query: any substance that can provoke an immune response is an

pos: Antigen Antigen In immunology, Antigens are substances specifically bound by antibodies or T lymphocyte antigen receptors. They are substances that stimulate production of or are recognized by antibodies. Sometimes antigens are part of the host itself in an autoimmune disease. Antigens are "targeted" by antibodies. Each antibody is specifically produced by the immune system to match an antigen after cells in the immune system come into contact with it; this allows a precise identification or matching of the antigen and the initiation of a tailored response. The antibody is said to "match" the antigen in the sense that it can bind

pos: Immunogenicity Immunogenicity Immunogenicity is the ability of a particular substance, such as an antigen or epitope, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human and other animal. In other words, immunogenicity is the ability to induce a humoral and/or cell-mediated immune responses.<br>Distinction has to be made between wanted and unwanted immunogenicity. Proteins are significantly more immunogenic than polysaccharides. T cell response is required to drive immunogenicity. Since lipids and nucleic acids are non-immunogenic haptens, they require conjugation with an epitope such as a protein or polysaccharide before they can evoke an immunologic response. In the rush to deliver

pos: Immunogen Immunogen An immunogen is an antigen or any substance that may be specifically bound by components of the immune system (antibody, lymphocytes). The term antigen arises from its ability to induce generation of antibodies (antigen = antibody generation). Despite the fact that all antigens are recognized by specific lymphocytes or by antibodies, not every antigen can evoke an immune response. Those antigens that are capable of inducing an immune response are said to be immunogenic and are called immunogens. An immunogen is any antigen that is capable of inducing humoral and/or cell-mediated immune response rather than immunological tolerance. This ability

pos: Immunogen bind with a larger carrier immunogenic molecule. The hapten-carrier complex, unlike free hapten, can act as an immunogen and can induce an immune response. Until 1959, the terms immunogen and antigen were not distinguished. Immunogen An immunogen is an antigen or any substance that may be specifically bound by components of the immune system (antibody, lymphocytes). The term antigen arises from its ability to induce generation of antibodies (antigen = antibody generation). Despite the fact that all antigens are recognized by specific lymphocytes or by antibodies, not every antigen can evoke an immune response. Those antigens that are capable of

pos: Antigen in the activation of the innate immune system. An immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response. It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B cell receptor or T cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response. At the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody's variable Fab region. Different antibodies have

pos: Linear epitope Linear epitope A linear or a sequential epitope is an epitope that is recognized by antibodies by its linear sequence of amino acids, or primary structure. In contrast, most antibodies recognize a conformational epitope that has a specific three-dimensional shape and its protein structure. An antigen is any substance that the immune system can recognize as being foreign and which provokes an immune response. Since antigens are usually proteins that are too large to bind as a whole to any receptor, only specific segments that form the antigen bind with a specific antibody. Such segments are called epitopes. Likewise, it

pos: Antibody antigen bind, they become an immune complex, which functions as a unitary object and can act as an antigen in its own right, being countered by other antibodies. Similarly, haptens are small molecules that provoke no immune response by themselves, but once they bind to proteins, the resulting complex or hapten-carrier adduct is antigenic. Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes. In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. They are each named with an "Ig" prefix that stands for immunoglobulin (a name sometimes used interchangeably with antibody)

pos: Immunogenicity binding of their constituent epitopes to host HLA, rendering the host cell unable to “signal” to T cells the presence of the tumor or pathogen. Deimmunized protein therapeutics are now entering the clinic; initial results appear to support this approach to reducing immunogenicity risk. Several methods exist for deimmunization by epitope modification for reduced immunologic potential in-vitro, in-vivo and ex-vivo. Immunogenicity Immunogenicity is the ability of a particular substance, such as an antigen or epitope, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human and other animal. In other words, immunogenicity is the ability to induce a humoral

pos: Adaptive immune system substance that binds to a specific antibody and elicits an adaptive immune response. Most viral vaccines are based on live attenuated viruses, whereas many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular components of microorganisms, including harmless toxin components. Many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce an adaptive response, and most bacterial vaccines require the addition of "adjuvants" that activate the antigen-presenting cells of the innate immune system to enhance immunogenicity. Most large molecules, including virtually all proteins and many polysaccharides, can serve as antigens. The parts of an antigen that interact with an antibody molecule or a lymphocyte

pos: Polyclonal B cell response Polyclonal B cell response Polyclonal B cell response is a natural mode of immune response exhibited by the adaptive immune system of mammals. It ensures that a single antigen is recognized and attacked through its overlapping parts, called epitopes, by multiple clones of B cell. In the course of normal immune response, parts of pathogens (e.g. bacteria) are recognized by the immune system as foreign (non-self), and eliminated or effectively neutralized to reduce their potential damage. Such a recognizable substance is called an antigen. The immune system may respond in multiple ways to an antigen; a key feature of this

pos: Artificial induction of immunity the attachment to the antigen of another substance which also generates an immune response, thus amplifying the overall response and causing a more robust immune memory to the antigen. For example, a toxoid might be attached to a polysaccharide from the capsule of the bacteria responsible for most lobar pneumonia. Temporary immunity to a specific infection can be induced in a subject by providing the subject with externally produced immune molecules, known as antibodies or immunoglobulins. This was first performed (and is still sometimes performed) by taking blood from a subject who is already immune, isolating the fraction of the

pos: Blood type "null") in other languages. The Rh system (Rh meaning "Rhesus") is the second most significant blood-group system in human-blood transfusion with currently 50 antigens. The most significant Rh antigen is the D antigen, because it is the most likely to provoke an immune system response of the five main Rh antigens. It is common for D-negative individuals not to have any anti-D IgG or IgM antibodies, because anti-D antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental substances. However, D-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-D antibodies following a sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from a fetus in

pos: Immunogen is called immunogenicity. Sometimes the term immunogen is used interchangeably with the term antigen. But only an immunogen can evoke an immune response. Generally, both are substances that are capable of generating antibodies (antigen) or stimulating immune responses (immunogen). We can define an immunogen as a complete antigen which is composed of the macromolecular carrier and epitopes (determinants) that can induce immune response. An explicit example is a hapten. Haptens are low-molecular-weight compounds that may be bound by antibodies, but cannot elicit an immune response. Consequently, the haptens themselves are nonimmunogenic and they cannot evoke an immune response until they

