is now Yemen. Its capital was at Sana'a. It united with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (commonly known as South Yemen), on May 22, 1990, to form the current Republic of Yemen. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 after the Great War, northern Yemen became an independent state as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. On 27 September 1962, revolutionaries inspired by the Arab nationalist

neg: Albona Republic by themselves with the support of a part of farmers. On April 8, 1921, Italian administration in Istria decided to suppress the republic using the military force, and eventually succeeded after suppressing the strong resistance of the miners. The Albona Republic also existed as part of the Roman Empire. As a Republic, Albona had two government officials nominated in Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire. Albona Republic The Albona Republic () was a short-lived self-governing republic that was proclaimed by miners from Istrian city of Albona on March 2, 1921 during a mining strike. It was created in what

neg: Roman–Parthian Wars and now lost. Their nationalistic zeal made them much more aggressive foes of the Romans than the Parthians ever were. For more information, see Byzantine-Sassanid Wars. </div> Roman–Parthian Wars The Roman–Parthian Wars (66 BC – 217 AD) were a series of conflicts between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was the first series of conflicts in what would be 719 years of Roman–Persian Wars. Early incursions by the Roman Republic against Parthia were repulsed, notably at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BC). During the Roman Liberators' civil war of the 1st Century BC, the Parthians

neg: Military establishment of the Roman Republic service abroad. On the other, it increased the stature of the generals and encouraged competition between them, which is what made the civil wars possible, and it is why scholars often cite the Marian Reforms as the beginning of the end for the Roman Republic. The subsequent emperors ruthlessly eliminated powerful men and potential successors. Marian reforms Military establishment of the Roman Republic As the Roman kingdom successfully overcame opposition from the Italic hill tribes, and became a larger state, the age of tyranny in the eastern Mediterranean began to subside. Inspired by the idea of new constitutions arising there,

neg: Hurricane Beryl remnants. The enhanced rainfall also triggered flash flooding that closed several roadways and downed several trees. A landslide was reported in the town of Naranjito, although there were no reports of fatalities or injuries. Heavy rainfall caused by the remnants of Beryl flooded hundreds of homes in the Dominican Republic and left 130,000 people and the capital city of Santo Domingo without power. In San Cristóbal Province, 700 homes and a recently opened hospital were flooded, and strong winds and heavy rains caused the walls of two schools to collapse. Countrywide, the floods left 8,000 people homeless and thousands more

neg: Plague of Cyprian of Cyprian better match a viral disease causing a hemorrhagic fever, such as ebola, rather than smallpox. (Conversely, Harper believes that the Antonine Plague was caused by smallpox.) According to historian Kyle Harper, the period of the plague nearly saw the end of the Roman Empire. He states that between AD 248 and 268, ".. the history of Roman is a confusing tangle of violent failures. The structural integrity of the imperial machine burst apart. The frontier system crumbled. The collapse of legitimacy invited one usurper after another to try for the throne. The empire fragmented and only the dramatic

neg: Anagni heat of Rome, the most notable ones being Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Commodus, and Caracalla. By the end of the Roman Empire, a deep political and economic crisis caused the demographic collapse of Anagni's population. The suburban zones, which during the Roman Age had grown along the most important roads of the area, were depopulated; the lower parts of the city were abandoned; vegetation gradually took possession of several spaces, substantiated by the fact that, in the 10th century, an inner zone of Anagni was marked by the place-name "Civitas Vetus" (Old Town). Anagni has been a diocese, the seat

neg: Mount Vesuvius Mount Vesuvius Mount Vesuvius (; ; ; ; also ' or ' in some Roman sources) is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes which form the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure. Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman

neg: Seven seals when the Romans finally invaded. According to Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (c. 1704), this was "Divine vengeance" that first fell upon the Jews for having the Messiah crucified, then subsequently upon the persecuting Roman Empire. First, however, vengeance was deferred until a number elect, from the Jewish people, was accomplished. Bossuet viewed the "great Catastrophe of the Apocalypse" as the conquest of Pagan Rome by Alaric I. Historicist viewPolitical upheaval and collapse of the Roman Empire brought about invasions of northern hordes of Goths and Vandals between 375 and 418. Futurist viewThe sixth seal will be the literal cosmic disturbances caused by

