query: synthetic approaches to instruction are also known as what kind of approach to instruction

pos: Synthetic phonics Synthetic phonics Synthetic phonics, also known as blended phonics or inductive phonics, is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words. Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach literacy through the following methods: Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics: Synthetic phonics programs do not have the following characteristics: Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds

neg: Diane McGuinness whole language instruction but also of phonics as traditionally taught in the United States. She favors an approach to early reading instruction known as synthetic phonics or linguistic phonics, in which the starting point for instruction is the 40-odd phonemes of English. In synthetic phonics instruction, each sound is introduced initially with a single "basic code" spelling, e.g. the /ee/ sound is connected to the 'ee' spelling. Students are taught to read by blending all of the sounds in the word. Spelling alternatives for sounds (e.g. for /ee/ the spellings 'y' as in "funny", 'ea' as in "eat", 'e' as

neg: Balanced literacy use methods derived from "best practices" and supported by "scientific research", and children need instruction in systematic, synthetic phonics For other instruction approaches, see Analytical phonics, Phonics, Synthetic phonics and Whole language. Balanced literacy A Balanced literacy program uses whole language and phonics and aims to include the strongest elements of each. The components of a 'balanced literacy' approach are as follows: The read aloud, guided reading, shared reading, interactive writing, shared writing, Reading Workshop, Writing Workshop and Word study. In Reading Workshops, skills are explicitly modeled during mini lessons. The mini lesson has four parts- the connection, the teach

neg: Analytical phonics erroneous assumption that all students will already have the fairly sophisticated phonemic awareness skills needed to enable the comparison of sounds within the various words. Implicit instruction relies on readers "discovering" clues about sound-spelling relationships; good readers can do this, but poor readers are not likely to do so. Phonics has become an acceptable practice and approach to teaching children to read. However, there are different methods in which it is used, and disagreement over which approach is best. There are two primary approaches to teaching phonics: analytical phonics and synthetic phonics. Both approaches require the learner to have some

neg: Library instruction aims to provide the same approach to students’ information needs and practices. From critical literacy, critical library instruction approaches literacy as political and literacy instruction as a political act; thus, critical library instruction requires instructors to maintain awareness of power dynamics, identity intersections, and to challenge their own definitions of literacy in order to provide meaningful instruction to their particular students. Library instruction Library instruction, also called bibliographic instruction (BI), user education and library orientation, consists of "instructional programs designed to teach library users how to locate the information they need quickly and effectively. [It] usually covers the library's system

neg: Scripted teaching of effective reading instruction. Scripted instruction has also been applied to preparation of lessons in many other subject matter areas. One widely used program using scripts is the Success for All reading instruction program. Scripted instruction has been an integral part of the direct instruction (DI) approach to education which has been presented as a structured alternative to the constructionist approaches to teaching such as discovery learning. There is extensive additional information on scripted teaching available on the International Reading Association website. Scripted teaching can be traced back as far as 1888 where Samuel and Adeline Monroe published text for

neg: Assembly language a pseudo-opcode to encode the instruction . Some disassemblers recognize this and will decode the instruction as . Similarly, IBM assemblers for System/360 and System/370 use the extended mnemonics and for and with zero masks. For the SPARC architecture, these are known as "synthetic instructions". Some assemblers also support simple built-in macro-instructions that generate two or more machine instructions. For instance, with some Z80 assemblers the instruction is recognized to generate followed by . These are sometimes known as "pseudo-opcodes". Mnemonics are arbitrary symbols; in 1985 the IEEE published Standard 694 for a uniform set of mnemonics to be used

neg: Whole language controversial, both panels found that phonics instruction of varying kinds, especially analytic and Synthetic Phonics, contributed positively to students' ability to read words on tests of reading words in isolation. Both panels also found that embedded phonics and no phonics contributed to lower rates of achievement for most populations of students when measured on test of reading words in isolation. The Panel recommended an approach it described as "scientifically-based reading research" (SBRR), that cited 5 elements essential to effective reading instruction, one of which was explicit, Systematic Phonics instruction (phonological awareness, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency were the other 4).

neg: Phonics the method they have used to teach early reading. Today, most teachers combine phonics with the elements of whole language that focus on reading comprehension. Adams and the National Reading Panel advocate for a comprehensive reading programme that includes several different sub-skills, based on scientific research. This combined approach is sometimes called balanced literacy, although some researchers assert that balanced literacy is merely whole language called by another name. Proponents of various approaches generally agree that a combined approach is important. A few stalwarts favour isolated instruction in Synthetic phonics and introduction to reading comprehension only after children have mastered

neg: Sheltered instruction teacher's effectiveness in the classroom. It is "one approach teachers use to help ELLs," or English Language Learners. SIOP uses several related activities to accomplish the goal of second-language acquisition, including lesson plans, background, 'comprehensible input', strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, and review and assessment. Sheltered instruction Sheltered instruction is an approach to teaching English language learners which integrates language and content instruction. The phrase "sheltered instruction," original concept, and underlying theory of comprehensible input are all credited to Stephen Krashen. The dual goals of sheltered instruction are: Sheltered Instruction, also referred to as SDAIE in California, is a teaching

neg: Traditional grammar than 850 grammars of English published specifically for use in schools. Mastering grammar rules like those derived from the study of Latin has at times been a specific goal of English-language education. This approach to teaching has, however, long competed with approaches that downplay the importance of grammar instruction. Similarly in foreign or second language teaching, the grammar-translation method based on traditional Latin teaching, in which the grammar of the language being learned is described in the student's native language, has competed with approaches such as the direct method or the communicative approach, in which grammar instruction is minimized. The

neg: Automatic vectorization two vectors of numeric data. A scalar approach would be something like: This could be vectorized to look something like: Here, C[i:i+3] represents the four array elements from C[i] to C[i+3] and the vector processor can perform four operations for a single vector instruction. Since the four vector operations complete in roughly the same time as one scalar instruction, the vector approach can run up to four times faster than the original code. There are two distinct compiler approaches: one based on the conventional vectorization technique and the other based on loop unrolling. This technique, used for conventional vector machines,

