query: the most active form of vitamin e is

pos: Vitamin E of methyl groups on the chromanol ring. All eight of these vitamers feature a chromane double ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals, and a hydrophobic side chain which allows for penetration into biological membranes. Of the many different forms of vitamin E, gamma-tocopherol (γ-tocopherol) is the most common form found in the North American diet, but alpha-tocopherol (α-tocopherol) is the most biologically active. Palm oil is a source of tocotrienols. Vitamin E was discovered in 1922, isolated in 1935 and first synthesized in 1938. Because the vitamin activity was first identified

pos: Vitamin E of methyl groups on the chromanol ring. All eight of these vitamers feature a chromane double ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals, and a hydrophobic side chain which allows for penetration into biological membranes. Of the many different forms of vitamin E, gamma-tocopherol (γ-tocopherol) is the most common form found in the North American diet, but alpha-tocopherol (α-tocopherol) is the most biologically active. Palm oil is a source of tocotrienols. Vitamin E was discovered in 1922, isolated in 1935 and first synthesized in 1938. Because the vitamin activity was first identified

pos: Tocopherol these E numbers: E306 (tocopherol), E307 (α-tocopherol), E308 (γ-tocopherol), and E309 (δ-tocopherol). These are all approved in the USA, EU and Australia and New Zealand for use as antioxidants. Alpha-tocopherol is the form of vitamin E that is preferentially absorbed and accumulated in humans. The measurement of "vitamin E" activity in international units (IU) was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of miscarriages in pregnant rats relative to alpha-tocopherol. Although the mono-methylated form ddd-gamma-tocopherol is the most prevalent form of vitamin E in oils, there is evidence that rats can methylate this form to the preferred alpha-tocopherol, since several

pos: Chirality its enantiomer, Novrad (Levopropoxyphene) is an anti-cough agent. In case of Penicillamine, the S-isomer used in treatment of primary chronic arthritis, Whereas the R-isomer has no therapeutic effect as well as being highly toxic. In some cases the less therapeutically active enantiomer can cause side effects. For example, S-naproxen is an analgesic but the R-isomer cause renal problems. The naturally occurring plant form of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) is RRR-α-tocopherol whereas the synthetic form (all-racemic vitamin E, or dl-tocopherol) is equal parts of the stereoisomers RRR, RRS, RSS, SSS, RSR, SRS, SRR and SSR with progressively decreasing biological equivalency, so that

pos: Vitamin E R1 = H, R2 = H, R3 = methyl group. The same configurations exist for the tocotrienols, except that the hydrophobic side chain has three carbon-carbon double bonds whereas the tocopherols have a saturated side chain. In addition to distinguishing tocopherols and tocotrienols by position of methyl groups, the tocopherols have a phytl tail with three chiral points or centers that can have a right or left orientation. The naturally occurring plant form of alpha-tocopherol is RRR-α-tocopherol, also referred to as d-tocopherol, whereas the synthetic form (all-racemic or "all-rac" vitamin E, also dl-tocopherol) is equal parts of eight stereoisomers RRR,

pos: Tocofersolan Tocofersolan Tocofersolan (INN) or tocophersolan is a synthetic water-soluble version of vitamin E. Natural forms of vitamin E are fat soluble, but not water-soluble. Tocofersolan is polyethylene glycol derivative of α-tocopherol that enables water solubility. Tocofersolan is used as a vitamin E supplement or to treat vitamin E deficiency in individuals who cannot absorb fats due to disease. On 24 July 2009 the European Medicines Agency approved tocofersolan under the trade name Vedrop 50 mg/ml oral solution for the treatment of vitamin E deficiency due to digestive malabsorption in paediatric patients suffering from congenital or hereditary chronic cholestasis, from birth

neg: Tocopherol a redox reaction with a hydrogen donor such as vitamin C. As they are fat-soluble, tocopherols are incorporated into cell membranes, which are protected from oxidative damage. The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults is 15 mg/day. The RDA is based on the alpha-tocopherol form because it is the most active form as originally tested. Vitamin E supplements are absorbed best when taken with meals. The U.S. Institute of Medicine has set an upper tolerable intake level (UL) for vitamin E at 1,000 mg (1,500 IU) per day. The European Food Safety Authority sets UL at 300 mg alpha-tocopherol

