query: studies have shown that the ice located in the south pole of mars is mostly

pos: Martian polar ice caps much melts or sublimates (Mars climate causes snow to go directly from a solid to a gas). Frost, on the other hand has a rougher surface and tends to trap more sunlight, resulting in more sublimation. In other words, areas with more of the rougher frost are warmer. Research, published in April 2011, described a large deposit of frozen carbon dioxide near the south pole. Most of this deposit probably enters Mars' atmosphere when the planet's tilt increases. When this occurs, the atmosphere thickens, winds get stronger, and larger areas on the surface can support liquid water. A large field

pos: Ice cap climate Mountains, the Caucasus, and the Alps. Mars, like Earth, has ice caps at its poles. In addition to frozen water, Mars ice caps also have frozen carbon dioxide, commonly known as dry ice. In addition, Mars has seasons similar to Earth. The North Pole of Mars has a permanent water ice cap and a winter-only dry ice cap. On the south pole, both the water and carbon dioxide are permanently frozen. Europa, a moon of Jupiter, is covered with a permanent sheet of water ice, similar to Antarctica. Scientists theorize that it may have sub-glacial lakes similar to those seen

pos: Extraterrestrial atmosphere and regionally, however, changes in pits in the layer of frozen carbon dioxide at the Martian south pole observed between 1999 and 2001 suggest the south polar ice cap is shrinking. More recent observations indicate that Mars' south pole is continuing to melt. "It's evaporating right now at a prodigious rate," says Michael Malin, principal investigator for the Mars Orbiter Camera. The pits in the ice are growing by about 3 meters (9.8 ft) per year. Malin states that conditions on Mars are not currently conductive to the formation of new ice. A web site has suggested that this indicates

pos: Terraforming of Mars warming that are available in large quantities in the Mars environment. However, the gravity on Mars is not strong enough to hold on to the water vapor, which would escape into space (see above diagram). Large amounts of water ice exist below the Martian surface, as well as on the surface at the poles, where it is mixed with dry ice, frozen . Significant amounts of water are located at the south pole of Mars, which, if melted, would correspond to a planetwide ocean 5–11 meters deep. Frozen carbon dioxide () at the poles sublimes into the atmosphere during the

pos: Climate of Mars hemisphere spring and summer, reaching a total maximum area of approximately 900,000 km and 1,000,000 km respectively in late spring. Clouds around Alba Patera and Pavonis Mons show an additional, smaller peak in late summer. Very few clouds were observed in winter. Predictions from the Mars General Circulation Model are consistent with these observations. Mars has ice caps at its north pole and south pole, which mainly consist of water ice; however, there is frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) present on their surfaces. Dry ice accumulates in the north polar region (Planum Boreum) in winter only, subliming completely in summer,

pos: Climate of Mars of Beagle 2. Regional dust storms were discovered to be closely related to where dust was available. There have been regional changes around the south pole (Planum Australe) over the past few Martian years. In 1999 the Mars Global Surveyor photographed pits in the layer of frozen carbon dioxide at the Martian south pole. Because of their striking shape and orientation these pits have become known as swiss cheese features. In 2001 the craft photographed the same pits again and found that they had grown larger, retreating about 3 meters in one Martian year. These features are caused by the

neg: Martian polar ice caps north. The residual southern ice cap is displaced; that is, it is not centered on the south pole. However, the south seasonal cap is centered near the geographic pole. Studies have shown that the off center cap is caused by much more snow falling on one side than the other. On the western hemisphere side of the south pole a low pressure system forms because the winds are changed by the Hellas Basin. This system produces more snow. On the other side, there is less snow and more frost. Snow tends to reflect more sunlight in the summer, so not

neg: Exploration of Mars 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA. The Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole, while NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars. The lander's fate remained a mystery until it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The images suggest that two of the spacecraft's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna. "Beagle 2" is the first British

neg: Climate of Mars sublimation of the dry ice layer, thereby exposing the inert water ice layer. More recent observations indicate that the ice at Mars' south pole is continuing to sublimate. The pits in the ice continue to grow by about 3 meters per Martian year. Malin states that conditions on Mars are not currently conducive to the formation of new ice. A NASA press release indicates that "climate change [is] in progress" on Mars. In a summary of observations with the Mars Orbiter Camera, researchers speculated that some dry ice may have been deposited between the Mariner 9 and the Mars Global

neg: Dorsa Argentea Formation One dates from Early Hesperian, while the other group dates to the Late Noachian. These dates correspond to the time when Mars had lakes and valley networks which formed from runoff, drainage and storage of liquid water on the surface of Mars. Later studies suggest the ice sheet formed near the boundary of the Noachian-Hesperian era and receded in the early Hesperian era. The Dorsa Argentea Formation represents a time when there was melting and drainage of meltwater from a giant ice sheet around the Martian South Pole. Various mechanisms may have caused the ice to melt. Possible mechanisms may

neg: Mars the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick. This permanent dry ice cover at the south pole is peppered by flat floored, shallow, roughly circular pits, which repeat imaging shows are expanding by meters per year; this suggests that the permanent CO cover over the south pole water ice is degrading over time. The northern polar cap has a diameter of about during the northern Mars summer, and contains about of ice, which, if spread evenly on the cap, would be thick. (This compares to a volume of for the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern

neg: Water on Mars the readings indicated a sub-surface lake bearing water about wide. The top of the lake is located under the planet's surface; how much deeper the liquid water extends remains unknown. Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere, and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole

neg: Mare Australe quadrangle Mars. This large polar ice sheet is believed to have covered about 1.5 million square kilometers. That area is twice the area of the state of Texas. The ice sheet formed near the boundary of the Noachian-Hesperian era and receded in the early Hesperian era. A thick ice sheet was able to be formed more easily in the south polar region than in the North pole because the south pole is higher in altitude. There may have been much more water available in the Martian atmosphere when the ice sheet developed. This group of ridges extends from 270–100 E and

neg: Dorsa Argentea Formation have been a warmer atmosphere, volcanism, or increased thickness of the ice cap from accumulating snow. A thick ice sheet more likely in the south polar region than in the north pole because the south pole is higher in altitude. Also, there may have been much more water available in the Martian atmosphere when the ice sheet developed. A team of researchers used an early Mars global climate model together with the University of Maine Ice Sheet Model to determine how the eskers of the Dorsa Argentea Formation formed. They concluded that a greenhouse gas in addition to a thicker

neg: Water on Mars Water on Mars Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere, and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate conditions. More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars, enough to

neg: Climate of Mars ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees. Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from its current 25 degrees, ice is no longer stable at the poles. Furthermore, at this high tilt, stores of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimate, thereby increasing the atmospheric pressure. This increased pressure allows more dust to be held in

neg: Martian polar ice caps of eskers exist around the south pole, called the Dorsa Argentea Formation, it is believed to be the remains of a giant ice sheet. This large polar ice sheet is believed to have covered about 1.5 million square kilometers. That area is twice the area of the state of Texas. In July 2018 ESA discovered indications of liquid salt water buried under layers of ice and dust by analyzing the reflection of radar pulses generated by Mars Express. While the north polar cap of Mars has a flat, pitted surface resembling cottage cheese, the south polar cap has larger pits,

neg: North Pole Angeles at the very same time. The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean

neg: Hellas quadrangle will cause the ice in the polar caps to be redistributed and change the amount of dust in the atmosphere. Many features on Mars, including ones in Hellas quadrangle, are believed to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from its current 25 degrees,

neg: Casius quadrangle other features, it sits in more than one quadrangle. Part of Nilosyrtis is in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, the rest is in Casius quadrangle. Many features on Mars, including many in Casius quadrangle, are believed to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from

neg: Nilosyrtis Mensae showed that lobate debris aprons (LDA) and lineated valley fill (LVF) contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice. Ice was found in many locations in the northern hemisphere, including Nilosyrtis Mensae. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from its current

neg: Protonilus Mensae places in Protonilus Mensae display lines of pits. These pits may have formed when ground ice converted to a gas, thus leaving a void. When surface material collapses into voids, pits are created. Many features on Mars, including ones in Protonilus Mensae, are believed to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that

neg: Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars of meters thick) of carbon dioxide ice at the south pole. Mars' atmosphere is so thin and wispy that solar heating of dust and ice in the atmosphere - not heating of the atmospheric gases - is more important in driving weather. Small, suspended particles of dust and water ice - aerosols - intercept 20–30% of incoming sunlight, even under relatively clear conditions. So variations in the amounts of these aerosols have a huge influence on climate. CRISM has taken three major kinds of measurements of dust and ice in the atmosphere: targeted observations whose repeated views of the surface

neg: Ismenius Lacus quadrangle Crater. Much of the Martian surface is covered with a thick ice-rich, mantle layer that has fallen from the sky a number of times in the past. Many features on Mars, especially ones found in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, are believed to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that when the tilt

neg: Hellas quadrangle remarked that future colonists of the Red Planet would be able to gather up ice with just a bucket and shovel. The layered ice is exposed in triangular shaped depressions. One wall is very steep and faces the pole. The fact that water-ice makes up the layers was confirmed by Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The spectra gathered by CRISM showed strong signals of water. The layers are especially prominent in depressions in Hellas quadrangle as shown in the enlarged views below. Besides being of great value to future explorers, these

neg: Gravity of Mars spring equinox. In long term speaking, it has been found that the mass of ice stored in North Pole would increase by (1.4 + 0.5) x 10 kg, while in South Pole it would decrease by (0.8 + 0.6) x 10 kg. In addition, the atmosphere would have decrease in term of the mass of carbon dioxide by (0.6 + 0.6) x 10 kg in long term as well. Due to existence of uncertainties, it is unclear whether migration of material from the South Pole to the North Pole is ongoing, though such a possibility cannot be ruled out. The

neg: Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter scalloped terrain. Scalloped topography is common in the mid-latitudes of Mars, between 45° and 60° north and south. However scalloped terrain, displays a gentle equator-facing slope and is rounded. Scarps discussed here have a steep pole-facing side. For several reasons, the ice-rich clifts (scarps) are suspected to be ground ice instead of thin, temporary frost. Their blue color stays even after seasonal frost, indicated by blue color, has disappeared from the surroundings and from higher, colder locations. Also, Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) measurements show a temperature in the late-afternoon that is above the frost point. This means that any

neg: Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars dust in the atmosphere. Atmospheric water vapor varies in abundance seasonally, with the greatest abundances in each hemisphere's summer after the seasonal polar caps have sublimated into the atmosphere. During winter, both water and carbon dioxide frost and ices form on Mars' surface. These ices form the seasonal and residual polar caps. The seasonal caps - which form each autumn and sublimate each spring - are dominated by carbon dioxide ice. The residual caps - which persist year after year - consist mostly of water ice at the north pole and water ice with a thin veneer (a few 10's