neg: Literacy method of teaching phonics is synthetic phonics, in which a novice reader pronounces each individual sound and "blends" them to pronounce the whole word. Another approach is embedded phonics instruction, used more often in whole language reading instruction, in which novice readers learn about the individual letters in words on a just-in-time, just-in-place basis that is tailored to meet each student's reading and writing learning needs. That is, teachers provide phonics instruction opportunistically, within the context of stories or student writing that feature many instances of a particular letter or group of letters. Embedded instruction combines letter-sound knowledge with the

neg: Instructional design Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction, in contrast to defining instruction as the sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes". The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:

neg: Sheltered instruction Sheltered instruction Sheltered instruction is an approach to teaching English language learners which integrates language and content instruction. The phrase "sheltered instruction," original concept, and underlying theory of comprehensible input are all credited to Stephen Krashen. The dual goals of sheltered instruction are: Sheltered Instruction, also referred to as SDAIE in California, is a teaching style founded on the concept of providing meaningful instruction in the content areas (social studies, math, science) for transitioning Limited English Proficient (LEP) students towards higher academic achievement while they reach English fluency. This method type is often used in mainstream secondary classrooms where the

neg: Scientific misconceptions instruction, student misconceptions are identified and addressed through a process of questioning and listening. A number of strategies have been employed to understand what students are thinking prior, or in response, to instruction. These strategies include various forms of "real type" feedback, which can involve the use of colored cards or electronic survey systems (clickers). Another approach is typified by the strategy known as "Just in Time Teaching". Here students are asked various questions prior to class, the instructor uses these responses to adapt his or her teaching to the students' prior knowledge and misconceptions. Finally, there is a more

neg: Synthetic phonics letter clues. Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; rather, it is a family of phonics instruction that includes the methods of both synthetic phonics and analytical phonics. They are "systematic" because the letters, and the sounds they relate to, are taught in a specific sequence; as opposed to incidentally or on a 'when-needed' basis. However, it should be noted that, in most instances, the term systematic phonics appears to refer to synthetic phonics because of the specific instruction methods it uses. (In the United Kingdom, the term "systematic phonics" is "generally understood as synthetic phonics" according

neg: Instruction cycle Instruction cycle The instruction cycle (also known as the fetch–decode–execute cycle or the fetch-execute cycle) is the basic operational process of a computer system. It is the process by which a computer retrieves a program instruction from its memory, determines what actions the instruction describes, and then carries out those actions. This cycle is repeated continuously by a computer's central processing unit (CPU), from boot-up until the computer has shut down. In simpler CPUs the instruction cycle is executed sequentially, each instruction being processed before the next one is started. In most modern CPUs the instruction cycles are instead executed

neg: Central processing unit Neumann model. The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle. After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter

neg: Content-based instruction core content classes, they started to implement various approaches such as Sheltered instruction and learning to learn in CBI classes. Sheltered instruction is more of a teacher-driven approach that puts the responsibility on the teachers' shoulders. This is the case by stressing several pedagogical needs to help learners achieve their goals, such as teachers having knowledge of the subject matter, knowledge of instructional strategies to comprehensible and accessible content, knowledge of L2 learning processes and the ability to assess cognitive, linguistic and social strategies that students use to assure content comprehension while promoting English academic development. Learning to learn is

neg: Marian Small math instruction, Small stated "neither is better—they are different. In fact, the more tools and approaches that we have, the more likely we are to be successful at a task". Marian Small Marian Small (born 1948) is a Canadian educational researcher, academic, author, and public speaker. She has co-authored mathematics textbooks used in Canada, Austria, and the United States, and is a proponent of a constructivist approach to mathematical instruction within K–12 classrooms. Small began teaching at the University of New Brunswick's Faculty of Education in 1973. Within that faculty she served as department chair, acting associate dean, acting dean,

neg: Feminist pedagogy involving students in the creation of assessment criteria or peer assessment or self-assessment. Finally, Accardi argues feminist assessment approaches can be embedded into more traditional forms of assessment (such as classroom assessment techniques or performance assessment techniques) if students are allowed to reflect on or evaluate their experiences. Surveys, interviewing and focus groups, too, could be considered assessments with a feminist approach provided that a student voice or knowledge is sought. These assessment strategies should be tailored to the type of instruction taking place; performance assessment techniques may be more appropriate for short term instruction. If the instructor has more

neg: Phenomenon-based learning model of success by many. This shift coincides with other changes that are encouraging development of 21st century skills such as collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking. scaffoldingmagic.com - Phenomenon-Based Learning Donna Lee Fields Phenomenon-based learning Phenomenon-based learning (PhBL or PhenoBL) is a multidisciplinary, constructivist form of learning or pedagogy where students study a topic or concept in a holistic approach instead of in a subject-based approach. PhBL includes both topical learning (also known as "topic-based learning" or "instruction"), where the phenomenon studied is a specific topic, event, or fact, and thematic learning (also known as "theme-based learning" or "instruction"),

neg: Discovery learning According to Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006), guided instruction produces more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches along with longer term transfer and problem-solving skills. Robert J. Marzano (2011) describes enhanced discovery learning as a process that involves preparing the learner for the discovery learning task by providing the necessary knowledge needed to successfully complete said task. In this approach, the teacher not only provides the necessary knowledge required to complete the task, but also provides assistance during the task. This preparation of the learner and assistance may require some direct instruction. "For example, before asking students to consider

neg: Follow Through (project) itself caused this phenomenon, or if specific approaches to instruction within schools were the problem. "Follow Through" intended to solve the problem by identifying what whole-school approaches to curriculum and instruction worked, and what did not. Subsequently, effective models were to be promulgated by the government as exemplars of innovative and proven methods of raising the academic achievement of historically disadvantaged students. Conceived and implemented in the midst of President Johnson's War on Poverty campaign of the 1960s, "Follow Through" "came out of larger plan which attempted to lay out the causes and cures of poverty in American society on

neg: Synthetic phonics revived. In December 2005 the Department of Education, Science and Training of the Australian Government published a report entitled a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading. The report recommends direct and systematic instruction in phonics as the foundation of early reading instruction. Some of the findings (not always supported by reliable evidence) are: As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytical phonics, and analogy phonics. In Canada, public education is the

neg: Synthetic Programming (HP-41) as a sequence of other instructions, then partially skipping halfway through the first instruction, so that the calculator believes the end of the first instruction is actually the beginning of a new one. It is not clear if the creators behind the HP-41 were aware of all these "black holes". HP did not officially support these techniques, but probably was intrigued by the strange operations and in some cases allowed enthusiasts to practice in their offices and helped to improve it among a whole sense of curiosity. It was kept as a kind of wonder, even secret, in technical schools.

