query: who has first introduced the concept of merit goods and when

pos: Merit good Merit good The concept of a merit good introduced in economics by Richard Musgrave (1957, 1959) is a commodity which is judged that an individual or society should have on the basis of some concept of need, rather than ability and willingness to pay. The term is, perhaps, less often used today than it was in the 1960s to 1980s but the concept still lies behind many economic actions by governments which are not performed specifically for financial reasons or by supporting incomes (e.g. via tax rebates). Examples include the provision of food stamps to support nutrition, the delivery of

pos: Merit good Merit good The concept of a merit good introduced in economics by Richard Musgrave (1957, 1959) is a commodity which is judged that an individual or society should have on the basis of some concept of need, rather than ability and willingness to pay. The term is, perhaps, less often used today than it was in the 1960s to 1980s but the concept still lies behind many economic actions by governments which are not performed specifically for financial reasons or by supporting incomes (e.g. via tax rebates). Examples include the provision of food stamps to support nutrition, the delivery of

pos: Richard Musgrave (economist) responsibilities of government allows us to narrow the scope of inquiry into tax assignment, by indicating which of the three functions are most appropriately assigned to various levels of government. The remainder of this section focuses on the implications of the three-branch framework for the assignment of revenue sources among levels of government, especially the assignment between the central government and second-tier governments. In his paper, "A Multiple Theory of Budget Determination," published in "Finanzarchiv" 1957, Musgrave introduced the economic concept of merit good (and later, de-merit good). The concept has been extensively discussed elsewhere and been quite controversial in

pos: Merit good benefits of education, which would warrant compulsion (Musgrave, 1959, 14). In this case, the "implementation" of consumer sovereignty is the motivation, rather than rejection of consumer sovereignty. Public Choice Theory suggests that good government policies are an under-supplied merit good in a democracy. A merit good can be defined as a good which would be under-consumed (and under-produced) in the free market economy. This is due to two main reasons: Merit good The concept of a merit good introduced in economics by Richard Musgrave (1957, 1959) is a commodity which is judged that an individual or society should have on

pos: Landesque capital Landesque capital Landesque capital is a widespread concept used to understand anthropogenic landscapes that serve important economic, social, and ritual purposes. The concept of landesque capital was first used in academic texts by economist Amartya Sen. It occurred in his 1959 thesis on the choice of techniques of agriculture for “underdeveloped countries”. Sen claimed that previous studies had failed to take into account the implications of such technical investments for non-wage economies with land as a dominant factor of production: Once land is introduced in our analysis, we have to distinguish between two types of capital goods—those which replace labour

pos: History of North Korea Party of Korea in the 1950s, North Korea, like all the postwar communist states, undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods. The first Three Year Plan (1954–1956) introduced the concept of "Juche" or self-reliance. The first Five Year Plan (1957-1961) consolidated the collectivization of agriculture and initiated mass mobilizations campaigns: the Chollima Movement, the Chongsan-ni system in agriculture and the Taean Work System in industry. The Chollima Movement was influenced by China's Great Leap Forward, but did not have its disastrous results. Industry was fully nationalized by 1959. Taxation

pos: Bridge restaurant more bridge restaurants were built as Illinois Tollway Oases, opening in 1959. Further implementation of the concept in the United States has been hampered by US Code 23 clause 111, which prohibits commercial activities at the rest areas along the Interstate Highways. Although commercial activities existing before 1960 could continue, and the unaffected turnpikes already had commercialized rest areas, no new restaurants were added. Despite this legislation the Lincoln Oasis bridge restaurant has been opened in 1967. The concept was introduced to Europe in 1959 by the Italian architect Angelo Bianchetti, who built the first European bridge restaurant in slightly

neg: Merit good health services to improve quality of life and reduce morbidity, subsidized housing and arguably education. In many cases, merit goods provide services which should apply universally to everyone in a particular situation, a view that is close to the concept of primary goods found in work by philosopher John Rawls or discussions about social inclusion. On the supply side, it is sometimes suggested that there will be more support in society for implicit redistribution via the provision of certain kinds of goods and services, rather than explicit redistribution through income. Alternatively, it is sometimes suggested that society in general may

neg: Delvaux (company) experience in leather goods, Franz Schwennicke, took over the company from Edmond Delvaux, the last of the Delvaux family line. While keeping the manufacturing of travel goods, he progressively introduced a new concept for the time, the creation of seasonal collections, as is still done to this day. For the 1958 Brussels World Fair, Delvaux introduced the "Le Brillant" handbag, designed by Paule Goethals. The range-topping "Le Brillant", still produced today, marked the first time the brand would create a product displaying the brand logo, in this case a buckle in the shape of a "D" letter. When Franz Schwennicke

neg: Meritocracy Meritocracy Meritocracy ("merit", from Latin "mereō", and "-cracy", from Ancient Greek κράτος "" "strength, power") is a political philosophy which holds that certain things, such as economic goods or power, should be vested in individuals on the basis of talent, effort, and achievement, rather than factors such as sexuality, race, gender, or wealth. Advancement in such a system is based on performance, as measured through examination or demonstrated achievement. Although the concept of meritocracy has existed for centuries, the term itself was first created in 1958 by the sociologist Michael Young. The Oxford English Dictionary shows the first use in

neg: Government procurement provide merit goods, such as education or health care. Merit goods are private goods which are rival and excludable and are therefore provided by private markets. Nevertheless, governments also provide merit goods because of reasons of equity and fairness and because they have positive externalities for society as a whole. In order to provide public and merit goods, the government has to buy input factors from private companies, e.g. police cars, school buildings, uniforms etc. This process is called government or public procurement. Government procurement involves a high risk of corruption because of the great size of financial turnover and

neg: Meritocracy his theories in a biological sense, and it is other thinkers and theorists who have applied Darwin's model normatively to unequal endowments of human ambitions. Meritocracy Meritocracy ("merit", from Latin "mereō", and "-cracy", from Ancient Greek κράτος "" "strength, power") is a political philosophy which holds that certain things, such as economic goods or power, should be vested in individuals on the basis of talent, effort, and achievement, rather than factors such as sexuality, race, gender, or wealth. Advancement in such a system is based on performance, as measured through examination or demonstrated achievement. Although the concept of meritocracy has

neg: Merit good goods can be defined in a different way which makes it different from externalities. The essence of merit and demerit goods is to do with an information failure to the consumer. This arises because consumers do not perceive quite how good or bad the good is for them: either they do not have the right information or lack relevant information. With this definition, a merit good is defined as good that is better for a person than the person who may consume the good realises. Other possible rationales for treating some commodities as merit (or demerit) goods include public-goods aspects