pos: Conformational epitope then later with T cell receptors through amino acids that are continuous in a line. These are known as linear epitopes. Conformational epitope A conformational epitope is a sequence of sub-units (usually amino acids) composing an antigen that come in direct contact with a receptor of the immune system. An antigen is any substance that the immune system can recognize as foreign. Antigens are usually proteins that are too large to bind as a whole to any receptor so only specific segments, that form the antigen, bind with a specific receptor. Such segments are called epitopes. Likewise, it is only

pos: Conformational epitope Conformational epitope A conformational epitope is a sequence of sub-units (usually amino acids) composing an antigen that come in direct contact with a receptor of the immune system. An antigen is any substance that the immune system can recognize as foreign. Antigens are usually proteins that are too large to bind as a whole to any receptor so only specific segments, that form the antigen, bind with a specific receptor. Such segments are called epitopes. Likewise, it is only paratope of the receptor that comes in contact with the epitope. Proteins are composed of repeating nitrogen-containing subunits called amino acids

pos: Human anti-mouse antibody Human anti-mouse antibody Human anti-mouse antibody (HAMA) or Human anti-murine antibody is an antibody found in humans which reacts to immunoglobins found in mice. Antibody treatment is a type of therapy that is used to treat certain types of cancer and immune disorders. Antibodies are proteins which are naturally formed by the body in response to a foreign substance, known as an antigen. Antibodies can also be grown outside of the patient’s body and injected into them to help aid the immune system to fight disease. These types of antibodies are typically called monoclonal antibodies because they are created to

pos: Antigen and nucleic acids become antigens only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides. In general, saccharides and lipids (as opposed to peptides) qualify as antigens but not as immunogens since they cannot elicit an immune response on their own. Furthermore, for a peptide to induce an immune response (activation of T-cells by antigen-presenting cells) it must be a large enough size, since peptides too small will also not elicit an immune response. The term antigen originally described a structural molecule that binds specifically to an antibody. It was expanded to refer to any molecule or a linear molecular fragment that can

pos: Nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (i.n.) immunization or vaccination is effective way how to stimulate respiratory immune system. This way of immunization can provoke both cell-mediated and humoral immune response and is capable of stimulating both mucosal and systemic immune system. Dose of i.n. administered antigen can be much smaller than of oral administered antigen, because antigens are not exposed to digestive enzymes. Thus, it would be suitable way of vaccination against airborne viruses and bacteria. In 1997, nasal-spray vaccine containing inactivated form of influenza virus with nLT (heat-labile enterotoxin) as adjuvants was used in Switzerland, but it had to be withdrawn from the market,

pos: Immunology including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system. The latter is further divided into humoral (or antibody) and cell-mediated components. The immune system has the capability of self and non-self-recognition. An antigen is a substance that ignites the immune response. The cells involved in recognizing the antigen are Lymphocytes. Once they recognize, they secrete antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that neutralize the disease-causing microorganisms. The antibodies don’t kill the pathogens rather phagocytes are involved in it.

pos: Immune response reaction. The immune response can be transferred via serum antibodies introduction from sensitized to desensitized individuals. It is highly specific for given antigen, and it is normally directed against foreign protein substances. Innate response is the first line of defense when it comes to defending an organism from an foreign invader. Foreign invaders include bacteria, viruses, and parasites. The protection an innate response offers is beneficial because it attacks all foreign invaders that are not part of the cell’s self. An immune response can usually be described generally as "The reaction of the host's immune system to antigen in an

pos: Ipilimumab blocking the inhibitory signal, which allows the CTLs to destroy the cancer cells. In 2014 a study indicated that the antibody works by allowing the patients' T cells to target a greater variety of antigens rather than by increasing the number attacking a single antigen. During “cancer immunoediting", tumor cells can produce antigens that provoke a reduced immune response and/or establish an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). The latter can arise as a consequence of repeated, ineffective T cell stimulation. This triggers the checkpoint that ipilumumab targets. Many patients do not benefit from treatment, which may be related to reduced mutation

pos: Irving Millman donors, thereby preventing the spread of the virus. Later research by the team led to a vaccine that is now commonly given to neonates (newborns). Millman and Blumberg found that the blood of individuals who carried the hepatitis B virus contained particles of the outside coating of the virus. The coating, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), is not infectious; however, HBsAG can provoke an immune response. In order to develop a vaccine, Millman and Blumberg developed a method of detaching the coatings from the virus. Irving Millman Irving Millman (May 23, 1923 – April 17, 2012) was a noted virologist

pos: Monoclonal antibody Monoclonal antibody Monoclonal antibodies (mAb or moAb) are antibodies that are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell. Monoclonal antibodies can have monovalent affinity, in that they bind to the same epitope (the part of an antigen that is recognized by the antibody). In contrast, polyclonal antibodies bind to multiple epitopes and are usually made by several different plasma cell (antibody secreting immune cell) lineages. Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be engineered, by increasing the therapeutic targets of one single monoclonal antibody to two epitopes. Given almost any substance, it is possible to

pos: Isoantibodies to arise from genetic control without apparent antigenic stimulation. A protein or other substance, such as histocompatibility or red blood cell antigens, that is present in only some members of a species and therefore able to stimulate isoantibody production in other members of the same species who lack it. When injected into another animal, they trigger an immune response aimed at eliminating them. Therefore, it can be thought of as an antigen that is present in some members of the same species, but is not common to all members of that species. If an alloantigen is presented to a member

pos: Immunopathology enters the body, there is either an antigen specific or nonspecific response to it. These responses are the immune system fighting off the foreign antigens, whether they are deadly or not. Immunopathology could refer to how the foreign antigens cause the immune system to have a response or problems that can arise from an organism’s own immune response on itself. There are certain problems or faults in the immune system that can lead to more serious illness or disease. These diseases can come from one of the following problems. The first would be Hypersensitivity reactions, where there would be a

pos: Pathology be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. Immunopathology is a branch of clinical pathology that deals with an organism’s immune response to a certain disease. When a foreign antigen enters the body, there is either an antigen specific or nonspecific response to it. These responses are the immune system fighting off the foreign antigens, whether they are deadly or not. Immunopathology could refer to how the foreign antigens cause the immune system to have a response or problems that can arise from an organism’s own immune response on itself. There are certain problems or faults in the