neg: Manuel de la Torre (golfer) Torre has devoted his career to refining and teaching this approach to both golfers and instructors. The difference between these two approaches may seem minor at first consideration. However, any student (or instructor) who has experienced both will immediately appreciate the simplicity of de la Torre's golf instruction which is unique among the leading golf instructors. De la Torre brings to light the absurdity of thinking that the cause of a poor shot is related to what your body is doing (e.g. Hips are too fast, arms are too slow, shoulder turn is off plane, etc.) He correctly observes that

neg: Teaching method trend is that it encourages a lot of creativity. It is a known fact that human advancement comes through reasoning. This reasoning and original thought enhances creativity. The approaches for teaching can be broadly classified into teacher centered and student centered. In Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning, Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this model,

neg: History of general-purpose CPUs Japan's Hitachi found ways to compress the reduced instruction sets so they fit in even smaller memory systems than CISCs. Such compression schemes were used for the instruction set of their SuperH series of microprocessors, introduced in 1992. The SuperH instruction set was later adapted for ARM architecture's "Thumb" instruction set. In applications that do not need to run older binary software, compressed RISCs are growing to dominate sales. Another approach to RISCs was the minimal instruction set computer (MISC), "niladic", or "zero-operand" instruction set. This approach realized that most space in an instruction was used to identify the operands

neg: Data-driven instruction assessment vs. summative assessment that tease out this data can be defined as assessment literacy. Building assessment literacy also includes knowing when to use which type of assessment and the resulting data to use to inform instruction. The purpose of data driven instruction is to use information to guide teaching and learning. Dylan Wiliam offers examples of data driven instruction using formative assessment: Because of the lack of timely feedback regarding the results plus the inability to personalize the approach, summative assessments are not readily used for data driven instruction in the classroom. Instead, a variety of information gleaned from

neg: IBM ViVA IBM ViVA ViVA (Virtual Vector Architecture) is a technology from IBM for coupling together multiple scalar floating point units to act as a single vector processor. Certain computing tasks are more efficiently handled through vector computations where an instruction can be applied to multiple elements simultaneously, rather than the scalar approach where one instruction is applied to one piece of data at a time. This kind of technology is highly sought after for scientific computing and is IBM's answer to the vector-based supercomputers pioneered by Cray and that was the basis for NEC's Earth Simulator which was the fastest supercomputer

neg: Cognitively Guided Instruction Cognitively Guided Instruction Cognitively Guided Instruction is "a professional development program based on an integrated program of research on (a) the development of students' mathematical thinking; (b) instruction that influences that development; (c) teachers' knowledge and beliefs that influence their instructional practice; and (d) the way that teachers' knowledge, beliefs, and practices are influenced by their understanding of students' mathematical thinking". CGI is an approach to teaching mathematics rather than a curriculum program. At the core of this approach is the practice of listening to children's mathematical thinking and using it as a basis for instruction. Research based frameworks of

neg: Good News Club v. Milford Central School What matters for purposes of the Free Speech Clause is that we can see no logical difference in kind between the invocation of Christianity by the Club and the invocation of teamwork, loyalty, or patriotism by other associations to provide a foundation for their lessons." Instruction related to morals and values from a religious perspective does not somehow "taint" that instruction so as to alter the viewpoint such instruction takes. Accordingly, Milford's exclusion of the Good News Club constituted unconstitutional viewpoint discrimination. Milford also argued that its interest in not violating the Establishment Clause justified its excluding the Good News

neg: Emotional approach coping feelings” and “I feel free to express my emotions.” The emotional approach coping scales have been tested and validated using situational (i.e., what do you do in response to a specific stressor) and dispositional (i.e., what do you do in general) instruction sets. The scales are uncorrelated with social desirability. In addition to English, the emotional approach coping scale has also been validated in Norwegian and Turkish. Among heterosexual couples coping with infertility, emotional approach coping predicted decreased depressive symptoms for both members of the couple after an unsuccessful insemination attempt. Emotional approach coping may also confer benefits for partners.

neg: Phenomenon-based learning Phenomenon-based learning Phenomenon-based learning (PhBL or PhenoBL) is a multidisciplinary, constructivist form of learning or pedagogy where students study a topic or concept in a holistic approach instead of in a subject-based approach. PhBL includes both topical learning (also known as "topic-based learning" or "instruction"), where the phenomenon studied is a specific topic, event, or fact, and thematic learning (also known as "theme-based learning" or "instruction"), where the phenomenon studied is a concept or idea. PhBL emerged as a response to the idea that traditional, subject-based learning is outdated and removed from the real-world and does not offer the optimum

neg: Reduced instruction set computer memories employed to overcome this are limited in size. This may partly explain why highly encoded instruction sets have proven to be as useful as RISC designs in modern computers. RISC was developed as an alternative to what is now known as CISC. Over the years, other strategies have been implemented as alternatives to RISC and CISC. Some examples are very long instruction word (VLIW) and minimal instruction set computer (MISC). In the mid-1970s, researchers (particularly John Cocke) at IBM (and similar projects elsewhere) demonstrated that the majority of combinations of these orthogonal addressing modes and instructions were not used

neg: Phonics international comparisons led parents and schools to react to this approach and to insist on direct instruction methods. Later, during minister Nuno Crato tenure (2011-2015), who is known to be a vocal critic of constructivist approaches and a supporter of cognitive psychology findings, new standards ("metas") were put in place. The ministry convened a team led by a well-known specialist in reading, Jose Morais. This team introduced an explicit phonics teaching approach, put emphasis on decoding and reading fluency. Later, international evaluations TIMSS and PISA showed a sharp improvement in all areas, namely literacy, from 2011/2012 to 2015, Portuguese students

neg: Control unit that can generate specific results based on the instructions that were used to invoke those responses. Hardwired control units are generally faster than microprogrammed designs. Their design uses a fixed architecture—it requires changes in the wiring if the instruction set is modified or changed. This architecture is preferred in reduced instruction set computers (RISC) as they use a simpler instruction set. A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed; however, it has little flexibility, and the complexity of the instruction set it can implement is limited. The hardwired approach has become less popular as computers have evolved.