neg: AAA (band) concert venues. In March 2013, a special pop-up concept store opened in Ura-Harajuku selling limited edition AAA goods, with the store styled to look like a room belonging to A~panda. AAA has a logo mark, frequently used on tour goods as well as their CD and DVD releases. The first edition of the logo mark was used from April 2005 until 20 October 2011, with "#AAABEST" being the last work to use the design. The second edition of the logo mark was introduced 21 October 2011 and is currently still in use. The first work to use the design was

neg: Merit good be in a better position to determine what individuals need (such arguments are often criticised for being paternalistic, often by those who would like to reduce to a minimum economic activity by government). Sometimes, merit and demerit goods are simply seen as an extension of the idea of externalities. A merit good may be described as a good that has positive externalities associated with it. Thus, an inoculation against a contagious disease may be seen as a merit good. This is because others who may not now catch the disease from the inoculated person also benefit. However, merit and demerit

neg: Thing-in-itself of Knowledge", scraps the thing-in-itself. Although Arthur Schopenhauer agreed with the critics that the manner in which Kant had introduced the thing-in-itself was inadmissible, he considered that Kant was right to assert its existence, and praised the distinction between thing-in-itself and appearance as his greatest merit. A unique position is taken by Philipp Mainländer, who hailed Kant for breaking the rules of his own philosophy to proclaim the existence of a thing-in-itself. Thing-in-itself The thing-in-itself () is a concept introduced by Immanuel Kant. Things-in-themselves would be objects as they are, independent of observation. The concept led to much controversy among

neg: Inflationary gap introduced time lags concerning receipts and expenditure of income. T.Koopmans introduced the idea of the speed of inflation, stating that the inflationary gap reduces as the speed of inflation falls. Another weakness of the theory is that it is concerned only with flow concepts like current income, expenditure, consumption, and saving. However the increase of prices affects not only current goods but also the stock of goods already out in the market. This point is ignored in the theory. Despite these criticisms, the concept of inflationary gap has proved to be of much importance in explaining rising prices at full

neg: Little Angels School Awards and national merit scholarships. Popular students from this school include Malavika (singer). Little Angels has classes ranging from LKG to X. The school is recognized by the Government of Andhra Pradesh and has English as its medium of instruction. The school has introduced a CBSE syllabus from the academic year 2004–05. The school offers CBSE syllabus also for classes LKG to X in addition to the present state syllabus.Apart from academic activities the school boasts a good record in co-curricular and extracurricular activities. Recently the concept of smart school was introduced and the education system is made more interactive.

neg: History of the Boy Scouts of America eighth edition of the handbook was titled simply "Scout Handbook" and the new strategic logo used "Scouting/USA." The concept of the personal growth agreement conferences was introduced as a requirement for each rank. Other changes included new colored cloth badges for all ranks and positions and "skill awards", represented by a metal loop worn on the belt, that were awarded instantly at the time they were earned. They supplemented individual rank requirements which along with merit badges were also presented immediately, and recognized later at the court of honor. The merit badge program—previously only available to First Class and above—was

neg: Relational goods the concept of the inner relational nature of the person at the core of the economic science. The idea was largely abandoned until the 1970s by the mainstream (although we can find intuitions in Mill, Marshall, the Austrian school, Keynes, Hirschman), when the discussion of happiness again came to light with the first analysis of the Easterlin Paradox. A solid concept of relational goods was built in the following years in an attempt to reconcile this paradox, and to answer the issue of why voter turnout is higher than rational choice theory suggests. Thus relational goods as an economic concept

neg: Karma like an exchange of physical goods between two human beings. The practice of karma transfer, or even its possibility, is controversial. Karma transfer raises questions similar to those with substitutionary atonement and vicarious punishment. It defeats the ethical foundations, and dissociates the causality and ethicization in the theory of karma from the moral agent. Proponents of some Buddhist schools suggest that the concept of karma merit transfer encourages religious giving, and such transfers are not a mechanism to transfer bad karma (i.e., demerit) from one person to another. In Hinduism, Sraddha rites during funerals have been labelled as karma merit

neg: Merit (Buddhism) are capable of transferring merits, and will do so to help relief the suffering of their devotees, who then can dedicate it to others. This concept has led to several Buddhist traditions focused on devotion. Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists transfer merits as part of the 'Seven-part-worship' (""), and there is almost no ceremony without some form of merit transfer. Thus, merit transfer has developed to become a standard element in the basic liturgy of all main schools of Buddhism. Indeed, the transfer of merits has grown that important in Buddhism, that it has become a major way for Buddhism to

neg: Transfer of merit Then there also scholars who propose that, although the concept of transfer of merit did not exist as such in early Buddhism, early doctrines did form a basis for it, the concept of transfer of merit being an "inherent consequence" (Bechert) of these early doctrines. Gombrich theorizes that early Buddhism focused on individual karma and responsibility, and that the teaching on transference of merit provided an "escape" to this strict doctrine of individual responsibility. He further argues that the term "anumodana", in later Buddhism used for rejoicing as a way to receive merit, in the earliest Pāli texts meant 'giving

neg: Team select teams of horses, dogs, or oxen for the purpose of conveying passengers or goods. While academic research on teams and teamwork has grown consistently and has shown a sharp increase over the past recent 40 years, the societal diffusion of teams and teamwork actually followed a volatile trend in the 20th century. The concept was introduced into business in the late 20th century, which was followed by a popularization of the concept of constructing teams. Differing opinions exist on the efficacy of this new management fad. Some see "team" as a four-letter word: overused and under-useful. Others see it

neg: Harvey Probber elements that could be assembled into any desired seating configuration. Probber referred to the concept as a modular system, and the individual pieces as modules. Although what was then called “unit furniture” dates to the first decades of the twentieth century, Probber’s modular seating was the first of its kind. Taking the concept further, he introduced “nuclear furniture”—which included occasional tables with interchangeable pedestals, in different shapes and sizes that could, like seating, be clustered in varying configurations. In the 1960s, he extended the idea to case goods, making it possible to offer many variations on one basic design… the