pos: Immunologic adjuvant Immunologic adjuvant In immunology, an adjuvant is a substance that potentiates and/or modulates the immune responses to an antigen to improve them. The word "adjuvant" comes from the Latin word "adiuvare", meaning to help or aid. "An immunologic adjuvant is defined as any substance that acts to accelerate, prolong, or enhance antigen-specific immune responses when used in combination with specific vaccine antigens." A 2007 article in "The Scientist" about vaccine adjuvants, "Deciphering Immunology's Dirty Secret", discussed the early days of vaccine manufacture. Significant variations in the effectiveness of different batches of the same vaccine were correctly assumed to be caused

pos: Polyclonal B cell response response is the production of antibodies by B cells (or B lymphocytes) involving an arm of the immune system known as humoral immunity. The antibodies are soluble and do not require direct cell-to-cell contact between the pathogen and the B-cell to function. Antigens can be large and complex substances, and any single antibody can only bind to a small, specific area on the antigen. Consequently, an effective immune response often involves the production of many different antibodies by many different B cells against the "same" antigen. Hence the term "polyclonal", which derives from the words "poly", meaning "many", and "clones"

pos: Solar urticaria believed to be a type I hypersensitivity (a mild to severe reaction to an antigen including anaphylaxis) in which an antigen, or substance provoking an immune response, is "induced by UV or visible radiation." Secondary SU can occur when a person comes into contact with chemicals such as tar, pitch, and dyes. People who use drugs such as benoxaprofen or patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria may also contract this secondary form. These items that cause this photosensitivity are exogenous photosensitizers because they are outside of the body and cause it to have a greater sensitivity to light. Also, there have been

pos: Conjugate vaccine "Neisseria meningitidis" are similar to Hib in that infection can lead to meningitis. Conjugate vaccine Conjugate vaccines combine a weak antigen with a strong antigen so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen. Vaccines are used to prevent diseases by invoking an immune response to an antigen, the foreign part of a bacteria or virus that the immune system recognizes. This is usually accomplished with an attenuated or dead version of a pathogenic bacterium or virus in the vaccine, so that the immune system can recognize the antigen later in life. Many vaccines contain a

pos: Immune response immunogenic units which stimulate B lymphocytes to differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells, stimulating the T cells to release lymphokines. Complement is a group of normal serum proteins that enhance the immune response by becoming activated as the result of antigen-antibody interaction. The first contact with any antigen sensitize individual affected and promote the "primary immune response". Next of the sensitized individuals with same antigen result in a more rapid and massive reaction, called the "secondary immune response" ("booster response" or the "anamnestic reaction"). It is most expressed in the level of circulating serum antibodies. An anamnestic response in medicine is

pos: Adjuvant different classes of adjuvants that can push immune response in different directions, but the most commonly used adjuvants include aluminum hydroxide and paraffin oil. Immunologic adjuvants are added to vaccines to stimulate the immune system's response to the target antigen, but do not provide immunity themselves. Adjuvants can act in various ways in presenting an antigen to the immune system. Adjuvants can act as a depot for the antigen, presenting the antigen over a longer period of time, thus maximizing the immune response before the body clears the antigen. Examples of depot type adjuvants are oil emulsions. An adjuvant can

pos: N-Arachidonoyl dopamine endogenous ("i.e." TNF) and exogenous ("i.e." bacterial derived LPS (TLR4 agonist) and FSL-1 (TLR2/6 agonist)) inflammatory mediators. It can increase the TRPV1-mediated release of substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in rat dorsal spinal cord slices. Furthermore, NADA also displays inhibitory activity in HIV-1 replication assays. Finally, NADA can prevent the degranulation and release of TNF from RBL- 2H3 mast cells treated with an IgE-antigen complex. Together, these studies show that physiological functions attributed to NADA are multifaceted, and include the ability to modulate the immune response. The biosynthetic pathway of N-arachindonoyldopamine is not well understood. It has been

pos: Antigenic variation on the surface of a bacterium) an immune response is stimulated and antibodies are generated to target that specific antigen. The immune system will then "remember" that particular antigen, and defenses aimed at that antigen become part of the immune system’s acquired immune response. If the same pathogen tries to re-infect the same host the antibodies will act rapidly to target the pathogen for destruction. However, if the pathogen can alter its surface antigens, it can evade the host's acquired immune system. This will allow the pathogen to re-infect the host while the immune system generates new antibodies to target

pos: Idiosyncratic drug reaction To create an immune response, a foreign molecule must be present that antibodies can bind to (i.e. the antigen) and cellular damage must exist. Very often, drugs will not be immunogenic because they are too small to induce immune response. However, a drug can cause an immune response if the drug binds a larger molecule. Some unaltered drugs, such as penicillin, will bind avidly to proteins. Others must be bioactivated into a toxic compound that will in turn bind to proteins. The second criterion of cellular damage can come either from a toxic drug/drug metabolite, or from an injury or

pos: Polyclonal B cell response of antibodies against very few antigens in comparison with the number that the body can recognize and respond against. If an antigen can be recognized by more than one component of its structure, it is less likely to be "missed" by the immune system. Mutation of pathogenic organisms can result in modification of antigen—and, hence, epitope—structure. If the immune system "remembers" what the other epitopes look like, the antigen, and the organism, will still be recognized and subjected to the body's immune response. Thus, the polyclonal response widens the range of pathogens that can be recognized. Many viruses undergo frequent

pos: Conjugate vaccine Conjugate vaccine Conjugate vaccines combine a weak antigen with a strong antigen so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen. Vaccines are used to prevent diseases by invoking an immune response to an antigen, the foreign part of a bacteria or virus that the immune system recognizes. This is usually accomplished with an attenuated or dead version of a pathogenic bacterium or virus in the vaccine, so that the immune system can recognize the antigen later in life. Many vaccines contain a single antigen that the body will recognize. However, the antigen of some pathogenic

pos: Immune privilege it to avoid detection from the immune system altogether, preventing the immune system from responding to any antigens present. More recent investigations have revealed a number of different mechanisms by which immune privileged sites interact with the immune system. Immune privilege Certain sites of the human body have immune privilege, meaning they are able to tolerate the introduction of antigens without eliciting an inflammatory immune response. Tissue grafts are normally recognised as foreign antigen by the body and attacked by the immune system. However, in immune privileged sites, tissue grafts can survive for extended periods of time without rejection occurring.