neg: Planum Boreum seasonal dry ice) has been studied from orbit. The outer edges of the ice cap are contaminated with dust (0.15% by weight) and are mostly water ice. As one moves toward the pole, the surface water ice content decreases and is replaced by dry ice. The purity of the ice also increases. At the pole, the surface seasonal ice consists of essentially pure dry ice with little dust content and 30 parts per million of water ice. The Phoenix lander, launched in 2007, arrived at Mars in May 2008 and successfully landed in the Vastitas Borealis region of the planet

neg: Mars ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of . A permafrost mantle stretches from the pole to latitudes of about 60°. Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped within the thick cryosphere of Mars. Radar data from "Mars Express" and the "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter" show large quantities of water ice at both poles (July 2005) and at middle latitudes (November 2008). The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008. Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that

neg: Deuteronilus Mensae tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from its current 25 degrees, ice is no longer stable at the poles. Furthermore, at this high tilt, stores of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimate, thereby increasing the atmospheric pressure. This increased pressure allows more dust to be held in the atmosphere. Moisture in the atmosphere will fall as snow or as ice frozen onto dust grains. Calculations suggest this material will concentrate in the mid-latitudes. General circulation

neg: Mars landing attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but "Beagle 2" was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA that blamed principal investigator Colin Pillinger's poor project management. Nevertheless, Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole. NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars. Signs of the "Beagle 2" lander were found in 2013 by the HiRISE camera on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the "Beagle 2"s presence confirmed in January 2015, several months

neg: Ross (Martian crater) that would not have allowed for liquid water. When dry ice frost changes to a gas, it may lubricate dry material to flow especially on steep slopes. In some years frost, perhaps as thick as 1 meter, triggers avalanches. This frost contains mostly dry ice, but also has tiny amounts of water ice. Some surfaces on Mars display polygons. These may be of different sizes. Polygons are an example of patterned ground. Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars. Ross (Martian crater) Ross is an impact crater in the Thaumasia quadrangle of Mars located at 57.7

neg: Climate of Mars Surveyor mission. Based on the current rate of loss, the deposits of today may be gone in a hundred years. Elsewhere on the planet, low latitude areas have more water ice than they should have given current climatic conditions. Mars Odyssey "is giving us indications of recent global climate change in Mars," said Jeffrey Plaut, project scientist for the mission at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in non-peer reviewed published work in 2003. Colaprete et al. conducted simulations with the Mars General Circulation Model which show that the local climate around the Martian south pole may currently be in an unstable

neg: Diacria quadrangle Rovers were designed to last for 3 months, instead they both lasted more than six years, and one is still going. The pattern of the tracks have been shown to change every few months. The triangular depressions visible in Milankovic Crater contain water ice in the straight wall that faces the pole, according to a new study. Eight sites were found with Milankovic Crater being the only one in the northern hemisphere. This discovery is important because the ice lies under only a meter or two of cover. Research was conducted with instruments on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO).

neg: Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey levels of chemically bound water in the Martian soil. It is believed that although the upper surface only contains a percent or so of water, ice may lie just a few feet deeper. Some areas, Arabia Terra, Amazonis quadrangle, and Elysium quadrangle contain large amounts of water. Analysis of the data suggest that the southern hemisphere may have a layered structure. Both of the poles showed buried ice, but the north pole had none close to it because it was covered over by seasonal carbon dioxide (dry ice). When the measurements were gathered, it was winter at the north pole

neg: Martian chaos terrain of the planet. The tilt of the spin axis of Mars is highly variable due to the lack of a large moon. Observations of many craters have shown that many craters are mostly full of sediments—ice could be one of the sediments. Many craters appear to be very shallow, but observations of younger craters have demonstrated that impact craters start out as sort of bowl shaped; hence a crater that today looks shallow has probably been filled with sediments. Research, published by Rodriguez and others in 2005, suggested that the subsurface of Mars contains an accumulation of old craters that

neg: Swiss cheese features Swiss cheese features Swiss cheese features (SCFs) are curious pits in the south polar ice cap of Mars (Mare Australe quadrangle) named from their similarity to the holes in Swiss cheese. They were first seen in 2000 using Mars Orbiter Camera imagery. They are typically a few hundred meters across and 8 metres deep, with a flat base and steep sides. They tend to have similar bean-like shapes with a cusp pointing towards the south pole, indicating that insolation is involved in their formation. The angle of the Sun probably contributes to their roundness. Near the Martian summer solstice, the

neg: History of Mars observation the pole. He observed that the size of the cap varied over time. The German-born British astronomer Sir William Herschel began making observations of the planet Mars in 1777, particularly of the planet's polar caps. In 1781, he noted that the south cap appeared "extremely large", which he ascribed to that pole being in darkness for the past twelve months. By 1784, the southern cap appeared much smaller, thereby suggesting that the caps vary with the planet's seasons and thus were made of ice. In 1781, he estimated the rotation period of Mars as 24 39 21.67 and measured the

neg: Atmosphere of Mars cold that as much as 25% of the atmospheric condenses at the polar caps into solid ice (dry ice). When the pole is again exposed to sunlight during summer, the ice sublimes back into the atmosphere. This process leads to a significant annual variation in the atmospheric pressure and atmospheric composition around the Martian poles. It has been suggested that Mars had a much thicker, warmer, and wetter atmosphere early in its history. Much of this early atmosphere would have consisted of carbon dioxide. Such an atmosphere would have raised the temperature, at least in some places, to above the