neg: Land acquisition in India concept of efficiency has been introduced by Justice Reddy, O Chinnappa, coupled with the condition of infallibility (Dey Biswas 2014, 14-15 footnote). In India, with this introduction of ‘social’ elements to the property rights, a new phase had begun. K. K. Mathew, justice of KesavanandaBharati vs State of Kerala (cited in ) stated this precisely: "Property in consumable goods or means of production worked by their owners (use aspects of property) were justified as necessary condition of a free and purposeful life; but when property gave power not only over things but through things over persons (power aspect of property)

neg: Tissue-pack marketing 2005, this marketing method was also used in Ontario, Canada, by Hold'em Promotions Inc., after the company's founders saw tissue advertising during a trip to China. In the United States, a subsidiary of the Japanese trading company Itochu, AdPack USA, introduced tissue-pack marketing in New York in 2005, and now offers it throughout the country. In 2012, the tissue marketing company Adtishoo launched operations in the United Kingdom. Tissue-pack marketing The concept of tissue-pack marketing was first developed in Japan. Its origins date back to the late 1960s when Hiroshi Mori, the founder of a paper-goods manufacturer in Kōchi Prefecture

neg: Grammaticality as odd, or unacceptable, because the meaning does not make sense according to the English lexicon. When Chomsky introduced the concept of grammaticality, he also introduced the concept of acceptability. Chomsky has emphasized that "the notion of 'acceptable' is not to be confused with 'grammatical.'" For linguists who stress the role of social learning, in contrast to innate knowledge of language, such as Hopper, there has been a gradual abandonment of talk about grammaticality in favour of acceptability. Acceptability is: On the other hand, grammaticality is: In an experiment, grammaticality and acceptability are often confused, but speakers may be asked

neg: Jedynak by Georg Wertheim and designed by the German architect Alfred Messel. The ""Kaufhaus Conitzer & Söhne"", which opened on October 4, 1911, was the first department store in the West Prussian-Polish territory that introduced the concept of a new way of trading supported by large commercial buildings. Such department stores appeared in Germany in 1894, in the early 20th century in Berlin. At its opening, ""Kaufhaus Conitzer & Söhne"" offered a wide and varied range of goods including: the ground floor: silk, linen & cotton articles, clothing, aprons, knitwear, wool, gloves, stockings, umbrellas, haberdashery, lace, linen goods and handicrafts; the

neg: Devon RFU Junior Cup the Devon Merit Tables (outside of the league system). The current format is a knock-out cup with a first round, quarter finals, semi finals and final, which would be played at the home ground of one of the finalists. For the 2018-19 season, a Shield competition has been introduced for clubs knocked out of the first round of the Devon Junior Cup (replacing the Plate and Vase competitions). Devon RFU Junior Cup The Devon Junior Cup is an annual rugby union knock-out club competition organized by the Devon Rugby Football Union. It was first introduced in the 1888-89 season when

neg: Transfer of merit In the present day, transfer of merit has become an intrinsic part of Buddhism and has an important social function. In the later Pāli tradition (from 5th–7th century CE), the word "pattidāna" is used, meaning 'giving of the acquired'. In the Sanskrit tradition, the word "pariṇāmanā" is used for transferring merit, meaning 'change, alternation; ripening, bringing to maturity; development; diversion'. The term 'transfer of merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by many scholars. Indeed, 'transfer of merit' does not render any term from a classical Buddhist language. Merit (, ) is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It

neg: Merit (cigarette) Philip Morris jolted the cigarette industry as few product introductions have. Full page newspaper ads trumpeted the arrival... the beginning of a blitz in all media that still has the competition muttering to itself. Industry insiders estimated that when media, point-of-purchase, promotion and collateral are totalled for the year, the sum will stand close to $50 million. Others suggest the roll-out of Merit is the most expensive new product introduction in the history of the cigarette industry"". When Merit Ultra Lights were introduced in 1983, the advertising programme had an $80 million media budget, not even accounting for retail promotional

neg: Extended producer responsibility Extended producer responsibility In the field of waste management, extended producer responsibility (EPR) is a strategy designed to promote the integration of environmental costs associated with goods throughout their life cycles into the market price of the products. Extended producer responsibility legislation is a driving force behind the adoption of remanufacturing initiatives as it "focuses on the end-of-use treatment of consumer products and has the primary aim to increase the amount and degree of product recovery and to minimize the environmental impact of waste materials" The concept was first formally introduced in Sweden by Thomas Lindhqvist in a 1990 report

neg: 2×2 (TV channel) kitchen goods to fitness equipment. In the night from Friday to Saturday on channel was broadcast feature films and TV series. Also in the broadcasting network aired music videos. Despite this popularity, in early 2007 the company "TV Club" has decided to launch its channel on the basis of 2x2. The first channel I saw only the residents of Moscow and Moscow region thanks to the cable networks of AKADO, and soon the channel became available throughout Russia. In 2006, the holding company Prof-Media bought the TV station. "2x2". 3 October 2006 holding "Prof-Media" introduced a new concept of broadcasting

neg: Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally been performed at home by women for day-to-day meals and by men in bakeries and restaurants for local consumption. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories. The art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common and important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as

neg: Distributive efficiency Distributive efficiency In welfare economics, distributive efficiency occurs when goods and services are received by those who have the greatest need for them. Abba Lerner first proposed the idea of distributive efficiency in his 1944 book "The Economics of Control". The concept of distributive efficiency is based on the law of diminishing marginal utility. According to this economic law, as a person gets more to spend, he will buy things that give him less and less utility. For example, if a person is given a gift certificate for a music download (and has no way to resell the certificate), he

neg: Co-Redemptrix is based on justice, and merit "proprie de congruo" (Mary's merit), founded on the friendship of charity. The concept was especially common in the late Middle Ages, when it was promoted heavily among the Franciscans, and often resisted by the Dominicans. It is an idea which was the subject of considerable theological debate, reaching a peak in the 15th century. By the early 16th century the hopes of the concept becoming Catholic doctrine had receded, and have never seriously revived. A number of theologians have discussed the concept over the years, from the 19th century Father Frederick William Faber, to

neg: Charles E. Jordan High School year, the staff began researching freshman academies across the state and the country. It was determined that the teaming concept used widely at the middle school level had merit on many levels and was the most practical way to address many of our transition needs. During the 2004-05 academic year, a pilot program was introduced including 40% of the Freshman class hand-selected for the program, expanding it full-scale in 2005-06. Since then the freshman academy has led to a significant decrease in retentions and has attracted students from all across Durham. During the 2013/2014 school year only 38 out of