pos: Adaptive immune system to combat their spread: sanitation and immunization. Immunization (commonly referred to as vaccination) is the deliberate induction of an immune response, and represents the single most effective manipulation of the immune system that scientists have developed. Immunizations are successful because they utilize the immune system's natural specificity as well as its inducibility. The principle behind immunization is to introduce an antigen, derived from a disease-causing organism, that stimulates the immune system to develop protective immunity against that organism, but that does not itself cause the pathogenic effects of that organism. An antigen (short for "anti"body "gen"erator), is defined as any

pos: Immunologic adjuvant mechanisms which underlie TLR signaling has been significant in understanding why adjuvants used during vaccinations are so important in augmenting adaptive immune responses to specific antigens. However, with the knowledge that TLR activation is not required for the immune-enhancing effects caused by common adjuvants, we can conclude that there are, in all likelihood, other receptors besides TLRs that have not yet been characterized, opening the door to future research. Immunologic adjuvant In immunology, an adjuvant is a substance that potentiates and/or modulates the immune responses to an antigen to improve them. The word "adjuvant" comes from the Latin word "adiuvare",

pos: Opsonin the classical complement pathway and marking the antigen with C3b. C3b can spontaneously bind to pathogen surfaces through the alternative complement pathway. Furthermore, pentraxins can directly bind to C1q from the C1 complex. SP-A opsonizes a number of bacterial and viral pathogens for clearance by lung alveolar macrophages. Opsonin An opsonin (from the Greek "opsōneîn", to prepare for eating) is any molecule that enhances phagocytosis by marking an antigen for an immune response or marking dead cells for recycling (i.e., causes the phagocyte to "relish" the marked cell). "Opson" in ancient Greece referred to the delicious side-dish of any meal,

neg: Allergic response Allergic response An allergic response is a hypersensitive immune reaction to a substance that normally is harmless or would not cause an immune response in everyone. An allergic response may cause harmful symptoms such as itching or inflammation or tissue injury. Allergies are an abnormal immune reaction. The human immune system is designed to protect the body from potential harm and in people who have allergies the immune system will react to allergens (substances that trigger an immune response). The immune system will produce immunoglobulin E, IgE, antibodies for each allergen. The antibodies will cause cells in the body to

neg: Virus the faecal–oral route and are passed from person to person by contact, entering the body in food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood. The variety of host cells that a virus can infect is called its "host range". This can be narrow, meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species, or broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many. Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines, which confer an artificially acquired immunity

neg: Cancer immunotherapy allow them to be used as drugs to provoke an immune response. Two commonly used cytokines are interferons and interleukins. Interleukin-2 and interferon-α are cytokines, proteins that regulate and coordinate the behavior of the immune system. They have the ability to enhance anti-tumor activity and thus can be used as passive cancer treatments. Interferon-α is used in the treatment of hairy-cell leukaemia, AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, follicular lymphoma, chronic myeloid leukaemia and malignant melanoma. Interleukin-2 is used in the treatment of malignant melanoma and renal cell carcinoma. Interferons are produced by the immune system. They are usually involved in anti-viral response,

neg: Colostrinin first characterized in animal and in-vitro studies as a substance that generally stimulates the immune response. Such an immunomodulatory action may be important in the treatment of a variety of diseases and is consistent with the beneficial effect of colostrum in promoting the development of the immune system in newborn mammals. Colostrinin is obtained from bovine colostrum by alcohol extraction and filtration. A patented method outlines the steps that can be used to produce this substance on an industrial scale. In this method, an alcohol, such as ethanol or methanol, is used to create an alcohol phase. This phase is

neg: Immunogenicity about the likelihood that a protein will provoke an immune response. Using this approach, the clinical immunogenicity of a novel protein therapeutics can be calculated and consequently a number of biotech companies have integrated in silico immunogenicity into their pre-clinical process as they develop new protein drugs. De-immunization by epitope modification is a strategy for reducing immunogenicity based on disruption of HLA binding, an underlying requirement for T cell stimulation. The idea of rational epitope modification is rooted in the natural process that occurs when tumor cells and pathogens evolve to escape immune pressure by accumulating mutations that reduce the

neg: Autoimmune disease was challenged by the discovery of a substance in the serum of patients with paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria that reacted with red blood cells. Autoimmune disease An autoimmune disease is a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a normal body part. There are at least 80 types of autoimmune diseases. Nearly any body part can be involved. Common symptoms include low grade fever and feeling tired. Often symptoms come and go. The cause is generally unknown. Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus run in families, and certain cases may be triggered by infections or other environmental factors. Some common

neg: Influenza vaccine for researchers have been identifying single antibodies that could neutralize many subtypes of the virus, so that they could be useful in any season, and that target conserved domains that are resistant to antigenic drift. Another approach has been taking the conserved domains identified from these projects, and delivering groups of these antigens to provoke an immune response; various approaches with different antigens, presented different ways (as fusion proteins, mounted on virus-like particles, on non-pathogenic viruses, as DNA, and others), are under development. Efforts have also been undertaken to develop universal vaccines that specifically activate a T-cell response, based on

neg: Toxoplasmosis for the toxoplasma is that its influence on the host cells is stronger in a weak immune system and is quantity-dependent, so a large number of "T. gondii" per host cell cause a more severe effect. The effect on the host also depends on the strength of the host immune system. Immunocompetent individuals do not normally show severe symptoms or any at all, while fatality or severe complications can result in immunocompromised individuals. It should be noted that since the parasite can change the host's immune response, it may also have an effect, positive or negative, on the immune response

neg: Influenza vaccine been the subject of research for decades. One promising approach is using broadly neutralizing antibodies that unlike the vaccine used today, which provoke the body to generate an immune response, instead provide a component of the immune response itself. The first neutralizing antibodies were identified in 1993 via experimentation; with time researchers understood that the flu neutralizing antibodies were binding to the stalk of the Hemagglutinin protein; later researchers identified antibodies that could bind to the head of those proteins. Later yet, researchers identified the highly conserved M2 proton channel as a potential target for broadly neutralizing antibodies. The challenges