neg: Vitamer same enzymatic cofactor(s), which is active in the body as a form of the vitamin. As part of the definition of vitamin, the body cannot completely synthesize an optimal amount of vitamins from simple foodstuffs, without some minimal amount of a vitamer molecule as a foundation. Typically not all vitamers possess exactly the same vitamin potency, per mass. This is due to differences in absorption and interconversion of the various vitamers of a vitamin. Often for the same reason, the toxicity of vitamers varies by molecule, as is the case with vitamin E. A set of chemicals may be (but

neg: Vitamin D and neurology food sources including milk and fish. These two forms of vitamin D are metabolized in the liver and stored as 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Before biological use, the storage form must be converted into an active form. One common active form is 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D. The term "vitamin D" in this article, refers to group of molecules including cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and the active forms. The role of vitamin D is best characterized as enabling calcium absorption and regulating calcium homeostasis. Vitamin D also play a role in phosphate absorption. Hypovitaminosis D is described as any deficiency of vitamin D. A

neg: Parathyroid hormone is its stimulation of the conversion of 25-hydroxy vitamin D into 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D (calcitriol), which is released into the circulation. This latter form of vitamin D is the active hormone which stimulates calcium uptake from the intestine. Via the kidney, PTH enhances the absorption of calcium in the intestine by increasing the production of activated vitamin D. Vitamin D activation occurs in the kidney. PTH up-regulates 25-hydroxyvitamin D 1-alpha-hydroxylase, the enzyme responsible for 1-alpha hydroxylation of 25-hydroxy vitamin D, converting vitamin D to its active form (1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D). This activated form of vitamin D increases the absorption of

neg: Tocopherol while γ-tocopherol is the most common form in the American diet due to a higher intake of soybean and corn oil. Tocotrienols, which are related compounds, also have vitamin E activity. All of these various derivatives with vitamin activity may correctly be referred to as "vitamin E". Tocopherols and tocotrienols are fat-soluble antioxidants but also seem to have many other functions in the body. Vitamin E exists in eight different forms, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. All feature a chromane ring, with a hydroxyl group that can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals and a hydrophobic side chain

neg: Tocopherol E supplements. There is other evidence for declining use of vitamin E. Within the US military services, vitamin prescriptions written for active, reserve and retired military, and their dependents, were tracked over years 2007-2011. Vitamin E prescriptions decreased by 53% while vitamin C remained constant and vitamin D increased by 454%. A report on vitamin E sales volume in the US documented a 50% decrease between 2000 and 2006, with a significant cause attributed to a well-publicized meta-analysis that had concluded that high-dosage vitamin E increased all-cause mortality. A Cochrane review published in 2017 on antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements

neg: Vitamin K antagonist Vitamin K antagonist Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are a group of substances that reduce blood clotting by reducing the action of vitamin K. They are used as anticoagulant medications in the prevention of thrombosis, and in pest control, as rodenticides. These drugs deplete the active form of the vitamin by inhibiting the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase and thus the recycling of the inactive vitamin K epoxide back to the active reduced form of vitamin K. The drugs are structurally similar to vitamin K and act as competitive inhibitors of the enzyme. The term "vitamin K antagonist" is a misnomer,

neg: Vitamin D deficiency the metabolism of vitamin D, causing a deficiency. Some types of liver diseases and kidney diseases can decrease vitamin D production leading to a deficiency. The liver is required to transform vitamin D into 25-hydroxyvitamin D. This is an inactive metabolite of vitamin D but is a necessary precursor (building block) to create the active form of vitamin D. In liver disease, the 25-hydroxyvitamin D may not be formed, leading to a vitamin D deficiency. The kidneys are responsible for converting 25-hydroxyvitamin D to 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D. This is the active form of vitamin D in the body. Kidney disease often