neg: Virtual water value in decision making regarding the best allocation of scarce water resources. Other limitations more specific to the MENA (Middle East & North Africa) region include: The concept of virtual water trade was introduced to refer to the idea that countries can save domestic water by importing food. Imported food, however, comes from somewhere. In 2002, professor Arjen Y. Hoekstra, at the time working for UNESCO-IHE, now at University of Twente, the Netherlands, introduced the concept of water footprint. The water footprint shows the link between consumer goods or a consumption pattern and water use and pollution. Virtual water trade

neg: Allotopy Allotopy In a story, we detect an allotopy when two basic meaning traits (semes) contradict each other, that is when they trace two incompatible interpretations. It was conceived as being the opposite of an isotopy, which is the homogeneity resulting from repetition of the same seme. This concept has been coined in the 1970s by the Belgian semioticians known as "Groupe µ". In the 1970, the Belgian semioticians known under the name "Groupe µ", introduced the concept of Allotopy. They first discussed the concept in publications like "Isotopie et allotopie", "Isotopie, allotopie et polytopie" (1976), and "A Rhetoric of Poetry"

neg: Singapore Armed Forces Merit Scholarship (Women) of Brigadier-General, making her the first female General in the SAF. This makes her the 1st female airforce officer to be promoted to the Colonel rank. She is also currently the highest ranking female officer in the Singapore Armed Forces. Singapore Armed Forces Merit Scholarship (Women) Singapore Armed Forces Merit Scholarship (Women) is a scholarship introduced in 1993 by the Singapore Ministry of Defence to attract Singaporean young women who aspire to become combat officers in the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). The scholarship is awarded to a selected group of ladies each year who display outstanding ‘A’ level results and

neg: Fermilab by the Illinois Department of Conservation. Some fearful locals believed at first that the bison were introduced in order to serve as an alarm if and when radiation at the laboratory reached dangerous levels, but they were assured by Fermilab that this claim had no merit. Today, the herd is a popular attraction that draws many visitors and the grounds are also a sanctuary for other local wildlife populations. Working with the Forest Preserve District of DuPage County, Fermilab has introduced Barn owls to selected structures around the grounds. Fermilab Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located just outside Batavia, Illinois,

neg: Merit (Buddhism) Merit (Buddhism) Merit (', ') is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment. In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence. Despite modernization, merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on the rural economies in these

neg: Reincarnation incorporate the concept of life, followed by an afterlife in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues (merit) or vices (demerit). However, the ancient Vedic Rishis challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic, because people do not live an equally moral or immoral life. Between generally virtuous lives, some are more virtuous; while evil too has degrees, and the texts assert that it would be unfair for people, with varying degrees of virtue or vices, to end up in heaven or hell, in "either or" and disproportionate manner irrespective of how virtuous or vicious their lives were. They introduced the

neg: Rainbow Serpent the concept of the Rainbow Serpent has existed for a long time in Aboriginal Australian cultures, it was introduced to the wider world through the work of anthropologists. In fact, the name "Rainbow Serpent" or "Rainbow Snake" appears to have been coined in English by Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, an anthropologist who noticed the same concept going under different names among various Aboriginal Australian cultures, and called it "the rainbow-serpent myth of Australia". It has been suggested that this name implies that there is only one Rainbow Serpent, when the concept actually varies quite a bit from one Aboriginal culture to another,

neg: Aesthetic judgement circumstances that will create irrevocable prejudices. First he refers to natural, generational and cultural dispositions which are fundamental and relative to individuals. The second is determined by the critics’ degree of moral righteousness. Ascribing a normative characteristic to morality, Hume declares that aesthetic merit is influenced by “the natural boundaries of vice and virtue”, and if the artist does not conform to these moral regulations then they and their art will inevitably divert from Hume's true standard. Central to the concept of aesthetic judgement is Kant's notion of the “judgement of taste”, introduced in his seminal 1790 book the "Critique

neg: Competing goods contingencies of the situation sever it from other goods and it loses out in an overall rational choice."; and that Aristotle saw that "the values that are constitutive of a good human life are plural and incommensurable". Nussbaum has argued that Immanuel Kant and Thomas Aquinas were mistaken when they dismissed conflicts of obligation as illogical. Michael Jinkins, citing Isaiah Berlin, sees both Plato and Aristotle as endorsing the concept of a singular, overwhelming social good and Machiavelli's works as seminal discussions of competing social goods. The issue has arisen in the medical professions, since patients may not necessarily rank

neg: Merit system social mobility. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the nine-rank system was established during the Three Kingdoms period. The concept of a merit system spread from China to British India during the 17th century, and then into continental Europe. The United States civil service began to run on the spoils system in 1829 when Andrew Jackson became president. The assassination of United States President James A. Garfield by a disappointed office seeker in 1881 proved its dangers. President Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau who believed that the president owed him a civil service position and in not

neg: Wilson Sporting Goods Iowa Beef Packers and then be taken over by Tyson Foods). The packing company continued to have control in the company until 1966 when it was sold to Ling-Temco-Vought. Under new president L. B. Icely it acquired the Chicago Sporting Goods Company and struck a deal to supply the Chicago Cubs. It also hired Arch Turner, a leather designer who would design the leather football. In 1922, it introduced the Ray Schalk catcher's mitt which became the standard. It worked with Knute Rockne to introduce the double-lined leather football and first valve football and the first waist-line football pants with

neg: Indian Order of Merit 1911 when Indian servicemen became eligible for the Victoria Cross. A civilian division of the IOM also existed between 1902 and 1939, however, it was only conferred very rarely. The medal was first introduced by the East India Company in 1837, under the name "Order of Merit" and was taken over by the Crown in 1858, following the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The name of the medal was changed in 1902 to avoid confusion with a British Order of the same name. The Indian Order of Merit was the only gallantry medal available to Native soldiers between 1837 and 1907

neg: History of taxidermy the Boy Scouts of America Handbook as one of the skills which, when mastered, could earn a merit badge. The Merit Badge of Taxidermy was first introduced in 1911 and included in the Handbook through 1954, during which 10,344 scouts earned the badge. In 1954, the taxidermy badge was dropped from the merit badge series because of the "lack of interest." Many Americans have acquired their expertise in taxidermy via mail-order lessons and commenced their artistic career with the carcass of a sparrow or squirrel. Many prominent Americans, such as the noted painter Charles Wilson Peale and the famous military

neg: Strategic essentialism or antiglobalization. Spivak's understanding of the term was first introduced in the context of cultural negotiations, never as an anthropological category. In her 2008 book "Other Asias," Spivak disavowed the term, indicating her dissatisfaction with how the term has been deployed in nationalist enterprises to promote (non-strategic) essentialism. The concept also comes up regularly in queer theory, feminist theory, deaf studies, and specifically in the work of Luce Irigaray, who refers to it as mimesis. Strategic essentialism Strategic essentialism, a major concept in postcolonial theory, was introduced in the 1980s by the Indian literary critic and theorist Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.