neg: Social software in education different times. In practice, tutors may incorporate elements from any or all of these themes in designing and conducting learning activities with students. The first theme is that of instruction, where learning is seen as pre-planned, determined by a teacher or instructor. Knowledge is understood as something that can be transmitted from teacher to student. Techniques include programmed learning, tutorials, lectures, and drill-and-practice (Cronje, 2000). This approach is seen as traditional, founded on behavioural psychology, e.g. behaviourism "Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)" (Kearsley, 1994) . Rather than being superseded by later approaches, we can see "instruction" as an ongoing theme, evident

neg: XOP instruction set the result as vector of words, but byte to quadword adds eight bytes together at a time and returns the result as vector of quadwords. Six additional horizontal addition and subtraction instructions can be found in SSSE3, but they operate on two input vectors and only does two and two operations. This set of vector compare instructions all take an immediate as an extra argument. The immediate controls what kind of comparison is performed. There are eight comparison possible for each instruction. The vectors are compared and all comparisons that evaluate to true set all corresponding bits in the destination

neg: Comparison of programming paradigms more direct assignment (or comparison), adding to total path length. For programs executing in a "managed code" environment, such as the .NET Framework, many issues affect performance that are significantly affected by the programming language paradigm and various language features used. A pseudocode comparison of imperative, procedural, and object oriented approaches used to calculate the area of a circle (πr²), assuming no subroutine inlining, no macro preprocessors, register arithmetic, and weighting each instruction 'step' as only 1 instruction – as a crude measure of instruction path length – is presented below. The instruction step that is conceptually performing the state

neg: Content-based instruction Content-based instruction Content-based instruction (CBI) is a significant approach in language education (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989), designed to provide second-language learners instruction in content and language (hence it is also called "content-based language teaching"; "CBLT"). Historically, the word "content" has changed its meaning in second language teaching. Content used to refer to the methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology, and vocabulary or sound patterns in dialog form. Recently, content is interpreted as the use of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language teaching/learning ("linguistic immersion"). The CBI approach is comparable to English for Specific Purposes (ESP), which

neg: Whole language emphasis, whole language is contrasted with skill-based areas of instruction, especially phonics and synthetic phonics. Phonics instruction is a commonly used technique for teaching students to read. Phonics instruction tends to emphasize attention to the individual components of words, for example, the phonemes /k/, /æ/, and /t/ are represented by the graphemes "c", "a", and "t". Because they do not focus exclusively on the individual parts, tending to focus on the relationship of parts to and within the larger context, whole language proponents do not favor some types of phonics instruction. Whole language advocates state that they do teach, and

neg: Evan Ira Farber suitable context for both librarians and faculty to emphasize undergraduate education more than research. To support effective bibliographic instruction, he has also emphasized the necessity of developing faculty-librarian cooperation. By working together with faculty, librarians were involved in specific courses at Earlham College and were thus able to structure their instruction towards specific assignments, with the result that the instruction became directly relevant to students’ interests. Regarding the benefits of an ideal cooperative relationship between faculty and librarians, he stated: "When that cooperative relationship works well, it can result in assignments that approach, if not reach, what I consider the

neg: Direct instruction accelerate the progress of historically disadvantaged elementary school students. DISTAR, an acronym for Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading, gained prominence during Project Follow Through, the largest educational study ever conducted in America. Features of DI include: Direct Instruction has been effectively delivered through peers to students with learning disabilities. Peer delivery offers teachers new ways to use the curriculum. The approach has also been examined as a model to assist students in a resource room with homework completion, bolster executive functioning skills and improve teacher efficiency. Another popular direct instruction approach is the Success for All program,

neg: Classic RISC pipeline directly from the instruction bits. As a result, very little decoding is done in the stage traditionally called the decode stage. A consequence of this lack of decoding meant however that more instruction bits had to be used specifying what the instruction should do (and also, what it should not), and that leaves fewer bits for things like register indices. All MIPS, SPARC, and DLX instructions have at most two register inputs. During the decode stage, these two register names are identified within the instruction, and the two registers named are read from the register file. In the MIPS design,

neg: Instruction selection a good instruction sequence for the x86 architecture is For a comprehensive survey on instruction selection, see. The simplest approach to instruction selection is known as "macro expansion" or "interpretative code generation". A macro-expanding instruction selector operates by matching "templates" over the middle-level IR. Upon a match the corresponding "macro" is executed, using the matched portion of the IR as input, which emits the appropriate target instructions. Macro expansion can be done either directly on the textual representation of the middle-level IR, or the IR can first be transformed into a graphical representation which is then traversed depth-first. In the

neg: Instructional theory situational methods and core ideas of the post-industrial paradigm of instruction. Universal Methods of Instruction: Situational Methods: based on different approaches to instruction based on different learning outcomes: Core ideas for the Post-industrial Paradigm of Instruction: Four tasks of Instructional theory: Paulo Freire's work appears to critique instructional approaches that adhere to the knowledge acquisition stance, and his work "Pedagogy of the Oppressed" has had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship. Freire explains, "Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students

neg: CDC 6600 the beginning of a multiply instruction (assuming, of course, that the result of the multiply instruction was not an operand of the add instruction), so the net execution time of the two instructions would simply be the (longer) execution time of the multiply instruction. The 6600 CPU also had an "instruction stack", a kind of "instruction cache", which helped increase CPU throughput by reducing the amount of CPU idle time caused by waiting for memory to respond to instruction fetch requests. The two kinds of CPUs were instruction compatible, so that a program that ran on either of the kinds