neg: Vitamin E and 24.5%. The authors theorized that declining use in these populations may have due to publications of studies that showed either no benefits or negative consequences from vitamin E supplements. Within the US military services, vitamin prescriptions written for active, reserve and retired military, and their dependents, were tracked over years 2007-2011. Vitamin E prescriptions decreased by 53% while vitamin C remained constant and vitamin D increased by 454%. A report on vitamin E sales volume in the US documented a 50% decrease between 2000 and 2006, with a cause attributed to a meta-analysis that had concluded that high-dosage vitamin

neg: 4-Hydroxycoumarins a natural chemical substance of combined plant and fungal origin; mycotoxin also shares these properties. The identification of Dicoumarol in 1940 is the precursor of the drug class known as 4-Hydroxycoumarin. See warfarin for this history. The synthetic drugs in the 4-hydroxycoumarin class are all noted primarily for their use as anticoagulants, though they can have several additional effects. All affect the normal metabolism of vitamin K in the body by inhibiting the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase which recycles vitamin K to active form. As such, these compounds form the most important and widely used subset of vitamin K

neg: CYP2R1 proline for a leucine residue at codon 99 eliminates the enzyme activity and is associated with low circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and classic symptoms of vitamin D deficiency. The gene product which it encodes, vitamin D 25-hydroxylase, has therefore been proposed as the key enzyme in the conversion of cholecalciferol (vitamin D) to calcidiol. Calcidiol is subsequently converted by the action of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D that binds to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) which mediates most of the physiological actions of the vitamin. Model organisms have been used in the study

neg: Vitamin D D pro-hormone resulting in the active form, calcitriol, which then produces effects via a nuclear receptor in multiple locations. Cholecalciferol is converted in the liver to calcifediol (25-hydroxycholecalciferol); ergocalciferol is converted to 25-hydroxyergocalciferol. These two vitamin D metabolites (called 25-hydroxyvitamin D or 25(OH)D) are measured in serum to determine a person's vitamin D status. Calcifediol is further hydroxylated by the kidneys to form calcitriol (also known as 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, having a major role regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate, and promoting the healthy growth and

neg: Vitamin E placebo-controlled clinical trials could not always replicate these findings, and there were some indications that vitamin E supplementation actually was associated with a modest increase in all-cause mortality. As of 2017, vitamin E continues to be a topic of active clinical research. Although people commonly apply Vitamin E oil to their skin to try to improve wound healing and reduce scar tissue, reviews have repeatedly concluded that there is no good evidence that this is helpful. Both the tocopherols and tocotrienols occur in α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma) and δ (delta) forms, as determined by the number and position

neg: Endocrine bone disease women but men can be diagnosed with this silent disease as well as it mainly affects elderly individual. In addition to the thyroid gland, Vitamin D plays a crucial role in the absorption of calcium. In fact, Vitamin D is needed for efficient absorption of calcium and therefore proper bone health. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin, as well, it is unique because it is considered as a hormone; synthesized endogenously in the liver in form of Cholecalciferol. The endogenous inactive form of Vitamin D is Cholecalciferol or Vitamin D3 which is converted to active form of Vitamin D–Calcitriol also

neg: Vitamin K antagonist warfarin, with hypersensitivity reactions involving many organs and sometimes resulting in death. They are therefore now rarely used. Vitamin K antagonist Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are a group of substances that reduce blood clotting by reducing the action of vitamin K. They are used as anticoagulant medications in the prevention of thrombosis, and in pest control, as rodenticides. These drugs deplete the active form of the vitamin by inhibiting the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase and thus the recycling of the inactive vitamin K epoxide back to the active reduced form of vitamin K. The drugs are structurally similar to

neg: Abetalipoproteinemia of dietary fats, cholesterol, and certain vitamins. People affected by this disorder are not able to make certain lipoproteins, which are molecules that consist of proteins combined with cholesterol and particular fats called triglycerides. This leads to a multiple vitamin deficiency, affecting the fat-soluble vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K. However, many of the observed effects are due to vitamin E deficiency in particular. The signs and symptoms of abetalipoproteinemia appear in the first few months of life (because pancreatic lipase is not active in this period). They can include failure to gain weight and grow at