neg: Contract A Contract A In Canadian contract law, Contract A is a concept that has recently been applied by courts regarding the fair and equal treatment of bidders in a contract tendering process. Essentially this concept formalizes previously applied precedents and strengthens the protection afforded to those who submit bids in the tendering process. The concept was introduced in 1981 by the Supreme Court of Canada, in "R. v. Ron Engineering and Construction (Eastern) Ltd". The court found that a "duty of fairness" was owed to all bidders by an owner in a tendering process. The Contract A is formed when a

neg: Kunze-Knorr brake Kunze-Knorr brake The Kunze-Knorr brake ("Kunze-Knorr-Bremse" or "KK-Bremse") is an automatic compressed-air brake for goods, passenger and express trains. It was the first graduated brake for goods trains in Europe. When it was introduced after the First World War, goods train brakes switched from hand operation to compressed-air in various European countries. The Deutsche Reichsbahn alone put the cost of equipping German goods wagons with Kunze-Knorr brakes between 1918 and 1927 at 478.4 million Reichsmarks. The operating cost savings from faster goods services and having fewer brakemen was assessed by the Reichsbahn at almost 96.3 million Reichsmark annually. The Kunze-Knorr

neg: Transfer of merit is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment. Apart from the concept of merit, in Mahāyāna "pariṇāmanā" is also associated with the concept of 'roots of virtue' (). Transferring merit is a widespread custom in all Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna and Theravāda, and is often practiced at ceremonies and festivals in honor of the dead. Transferring merit to another person, usually deceased relatives, is

neg: Merit system concept of ‘Tough Love’ makes a more profound impact on the balance of protecting and rewarding those whose performance excels and those whose performance could be improved. Wells elaborates that not rewarding low performers with a merit increase at the end of the year is an ideal way of showing ‘Tough Love.' The idea gives low performing employees a year to improve their performance and receive constant feedback from managerial staff. The importance of the merit system in a work place is to provide good quality work to the public. When merit is truly assessed in the process of hiring

neg: Wat Phra Dhammakaya and even revile merit-making in favor of other Buddhist teachings about detachment and attaining Nirvana, for which Buddhist Studies scholar Lance Cousins has coined the term "ultimatism". Merit-making, or doing good deeds as a way to overcome inner defilements, is further expressed through the concept of "parami". "Parami" is a term mentioned in later canonical and post-canonical Buddhist literature, and is usually translated as 'completeness, perfection, highest state'. Such perfection comes as a result of practicing ten principal virtues, usually by "bodhisattas" (somebody striving for Buddhahood). According to the temple, "Paramis" are formed when people do merits consistently, and these

neg: Juan Comas in the first half of the 20th century, greatly formed the work of Comas, who himself was an ardent fighter against racism. Comas’ work attempted to destroy the concepts of race and the foundations of racism in physical anthropology. Comas (1961) argued that the concept of race had no scientific merit or backing. Comas even went as far as to categorize work that others deemed scientific as “super-racist” when old concepts of racial categorization were utilized. Such work provided no “scientific” proof for arguing one human group superior to another (Comas, 1961). He attacked such work as amoral, because it

neg: Jordan Marsh what is still Boston's downtown shopping district. After the American Civil War, Jordan and Marsh expanded into nearby buildings, offering an increasing quantity and variety of goods. Eventually the partners had established the nation's first "departmentalized" store and called it "Jordan Marsh and Company." During the second half of the 19th century, Eben Jordan's son, Jordan Jr., and a new partner named George Mitton took over the company, turning it into a modern department store. Jordan Marsh and Company, in addition to establishing the first department store, introduced the concept of “department shopping.” Jordan Marsh combined an elegant atmosphere with

neg: Social promotion United States, social promotion is normally limited to primary education, because comprehensive secondary education is more flexible about determining which level of students take which classes due to the graduation requirements, which makes the concept of social promotion much less meaningful. In some countries, grade retention is allowed when students haven't learned the necessary material or if they are often absent. The opposite of social promotion would be to promote students once they learned the necessary material. This might be called "merit promotion", similar to the concept of a "merit civil service". The scope of the promotion might then be

neg: Permission marketing allowed to contact the person filling the form at the methods provided by the entrant. The potential client's signature is considered a form of consent to contact them, which allows the company to then email and phone market to entrants. Permission marketing Permission marketing is a concept introduced in a book of the same name in 1999 by marketing expert Seth Godin. Permission marketing is a non-traditional marketing technique that advertises goods and services when advance consent is given. Traditional methods of marketing often revolve around the idea of interruption – whether it is a television advertisement that cuts into

neg: Merit (Buddhism) first rituals in Buddhism. The main concept of the field of merit is that good deeds done towards some recipients accrue more merit than good deeds to other recipients. This is compared with a seed planted in fertile ground which reaps more and better fruits than in infertile ground. The Sangha is described as a field of merit, mostly because the members of the Sangha follow the eight-fold path. But in many texts, the Buddha and the Dhamma, and their representations, are also described as fields of merit. For example, Mahāyāna tradition considers production and reverence of Dharma texts very

neg: Randi Weingarten noted, Weingarten "had criticized what she calls 'merit pay schemes,'" she "agreed to embrace the concept in exchange for a promise that teachers would have a rare role in evaluating performance." After this agreement was reached, supporters of merit pay for New York City public-school teachers expressed hope that the UFT, which had "always opposed individual merit pay initiatives," would now follow Weingarten's example. Also in 2012, Weingarten criticized what she calls "merit pay schemes". In 2009, when New York state Assemblywoman Catherine Nolan said that she had been prevented by a hip injury from introducing a measure to form

neg: Permission marketing Permission marketing Permission marketing is a concept introduced in a book of the same name in 1999 by marketing expert Seth Godin. Permission marketing is a non-traditional marketing technique that advertises goods and services when advance consent is given. Traditional methods of marketing often revolve around the idea of interruption – whether it is a television advertisement that cuts into a TV show, or an internet pop-up that interferes with a website. According to Godin, such methods (often referred to as “interruption marketing”), have become less effective in the modern world, where consumers are overloaded with information. Interruption marketing is