neg: MikroSim basis of microcode development, defined as a sequence of micro instructions (microcoding) for a virtual control unit, the software’s intention is on first approach a microcode simulator with various levels of abstractions including the ability of CPU simulators and instruction set emulators. In the current software revision it is feasible for a microcode controlled virtual application to operate on own coded instruction sets. With MikroSim typical and well-known concepts in the area of computer engineering like computer architecture and instruction set architecture are non-specifically treated, which have been established since the early days of the information era and being still

neg: Information literacy Such approaches seek to cover the full range of information problem-solving actions that a person would normally undertake, when faced with an information problem or with making a decision based on available resources. Information literacy instruction in higher education can take a variety of forms: stand-alone courses or classes, online tutorials, workbooks, course-related instruction, or course-integrated instruction. One attempt in the area of physics was published in 2009. The six regional accreditation boards have added information literacy to their standards, Librarians often are required to teach the concepts of information literacy during "one shot" classroom lectures. There are also credit

neg: Instruction set architecture instruction pipeline led to a delay slot. The demands of high-speed digital signal processing have pushed in the opposite direction—forcing instructions to be implemented in a particular way. For example, to perform digital filters fast enough, the MAC instruction in a typical digital signal processor (DSP) must use a kind of Harvard architecture that can fetch an instruction and two data words simultaneously, and it requires a single-cycle multiply–accumulate multiplier. Instruction set architecture An instruction set architecture (ISA) is an abstract model of a computer. It is also referred to as architecture or computer architecture. A realization of an ISA

neg: Small schools movement approach after failures to overcome these difficulties, even after being offered grants to continue these experiments. Other districts have expanded this movement by shutting down large schools and opening more smaller ones. The Gates Foundation, which supports and funds small schools, is beginning to change its focus to working directly on improving instruction, giving grants to improve math and science instruction, for example. Small schools movement The small schools movement, also known as the Small Schools Initiative, in the United States of America holds that many high schools are too large and should be reorganized into smaller, autonomous schools of

neg: Whole language Education and Skills undertook a review of early reading that came out in favor of Synthetic phonics. Subsequently, in March 2011 the U.K. Department of Education released its White paper entitled "The Importance of Teaching" that supported systematic synthetic phonics as the best method for teaching reading. Despite these results, many whole language advocates continue to argue that their approach, including embedded phonics, has been shown to improve student achievement. Whole language advocates sometimes criticize advocates of skill instruction as "reductionist" and describe the use of phonics as "word calling" because it does not involve the use of meaning. The

neg: Differentiated instruction learning needs and preferences to achieve maximum growth as a learner. To understand how students learn and what they know, pre-assessment and ongoing assessment are essential. This provides feedback for both teacher and student, with the ultimate goal of improving student learning. Delivery of instruction in the past often followed a "one size fits all" approach. In contrast, differentiation is individual student centred, with a focus on appropriate instructional and assessment tools that are fair, flexible, challenging, and engage students in the curriculum in meaningful ways. Differentiation is rooted and supported by literature and research about the brain. Evidence suggests

neg: Opcode Opcode In computing, an opcode (abbreviated from operation code, also known as instruction syllable, instruction parcel or opstring) is the portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed. Beside the opcode itself, most instructions also specify the data they will process, in the form of operands. In addition to opcodes used in the instruction set architectures of various CPUs, which are hardware devices, they can also be used in abstract computing machines as part of their byte code specifications. Specifications and format of the opcodes are laid out in the instruction set architecture (ISA) of

neg: Synthetic phonics phonics approaches, while suggesting that more evidence may be required. The NICHD has come out in support of phonics instruction. The institute conducts and supports research on all stages of human development. The institute conducted a meta-analysis and, in 2000 it published a report entitled "Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read". Some "findings and determinations" of this report are: Other findings of this report are: In 2014 the California Department of Education stated "Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial". It goes on to say that "Children

neg: Dhrystone benchmarks are available free of charge and are small enough to execute on any processor, including small micro-controllers. CoreMark avoids issues such as the compiler computing the work during compile time, and uses real algorithms rather than being completely synthetic. CoreMark also has established rules for running the benchmark and for reporting the results. Dhrystone may represent a result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second) because instruction count comparisons between different instruction sets (e.g. RISC vs. CISC) can confound simple comparisons. For example, the same high-level task may require many more instructions on a RISC machine, but might

neg: Management of dyslexia with strategies to improve comprehension and literary appreciation. Many programs are multisensory in design, meaning that instruction includes visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile elements; as it is generally believed that such forms of instruction are more effective for dyslexic learners. Despite claims of some programs to be "research based", there is very little empirical or quantitative research supporting the use of any particular approach to reading instruction as compared to another when used with dyslexic children. Torgesen (2004) emphasized the importance of explicit instruction for remediation as well as the need for intensity that is completely different from regular

neg: Central processing unit instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below). The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the "instruction decoder", the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU. The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a "field") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the

neg: Reading education in the United States do not need to be able to sound out words, but should look at unknown words and figure them out using context. In 2000, the National Reading Panel (NRP) issued a report based on a meta-analysis of published research on effective reading instruction. The report found varying evidence-based support for some common approaches to teaching reading. The NRP called phonemic awareness (PA) instruction "impressive": The report singles out PA instruction based on teaching children to manipulate phonemes with letters as highly effective. Phonemic awareness instruction also improved spelling in grade-level students, although it did not improve spelling in disabled readers.