neg: Vitamin A retinol), which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the major form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate, which is converted to retinol (chemically an alcohol) in the small intestine. The retinol form functions as a storage form of the vitamin, and can be converted to and from its visually active aldehyde form, retinal. All forms of vitamin A have a beta-ionone ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a "retinyl group". Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity. The orange pigment of carrots (beta-carotene)

neg: Alexander E. Braunstein Biology), Braunstein headed a laboratory there. Braunstein's best-known work centered on enzymatic transamination and the role of vitamin B6 (specifically, in its pyridoxal phosphate form) as a cofactor in these reactions. Along with Maria Kritzman, Braunstein co-discovered the phenomenon of transamination and described its biological significance in a series of papers beginning in 1937. Later, Braunstein's and Esmond Snell's research groups independently described a general catalytic mechanism for enzymes dependent on the biologically active form of vitamin B6, known as pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), as a cofactor. In his later career, Braunstein focused on X-ray crystallography, attempting to solve the structure

neg: Hypervitaminosis A but there are effective tests available. Hypervitaminosis A is usually treated by stopping intake of the offending food(s), supplement(s), or medication. Most people make a full recovery. High intake of provitamin carotenoids (such as beta-carotene) from vegetables and fruits does not cause hypervitaminosis A, as conversion from carotenoids to the active form of vitamin A is regulated by the body to maintain an optimum level of the vitamin. Carotenoids themselves cannot produce toxicity. Symptoms may include: Hypervitaminosis A results from excessive intake of preformed vitamin A. A genetic variance in tolerance to vitamin A intake may occur. Children are particularly

neg: Senior dog diet dogs diets however there are also other good sources of Vitamin A. These include milk, egg yolk, and liver. The inactive form of Vitamin A, beta-carotene can be found in high amounts in carrots. Vitamin E is a key component found in dog foods for the skin to maintain elasticity and to replace old skin cells. Due to the anti-oxidant mechanisms of vitamin E it can prevent the formation of free radicals and in turn may prevent cancer cells from proliferating in senior dogs. Vitamin E is found in both plant and animal products such as vegetable oil, dark red

neg: Vegetarian and vegan dog diet of vitamin D) to cholecalciferol (inactive form of vitamin D) following exposure to UV light from the sun. Cholecalciferol is then converted to calcidiol in the liver before further hydroxylated to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, in the kidney. However, the conversion of provitamin D to cholecalciferol is significantly lower in dogs than other mammals, and is not sufficient to maintain an adequate vitamin D status. Thus, dogs depend on dietary sources of vitamin D to meet their nutrient requirement. In the diet, there are two forms of vitamin D – cholecalciferol (vitamin D) from mainly animal sources,

neg: Cyanocobalamin Cyanocobalamin Cyanocobalamin is a synthetic form of vitamin. Vitamin is the "generic descriptor" name for any vitamers of vitamin . Because humans and animals can convert cyanocobalamin to any one of the active vitamin compounds, by definition this makes cyanocobalamin itself a form (or vitamer) of . Cyanocobalamin is usually prescribed after surgical removal of part or all of the stomach or intestine to ensure adequate serum levels of vitamin . It is also used to treat pernicious anemia, vitamin deficiency (due to low intake from food), thyrotoxicosis, hemorrhage, malignancy, liver disease and kidney disease. Cyanocobalamin injections are often prescribed

neg: Dicoumarol Like all 4-hydroxycoumarin drugs it is a competitive inhibitor of vitamin K epoxide reductase, an enzyme that recycles vitamin K, thus causing depletion of active vitamin K in blood. This prevents the formation of the active form of prothrombin and several other coagulant enzymes. These compounds are not antagonists of Vitamin K directly—as they are in pharmaceutical uses—but rather promote depletion of vitamin K in bodily tissues allowing vitamin K's mechanism of action as a potent medication for dicoumarol toxicity. The mechanism of action of Vitamin K along with the toxicity of dicoumarol are measured with the prothrombin time (PT)