neg: Veleda did the one at Castra Vetera (near modern Xanten in Niederrhein, Germany). The commander of the Roman garrison, Munius Lupercus, was sent to Veleda, though he was killed en route, evidently in an ambush. Later, when the praetorian trireme was captured, it was rowed upriver on the Lippe as a gift to Veleda. A strong show of force by nine Roman legions under Gaius Licinius Mucianus caused the rebellion to collapse. Civilis was cornered on his home island of Batavia on the lower Rhine by a force commanded by Quintus Petillius Cerialis; his fate is unknown, but in general Cerialis

neg: Middle Eastern empires the Romans and the Parthians met in the middle. At the Battle of Carrhae, in the year 53 BCE, the outnumbered Parthians won a decisive victory, and the Roman general Crassus was killed. In 116 CE, the Roman emperor Trajan invaded the Parthian empire and conquered all the way to Babylon. The Parthians were in disarray at this time, due to civil wars, and unable to offer much resistance. But in 117, just a year later, Trajan's successor Hadrian gave up most of the land that Trajan had conquered. However, eventually these internal weaknesses caused the Parthian Empire to collapse

neg: Pieter de Groot XIV had made a whirlwind advance into Dutch territory, and captured the important city of Utrecht. It was felt that the defense of the Republic was about to collapse, and that the only way to avoid an unconditional surrender was to offer Louis the Generality Lands and a large war indemnity. De Groot was sent to Louis' headquarters at Utrecht with this offer on June 26, 1672. However, Louis demanded additional concessions, like the cession of the Nijmegen Quarter of the province of Gelderland, and public toleration of Catholic worship throughout the Republic. The news of these negotiations caused a

neg: Quibéron mutinies officers, the first of them Morard de Galles, were actually dedicated to the Republic and its egalitarian principles – all the more, in fact, since they hoped that the advent of the Republic would fill the authority void caused by the collapse of the monarchy. Others, such as Kerguelen or Lemarant-Boissauveur, had suffered humiliations from the naval establishment of the Ancien Régime, doubling the republican loyalty of their political convictions with personal resentment against the old order. Rear-admiral Landais would carry revolutionary fervour and suspicion to the point of denouncing Lelarge and Morard de Galles as suspect, and be considered

neg: John Milton I Consider How My Light is Spent", titled by a later editor, Bishop John Newton, ""On His Blindness"". Cromwell's death in 1658 caused the English Republic to collapse into feuding military and political factions. Milton, however, stubbornly clung to the beliefs that had originally inspired him to write for the Commonwealth. In 1659, he published "A Treatise of Civil Power", attacking the concept of a state-dominated church (the position known as Erastianism), as well as "Considerations touching the likeliest means to remove hirelings", denouncing corrupt practises in church governance. As the Republic disintegrated, Milton wrote several proposals to retain a

neg: The Collapse of the Third Republic new constitution. Its ratification, in October 1946, paved the way for the French Fourth Republic. The Collapse of the Third Republic The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940 by William L. Shirer (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1969) deals with the collapse of the French Third Republic as a result of Hitler's invasion during World War II. As a CBS correspondent in Germany during the climactic event under discussion, and as a frequent visitor to and correspondent from France during the prewar years, Shirer was left to question how Germany had overrun

neg: Battle of Carrhae golden "aquilae" (legionary battle standards) by the Parthians was considered a grave moral defeat and evil omen for the Romans. At the time of his assassination, Caesar was planning a retaliatory war. It was said that there would have been harsh retribution if Caesar won, because the surviving son of Crassus would be among the Roman forces. However, the fall of the Roman Republic intervened, and the beginning of imperial monarchy at Rome followed. Sulla's first march on Rome in 88 BC had begun the collapse of the republican form of government, but the death of Crassus and the loss