neg: Thematic learning Thematic learning Thematic teaching (also known as thematic instruction) is the selecting and highlighting of a theme through an instructional unit or module, course, multiple courses. It is often interdisciplinary, highlighting the relationship of knowledge across academic disciplines and everyday life. Themes can be topics or take the form of overarching questions. Thematic learning is closely related to interdisciplinary or integrated instruction, topic-, project- or phenomenon-based learning. Thematic teaching is commonly associated with elementary classrooms and middle schools using a team-based approach, but this pedagogy is equally relevant in secondary schools and with adult learners. Thematic instruction assumes students learn

neg: Johns Hopkins School of Education through an interdisciplinary approach that combines research and instruction to create evidence-based models of instruction in teaching, administration, leadership and program and policy development. The School’s goal is for its students to have the most innovate tools and effective approaches to advance learning. Program offerings, including both online and face-to-face, range from initial licensure master's degrees for those entering the teaching profession to advanced doctoral level research designed to prepare future scholars to address preK – 12 policies and practice challenges from early childhood to the adult learner. The School’s three centers – the Center for Research and Reform in

neg: Visual arts education reproduce an observed phenomenon. Drawing instruction has been a component of formal education in the West since the Hellenistic period. In East Asia, arts education for nonprofessional artists typically focused on brushwork; calligraphy was numbered among the Six Arts of gentlemen in the Chinese Zhou Dynasty, and calligraphy and Chinese painting were numbered among the Four Arts of scholar-officials in imperial China. An alternative approach to art education involves an emphasis on imagination, both in interpreting and creating art. Alternative approaches, such as visual culture and issue-based approaches in which students explore societal and personal issues through art, also inform

neg: Star-shaped polymer have demonstrated the ability to increase the solubility of inorganic salts in organic solutions. Star-shaped polymers can be synthesized through various approaches. The most common syntheses include an arm-first approach, in which the living chains are used as the initiators, and a core-first approach, in which the core is used as the initiator. Other synthetic routes include: controlled sol-gel processes, group transfer polymerization, transition metal catalysis, living anionic polymerization, living cationic polymerization, ring opening polymerization, ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), and controlled radical polymerization. In the arm-first (also known as the "arm-in" or convergent approach) method, monofunctional living polymers with known

neg: Return-oriented programming systems, ASLR is vulnerable to information leakage attacks and other approaches to determine the address of any known library function in memory. If an attacker can successfully determine the location of one known instruction, the position of all others can be inferred and a return-oriented programming attack can be constructed. This randomization approach can be taken further by relocating all the instructions and/or other program state (registers and stack objects) of the program separately, instead of just library locations. This requires extensive runtime support, such as a software dynamic translator, to piece the randomized instructions back together at runtime. This

neg: Traditional mathematics traditional mathematics instruction impresses upon students an image of mathematics as closed to imagination and discovery, an image in clear opposition to how experts view the field. In general, math textbooks which focus on instruction in standard arithmetic methods can be categorized as a traditional math textbook. Reform math textbooks will often focus on conceptual understanding, usually avoiding immediate instruction of the standard algorithms and frequently promoting student exploration and discovery of the relevant mathematics. The following current texts are often cited as good for those wishing for a traditional approach, often also favored by homeschoolers. In the United States

neg: Cognitively Guided Instruction able to solve problems without direct instruction by drawing upon informal knowledge of everyday situations. For example, a study of kindergarten children showed that young children can solve problems involving what are normally considered advanced mathematics such as multiplication, division, and multistep problems, by using direct modeling. Direct modeling is an approach to problem solving in which the child, in the absence of more sophisticated knowledge of mathematics, constructs a solution to a story problem by modeling the action or structure. For example, about half of the children in a study of kindergartners' problem solving were able to solve this

neg: Middlebury College Language Schools the College opened a satellite campus at Mills College in Oakland, California, to accommodate growth in the enrollments in several of the schools. For the summer of 2017, Middlebury at Mills offers Arabic, Italian, and Korean instruction. In 2010, an advanced Arabic class was responsible for a controversial rap video satirizing the school and emphasizing the difficulties in thinking fully in a foreign language. English subtitles are available here. All of the ten Middlebury Language Schools use an immersion-based approach to language instruction and acquisition. The Schools also stress cultural instruction in addition to pure language instruction. Students in all

neg: Specially designed academic instruction in English Specially designed academic instruction in English Specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) is a teaching approach intended for teaching various academic content (such as social studies, science or literature) using the English language to students who are still learning English. SDAIE requires the student possess intermediate fluency in English as well as mastery of their native language. The instruction is carefully prepared so the student can access the English language content supported by material in their primary language and carefully planned instruction that strives for comprehensible input. SDAIE is a method of teaching students in English in such a

neg: Instruction set architecture "atomic compare-and-swap". Any given instruction set can be implemented in a variety of ways. All ways of implementing a particular instruction set provide the same programming model, and all implementations of that instruction set are able to run the same executables. The various ways of implementing an instruction set give different tradeoffs between cost, performance, power consumption, size, etc. When designing the microarchitecture of a processor, engineers use blocks of "hard-wired" electronic circuitry (often designed separately) such as adders, multiplexers, counters, registers, ALUs, etc. Some kind of register transfer language is then often used to describe the decoding and sequencing

neg: Apollo PRISM Apollo PRISM PRISM (Parallel Reduced Instruction Set Multiprocessor) was Apollo Computer's high-performance CPU used in their DN10000 series workstations. It was for some time the fastest microprocessor available, a high fraction of a Cray-1 in a workstation. Hewlett Packard purchased Apollo in 1989, ending development of PRISM, although some of PRISM's ideas were later used in HP's own HP-PA Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) and Itanium processors. PRISM was based on what would be known today as a VLIW-design, while most efforts of the era, 1988, were based on a more "pure" RISC approach. In early RISC designs, the core

neg: Anchored Instruction the problem statement and embedded data in the story. Anchored stories also contain hints that act as instructional scaffolding to resolve problems. Scaffolding provides a temporary framework to support learning. The facilitator coaches and guides the learners through the learning process. They assist students to establish their own learning goals. And accept that they are no longer the major source of knowledge. Anchored Instruction Anchored Instruction is a technology centered learning approach, which falls under the social constructionism paradigm. It is a form of situated learning that emphasizes problem-solving within an integrated learning context, which can be examined from multiple