neg: Supercontinent a temperature increase at this time. This increase may have been strongly influenced by the movement of Gondwana across the South Pole, which may have prevented lengthy snow accumulation. Although late Ordovician temperatures at the South Pole may have reached freezing, there were no ice sheets during the early Silurian through the late Mississippian Agreement can be met with the theory that continental snow can occur when the edge of a continent is near the pole. Therefore, Gondwana, although located tangent to the South Pole, may have experienced glaciation along its coast. Though precipitation rates during monsoonal circulations are difficult

neg: Lobate debris apron evidence that the LDAs in Hellas Planitia are glaciers covered with a thin layer of rocks. In addition, radar studies in Deuteronilus Mensae show that all lobate debris aprons examined in that region contain ice. The experiments of the Phoenix lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit show that frozen water exists just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes). Most of the ice was deposited as snow when the climate was different. The discovery of water ice in LDAs demonstrates that water is found at even lower latitudes. Future colonists

neg: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter provided strong evidence that the LDAs in Hellas Planitia are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of debris (i.e. rocks and dust); a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs was observed, suggesting that pure water ice makes up the bulk of the formation (between the two reflections). Based on the experiments of the "Phoenix" lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit, water ice is known to exist just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes). Using data from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey and the "Mars

neg: Exploration of Mars On November 5, 2006 MGS lost contact with Earth. NASA ended efforts to restore communication on January 28, 2007. In 2001, NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter arrived at Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole. On June 2, 2003, the European Space

neg: North Pole east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere. While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole.

neg: Vostok Station the Geographic South Pole, at the center of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Vostok is located near the Southern Pole of Inaccessibility and the South Geomagnetic Pole, making it one of the optimal places to observe changes in the Earth's magnetosphere. Other studies include actinometry, geophysics, medicine and climatology. The station is at above sea level and is one of the most isolated established research stations on the Antarctic continent. The station was supplied from Mirny Station on the Antarctic coast. The station typically contains 25 scientists and engineers in the summer. In winter, their number drops to 13. The

neg: Bamberg (crater) Bamberg (crater) Bamberg is an impact crater in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle of Mars, located at 39.71 N and 356.9 E. It is 55.7 km in diameter and is named after the town Bamberg in Germany. CTX images and HiRISE images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have shown that the crater contains gullies. Martian gullies are believed to have formed through rather recent flows of liquid water. Gullies are visible in the pictures below. On the basis of their form, aspects, positions, and location amongst and apparent interaction with features thought to be rich in water ice, many researchers believed

neg: Mare Australe quadrangle were designed to last for 3 months, instead they lasted more than six years, and one is still going after 8 years. The pattern of the tracks have been shown to change every few months. A study that combined data from the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) and the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) found that some large dust devils on Mars have a diameter of 700 meters and last at least 26 minutes. The Dorsa Argentea Formation (DAF) is thought to be a large system of eskers that were under an ancient ice cap in the south polar region of

neg: Geography of Antarctica Pole are situated here. Divided into: Larger ice shelves are: For all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves. For a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands. Seven nations have made official Territorial claims in Antarctica. Geography of Antarctica The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and, thus, by ice. The Antarctic continent, located in the Earth's southern hemisphere, is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle. It is washed by the Southern (or Antarctic) Ocean or, depending on definition, the southern Pacific,

neg: Geology of Mercury also be due to the existence of deposits of metallic sulfates or other materials with high reflectance. Mercury is not unique in having craters that stand in permanent shadow; at the south pole of Earth's Moon there is a large crater (Aitken) where some possible signs of the presence of ice have been seen (although their interpretation is disputed). It is thought by astronomers that ice on both Mercury and the Moon must have originated from external sources, mostly impacting comets. These are known to contain large amounts, or a majority, of ice. It is therefore conceivable for meteorite impacts

neg: Martian polar ice caps troughs and flat mesas that give it a Swiss cheese appearance. The upper layer of the Martian south polar residual cap has been eroded into flat-topped mesas with circular depressions. Observations made by Mars Orbiter Camera in 2001 have shown that the scarps and pit walls of the south polar cap had retreated at an average rate of about 3 meters (10 feet) since 1999. In other words, they were retreating 3 meters per Mars year. In some places on the cap, the scarps retreat less than 3 meters a Mars year, and in others it can retreat as much

neg: Lunar south pole Lunar south pole The lunar south pole is of special interest to scientists because of the occurrence of water ice in permanently shadowed areas around it. Of the lunar poles, the south pole is of greater interest because the area that remains in shadow is much larger than that at the north pole. The lunar south pole craters are unique in that sunlight does not reach the bottom. Such craters are cold traps that contain a fossil record of the early solar system. The lunar south pole is located on the center base of the far side of the moon

neg: Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars and in mid northern latitudes are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of rocks. Radar from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter gave a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs, meaning that pure water ice made up the bulk of the formation (between the two reflections). Based on the experiments of the Phoenix lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit, frozen water is now known to exist at just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes). The discovery of water ice in LDAs demonstrates that water is found

neg: Charitum Montes flow especially on steep slopes. In some years frost, perhaps as thick as 1 meter, triggers avalanches. This frost contains mostly dry ice, but also has tiny amounts of water ice. Charitum Montes Charitum Montes is a large group of mountains in the Argyre quadrangle of Mars, located at 58.4° south latitude and 40.29° west longitude. It is 850 km across and was named after a classical albedo feature name. The ranges are semicircular and dominates the area south of Argyre Planitia, it starts at the vicinity of the Thaumasia quadrangle south of Halley all the way to Galle crater..