neg: Baltic Shipping Company v Dillon was not a total failure of consideration. A qualification to this general rule, more apparent than real, has been introduced in the case of contracts where a seller is bound to vest title to chattels or goods in a buyer and the buyer seeks to recover the price paid when it turns out that title has not been passed. Even if the buyer has had the use and enjoyment of chattels or goods purportedly supplied under the contract for a limited time, the use and enjoyment of the chattels or goods has been held not to amount to the receipt

neg: Narcos when he first began manufacturing cocaine, to July 1992. The show relates the main events that happened in Colombia during this period and Escobar’s relationship to them. It is told through the perspective of Steve Murphy, an American DEA agent working in Colombia. The series depicts how Escobar first became involved in the cocaine trade in Colombia. He was an established black marketeer in Medellín, moving trucks worth of illegal goods (alcohol, cigarettes, and household appliances) into Colombia during a time when this was strictly forbidden, when introduced to Mateo "Cockroach" Moreno, a Chilean exile and underground chemist, who pitched

neg: First term of Donald Tsang as Chief Executive of Hong Kong days later. It was clear that Tsang would not change the reform package which was supported by about 60% of the population. On 21 December, the Legislative vetoed his reform proposal as the government failed to get support from more than two third councillors. Some lawyers in Beijing said that if the problem can't be solved, Donald Tsang has the power to dissolve the Legco under the Basic Law. He angered democrats, who voted down his proposals, when he referred to them as "horrid animals". Henry Tang introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) to the public in early 2006.

neg: Larry Sanger had initially heard of the wiki concept in 2001 not from Sanger, but instead from Jeremy Rosenfeld. Wales stated in October 2001 that it was "Larry (who) had the idea to use Wiki software for a separate project." The critical concept of marrying the three fundamental elements of Wikipedia, namely an encyclopedia, a wiki, and essentially unrestricted editorial access to the public, first took form when Sanger met up with an old friend, Ben Kovitz. This meeting occurred at a dinner on January 2, 2001, and it was here that Sanger was first introduced to the functionality of wiki software.

neg: Ordinary good Ordinary good An ordinary good is a microeconomic concept used in consumer theory. It is defined as a good which creates increased demand when the price for the good drops or conversely decreased demand if the price for the good increases, "ceteris paribus". It is the opposite of a Giffen good. Since the existence of Giffen goods outside the realm of economic theory is still contested, the pairing of Giffen goods with ordinary goods has gotten less traction in economics textbooks than the pairing normal good/inferior good used to distinguish responses to income changes. The usage of "ordinary good" is

neg: Production line goods, the next step was the concept of the assembly line, as introduced by Eli Whitney. This was taken to the next stage at the Ford Motor Company in 1913, where Henry Ford introduced the innovation of continuously moving the cars being assembled past individual workstations. This introduced the idea of standardization. The assembly line was a contraption of many chains and links that moved to place different parts into various places throughout the car. The chassis of the car was moved along the 45-metre line by a chain conveyor and then 140 workers applied their assigned parts to the

neg: Ben Rhydding railway station by the hydro's horse-bus, and later by motor-bus, up until some time after the first world war. The station was opened to goods traffic in 1888, and trailing access sidings were provided on the down side for this purpose. A new signal box was opened in 1901, situated at the Ilkley end of the northern platform. The signal box closed in December 1965. Goods traffic ceased on 5 July 1965, and the sidings later removed. Station staff were withdrawn on 7 October 1968, when 'pay-trains' were introduced. The stone station building has subsequently been demolished, and shelter on both platforms

neg: Merit (cigarette) Merit (cigarette) Merit is an American brand of cigarettes, currently owned and manufactured by Philip Morris USA in the United States and Philip Morris International outside the United States. A Philip Morris brand first introduced to national markets in January 1976, Merit used the positive connotation of its name in order to attract consumers. The word merit denotes a product worthy of praise or deserving of respect. Philip Morris had seen the competitive value of a so-called ""health cigarette"" following the first Surgeon General's report on cigarettes in 1964. Over the course of the next 12 years Philip Morris worked

neg: Co-Redemptrix is the concept of Mary as Mediatrix, which is a separate concept but regularly included by Catholics who use the title "Co-Redemptrix". As early as the year 200 the Church Father Irenaeus referred to Mary as the cause of our salvation () given her "fiat" ("let it be"). Theologians distinguish between "remote cooperation", by which she consents to the Incarnation and gives birth to the Son of God, and "immediate cooperation", in which she willingly unites herself to her Son's Passion and offers him back to the Father. Philosophers also draw a distinction between merit "de condigno" (Christ's merit), which

neg: Insurance Company of North America in and near Philadelphia (1784)--INA was different. The existing fire insurance companies, being an outgrowth of volunteer firefighting associations, only insured buildings from loss. INA, with its marine insurance origins, introduced the concept of insuring the contents of the buildings as well. INA's first fire insurance policy went to William Beynroth on "German Dry Goods" at his house at 211 High Street (today Market Street) in Philadelphia. INA's first fire mark was a six-pointed star, made with lead and mounted on a wooden shield; in 1796, INA adopted a new mark, of an eagle rising from a rock. Variations of

neg: M equilibrium destroy its equilibrium nature. So an M-equilibrium is behaviorally stable when it remains an M equilibrium even after perturbing the game. Behavioral stability is a strengthening of the concept of strategic stability. M equilibrium M equilibrium is a set valued solution concept in game theory that relaxes the rational choice assumptions of perfect maximization (“no mistakes”) and perfect beliefs (“no surprises”). The concept can be applied to any normal-form game with finite and discrete strategies. M equilibrium was first introduced by Jacob K. Goeree and Philippos Louis. A large body of work in experimental game theory has documented systematic departures

neg: Vincenzo Caporaletti One of his first researches was a reflection on the concept of Swing (jazz performance style), developed in his MA thesis taken at the University of Bologna. Inside this thesis he set the basis of the epistemological concept of audiotactility, that later has been defined "Audiotactile Principle" (ATP). On this concept, he build the framework of the Audiotactile Formativity Theory that have introduced in musicology the category called "audiotactile music". 《Audiotactility》became an official scientific cathegory in 2008 in Italy, when the Ministry of Education emanated the decrees "MIUR 22/01/2008, n. 483/2008" and "MIUR 03/07/2009, n. 124/2009", which established the new