neg: Marian Small problems. "There is a strongly held belief in the mathematics education community", wrote Small, "that mathematics is best learned when students are actively engaged in constructing their own understandings. This is only likely to happen in classrooms that emphasize rich problem solving and the exchange of many approaches to mathematical situations, and that give attention to and value students’ mathematical reasoning". To demonstrate this approach, Small provides an example of students learning to add 47 and 38. A traditional approach to math instruction would show students how to add these two numbers by "grouping the ones, trading, and then grouping

neg: Computer-assisted language learning of corpora and concordancers, interactive whiteboards, Computer-mediated communication (CMC), language learning in virtual worlds, and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its origins as a subset of the general term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favour among language teachers, however, as it appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a student-centred approach, focusing on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins 1982: p. 3) and it is now incorporated into the

neg: Data dependency the result of a previous instruction: Instruction 3 is truly dependent on instruction 2, as the final value of C depends on the instruction updating B. Instruction 2 is truly dependent on instruction 1, as the final value of B depends on the instruction updating A. Since instruction 3 is truly dependent upon instruction 2 and instruction 2 is truly dependent on instruction 1, instruction 3 is also truly dependent on instruction 1. Instruction level parallelism is therefore not an option in this example. An anti-dependency, also known as write-after-read (WAR), occurs when an instruction requires a value that is

neg: Exception handling the program state with respect to exception handling. Then, if an exception is thrown, the runtime system looks up the current instruction location in the tables and determines what handlers are in play and what needs to be done. This approach minimizes executive overhead for the case where an exception is not thrown. This happens at the cost of some space, but this space can be allocated into read-only, special-purpose data sections that are not loaded or relocated until an exception is actually thrown. This second approach is also superior in terms of achieving thread safety. Other definitional and implementation

neg: Phonics is known as the "embedded phonics" approach of whole language (where phonics was taught opportunistically in the context of literature). They found that phonics instruction must be systematic (following a sequence of increasingly challenging phonics patterns) and explicit (teaching students precisely how the patterns worked, e.g., "this is "b", it stands for the /b/ sound"). In 1997, Congress asked the Director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) at the National Institutes of Health, in consultation with the Secretary of Education, to convene a national panel to assess the effectiveness of different approaches used to teach

neg: Instruction-level parallelism Instruction-level parallelism Instruction-level parallelism (ILP) is a measure of how many of the instructions in a computer program can be executed simultaneously. There are two approaches to instruction level parallelism: Hardware level works upon dynamic parallelism, whereas the software level works on static parallelism. Dynamic parallelism means the processor decides at run time which instructions to execute in parallel, whereas static parallelism means the compiler decides which instructions to execute in parallel. The Pentium processor works on the dynamic sequence of parallel execution, but the Itanium processor works on the static level parallelism. Consider the following program: Operation 3 depends

neg: Evangelical School for the Deaf five students (three boys, two girls) in September 1960. School directors at ESD have traditionally assumed a multi-faceted role. In addition to administrative and supervisory duties, directors have often taught academic and technical classes, ran ministries outside of the school, taught religious classes at local churches, and even served as pastors. The Evangelical School for the Deaf uses the Total Communication (TC) approach to provide academic instruction. Under this philosophy, teachers use whatever means of communication is most readily understood by the student to provide him/her with an appropriate and stimulating level of academic instruction. The kind of sign language

neg: Phonics approach. The executive summary states, "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read. Findings from the research evidence indicate that all students learn best when teachers adopt an integrated approach to reading that explicitly teaches phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary knowledge and comprehension." The Inquiry Committee also states that the apparent dichotomy between phonics and the whole-Language approach to teaching "is false". However, it goes on to say "It was clear, however, that systematic phonics instruction is critical if children are to

neg: Trace Cache Trace Cache Trace Cache (also known as "execution trace cache") is a very specialized cache which stores the dynamic stream of instructions known as "trace". It helps in increasing the instruction fetch bandwidth and decreasing power consumption (in the case of Intel Pentium 4 ) by storing traces of instructions that have already been fetched and decoded. Trace Processor is an architecture designed around the Trace Cache and processes the instructions at trace level granularity. The earliest academic publication of trace cache was ""Trace Cache: a Low Latency Approach to High Bandwidth Instruction Fetching"". This widely acknowledged paper was presented

neg: Turing's proof 3 computing machine — an M that prints two kinds of symbols, symbols of the first type are called “figures” and are only binary symbols 1 and 0; symbols of the second type are any other symbols. 4 figures — symbols 1 and 0, a.k.a. “symbols of the first kind” 5 m-configuration — the instruction-identifier, either a symbol in the instruction table, or a string of symbols representing the instruction- number on the tape of the universal machine (e.g. "DAAAAA = #5") 6 symbols of the second kind — any symbols other than 1 and 0 7 circular — an

neg: Binary translation where the translated code is instrumented to find out what portions are executed a large number of times, and these portions are optimized aggressively. This technique is reminiscent of a JIT compiler, and in fact such compilers (e.g. Sun's HotSpot technology) can be viewed as dynamic translators from a virtual instruction set (the bytecode) to a real one. Binary translation In computing, binary translation is a form of binary recompilation where sequences of instructions are translated from a "source" instruction set to the "target" instruction set. In some cases such as instruction set simulation, the target instruction set may be

neg: Mastery learning subject and if they are provided uniform instruction (in terms of quality and learning time), then achievement level at completion of the subject is also expected to be normally distributed. This can be illustrated as shown below: Mastery Learning approaches propose that, if each learner were to receive optimal quality of instruction and as much learning time as they require, then a majority of students could be expected to attain mastery. This situation would be represented as follows: In many situations educators preemptively use the normal curve for grading students. Bloom was critical of this usage, condemning it because it

neg: Content and language integrated learning in approaches to bilingual education. These approaches include immersion, content-based instruction (CBI), content-based language teaching (CBLT), and the movement towards English medium instruction (EMI). All of these approaches raise a number of questions that a view of English as an international language has for content-integrated approaches (Thompson & McKinley, 2018). The multiplicity of terms used to refer to instructional approaches for the integration of content and language learning (immersion, CBI, CBLT, CLIL, EMI) can be a source of confusion in EIL studies, although they all commonly share the purpose of additive bilingualism via a dual focus on content and language