neg: Casius quadrangle a marker for ground ice. Ring mold craters look like the ring molds used in baking. They are believed to be caused by an impact into ice. The ice is covered by a layer of debris. They are found in parts of Mars that have buried ice. Laboratory experiments confirm that impacts into ice result in a "ring mold shape." They may be an easy way for future colonists of Mars to find water ice. Concentric crater fill is when the floor of a crater is mostly covered with a large number of parallel ridges. They are thought to result

neg: Water on Mars of the climate, the eccentricity of the orbit of Mars changes twice as much as Earth's eccentricity. As the poles sublime, the ice is redeposited closer to the equator, which receive somewhat less solar insolation at these high obliquities. Computer simulations have shown that a 45° tilt of the Martian axis would result in ice accumulation in areas that display glacial landforms. The moisture from the ice caps travels to lower latitudes in the form of deposits of frost or snow mixed with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles, the water vapor condenses

neg: South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign; these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Year's Day to compensate for the movement of the ice. The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a short quotation from each man, and gives the elevation as "9,301 "FT."". A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site. The Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located some meters

neg: Acidalia Colles temperatures that would not have allowed for liquid water. When dry ice frost changes to a gas, it may lubricate dry material to flow especially on steep slopes. In some years frost, perhaps as thick as 1 meter, triggers avalanches. This frost contains mostly dry ice, but also has tiny amounts of water ice. Acidalia Colles Acidalia Colles is a group of hills in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle of Mars, located at 50.9° north latitude and 23.1° west longitude and is predominantly surrounded by Acidalia Planitia. It is about long and was named after a classical albedo feature name. The

neg: Proctor (Martian crater) the solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimates or changes directly to a gas and rushes away at high speeds. Each Martian year 30% of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere freezes out and covers the pole that is experiencing winter, so there is a great potential for strong winds. Proctor (Martian crater) Proctor is a large crater in the Noachis quadrangle of Mars, located at 48° south latitude and 330.5° west longitude. It measures in diameter and was named after Richard A. Proctor, a British astronomer (1837–1888). Nearby prominent craters include Rabe to the northeast, Matara to the southeast and

neg: Dry ice featured on "MythBusters", episode 57 Mentos and Soda, which first aired on August 9, 2006. It was also featured in an episode of "Time Warp", as well as in an episode of "Archer". Following the Mars flyby of the Mariner 4 spacecraft in 1966, scientists concluded that Mars' polar caps consist entirely of dry ice. However, findings made in 2003 by researchers at the California Institute of Technology have shown that Mars' polar caps are almost completely made of water ice, and that dry ice only forms a thin surface layer that thickens and thins seasonally. A phenomenon named dry

neg: Water on Mars Mars as both ice and locked into the structure of abundant water-rich materials, including clay minerals (phyllosilicates) and sulfates. Studies of hydrogen isotopic ratios indicate that asteroids and comets from beyond 2.5 astronomical units (AU) provide the source of Mars' water, that currently totals 6% to 27% of the Earth's present ocean. The primary rock type on the surface of Mars is basalt, a fine-grained igneous rock made up mostly of the mafic silicate minerals olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase feldspar. When exposed to water and atmospheric gases, these minerals chemically weather into new (secondary) minerals, some of which may incorporate

neg: Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter thick of soil. Shane Byrne of the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Tucson, one of the co-authors remarked that future colonists of the Red Planet would be able to gather up ice with just a bucket and shovel. The layered ice is exposed in triangular shaped depressions. One wall is very steep and faces the pole. The fact that water-ice makes up the layers was confirmed by Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The spectra gathered by CRISM showed strong signals of water. These triangular depressions bare some resemblance to

neg: Mare Australe quadrangle 70–90 S, around the south pole of Mars. It sits under the Late Amazonian South Polar Layered Deposits (SPLD). The amount of these ridges is huge, one study studied seven different ridge systems which contained almost 4,000 ridges that had a total length 51,000 km. Most eskers are thought to be formed inside ice-walled tunnels by streams which flowed within and under glaciers. After the retaining ice walls melted away, stream deposits remained as long winding ridges. MARSIS radar data suggest that significant areas of layered, potentially ice-rich parts of the Dorsa Argentea Formation remain today. A team of researchers

neg: Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars had discovered huge amounts of water over vast areas of Mars. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55 degrees latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 g of water ice. But, close to the equator, there is only 2 to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists believe that much of this water is locked up in the chemical structure of minerals, such as clay and sulfates. Previous studies with infrared spectroscopes have provided

neg: Climate of Mars while the south polar region additionally has a permanent dry ice cover up to eight meters (25 feet) thick. This difference is due to the higher elevation of the south pole. So much of the atmosphere can condense at the winter pole that the atmospheric pressure can vary by up to a third of its mean value. This condensation and evaporation will cause the proportion of the noncondensable gases in the atmosphere to change inversely. The eccentricity of Mars's orbit affects this cycle, as well as other factors. In the spring and autumn wind due to the carbon dioxide sublimation

neg: Brazilian Antarctic Program the Antarctic environment. The ship can accommodate 106 passengers, with 1/3 being scientists and researchers. In 2009 Brazil made its first national scientific expedition to the Antarctic ice sheet. The expedition integrated atmospheric, glaciological, geological and geophysical studies along the Patriot Hills area and also along the subglacial lake Ellsworth area. On 12 January 2012, the Brazilian Antarctic Program inaugurated the Criosfera 1 module, located on the plateau of the western Antarctica ice sheet, at 84°00' S–79°30' W. It is located from the geographical South Pole and south of the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station. On 25 February 2012, a blast