neg: Immune system immune response. The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility or the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells. The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized, but remain very influential. More recently, several theoretical frameworks have been suggested in immunology, including "autopoietic" views, "cognitive immune" views, the "danger model" (or "danger theory"), and the "discontinuity" theory. The danger model, suggested by Polly Matzinger and colleagues, has been very influential, arousing many comments and discussions. Larger drugs (>500 Da) can provoke a neutralizing immune response, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in

neg: Gliadin intolerance of wheat, barley and rye – all of which contain prolamins. Gliadin proteins have the ability to provoke an autoimmune enteropathy caused by an abnormal immune response in genetically susceptible individuals. Specific amino acid sequences within the gliadin proteins are responsible for this activity. The main problems with this disease is that it often goes unrecognized for many years, in which it can cause serious damage to several organs, and most cases currently remain unrecognized, undiagnosed and untreated. Mainly intestinal villi destruction mediated by Interferon Gamma and CD 4(+). Celiac disease with "non-classic symptoms" is the most common clinical

neg: Malaria vaccine attempted include the use of two vaccines, one directed at generating a blood response and the other a liver-stage response. These two vaccines could then be injected into two different sites, thus enabling the use of a more specific and potentially efficacious delivery system. To increase, accelerate or modify the development of an immune response to a vaccine candidate it is often necessary to combine the antigenic substance to be delivered with an adjuvant or specialised delivery system. These terms are often used interchangeably in relation to vaccine development; however in most cases a distinction can be made. An adjuvant

neg: Demyelinating disease is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that develops in genetically susceptible individuals after exposure to unknown environmental trigger(s). The bases for MS are unknown but are strongly suspected to involve immune reactions against autoantigens, particularly myelin proteins. The most accepted hypothesis is that dialogue between T-cell receptors and myelin antigens leads to an immune attack on the myelin-oligodendrocyte complex. These interactions between active T cells and myelin antigens provoke a massive destructive inflammatory response and promotes continuing proliferation of T and B cells and macrophage activation, which sustains secretion of inflammatory mediators. Other conditions such

neg: Tetanus to expel the foreign object. A short report in "The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene" states that, in a patient research study, the spatula test had a high specificity (zero false-positive test results) and a high sensitivity (94% of infected patients produced a positive test). Unlike many infectious diseases, recovery from naturally acquired tetanus does not usually result in immunity to tetanus. This is due to the extreme potency of the tetanospasmin toxin. Tetanospasmin will likely be lethal before it will provoke an immune response. Tetanus can be prevented by vaccination with tetanus toxoid. The CDC recommends that

neg: Biological response modifiers Biological response modifiers Biological response modifiers (BRMs) are substances that modify immune responses. They can be both endogenous (produced naturally within the body) and exogenous (as pharmaceutical drugs), and they can either enhance an immune response or suppress it. Some of these substances arouse the body's response to an infection, and others can keep the response from becoming excessive. Thus they serve as immunomodulators in immunotherapy (therapy that makes use of immune responses), which can be helpful in treating cancer (where targeted therapy often relies on the immune system being used to attack cancer cells) and in treating autoimmune diseases

neg: Humor research effects of the antibody. Levels of immune response can be predicted by the number of desirable events (and presumably mood) which occur in preceding days to the immune assessment. However, there is also evidence that significant mood changes in either direction can induce an increase in immune response. Laughter as an overt behavior is also associated with immune response, specifically NK cell activity, which are part of the body’s immune response. Glucocorticoids are lower in subjects who laughed while watching a humorous video, and glucocorticoids decrease NK cell activity, so humor theory posits this pathway as a possible mechanism for

neg: Schreckstoff an immune system response and the ecological ramifications of this substance as a chemical alarm signal developed subsequently. This finding generates a number of interesting research questions. First, as mentioned earlier, males in many ostariophysan species cease production of alarm substance cells during the breeding season, presumably so females are not inadvertently repelled from the nest when males incur mechanical damage during nest building. In light of the immune hypothesis, alarm substance cells possibly are instead produced less during the breeding season because increased testosterone levels may decrease immune responses. Additionally, this finding indicates males are at a greater risk

neg: Cancer immunotherapy blood of a patient and activate them outside the body. The dendritic cells are activated in the presence of tumor antigens, which may be a single tumor-specific peptide/protein or a tumor cell lysate (a solution of broken down tumor cells). These cells (with optional adjuvants) are infused and provoke an immune response. Dendritic cell therapies include the use of antibodies that bind to receptors on the surface of dendritic cells. Antigens can be added to the antibody and can induce the dendritic cells to mature and provide immunity to the tumor. Dendritic cell receptors such as TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 or

neg: Hapten Hapten Haptens are minute molecules that elicit an immune response only when attached to a large carrier such as a protein; the carrier may be one that also does not elicit an immune response by itself. (In general, only large molecules, infectious agents, or insoluble foreign matter can elicit an immune response in the body.) Once the body has generated antibodies to a hapten-carrier adduct, the small-molecule hapten may also be able to bind to the antibody, but it will usually not initiate an immune response; usually only the hapten-carrier adduct can do this. Sometimes the small-molecule hapten can even

neg: Poison are toxic to viruses, fungi, bacteria and cancerous cells are considered a part of the immune system. In nuclear physics, a poison is a substance that obstructs or inhibits a nuclear reaction. For an example, see nuclear poison. Environmentally hazardous substances are not necessarily poisons, and vice versa. For example, food-industry wastewater—which may contain potato juice or milk—can be hazardous to the ecosystems of streams and rivers by consuming oxygen and causing eutrophication, but is nonhazardous to humans and not classified as a poison. Biologically speaking, any substance, if given in large enough amounts, is poisonous and can cause death.