neg: Anna Gillingham Anna Gillingham Anna Gillingham (1878–1963) was an educator and psychologist. Working with Dr. Samuel Orton, she trained teachers and published instructional materials regarding reading instruction, producing the Orton-Gillingham approach to reading instruction. With Bessie Stillman, she wrote what has become the Orton–Gillingham manual: "Remedial Training for Children with Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling and Penmanship." First published in 1935/6, this work is updated and republished regularly. Along with the help of Stillman, Gillingham developed a “sequential, alphabetic-phonetic multisensory program” as a tool with which students could easily create meaningful syllables. This approach eliminated the need for a child to memorize

neg: Whole language In December 2005 the Australian Government endorsed the teaching of synthetic phonics, and discredited the whole language approach ("on its own"). Its Department of Education, Science and Training published a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy. The report states "The evidence is clear, whether from research, good practice observed in schools, advice from submissions to the Inquiry, consultations, or from Committee members’ own individual experiences, that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read." Pg 11. See Synthetic phonics#Acceptance in Australia In 2006 the U.K. Department for

neg: Library instruction for a Chicano student group at UCLA, are an example of such materials now available online. Library instruction is evolving to adapt to the changing concepts of information use and understanding. Model programs, in order to be meaningful and effective, should respond to the changing information environment. New methods of library instruction, such as the Cephalonian method, reflect changes in instructional technology and education theory. Information and communication technology literacy (ICT) is an example of a modern approach to library instruction. ICT extends information literacy to the use of computer technology in a variety of forms to manipulate, deliver, and

neg: Opcode which are then interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), the byte code used in GNU Emacs for compiled LISP code, .NET Common Intermediate Language (CIL), and many others. Opcode In computing, an opcode (abbreviated from operation code, also known as instruction syllable, instruction parcel or opstring) is the portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed. Beside the opcode itself, most instructions also specify the data they will process, in the form of operands. In addition to opcodes used in the instruction set architectures of various CPUs, which are hardware devices, they can also

neg: IA-64 instruction word includes extra bits for this. This approach is the distinguishing characteristic of the architecture. The architecture implements a large number of registers: Each 128-bit instruction word is called a "bundle", and contains three "slots" each holding an instruction, plus a 5-bit "template" indicating which type of instruction is in each slot. Those types are M-unit (memory instructions), I-unit (integer ALU, non-ALU integer, or long immediate extended instructions), F-unit (floating-point instructions), or B-unit (branch or long branch extended instructions). The template also encodes "stops" which indicate that a data dependency exists between data before and after the stop. All

neg: Constructivism (philosophy of education) reading: a traditional approach, a strategies instruction only approach, and an approach with strategies instruction and constructivist motivation techniques including student choices, collaboration, and hands-on activities. The constructivist approach, called CORI (Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction), resulted in better student reading comprehension, cognitive strategies, and motivation. Jong Suk Kim found that using constructivist teaching methods for 6th graders resulted in better student achievement than traditional teaching methods. This study also found that students preferred constructivist methods over traditional ones. However, Kim did not find any difference in student self-concept or learning strategies between those taught by constructivist or traditional methods. Doğru and

neg: Constructivist teaching methods various banners of constructivism—to the sharp and productive world of theory-based research on how people learn" (p. 18). Finally Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) cite Mayer to conclude fifty years of empirical results do not support unguided instruction. Specific approaches to education that are based on constructivism include the following: An approach to learning based on the constructivist learning ideologies presented by Jean Piaget (Harel & Papert, 1991). In this approach, the individual is consciously engaged in the construction of a product (Li, Cheng, & Liu, 2013). The utilization of constructionism in educational settings has been shown to promote higher-order

neg: Understanding by Design Understanding by Design Understanding by Design, or UbD, is an educational planning approach. UbD is an example of backward design, the practice of looking at the outcomes in order to design curriculum units, performance assessments, and classroom instruction. UbD focuses on teaching to achieve understanding. It is advocated by Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins in their "Understanding by Design" (1998), published by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Understanding by Design and UbD are registered trademarks of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Understanding by Design relies on what Wiggins and McTighe call "backward design" (also known

neg: Constructivism (philosophy of education) cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, Anchored Instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others. Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field. Some social constructivist models also stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined

neg: Reggio Emilia approach this belief, the child is beheld as beautiful, powerful, competent, creative, curious, and full of potential and ambitious desires." The child is viewed as being an active constructor of knowledge. Rather than being seen as the target of instruction, children are seen as having the active role of an apprentice. This role also extends to that of a researcher. Much of the instruction at Reggio Emilia schools takes place in the form of projects where they have opportunities to explore, observe, hypothesize, question, and discuss to clarify their understanding. Children are also viewed as social beings and a focus is

neg: Language pedagogy the phrase 'meaningless drills' to describe this kind of pattern practice, which others have also described as "mimicry-memorization." 5. There was a vocabulary list, sometimes with translations to the mother tongue. 6. The chapter usually ended with a short reading exercise. Due to weaknesses in performance, and more importantly because of Noam Chomsky's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, audio-lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today. However, elements of the method still survive in many textbooks. The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as

neg: Tang Shou Tao was very impressed with the way martial arts instruction was organized there. He liked the uniforms, the belt system, and the systematic approach to training. Subsequently, he adopted many of the Japanese style martial arts school characteristics when he opened his own school. The students had belt ranks, wore Japanese style uniforms, and Hung devised a more systematic approach to martial arts instruction than what was typical of most Chinese style schools. Hung felt that before a student was ready to learn xingyiquan or any of the other internal arts, he first had to acquire body strength and basic martial

neg: Pedagogy standardized, collective measure is very much impartial towards linguistic approaches in instruction and assessment as well as to some extent logical and quantitative styles"." Pedagogy Pedagogy (, , or ) (most commonly understood as the approach to teaching) refers more broadly to the theory and practice of education, and how this influences the growth of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are exchanged in an educational context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Pedagogies vary greatly, as they reflect the different social, political, cultural contexts from which