neg: East Antarctic Ice Sheet at 15,700 ft (4,800 m). It is home to the geographic South Pole and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Current international focus on global warming issues has drawn attention to the melting of the polar ice caps. An early analysis of GRACE-based studies data indicated that the EAIS was losing mass at a rate of 57 billion tonnes per year and that the "total" Antarctic ice sheet (including WAIS, and EAIS coastal areas) was losing mass at a rate of 152 cubic kilometers (c. 139 billion tonnes) per year. A more recent estimate published in November 2012 and based on

neg: Martian polar ice caps a major basin, called Prometheus. Some of the layers in the south pole also show polygonal fracturing in the form of rectangles. It is thought that the fractures were caused by the expansion and contraction of water ice below the surface. Evidence that Mars once had enough water to create a global ocean at least 137 m deep has been obtained from measurement of the HDO to HO ratio over the north polar cap. In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that the polar cap ice is about eight times as enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, as

neg: Horowitz (crater) north, Molesworth to the northeast and Martz almost to the southeast. About 75 km north is the Aeolis quadrangle and the 30th parallel south. In 2011 it was announced that images captured by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have suggested the presence of possible flowing water during the warmest months on Mars, as shown in images taken of Newton and Horowitz craters among others. Horowitz (crater) Newton is a large crater on Mars, with a diameter close to 300 km. [THIS APPEARS TO BE INCORRECT. Horowitz has a diameter of about 65.7 km.] It is located south of the planet's equator

neg: Geology of Mars that the seasonal caps (those seen in the telescope to grow and wane seasonally) are composed of carbon dioxide (CO) ice that condenses out of the atmosphere as temperatures fall to 148 K, the frost point of CO, during the polar wintertime. In the north, the CO ice completely dissipates (sublimes) in summer, leaving behind a residual cap of water (HO) ice. At the south pole, a small residual cap of CO ice remains in summer. Both residual ice caps overlie thick layered deposits of interbedded ice and dust. In the north, the layered deposits form a 3 km-high, 1,000

neg: Peneus Patera scarps face the pole. This is probably due to differences in solar heating. The process is believed to be ongoing. Peneus Patera Peneus Patera is a feature in the Noachis quadrangle of Mars. It is located at 58.1 S and 307.5 W. It was named after an albedo feature at 48S, 290W. Peneus Patera shows what is termed "scalloped topography". Such topography displays depressions with scalloped edges. Sometimes the depressions seem to coalesce together. These features typically occur at about 55 degrees north and south latitude. They are believed to form from the removal of subsurface material, maybe interstitial ice

neg: Resen (crater) steam produced when the heat from the impact process interacts with ice in the ground. The presence of these pits is evidence that the region has ground ice. On Mars, heat from the impact melts ice in the ground. Water from the melting ice dissolves minerals, and then deposits them in cracks or faults that were produced with the impact. This process, called hydrothermal alteration, is a major way in which ore deposits are produced. The area around Martian craters may be rich in useful ores for the future colonization of Mars. Studies on the earth have documented that cracks

neg: South Pole level, and is located about 1,300 km (800 mi) from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres (9,000 ft) thick at the Pole, so the land surface under the ice sheet is actually near sea level. The polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37° and 40° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time. The Geographic South Pole

neg: Milankovič (Martian crater) Milankovič (Martian crater) Milankovič is a crater in the Diacria quadrangle of Mars, having a diameter of 118.4 km. It is located at 54.7° north latitude and 146.7° west longitude. The crater is easy to see on Mars photographs because it lies north of Olympus Mons and sits by itself in the flat plain of Vastitas Borealis. It is named after Milutin Milanković (1879–1958), a Serbian geophysicist and astrophysicist. Many triangular shaped depressions are visible in Milankovič Crater. According to a team of researchers, these depression display water ice in the straight wall that faces the pole. Eight sites were

neg: Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars millibar range, but showed 2 daily minima and two daily maxima. The average daily pressure decreased from about 6.75 millibars to a low of just under 6.7 millbars, corresponding to when the maximum amount of carbon dioxide had condensed on the south pole. The pressure on the Earth is generally close to 1000 millibars, so the pressure on Mars is very low. The pressures measured by Pathfinder would not permit water or ice to exist on the surface. But, if ice were insulated with a layer of soil, it could last a long time. Other observations were consistent with water

neg: Dorsa Argentea Formation ridges extends from 270–100 E and 70–90 S, around the south pole of Mars. It sits under the Late Amazonian South Polar Layered Deposits (SPLD), in the Mare Australe quadrangle. The combined length of these ridges is huge, one study studied seven different ridge systems which contained almost 4,000 ridges that had a total length 51,000 km. Most eskers are thought to be formed inside ice-walled tunnels by streams which flowed within and under glaciers. After the retaining ice walls melted away, stream deposits remained as long winding ridges. Crater counts show that the ridges are of two different ages.