neg: Host cell protein the host system and the human body are many. It is well established that a higher difference to human proteins increases the risk of immunogenicity and thus, a higher level of HCPs is suggested to elicit a more pronounced immune response. Several studies have linked a reduction in HCPs to a decline in specific inflammatory cytokines. Other HCPs may be very similar to a human protein and may induce an immune response with cross reactivity against the human protein or the drug substance protein. The exact consequences of HCPs for the individual patient is uncertain and difficult to determine with

neg: Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity The antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), also referred to as antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, is a mechanism of cell-mediated immune defense whereby an effector cell of the immune system actively lyses a target cell, whose membrane-surface antigens have been bound by specific antibodies. It is one of the mechanisms through which antibodies, as part of the humoral immune response, can act to limit and contain infection. ADCC is independent of the immune complement system that also lyses targets but does not require any other cell. ADCC requires an effector cell which classically is known to be natural killer (NK)

neg: Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases An immune-mediated inflammatory disease (IMID) is any of a group of conditions or diseases that lack a definitive etiology, but which are characterized by common inflammatory pathways leading to inflammation, and which may result from, or be triggered by, a dysregulation of the normal immune response. All IMIDs can cause end organ damage, and are associated with increased morbidity and/or mortality. Inflammation is an important and growing area of biomedical research and health care because inflammation mediates and is the primary driver of many medical disorders and autoimmune diseases, including ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, Behcet's disease,

neg: Pandemrix ultimately to narcolepsy in susceptible individuals. Pandemrix contains two adjuvants designed to provoke a stronger immune response. These were not in the vaccine used in China. In 2013, the New Scientist reported that "part of a surface protein on the pandemic virus looks very similar to part of a brain protein that helps keep people awake". However, the original scientific article claiming that HA protein in both the virus and the vaccine could, in some people, trigger an immune reaction against hypocretin, was recently retracted because the data could not be reproduced. However, further investigations indicated that "antibodies to influenza

neg: Chitin in other species. Humans and other mammals have chitinase and chitinase-like proteins that can degrade chitin; they also possess several immune receptors that can recognize chitin and its degradation products in a pathogen-associated molecular pattern, initiating an immune response. Chitin is sensed mostly in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract where it can activate the innate immune system through eosinophils or macrophages, as well as an adaptive immune response through T helper cells. Keratinocytes in skin can also react to chitin or chitin fragments. According to in vitro studies, chitin is sensed by receptors, such as FIBCD1, KLRB1, REG3G, Toll-like receptor

neg: Call to action (marketing) with highest success rate becomes the default. Call to action (marketing) Call to action (CTA) is a marketing term used extensively in advertising and selling. It refers to any device designed to prompt an immediate response or encourage an immediate sale. A CTA most often refers to the use of words or phrases that can be incorporated into sales scripts, advertising messages or web pages that encourage consumers to take prompt action. In marketing, a "call to action" (CTA) is an instruction to the audience designed to provoke an immediate response, usually using an imperative verb such as "call now",

neg: Call to action (marketing) Call to action (marketing) Call to action (CTA) is a marketing term used extensively in advertising and selling. It refers to any device designed to prompt an immediate response or encourage an immediate sale. A CTA most often refers to the use of words or phrases that can be incorporated into sales scripts, advertising messages or web pages that encourage consumers to take prompt action. In marketing, a "call to action" (CTA) is an instruction to the audience designed to provoke an immediate response, usually using an imperative verb such as "call now", "find out more" or "visit a store

neg: 2009 flu pandemic vaccine unfounded claims that the vaccine is dangerous and they may also promote conspiracy theories. For example, "Newsweek" states that some chain e-mails make false claims about squalene (shark liver oil) in vaccines. "The New York Times" also notes that anti-vaccine groups have spread "dire warnings" about formulations of the vaccine that contain squalene as an adjuvant. An adjuvant is a substance that boosts the body's immune response, thereby stretching the supply of the vaccine and helping immunize elderly people with a weak immune system. Squalene is a normal part of the human body, made in the liver and circulating in

neg: Protein M unique both in structure and biological functions. Its structure has no resemblance to any known protein listed in the Protein Data Bank. Protein M is about 50 kDa in size, and composed of 556 amino acids. Contrary to the initial hypothesis that the antibody reactions could be an immune response to mass infection with the bacterium, they found that Protein M evolved simply to bind to any antibody it encounters, with specifically high affinity. By this property the bacterium can effectively evade the immune system of the host. This makes the protein an ideal target for developing new drugs. Rajesh

neg: Farmer's lung arise due to one's inability to recognize the cause of symptoms. Farmer's lung occurs because repeated exposure to antigens, found in the mold spores of hay, crops, and animal feed, triggers an allergic reaction within the farmer's immune system. The defense mechanisms of the body present as cold and flu-like symptoms that occur in individuals who experience either acute or chronic reactions. The mold spores are inhaled and provoke the creation of IgE antibodies that circulate in the bloodstream, these types of immune response are most often initiated by exposure to thermophilic actinomycetes (most commonly "Saccharopolyspora rectivirgula"), which generate IgG-type

neg: Autoantibody Autoantibody An autoantibody is an antibody (a type of protein) produced by the immune system that is directed against one or more of the individual's own proteins. Many autoimmune diseases (notably lupus erythematosus) are caused by such autoantibodies. Antibodies are produced by B cells in two ways: (i) randomly, and (ii) in response to a foreign protein or substance within the body. Initially, one B cell produces one specific kind of antibody. In either case, the B cell is allowed to proliferate or is killed off through a process called clonal deletion. Normally, the immune system is able to recognize

neg: Substance P its receptors is the cause of any given disease, or an effect. As increasingly documented, the SP-NK1R system induces or modulates many aspects of the immune response, including WBC production and activation, and cytokine expression, Reciprocally, cytokines may induce expression of SP and its NK1R. In this sense, for diseases in which a pro-inflammatory component has been identified or strongly suspected, and for which current treatments are absent or in need of improvement, abrogation of the SP-NK1 system continues to receive focus as a treatment strategy. Currently, the only completely developed method available in that regard is antagonism (blockade, inhibition)

neg: Lymphokine Lymphokine Lymphokines are a subset of cytokines that are produced by a type of immune cell known as a lymphocyte. They are protein mediators typically produced by T cells to direct the immune system response by signaling between its cells. Lymphokines have many roles, including the attraction of other immune cells, including macrophages and other lymphocytes, to an infected site and their subsequent activation to prepare them to mount an immune response. Circulating lymphocytes can detect a very small concentration of lymphokine and then move up the concentration gradient towards where the immune response is required. Lymphokines aid B cells