neg: Cat food most common antioxidants found in cat gastrointestinal diets are vitamin E and vitamin C. The addition of Vitamin E as an antioxidant in gastrointestinal health cat food diets can have a positive effect of improving the animal's immune function and prevent against infections. Vitamin E is a free radical scavenger that functions as a chain-breaking antioxidant to prevent free radical damage of cell membranes. Vitamin E aids in protecting cells from highly reactive oxygen species within the lungs, muscles, skin, brain, tissues and red blood cells. Supplementation of vitamin E in the diet benefits the immune system and improves resistance

neg: Vitamin E IU of natural-source vitamin E on alternate days for an average of 10.1 years. There were no significant differences for incidences of all types of cancer, cancer deaths, or for breast, lung or colon cancers. Potential confounding factors are the form of vitamin E used in prospective studies and the amounts. Synthetic, racemic mixtures of vitamin E isomers are not bioequivalent to natural, non-racemic mixtures, yet are widely used in clinical trials and as dietary supplement ingredients. One review reported a modest increase in cancer risk with vitamin E supplementation while stating that more than 90% of the cited clinical

neg: Hyperparathyroidism most common causes are vitamin D deficiency (caused by lack of sunlight, diet or malabsorption) and chronic kidney failure. Lack of vitamin D leads to reduced calcium absorption by the intestine leading to hypocalcemia and increased parathyroid hormone secretion. This increases bone resorption. In chronic kidney failure the problem is more specifically failure to convert vitamin D to its active form in the kidney. The bone disease in secondary hyperparathyroidism caused by kidney failure is termed renal osteodystrophy. Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is seen in patients with long-term secondary hyperparathyroidism, which eventually leads to hyperplasia of the parathyroid glands and a loss

neg: Vitamin D In 1971–72, the further metabolism of vitamin D to active forms was discovered. In the liver, vitamin D was found to be converted to calcifediol. Calcifediol is then converted by the kidneys to calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the bloodstream and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone. The vitamin D metabolites, calcifediol and calcitriol, were identified by competing teams led by Michael F. Holick in the laboratory of Hector DeLuca and by Tony Norman and colleagues. There is considerable

neg: Hypervitaminosis D active form of vitamin D, calcitriol, are inversely correlated with coronary calcification. Moreover, the active vitamin D analog, alfacalcidol, seems to protect patients from developing vascular calcification. Serum vitamin D has been found to correlate with calcified atherosclerotic plaque in African Americans as they have higher active serum vitamin D levels compared to Euro-Americans. Higher levels of calcidiol positively correlate with aorta and carotid calcified atherosclerotic plaque in African Americans but not with coronary plaque, whereas individuals of European descent have an opposite, negative association. There are racial differences in the association of coronary calcified plaque in that there is

neg: Vitamin D Circulating calcifediol may then be converted into calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D, in the kidneys. Whether it is made in the skin or ingested, Vitamin D is hydroxylated in the liver at position 25 (upper right of the molecule) to form 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol or 25(OH)D). This reaction is catalyzed by the microsomal enzyme vitamin D 25-hydroxylase, the product of the "CYP2R1" human gene, and expressed by hepatocytes. Once made, the product is released into the plasma, where it is bound to an α-globulin carrier protein named the vitamin D-binding protein. Calcifediol is transported to the proximal tubules

neg: Tocopherol composition database. The last major revision was Release 28, September 2015. In general, food sources with the highest concentrations of vitamin E are vegetable oils, followed by nuts and seeds. Adjusting for typical portion sizes, however, for many people in the United States the most important sources of vitamin E include fortified breakfast cereals. Vitamin E deficiency is rare, and in almost all instances caused by an underlying disease rather than a diet low in vitamin E. Vitamin E deficiency causes neurological problems due to poor nerve conduction. These include neuromuscular problems such as spinocerebellar ataxia and myopathies. Deficiency can

neg: Vitamin word "vitamine", coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients essential to life, all of which he presumed to be amines. When this presumption was later determined not to be true, the "e" was dropped from the name. All vitamins were discovered (identified) between 1913 and 1948. For the most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength

neg: Calcium metabolism the plasma ionized calcium level, even though the total calcium concentration might be lowered. The kidney influences the plasma ionized calcium concentration in yet another manner. It processes vitamin D into calcitriol, the active form that is most effective in promoting the intestinal absorption of calcium. This conversion of vitamin D into calcitriol, is also promoted by high plasma parathyroid hormone levels. Most excretion of excess calcium is via the bile and feces, because the plasma calcitriol levels (which ultimately depend on the plasma calcium levels) regulate how much of the biliary calcium is reabsorbed from the intestinal contents. Urinary

neg: Michael F. Holick Vitamin D has been called extreme, even speculating that the extinction of the dinosaurs could be caused by a lack of it in the reduced sunlight. As a graduate student, he identified the major circulating form of vitamin D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, which is the vitamin D metabolite that is measured by physicians worldwide to determine a patient's vitamin D status. He also identified the active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, as well as other metabolites including 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, 1,24,25-trihydroxyvitamin D3 and 25,26-dihydroxyvitamin D3. As a fellow, he participated in the first chemical synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and 1α-hydroxyvitamin D3

neg: Vitamin K calcification of arteries and other soft tissues. Chemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives. Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K and vitamin K. Vitamin K, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms. Vitamin K, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K. It is active as a vitamin in animals and

neg: T helper 17 cell HIV infection (Gosselin et al. J Immunol 2010). The active form of vitamin D (1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3) has been found to 'severely impair' production of the IL-17 and IL-17F cytokines by Th17 cells. Thus, active form of vitamin D is a direct inhibitor for Th17 differentiation. In this way, oral administration of vitamin D3 was proposed to be a promising tool for the treatment of Th17-mediated diseases. In young patients with asthma 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-treated dendritic cells significantly reduced the percentage of Th17 cells, as well as IL-17 production. T helper 17 cell T helper 17 cells (T17) are a subset of

neg: Hypervitaminosis D reasons as well as environmental ones. Possible ethnic differences in physiological pathways for ingested vitamin D, such as the Inuit, may confound across the board recommendations for vitamin D levels. Inuit compensate for lower production of vitamin D by converting more of this vitamin to its most active form. A Toronto study of young Canadians of diverse ancestry applied a standard of serum 25(OH)D levels that was significantly higher than official recommendations. These levels were described to be 75 nmol/L as "optimal", between 75 nmol/L and 50 nmol/L as "insufficient" and < 50 nmol/L as "deficient". 22% of individuals of

neg: Alzheimer's disease flavonoids such as cocoa, red wine, and tea may decrease the risk of AD. Reviews on the use of vitamins and minerals have not found enough consistent evidence to recommend them. This includes vitamin A, C, the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E, selenium, zinc, and folic acid with or without vitamin B. Evidence from one randomized controlled trial indicated that the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E may slow cognitive decline, this evidence was judged to be "moderate" in quality. Trials examining folic acid (B9) and other B vitamins failed to show any significant association with cognitive decline. Omega-3 fatty acid

neg: Flintstones Chewable Vitamins deficiency can result in rickets, a disease in which bones become soft and pliable. Vitamin E is a potent anti-oxidant in the body. Vitamin E deficiencies leads to neuromuscular, vascular and reproductive abnormalities. The chewable form of Flintstones Complete contains higher amounts of vitamins and minerals than the gummy version. The chewable form, unlike the gummy version, contains: Vitamins B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), Niacin, Calcium, Iron, Copper and Selenium. Flintstones with Iron has a similar vitamin profile as Flintstones Complete gummy version. The iron content meets 75% of the Daily Value of iron for children over 2 years of age.