neg: Atmosphere of Mars layer over the south pole. The "MAVEN" spacecraft determined in 2015 that there is a substantial layered structure present in both neutral gases and ion densities. Initial analyses by the "MAVEN" orbiter and the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, have shown high thermal and density variability in the atmosphere with a slightly lower average density than predicted by existing models. In 1864, William Rutter Dawes observed "that the ruddy tint of the planet does not arise from any peculiarity of its atmosphere seems to be fully proved by the fact that the redness is always deepest near the centre, where the

neg: Sirenum Fossae the sites showed active gully formation. Before-and-after images demonstrated the timing of this activity coincided with seasonal carbon dioxide frost and temperatures that would not have allowed for liquid water. When dry ice frost changes to a gas, it may lubricate dry material to flow especially on steep slopes. In some years frost, perhaps as thick as 1 meter, triggers avalanches. This frost contains mostly dry ice, but also has tiny amounts of water ice. Sirenum Fossae Sirenum Fossae is a long trough in several quadrangles including Memnonia quadrangle and Phaethontis quadrangle of Mars, centered at 35.57° south latitude and

neg: Climate of Mars Later Mariner missions (Mariner 6, and Mariner 7) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information. Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program landers in 1975 and continue with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model. Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models. Giacomo Maraldi determined in 1704 that the southern cap is not centered on the rotational pole of Mars. During

neg: Climate of Mars of the ice cap was in place. This suggests that a climatic shift allowed for their onset. Both polar caps shrink and regrow following the temperature fluctuation of the Martian seasons; there are also longer-term trends that are better understood in the modern era. During the southern hemisphere spring, solar heating of dry ice deposits at the south pole leads in places to accumulation of pressurized CO gas below the surface of the semitransparent ice, warmed by absorption of radiation by the darker substrate. After attaining the necessary pressure, the gas bursts through the ice in geyser-like plumes. While the

neg: Icaria Fossae Icaria Fossae Icaria Fossae is a trough in the Phaethontis quadrangle of Mars with its location centered at 46.4° south latitude and 123.8° west longitude. It is 280 km long and was named after an albedo feature at 44S, 130W. Fossae are large troughs (long narrow depressions) in the geographical language used for Mars. This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural. Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks. The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano. Studies have shown that the volcanoes of Tharsis caused

neg: Alaskan Air Command three years, as it drifted over 1,500 miles and finally disappeared near Greenland in 1949. The Russians had begun drift station research a decade earlier. In 1937, they undertook scientific experiments from a drifting ice station near the North Pole, and they had followed that up after the war with an accelerated program of ice pack investigations. In July 1950, "T-2" was spotted about 300 miles south of the North Pole. About a week later "T-3" was spotted 300 miles east of the Soviet Wrangel Island as it drifted towards the North Pole. After studies and testing of proposed Ice

neg: Face on Moon South Pole Face on Moon South Pole The Face on Moon South Pole is a region on the Moon (81.9° south latitude and 39.27° east longitude) that was detected automatically in an image from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter by a computer system using face recognition technologies, as a result of a project that was part of the International Space App Challenge 2013 Tokyo. It is composed of craters and shadows on the moon's surface that, together, form an image resembling a face. The "Face on Mars" is a better known example. Human brains have the ability to detect ambiguous images displayed upon

neg: Thaumasia quadrangle craters present. Crater shapes can reveal the presence of ground ice. The area around craters may be rich in minerals. On Mars, heat from the impact melts ice in the ground. Water from the melting ice dissolves minerals, and then deposits them in cracks or faults that were produced with the impact. This process, called hydrothermal alteration, is a major way in which ore deposits are produced. The area around Martian craters may be rich in useful ores for the future colonization of Mars. Studies on the earth have documented that cracks are produced and that secondary minerals veins are

neg: Pavonis Mons "dropped" by glaciers), a knobby area (caused by ice sublimating), and a smooth section that flows over other deposits (debris-covered glacial ice). The ice could have been deposited when the tilt of Mars changed the climate, thereby causing more moisture to be present in the atmosphere. Studies suggest the glaciation happened in the Late Amazonian period, the most recent period in Mars chronology. Multiple stages of glaciation probably occurred. The ice present today represents one more resource for possible future colonization of the planet. Pavonis Mons is the middle of three volcanos (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis

neg: North Pole Since 2002, the Russians have also annually established a base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for a few weeks during early spring. Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,410 ft) by USS "Nautilus" in 1958. The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about

neg: Geysers on Mars activity on Mars. Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W; this 1 meter deep carbon dioxide (CO) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with

neg: Mars amount of Martian deuterium is eight times the amount that exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the "Curiosity" rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water. Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it

neg: Deuteronilus Mensae Colles. Other features are the large Lyot crater to the north and Sinton in the southeast, west is Mamers Valles and further north is the plain-basin of Vastitas Borealis. Glaciers persist in the region in modern times, with at least one glacier estimated to have formed as recently as 100,000 to 10,000 years ago. Recent evidence from the radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has shown that parts of Deuteronilus Mensae do indeed contain ice. It is now widely believed that ice accumulated in many areas of Mars, including Deuteronilus Mensae, when the planet's orbital tilt was very different from

neg: Dorsa Argentea Formation common in Iceland and Antarctica. Dorsa Argentea Formation The Dorsa Argentea Formation (DAF) is thought to be a large system of eskers that were under an ancient ice cap in the south polar region of Mars. The ancient ice cap was at least twice the size of the present ice cap and may have been 1500–2000 meters thick. Later research suggests that the area of this polar ice sheet is believed to have covered about 1.5 million square kilometers. The area of Texas is 696,200 square km so ice sheet of Mars was over twice the area of the state