neg: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor host defense in the innate immune system. Macrophages can release cytokines and other chemicals to cause an inflammatory response. Peripheral inflammation can induce an inflammatory response in microglia and can cause neuroinflammation. SSRIs inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production which leads to less activation of microglia and peripheral macrophages. SSRIs not only inhibit the production of these proinflammatory cytokines, they also have been shown to upregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10. Taken together, this reduces the overall inflammatory immune response. In addition to affecting cytokine production, there is evidence that treatment with SSRIs has effects on the proliferation and viability of immune

neg: Pharmacotoxicology (HMG CoA reductase). Some pharmaceuticals can initiate allergic reactions, as in the case of penicillins. In some people, administration of penicillin can induce production of specific antibodies and initiate an immune response. Activation of this response when unwarranted can cause severe health concerns and prevent proper immune system functioning. Immune responses to pharmaceutical exposure can be very common in accidental contamination events. Tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, has been shown to alter the humoral adaptive immune response in gilthead seabream. In this case, pharmaceuticals can produce adverse effects not only in humans, but also in organisms that are unintentionally

neg: Immune tolerance twin chimerism they inspired, were seminal for the theories of immune tolerance formulated by Sir Frank McFarlane Burnet and Frank Fenner, who were the first to propose the deletion of self-reactive lymphocytes to establish tolerance, now termed clonal deletion. Burnet and Medawar were ultimately credited for "the discovery of acquired immune tolerance" and shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1960. In their Nobel Lecture, Medawar and Burnet define immune tolerance as "a state of indifference or non-reactivity towards a substance that would normally be expected to excite an immunological response." Other more recent definitions have remained more

neg: Pathology immune system that can lead to more serious illness or disease. These diseases can come from one of the following problems. The first would be Hypersensitivity reactions, where there would be a stronger immune response than normal. There are four different types (type one, two, three and four), all with varying types and degrees of an immune response. The problems that arise from each type vary from small allergic reactions to more serious illnesses such as tuberculosis or arthritis. The second kind of complication in the immune system is Autoimmunity, where the immune system would attack itself rather than the

neg: Gut flora immune system creates cytokines that can drive the immune system to produce inflammation in order to protect itself, and that can tamp down the immune response to maintain homeostasis and allow healing after insult or injury. Different bacterial species that appear in gut flora have been shown to be able to drive the immune system to create cytokines selectively; for example "Bacteroides fragilis" and some "Clostridia" species appear to drive an anti-inflammatory response, while some segmented filamentous bacteria drive the production of inflammatory cytokines. Gut flora can also regulate the production of antibodies by the immune system. One function of

neg: Phagocyte by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response and is an important function of phagocytes. Phagocytes are usually not bound to any particular organ but move through the body interacting with the other phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells of the immune system. They can communicate with other cells by producing chemicals called cytokines, which recruit other phagocytes to the site of infections or stimulate dormant lymphocytes. Phagocytes form part of the innate immune system, which animals, including humans, are born with. Innate immunity is very effective but non-specific in that it does not discriminate between different sorts

neg: Food placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as "Salmonella" or "E. coli". Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived

neg: Implant (medicine) occurs, the protein changes conformation and different activation sites become exposed, which may trigger an immune system response where the body attempts to attack the implant to remove the foreign material. The trigger of the immune system response can be accompanied by inflammation. The immune system response may lead to chronic inflammation where the implant is rejected and has to be removed from the body. The immune system may encapsulate the implant as an attempt to remove the foreign material from the site of the tissue by encapsulating the implant in fibrinogen and platelets. The encapsulation of the implant can

neg: Major histocompatibility complex been suggested. In a transplant procedure, as of an organ or stem cells, MHC molecules act themselves as antigens and can provoke immune response in the recipient, thus causing transplant rejection. MHC molecules were identified and named after their role in transplant rejection between mice of different strains, though it took over 20 years to clarify MHC's role in presenting peptide antigens to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Each human cell expresses six MHC class I alleles (one HLA-A, -B, and -C allele from each parent) and six to eight MHC class II alleles (one HLA-DP and -DQ, and one or

neg: Thymus regulate the maturation of T cells, including thymulin, thymopoietin, and thymosins. The immune system is a multicomponent interactive system. It effectively protects the host from various infections. An improperly functioning immune system can cause discomfort, disease or even death. The type of malfunction falls into one or more of the following major groups: hypersensitivity or allergy, auto-immune disease, or immunodeficiency. Allergy results from an inappropriate and excessive immune response to common antigens. Substances that trigger an allergic response are called allergens. Allergies involve mainly IgE, antibodies, and histamine. Mast cells release the histamine. Sometimes an allergen may cause a sudden

neg: Schreckstoff environmental stressors, increased in concentration in the environment, the immune response of many ostariophysan fishes would be compromised. Schreckstoff In 1938, the Austrian ethologist Karl von Frisch made his first report on the existence of the chemical alarm signal known as Schreckstoff (startle/shock substance) in minnows. An alarm signal is a response produced by an individual, the “sender”, reacting to a hazard that warns other animals, the receivers, of danger. This chemical alarm signal is only released when the sender incurs mechanical damage, such as when it has been caught by a predator, and is detected by the olfactory system.

neg: Immune privilege as it has been shown that immune cells of the CNS contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood. Immune privilege is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation to protect vital structures from the potentially damaging effects of an inflammatory immune response. Inflammation in the brain or eye can lead to loss of organ function, while immune responses directed against a fetus can lead to miscarriage. Medically, a cornea transplant takes advantage of this, as does knee meniscal transplantation. Antigens from immune privileged regions have been found to interact with T cells in an unusual way

neg: Adaptive immune system protection; for example, chickenpox. The acquired system response destroys invading pathogens and any toxic molecules they produce. Sometimes the acquired system is unable to distinguish harmful from harmless foreign molecules; the effects of this may be hayfever, asthma or any other allergy. Antigens are any substances that elicit the acquired immune response (whether adaptive or maladaptive to the organism).. The cells that carry out the acquired immune response are white blood cells known as lymphocytes. Two main broad classes—antibody responses and cell mediated immune response—are also carried by two different lymphocytes (B cells and T cells). In antibody responses, B