neg: State-owned enterprise allow capturing economies of scale while they can simultaneously achieve a public objective. For that reason, SOEs primarily operate in the domain of infrastructure (e.g. railway companies), strategic goods and services (e.g. postal services, arms manufacturing and procurement), natural resources and energy (e.g. nuclear facilities, alternative energy delivery), politically sensitive business, broadcasting, banking, demerit goods (e.g. alcoholic beverages), and merit goods (healthcare). SOEs can also help foster industries that are "considered economically desirable and that would otherwise not be developed through private investments". When nascent or 'infant' industries have difficulty getting investments from the private sector (perhaps because the good

neg: Girls' Friendly Society 1 January 1875. "The original rough plan of the Society's work and aim was written down in pencil in a tiny notebook in 1872," Mary Elizabeth Townsend wrote in 1882 recalling her original concept. She shared her concept with Fosbery who had encouraged her in her previous charitable work with working-class women. Fosbery introduced her to the older women with whom they formed the original steering committee. Mary Elizabeth Townsend was the first president of the GFS and served as such through 1882. She was succeeded by Lady Grey who served from 1883 through 1889, when Townsend again resumed the

neg: Possession of stolen goods of the goods is crucial, but has been a constant source of interpretive problems. Either may be based on what the thief says or some other positive information, but belief is less than knowledge and more than mere suspicion. In R v Hall [1985] 81 Cr App R 260, it was held that, per Boreham, J., The situation is further complicated by the concept of recklessness or wilful blindness to the circumstances; either will be treated as a belief that the goods are stolen. Thus, "suspicion" will be converted into belief when the facts are so obvious that belief may

neg: Merit (Buddhism) a translation of the Buddhist term "puṇya" or "puñña". The Buddhist term has, however, more of an impermanent character than the English translation implies, and the Buddhist term does not imply a sense of "deserving". Before the arising of Buddhism, merit was commonly used in the context of Brahmanical sacrifice, and it was believed that merit accrued through such sacrifice would bring the devotee to an eternal heaven of the 'fathers' . Later, in the period of the Upanishads, a concept of rebirth was established and it was believed that life in heaven was determined by the merit accumulated in

neg: Transfer of merit Buddhist Studies scholar M. M. J. Marasinghe, the concept of the transfer of merit in early Buddhism is different from pre-Buddhist ideas in several respects: merit is not donated in literal, measurable parts; meritorious acts in relation to the Saṅgha are emphasized; "devas" do not take any part in it; and it is often a compassionate act towards living beings in the next world who are in suffering. Moreover, anthropologist Charles F. Keyes argues that transfer of merit in Buddhism differs from Hinduism in that no actual substance is exchanged in the rituals, but the transfer is merely abstract. Apart

neg: Keeping up with the Joneses with the Joneses" has widespread effects on some societies. According to this philosophy, conspicuous consumption occurs when people care about their standard of living in relation to their peers. The term was re-introduced in 1976 when an article about parenting included it and has remained a commercial and cultural watchword ever since. According to Roger Mason, "the demand for status goods, fueled by "conspicuous consumption", has diverted many resources away from investment in the manufacture of more material goods and services in order to satisfy consumer preoccupations with their "relative social standing" and prestige". Social status once depended on one's

neg: Indian Order of Merit when the Indian Distinguished Service Medal was introduced, and when the Victoria Cross was opened to native soldiers in 1911. Both divisions of the order were removed when India became independent in 1947. Recipients receive the post nominal letters IOM. The original object was to "afford personal reward for personal bravery without reference to any claims founded on mere length of service and general good conduct" The medal was originally introduced with three classes (first, second and third classes), until others medals were made available to Indian soldiers, at which point it was reduced to two classes (the Victoria Cross

neg: Subsidies in India externalities associated with them. In the case of these services, it is arguable that even though the exclusion may be possible, these ought to be treated as merit goods or near-public goods. The provision of subsidies is most justified in this case. Near zero recovery rates in these cases only indicate the societal judgement that these may be financed out of tax-revenues. Merit social services: elementary education, public health, sewerage and sanitation, information and publicity, welfare of SC, ST's and OBC's, labour, social welfare and nutrition etc. Merit economic services: soil and water conservation, environmental forestry and wildlife, agricultural research

neg: AGATA (gamma-ray detector) constructing the path of the γ-ray and two of them are dominating: the back tracking algorithm and clusterisation. The tracking performance is quite sensitive depending on the choice of the formula for the figure-of-merit so; different figures-of-merit have investigated in detail. The influence of the initial momentum of the Compton scattering on the reconstruction results are need to be investigated. AGATA is the most efficient γ-ray tracking array ever developed and position sensitive Ge-detectors are the main concept for this. It is mentionable that the Composite Ge detectors were first developed for the EUROGAM spectrometer and it has been used

neg: Roundaboutness developed in the 1930s. A disproof of roundaboutness in economies with compound interest was presented by Paul Samuelson during the Cambridge capital controversy. The concept, interpreted as rising technical composition of capital, is also used by some Marxian authors. Roundaboutness Roundaboutness, or roundabout methods of production, is the process whereby capital goods are produced first and then, with the help of the capital goods, the desired consumer goods are produced. The term was devised by the Austrian School economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, who maintained that it was consumer demand, and not necessarily the supply of savings, that would determine the

neg: Merit (cigarette) Melilla, Italy, Albania, Greece, Tunisia, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates. (There is no menthol Ultima) All the Merit cigarettes contain either all of a mixture of the following ingredients: Merit (cigarette) Merit is an American brand of cigarettes, currently owned and manufactured by Philip Morris USA in the United States and Philip Morris International outside the United States. A Philip Morris brand first introduced to national markets in January 1976, Merit used the positive connotation of its name in order to attract consumers. The word merit denotes a product worthy of praise or deserving of respect. Philip Morris had

neg: Hippolyta (DC Comics) for unintentionally killing her own daughter. However, Hippolyta eventually grew to enjoy the freedom and adventure the title came with. Whereas Diana used the Lasso of Truth as her primary weapon, Hippolyta favored a broad sword and wore a short blue skirt instead of briefs. John Byrne, the writer that introduced the concept of Hippolyta as the first Wonder Woman, has explained his intentions in a post in his message board: "I thought George's one "mistake" in rebooting Wonder Woman was making her only 25 years old when she left Paradise Island. I preferred the idea of a Diana who