neg: Climate of Mars Scientific Research, argues that the effects of these periodic climate changes can be seen in the layered nature of the ice cap at the Martian north pole. Current research suggests that Mars is in a warm interglacial period which has lasted more than 100,000 years. Because the Mars Global Surveyor was able to observe Mars for 4 Martian years, it was found that Martian weather was similar from year to year. Any differences were directly related to changes in the solar energy that reached Mars. Scientists were even able to accurately predict dust storms that would occur during the landing

neg: Water on Mars (or perennial) cap of water ice remains during the summer at the northern pole. At the southern pole, a small cap of CO ice remains during summer, but this cap too is underlain by water ice. The final piece of the Martian climate puzzle was provided by Mariner 4 in 1965. Grainy television pictures from the spacecraft showed a surface dominated by impact craters, which implied that the surface was very old and had not experienced the level of erosion and tectonic activity seen on Earth. Little erosion meant that liquid water had probably not played a large role in

neg: Dorsa Argentea Formation Dorsa Argentea Formation The Dorsa Argentea Formation (DAF) is thought to be a large system of eskers that were under an ancient ice cap in the south polar region of Mars. The ancient ice cap was at least twice the size of the present ice cap and may have been 1500–2000 meters thick. Later research suggests that the area of this polar ice sheet is believed to have covered about 1.5 million square kilometers. The area of Texas is 696,200 square km so ice sheet of Mars was over twice the area of the state of Texas. This group of

neg: Hellas quadrangle demonstrated the timing of this activity coincided with seasonal carbon dioxide frost and temperatures that would not have allowed for liquid water. When dry ice frost changes to a gas, it may lubricate dry material to flow especially on steep slopes. In some years frost, perhaps as thick as 1 meter, triggers avalanches. This frost contains mostly dry ice, but also has tiny amounts of water ice. Some surfaces on Mars display polygons. These may be of different sizes. Polygons are an example of patterned ground. Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars. Thick deposits of

neg: Atmosphere of Mars Express has shown the presence of two distinct ozone layers at low-to-mid latitudes. These comprise a persistent, near-surface layer below an altitude of 30 km, a separate layer that is only present in northern spring and summer with an altitude varying from 30 to 60 km, and another separate layer that exists 40–60 km above the southern pole in winter, with no counterpart above the Mars's north pole. This third ozone layer shows an abrupt decrease in elevation between 75 and 50 degrees south. SPICAM detected a gradual increase in ozone concentration at 50 km until midwinter, after which it

neg: Geography of Norway Maud Land is Norway's claim in Antarctica. This large, sectorial area stretches to the South Pole and are completely dominated by the world's largest ice sheet, but with some impressive nunataks penetrating above the ice. The Troll Research Station manned by Norway is located on a snow free mountain slope, the only station in Antarctica not to be located on the ice. Areas in Norway located north of the Arctic Circle will have midnight sun and corresponding winter darkness, the length of both depends on the latitude. In Longyearbyen, the upper part of the sun disc is above the horizon

neg: Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey just beneath the surface to fill Lake Michigan twice. In both hemispheres, from 55 degrees latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 g of water ice. But, close to the equator, there is only 2 to 10% of water in the soil. Scientists believe that much of this water is locked up in the chemical structure of minerals, such as clay and sulfates. Previous studies with infrared spectroscopes have provided evidence of small amounts of chemically or physically bound water. The Viking landers detected low

neg: Mars Glacier is not located within the Planet Heights mountain range, it lies nearby, and its name derives from it, along with many other nearby glaciers and landmarks located here which are named after planets, satellites and astrophysicists. Mars Glacier Mars Glacier is a glacier in the southeastern corner of Alexander Island, Antarctica, long and wide, flowing south into the George VI Ice Shelf. The glacier lies between Two Step Cliffs and Phobos Ridge. Mars Glacier was first sighted from the air by Lincoln Ellsworth on November 23, 1935, and roughly mapped from photos obtained on that flight by W.L.G. Joerg. It

neg: Water on Mars around obstacles. Lineated floor deposits may be related to lobate debris aprons, which have been shown by orbiting radar to contain large amounts of ice. The "Phoenix" lander also confirmed the existence of large amounts of water ice in the northern region of Mars. This finding was predicted by previous orbital data and theory, and was measured from orbit by the Mars Odyssey instruments. On June 19, 2008, NASA announced that dice-sized clumps of bright material in the "Dodo-Goldilocks" trench, dug by the robotic arm, had vaporized over the course of four days, strongly indicating that the bright clumps were

neg: Magnetosphere of Saturn hydrogen in its outer core. Like Earth, Saturn's magnetic field is mostly a dipole, with north and south poles at the ends of a single magnetic axis. On Saturn, like on Jupiter, the north magnetic pole is located in the northern hemisphere, and the south magnetic pole lies in the southern hemisphere, so that magnetic field lines point away from the north pole and towards the south pole. This is reversed compared to the Earth, where the north magnetic pole lies in the southern hemisphere. Saturn's magnetic field also has quadrupole, octupole and higher components, though they are much weaker

neg: Jack F. Paulus Skiway scientific experiments and structures such as the new station are broken down into modular pieces and reassembled on-site. Limitations and cost of the Hercules aircraft have been cited by the National Science Foundation as one of the main reasons for the McMurdo-South Pole traverse over-ice ground supply route. Jack F. Paulus Skiway The Jack F. Paulus Skiway is an airport located at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station at the South Pole. The station has a runway for aircraft , 3658 m / 12000 ft long. Between October and February, there are several flights per week of ski-equipped LC-130 Hercules aircraft from