neg: Active immunotherapy cells makes tumor antigens ideal candidates for vaccination. Active immunotherapy Active immunotherapy is a type of immunotherapy that aims to stimulate the host's immune system or a specific immune response to a disease or pathogen and is most commonly used in cancer treatments. Active immunotherapy is also used for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, prion disease, and multiple sclerosis. Active immunotherapies induce an immune response through direct immune system stimulation, while immunotherapies that administer antibodies directly to the system are classified as passive immunotherapies. Active immunotherapies can elicit generic and specific immune responses depending on

neg: Active immunotherapy Active immunotherapy Active immunotherapy is a type of immunotherapy that aims to stimulate the host's immune system or a specific immune response to a disease or pathogen and is most commonly used in cancer treatments. Active immunotherapy is also used for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, prion disease, and multiple sclerosis. Active immunotherapies induce an immune response through direct immune system stimulation, while immunotherapies that administer antibodies directly to the system are classified as passive immunotherapies. Active immunotherapies can elicit generic and specific immune responses depending on the goal of the treatment. The categories of

neg: Georgii Zeliony “all physiological phenomena may be completely studied as if psychical phenomena had no existence.” Direct excitation of the mouth cavity of a dog produces an “unconditional” reflex secretion of the saliva. In case the exciting substance is something the dog eats, the secretion is thick; if it be one that the dog refuses, the secretion is more liquid. Any other excitant, acting on any sense whatever (or any combination of excitants), may provoke a “conditional” reflex secretion of either kind, provided it has previously acted on the animal conjointly with another excitant which has produced an unconditional reflex. The conditional

neg: Toll-like receptor Richard Pfeiffer, a student of Robert Koch, coined the term "endotoxin" to describe a substance produced by Gram-negative bacteria that could provoke fever and shock in experimental animals. In the decades that followed, endotoxin was chemically characterized and identified as a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) produced by most Gram-negative bacteria. This lipopolysaccharide is an integral part of the gram-negative membrane and is released upon destruction of the bacterium. Other molecules (bacterial lipopeptides, flagellin, and unmethylated DNA) were shown in turn to provoke host responses that are normally protective. However, these responses can be detrimental if they are excessively prolonged or intense. It

neg: Polly Matzinger asserts that the relationship of the immune system to commensal bacteria remains poorly understood but is likely to be important. Matzinger argues that the idea of DAMPs may explain why Toll-like receptors seem to respond both to external and endogenous signals (while acknowledging controversy over this issue). By emphasizing her theory that the tissues drive the nature of the immune response (i.e., the "what type" rather than the "whether" of immune response), Matzinger describes a dynamic immune system with complex webs of signalling, rather than an immune system that can be explained by a simple and easily reducible set of

neg: Immune system to adapt over time to recognize specific pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer. Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS,

neg: Onchocerca volvulus to attack by immune cells because they exit nodules to complete their lifecycle. "Onchocerca volvulus" can be detected by the immune system through the release of soluble antigens and antigens found on the surface of microfilariae and infective J juveniles. These antigens allow the immune system to detect the presence of a foreign organism in the body and trigger an immune response to clear infection. The immune response involves raising antibodies (IgG, IgM and IgE type) that can react with soluble antigens released by "Onchocerca volvulus". Opsonising antibodies that tag cells for destruction are also found against the infective J

neg: Survivin significant difference between the control and test groups, whereby mice given the vaccine had less angiogenesis from the tumour challenge than the control mice that were not given any of the vaccine prior to tumour challenge. In vitro assays and other tests were also performed to validate the idea of the occurrence of an actual immune response to support what they observed in the mice. For example, the spleen on the challenged mice were isolated and measured for the presence of any cytokines, and specifically activated immune cell groups that would indicative that a specific immune response did occur upon

neg: Asbestosis types of fibers: amphibole (thin and straight) and serpentine (curly). All forms of asbestos fibers are responsible for human disease as they are able to penetrate deeply into the lungs. When such fibers reach the alveoli (air sacs) in the lung, where oxygen is transferred into the blood, the foreign bodies (asbestos fibers) cause the activation of the lungs' local immune system and provoke an inflammatory reaction dominated by lung macrophages that respond to chemotactic factors activated by the fibers. This inflammatory reaction can be described as chronic rather than acute, with a slow ongoing progression of the immune system

neg: Adipokinetic hormone become an important area of study, particularly in insect crop pests and insects that act as intermediate or vector hosts for parasites that can affect humans or agricultural animals. It is believed that AKH does not only aid flight in insects, but it has also been shown that an increase in AKH can lead to stronger immune responses in locusts. One group have performed experiments where locusts received an injection including AKH and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) – an immune elicitor found in the cell walls of bacteria – led to a stronger immune response than locusts which only received an LPS

neg: Tetanospasmin may be insufficient to provoke an immune response. Naturally-acquired tetanus infections thus do not usually provide immunity to subsequent infections. Immunization (which is impermanent and must be repeated periodically) instead utilizes the less deadly toxoid derived from the toxin, as in the tetanus vaccine and some combination vaccines (such as DTP). Tetanospasmin Tetanus toxin is an extremely potent neurotoxin produced by the vegetative cell of "Clostridium tetani" in anaerobic conditions, causing tetanus. It has no known function for clostridia in the soil environment where they are normally encountered. It is also called spasmogenic toxin, or TeNT. The LD of this

neg: Chitin 2, CLEC7A, and mannose receptors. The immune response can sometimes clear the chitin and its associated organism, but sometimes the immune response is pathological and becomes an allergy; allergy to house dust mites is thought to be driven by a response to chitin. Plants also have receptors that can cause a response to chitin, namely chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1 and chitin elicitor-binding protein. The first chitin receptor was cloned in 2006. When the receptors are activated by chitin, genes related to plant defense are expressed, and jasmonate hormones are activated, which in turn activate systematic defenses. Commensal fungi have

neg: Immune disorder Immune disorder An immune disorder is a dysfunction of the immune system. These disorders can be characterized in several different ways: According to the International Union of Immunological Societies, more than 150 primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDs) have been characterized. However, the number of acquired immunodeficiencies exceeds the number of PIDs. It has been suggested that most people have at least one primary immunodeficiency. Due to redundancies in the immune system, though, many of these are never detected. An autoimmune disease is a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a normal body part. There are at least 80 types