neg: Gersau Gersau, allowing a free municipality without being mortgaged to some other power. In Basel, in 1433, Gersau received original confirmation of the ancient freedoms, rights and privileges from Emperor Sigismund, thus becoming a "Reichsunmittelbar" municipality under the direct protection of the Holy Roman Emperor, with its own courts, covering an area of . During the French Revolutionary Wars Gersau was annexed into the Helvetic Republic, becoming a district of the canton of Waldstätten. After the Act of Mediation and the collapse of the Helvetic Republic, Gersau became a district of the canton of Schwyz until 1814, when it regained its

neg: Mos maiorum consensus into the late Republic, as noted in the rhetoric of Cicero. The "auctoritas maiorum" ("ancestral authority") could be evoked to validate social developments in the name of tradition. Following the collapse of the Roman Republic after the death of Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar disguised his radical program as piety toward the "mos maiorum". During the transition to the Christian Empire, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus argued that Rome's continued prosperity and stability depended on preserving the "mos maiorum", and the early Christian poet Prudentius dismissed the blind adherence to tradition as "the superstition of old grandpas" "(superstitio veterum avorum)" and inferior

neg: Gerard Brantsen (1785) with Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II which maintained the continued closure of the Scheldt, in exchange for certain concessions from the Republic. In 1787 he was recalled, but remained as a private citizen in France until 1792 ("Rue Neuve des Mathurins"). In 1794 he acted ( together with Ocker Repelaer van Driel) as envoy to the French Republic to attempt to conclude a separate peace in the War of the First Coalition between the Dutch and French Republics, but the collapse of the Dutch defense prevented this from coming to fruition.. After the Batavian Revolution of 1795 he remained

neg: The Roman Revolution The Roman Revolution The Roman Revolution (1939) is a scholarly study of the final years of the ancient Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire by Caesar Augustus. The book was the work of Sir Ronald Syme (1903–1989), a noted Tacitean scholar, and was published by the Oxford University Press. It was immediately controversial. Its main conclusion was that the structure of the Republic and its Senate were inadequate to the needs of Roman rule, and that Augustus was merely doing what was necessary to restore order in public life. This was a situation and reasoning uncomfortably reminiscent

neg: Christianity in Medieval Scotland Christianity in Medieval Scotland Christianity in Medieval Scotland includes all aspects of Christianity in the modern borders of Scotland in the Middle Ages. Christianity was probably introduced to what is now Lowland Scotland by Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia. After the collapse of Roman authority in the fifth century, Christianity is presumed to have survived among the British enclaves in the south of what is now Scotland, but retreated as the pagan Anglo-Saxons advanced. Scotland was largely converted by Irish missions associated with figures such as St Columba, from the fifth to the seventh

neg: History of Israel have converted to Christianity. Jewish seminaries, such as those at Shefaram and Bet Shearim continued to produce scholars and the best of these became members of the Sanhedrin, which was located first at Tzippori and later at Tiberias. Before the Bar-Kochba uprising, an estimated 2/3 of the population of Gallilee and 1/3 of the coastal region were Jewish. In the Galillee, many synagogues have been found dating from this period. However, economic mismanagement of the Roman economy in the third century led to a collapse of Roman trade and empire, as well as increased taxation and persecution, which caused most

neg: 2008 Shanxi mudslide 2008 Shanxi mudslide The 2008 Shanxi mudslide was caused by the collapse of an unlicensed mine landfill in Xiangfen county, Linfen, Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China which caused 277 dead, 4 missing and 33 injured. Around 8:00 a.m. on September 8, 2008, the retaining wall of a waste iron ore reservoir collapsed after torrential rain, causing a major mudslide which inundated a village and crowded marketplace. The unlicensed Tashan Mine was operated by the Tashan Mining Company. The ore reservoir was built in the 1980s, halfway up a mountain, about 50 meters above an office building, marketplace and some

neg: Res publica as a more accurate and neutral translation of the term, while neither implying "republican" nor "imperial" connotations, just a reference to the state as a whole. But even translating "res publica" as 'republic' when it clearly refers to the Roman Empire "under Imperial reign" occurs (see quotes below). Roman authors would also use the phrase "res publica" in the sense of the era when Rome was governed as a republic, that is the era between the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Empire. So in this case "res publica" does distinctly "not" refer to the Roman "Empire", but to what is