neg: Vitamin E usually in the form of the vitamin dissolved in vegetable oil in a softgel capsule. For alpha-tocopherol, amounts range from 100 to 1000 IU per serving. Smaller amounts are incorporated into multi-vitamin/mineral tablets. Gamma-tocopherol and tocotrienol supplements are also available from dietary supplement companies. The latter are extracts from palm or annatto oils. The World Health Organization does not have any recommendations for food fortification with vitamin E. The Food Fortification Initiative does not list any countries that have mandatory or voluntary programs for vitamin E. Infant formulas have alpha-tocopherol as an ingredient. In some countries, certain brands of ready-to-eat

neg: Immune system system. For example, female sex hormones are known immunostimulators of both adaptive and innate immune responses. Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with puberty. By contrast, male sex hormones such as testosterone seem to be immunosuppressive. Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably prolactin, growth hormone and vitamin D. When a T-cell encounters a foreign pathogen, it extends a vitamin D receptor. This is essentially a signaling device that allows the T-cell to bind to the active form of vitamin D, the steroid hormone calcitriol. T-cells

neg: Senior dog diet health of dogs. In order for calcium to be properly absorbed into the body dogs will require another nutrient, vitamin D. adequate vitamin D is needed to form enough calcitriol, known as the active form of vitamin D. If enough is not present the body will begin to draw from stores of vitamin D within the body like the bones and teeth for its needs. This can lead to bone weakening and the inability to repair bone damage. Beet pulp is a common ingredient in dog diets as it is a very versatile and useful fiber source. Beet pulp provides

neg: Orthomolecular medicine or whether confounding variables (such as other dietary factors or exercise) were responsible. To distinguish between these possibilities, a number of randomized controlled trials were performed and meta-analysis of these controlled clinical trials have not shown any clear benefit from any form of vitamin E supplementation for preventing chronic disease. Further clinical studies show no benefit of vitamin E supplements for cardiovascular disease. The current position of the American National Institutes of Health is that there is no convincing evidence that vitamin E supplements can prevent or treat any disease. Beyond the lack of apparent benefit, a series of three

neg: Vitamin K deficiency Vitamin K deficiency Vitamin K deficiency results from insufficient dietary vitamin K or vitamin K or both. Symptoms include bruising, petechiae, hematomas, oozing of blood at surgical or puncture sites, stomach pains; risk of massive uncontrolled bleeding; cartilage calcification; and severe malformation of developing bone or deposition of insoluble calcium salts in the walls of arteries. In infants, it can cause some birth defects such as underdeveloped face, nose, bones, and fingers. Vitamin K is changed to its active form in the liver by the enzyme Vitamin K epoxide reductase. Activated vitamin K is then used to gamma carboxylate (and

neg: Coagulation Vitamin K is itself oxidized. Another enzyme, "Vitamin K epoxide reductase", (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. Vitamin K epoxide reductase is pharmacologically important as a target of anticoagulant drugs warfarin and related coumarins such as acenocoumarol, phenprocoumon, and dicumarol. These drugs create a deficiency of reduced vitamin K by blocking VKORC, thereby inhibiting maturation of clotting factors. Vitamin K deficiency from other causes (e.g., in malabsorption) or impaired vitamin K metabolism in disease (e.g., in liver failure) lead to the formation of PIVKAs (proteins formed in vitamin K absence) which are partially or totally non-gamma carboxylated,

neg: Vitamin E free radicals. At 323 kJ/mol, the O-H bond in tocopherols is about 10% weaker than in most other phenols. This weak bond allows the vitamin to donate a hydrogen atom to the peroxyl radical and other free radicals, minimizing their damaging effect. The thus-generated tocopheryl radical is recycled to tocopherol by a redox reaction with a hydrogen donor, such as vitamin C. As it is fat-soluble, vitamin E is incorporated into cell membranes, which are therefore protected from oxidative damage. Vitamin E affects gene expression and is an enzyme activity regulator, such as for protein kinase C (PKC) – which

neg: Hippophae rhamnoides sugar alcohol in fruit is L-quebrachitol (0.15-0.24 g/100 ml of juice). The fruit of the plant has a high vitamin C content – in a range of 114 to 1550 mg per 100 grams, with an average content (695 mg per 100 grams), placing sea buckthorn fruit among the most enriched plant sources of vitamin C. Additionally, fruits have high concentrations of carotenoids, vitamin E and vitamin K. The main carotenoids are beta-carotene, zeaxanthin and lycopene while alpha-tocopherol is the major vitamin E compound. The most prevalent dietary minerals in sea buckthorn fruits are potassium (300–380 mg/100 g), manganese (0.28–0.32