neg: Merit (Buddhism) Buddhists, but they strongly appreciate the generosity and reverence as exhibited by Asian Buddhists. Some scholars have suggested that merit-making may have affected the economies of Buddhist countries in a negative way, because spending savings on the local temple would prevent consumption and investment and therefore stunt economic growth. Other researchers have disagreed, pointing out that spending resources on a Buddhist temple does stimulate economic growth through the investment in goods for the temple. It has also been suggested that even if the economy of Buddhist countries would be better off without merit-making, it would result in an economy that

neg: Eco-friendly dentistry continues to the present day. Eco-friendliness also has meaning in another context as a marketing term. It is used by companies to appeal to consumers of goods and services as having a low impact on the environment. Market research has found that an increasing number of consumers purchase goods and services that appeal to the values of environmental philosophy. The dental industry has adopted the concept of eco-friendliness both in a well-meaning, philosophical context and as a marketing term so that patients who subscribe to principles of sustainability can choose to visit these offices. The term has been criticised as

neg: Community-led total sanitation concept was developed around the year 2000 by Kamal Kar for rural areas in Bangladesh. CLTS became an established approach around 2011. Non-governmental organizations were often in the lead when CLTS was first introduced in a country. Local governments may reward communities by certifying them with "open defecation free" (ODF) status. The original concept of CLTS purposefully did not include subsidies for toilets as they might hinder the process. CLTS is practiced in at least 53 countries. CLTS has been adapted to the urban context. It has also been applied to post-emergency and fragile states settings. Challenges associated with CLTS

neg: Border-adjustment tax and the Koch brothers-funded Americans for Prosperity (AFP) lobby group, unveiling their plan to fight the tax. Border-adjustment tax A border-adjustment tax (also known as a border-adjusted tax, destination tax, destination-based cash flow tax or a border tax adjustment) is a tax on goods based on location of final consumption rather than production. It allegedly eliminates incentives for companies to reduce their tax bills through tax inversion and intangible asset relocation. The concept of a border-adjustment tax was originally the subject of a 1997 article by economist Alan J. Auerbach. Auerbach worked with Michael Devereux, who had introduced with Stephen

neg: Aesculus parviflora has never become common in Eastern American gardens. "Aesculus parviflora" was introduced to British horticulture through the activities of John Fraser, who made his first botanizing trip through the American South in 1785. Fraser's finds were distributed among English nurserymen like Lee and Kennedy or Loddiges or to private patrons, and the shrub was "to be met with in most of our nurseries" by 1820. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Aesculus parviflora Aesculus parviflora, the bottlebrush buckeye, is a species of suckering deciduous shrub in the Sapindaceae family. It is also called dwarf

neg: Ōmura Masujirō Takayoshi, a political moderate who served as liaison between the domain bureaucracy and radical elements among the young, lower-echelon Chōshū "samurai" who supported the "Sonnō jōi" movement and the violent overthrow of Tokugawa rule. After his return to Chōshū, Ōmura not only introduced modern western weaponry, but he also introduced the concept of military training for both "samurai" and commoners. The concept was highly controversial, but Ōmura was vindicated when his troops routed the all-samurai army of the Shogunate in the Second Chōshū Expedition of 1866. These same troops also formed the core of the armies of the Satchō Alliance

neg: Merit (Buddhism) a sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system. Though objections have been made against this metaphor, it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā, and in seventeenth-century China. Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as the Divyāvadāna. Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry metaphysical mercantilism", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetization of ancient India's economy. Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts

neg: Border-adjustment tax Border-adjustment tax A border-adjustment tax (also known as a border-adjusted tax, destination tax, destination-based cash flow tax or a border tax adjustment) is a tax on goods based on location of final consumption rather than production. It allegedly eliminates incentives for companies to reduce their tax bills through tax inversion and intangible asset relocation. The concept of a border-adjustment tax was originally the subject of a 1997 article by economist Alan J. Auerbach. Auerbach worked with Michael Devereux, who had introduced with Stephen R. Bond, the term destination-based corporate tax. Auerbach described a system that he claimed would align business

neg: Institutional racism unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people." The concept of institutional racism re-emerged in political discourse in the late and mid 1990s after a long hiatus, but has remained a contested concept that has been critiqued by multiple constituencies. Institutional racism is the differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society. When the differential access becomes integral to institutions, it becomes common practice, making it difficult to rectify. Eventually, this racism dominates public bodies, private corporations, public and private universities, and is reinforced by the actions of conformists and newcomers. Another difficulty in

neg: Privatisation in Pakistan introduced in the late 1990. And after introducing this concept privatization was suddenly implemented in different forms in Pakistan, which includes the direct sale and auction of public assets, outsourcing, commercialization, and public private partnerships. At that time it was expected that the concept of the privatization would generate more wealth and will lead the efficiency of each company or organization at a peek level, also assume that after privatization the productivity level of organization become higher and thus the organization deliver their best services. Basically the word privatization means to shift the production of a goods or the provision

neg: Pinus patula has been introduced near sea level in New South Wales, Australia, where it spreads naturally by wind and is very favored because rainfalls are more abundant in summer. It was also introduced in New Zealand for commercial purposes and is fully naturalized there. It is cultivated in the United Kingdom as an ornamental tree for parks and gardens, and has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The timber is pale-pink to salmon, moderately soft, brittle and smelling strongly of aniseed when freshly cut. There are two varieties: 1. "P. patula" Schiede ex Schlechtendal et Chamisso var. patula.

neg: John Robb (author) international war on terror to the domestic concept of "resilient communities". The concept was formally introduced in his article "Power to the People" published in "Fast Company" in March 2006, and expanded in "Brave New War" (John Wiley & Sons, 2007). Robb defines resilient communities as a social and economic development in response to a broken bureaucracy. Resilient communities are self-dependent, producing all critical goods (food, water, energy, security, etc.) locally rather than relying on a central supply system. Such communities do not separate themselves from society, but are prepared for any breakdown in society that might arise. John Robb

neg: History of Worcestershire shortly before the civil war, when charcoal furnaces using water powered bellows began to be introduced. Smithies were generally owned by landowners and leased to smiths, who were not organised into guilds, unlike their counterparts in Coventry. This freedom from price and production control may in part explain the industry's sudden growth in the seventeenth century, which caused rivalry with guilds in London who attempted to stop the flow of Midlands goods into their markets. The greatest benefits of the trade accrued to ironmasters who purchased goods from the local producers for sale onwards. Nailmaking also established itself in the