neg: Occupation of the Baltic states the Second World War caused domestic problems for the Soviet Union. With the advent of Perestroika and its reassessment of Soviet history, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in 1989 condemned the 1939 secret protocol between Germany and the Soviet Union that had led to the division of Eastern Europe and the invasion and occupation of the three Baltic countries. While this action did not state the Soviet presence in the Baltics was an occupation, the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic and Republic of Lithuania affirmed so in a subsequent agreement in the midst of the collapse of the Soviet

neg: Taiwan under Japanese rule years of colonial rule. This period of Han and Aboriginal resistance is usually divided into three stages: the defense of the Republic of Formosa; guerilla warfare following the collapse of the Republic; and a final stage between the Beipu uprising of 1907, and the Tapani Incident of 1915. Afterwards, Han armed resistance was mostly replaced by peaceful forms of cultural and political activism, while the mountain Aboriginals continued to carry out armed struggle such as in the Musha incident in 1930. The decision by the Qing Chinese government to cede Taiwan to Japan with the Treaty of Shimonoseki caused a

neg: Albona Republic Albona Republic The Albona Republic () was a short-lived self-governing republic that was proclaimed by miners from Istrian city of Albona on March 2, 1921 during a mining strike. It was created in what has been described as the world's first anti-fascist uprising. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following the end of the First World War, Italy was given the regions of Istria and parts of Dalmatia as part of the Treaty of Saint-Germain as promised in the Treaty of London by the Triple Entente. Italy began to revitalize and exploit the population and economic potential of the

neg: Republic of Serbia (1992–2006) opposition came to power in 2000, Serbia (viewed in the international community differently from Montenegro whose leadership had become a western outpost since 1998) began its transition in reconciliation with western nations, a decade later than most other east European countries. As a result of this change, Yugoslavia began to slowly re-integrate itself internationally following a period of isolation caused by sanctions which were now gently easing. With the collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) in 1992, the two remaining constituent republics of Serbia and Montenegro agreed to form a new Yugoslav state which officially abandoned communism

neg: 2017 DR Congo landslide 2017 DR Congo landslide On 16 August 2017, severe flooding caused a mountainside to collapse, triggering a landslide which affected a fishing village in the Democratic Republic of Congo's (DR Congo) Ituri province. The disaster killed at least 200 people. Much of the damage is attributed to poorly regulated housing in vulnerable mountainous regions and heavy deforestation. Heavy rainfall impacted the Ituri province in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) on the night of 15 August 2017. West African countries, including the DR Congo, are susceptible to devastating landslides as a growing demand for residential properties force communities

neg: The Collapse of the Third Republic The Collapse of the Third Republic The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940 by William L. Shirer (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1969) deals with the collapse of the French Third Republic as a result of Hitler's invasion during World War II. As a CBS correspondent in Germany during the climactic event under discussion, and as a frequent visitor to and correspondent from France during the prewar years, Shirer was left to question how Germany had overrun France within weeks in 1940. These two countries had fought each other for four years

neg: Culture of ancient Rome collapse, State religion had adapted to support the new regime of the Emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the Republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the Emperor. So-called "Emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the "Genius", the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty

neg: Constitution of the Roman Republic in the centralisation of power into the hands of provincial governors, the use of military power to enforce political changes (e.g. the Sullan dictatorship), and the use of violence, combined with exploitation of the suitably bribed or intimidated "sovereign" assemblies, to grant supreme authority to victorious commanders. The increasing legitimisation of violence and centralisation of authority into fewer and fewer men would, with the collapse of trust in the Republic's institutions, put it on a path to civil war and its transformation into the autocratic Roman Empire. The early republican constitution was dominated by the patricians, who monopolised all control

neg: Western imperialism in Asia People's Republic of China, along with the collapse of the Soviet Union, have loosened European and American influence in Asia, generating speculation today about emergence of modern India and China as potential superpowers. European exploration of Asia started in ancient Roman times. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian Red Sea ports was significant in the first centuries of the Common Era. In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these

neg: Metropolis of Corfu, Paxoi and the Diapontian Islands turn of the 13th century, a Roman Catholic archbishopric was established on the island, first attested in 1228. Under Catholic rule, the local Orthodox Christian population was served by a head priest ("protopapas"). The Orthodox bishopric was not restored until 1800, after the collapse of the Republic of Venice and the establishment of the Septinsular Republic. Metropolis of Corfu, Paxoi and the Diapontian Islands The Metropolis of Corfu, Paxoi and the Diapontian Islands () is a metropolitan see of the Church of Greece. Its seat is the town of Corfu on the island of Corfu in northwestern Greece. It encompasses

neg: Umbria was almost completely destroyed by Octavian. In Pliny the Elder's time, 49 independent communities still existed in Umbria, and the abundance of inscriptions and the high proportion of recruits in the imperial army attest to its population. Under Augustus, Umbria became the Regio VI of Roman Italy. Today Umbria is different from Roman Umbria. Roman Umbria extended through most of what is now the northern Marche, to Ravenna, but excluded the west bank of the Tiber, which belonged to Etruria. Thus Perugia was an Etruscan city, and the area around Norcia was in the Sabine territory. After the collapse of

neg: Pompeii two years,” Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. The 2,000-year-old Schola Armatorum (House of the Gladiators) collapsed on 6 November 2010. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was no immediate determination as to what caused the building to collapse, although reports suggested water infiltration following heavy rains might have been responsible. There has been fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect. Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series "Up Pompeii!" and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in

neg: Mukurob tourist attractions in Namibia, attracting viewers from all over the world, and prompted geological studies of the structure. Mukurob was given "National Monument" status (Category: geology) on 1 June 1955. Its status was not revoked after the structure's collapse. It is still not known what truly caused Mukurob's collapse on the night of 7 December 1988. It is believed that a rainstorm during the week before, may have weakened the sandstone pillar, and contributed to its demise. Another study showed that the 1988 Spitak earthquake in Armenia registered heavily in Namibia on the night that Mukurob collapsed. The collapsed rock

neg: Suez Crisis "betrayed" by what they considered to be the spineless politicians in Paris when they were on the verge of victory just as they believed they had been "betrayed" in Vietnam in 1954, and accordingly become more determined to win the war in Algeria, even if it meant overthrowing the Fourth Republic to do so. The Suez crisis thus help to set the stage for the military disillusionment with the Fourth Republic, which was to lead to the collapse of the republic in 1958. According to the protocol of Sèvres agreements, France secretly transmitted parts of its own atomic technology to

neg: Societal collapse the end of Classical Antiquity and the beginning of the European Middle Ages. Throughout the 5th century, the Empire's territories in western Europe and northwestern Africa, including Italy, fell to various invading or indigenous peoples in what is sometimes called the Barbarian invasions, although the eastern half still survived with borders essentially intact for another two centuries (until the Arab expansion). This view of the collapse of the Roman Empire is challenged, however, by modern historians who see Rome as merely transforming from the Western Empire into barbarian kingdoms as the Western Emperors delegated themselves out of existence, and the

neg: Latin was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men,

neg: Macedonians (ethnic group) and complex process of transformation of the cultural, political and ethno-linguistic Balkan landscape after the collapse of Roman authority. The exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined. What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to Bulgaria, northern Macedonia remained "Roman" in its cultural outlook into the 7th century, and beyond. Yet at the same time, sources attest numerous Slavic tribes in the environs of Thessaloniki and further afield, including the Berziti in Pelagonia. Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, the settlement of Kuver's Pannonian "Bulgars"- a mix of Roman Christians, Bulgars and Avars- populated the

neg: 1989 Montreal Expos season but remained in the race in early September, with the team being only 2 games back of 1st place on September 6. Regardless, the downward spiral continued as the Expos inexplicably ended up losing 37 of their final 55 games to finish the season a disappointing 81-81, well out of the playoff picture. The easiest analysis of what caused the collapse is to point to the offence, which struggled after August 2, scoring an MLB worst 3.23 runs per game. For long-time Expos fans, the collapse is viewed as the beginning of the end of the franchise. If the club