neg: Vitamin amino acids. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, vitamin E consists of four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. The thirteen vitamins required by human metabolism are: vitamin A (retinols and carotenoids), vitamin B (thiamine), vitamin B (riboflavin), vitamin B (niacin), vitamin B (pantothenic acid), vitamin B (pyridoxine), vitamin B (biotin), vitamin B (folic acid or folate), vitamin B (cobalamins), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D (calciferols), vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), and vitamin K (quinones). Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some forms of vitamin A function as regulators of cell and tissue

neg: Vitamin C mechanisms, so the presence of large quantities of sugar in the intestine can slow absorption. Ascorbic acid is absorbed in the body by both active transport and simple diffusion. Sodium-Dependent Active Transport—Sodium-Ascorbate Co-Transporters (SVCTs) and Hexose transporters (GLUTs)—are the two transporter proteins required for active absorption. SVCT1 and SVCT2 import the reduced form of ascorbate across plasma membranes. GLUT1 and GLUT3 are glucose transporters, and transfer only the dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) form of vitamin C. Although dehydroascorbic acid is absorbed in higher rate than ascorbate, the amount of dehydroascorbic acid found in plasma and tissues under normal conditions is low,

neg: Cat food of vitamin E as the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet increase. Ingredients such as wheat germ as well as certain plant oils contain high levels of active vitamin E and are commonly added to feline diets which are carefully stored in order to prevent oxidative destruction of vitamin E prior to consumption. Biotin can be provided in feline diets through the addition of cooked eggs, liver, milk, legumes or nuts. Microorganisms living in the gastrointestinal tracts of cats are also able to synthesize and supply an alternative source of biotin if proper nutritional requirements are met. Its

neg: 2-succinyl-6-hydroxy-2,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxylate synthase alpha helixes serves to enclose the active site. The enzyme exists in an open form until it binds the substrate, when it morphs into a closed form with an active catalytic triad. Energetic analysis shows that SHCHC synthase has a low energetic burden for catalytic activity. This means the enzyme is more prone to mutation and is one of the most diverse enzymes in the vitamin K synthetic pathway. Only fifteen amino acid residues are absolutely conserved across mutations of the enzyme. The active site contains a catalytic triad of syrine, histine and arginine, which is conserved across all mutants

neg: Vitamin D deficiency in Australia the body, sustaining good bone health as well as muscle function. When calcium in the body becomes under provided for normal bodily functions, calcitriol, an active form of Vitamin D, pairs with parathyroid hormone. Together they act to assemble cells in order to increase the calcium stores taken from bone. The popular term Sunshine vitamin, as it’s often called, is one of the one main sources of achieving sufficient Vitamin D through sunlight on the skin known as D3. The second form is commonly known as D2, which is found in foods such as fatty fish and fortified products like

neg: Tocopherol also cause anemia, due to oxidative damage to red blood cells. Commercial vitamin E supplements can be classified into several distinct categories: Synthetic vitamin E derived from petroleum products is manufactured as all-racemic alpha tocopheryl acetate with a mixture of eight stereoisomers. In this mixture, one alpha-tocopherol molecule in eight molecules are in the form of "RRR"-alpha-tocopherol (12.5% of the total). The 8-isomer "all-rac" vitamin E is always marked on labels simply as dl-tocopherol or dl-tocopheryl acetate, even though it is (if fully written out) actually dl,dl,dl-tocopherol. The present largest manufacturers of this type are DSM and BASF. Natural alpha-tocopherol

neg: Michael F. Holick Michael F. Holick Michael F. Holick (born 1946) is an American adult endocrinologist, specializing in the field of vitamin D, such as the identification of both calcidiol, the major circulating form of vitamin D, and calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D. His work has been the basis for diagnostic tests and therapies for vitamin D-related diseases. He is a professor of medicine at the Boston University Medical Center and editor-in-chief of the journal "Clinical Laboratory". After earning a Ph.D. degree in biochemistry, a medical degree, and completing a research postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Holick completed a

neg: Michael F. Holick the Van Slyke Award from American Association for Clinical Chemistry, the Linus Pauling Prize In Human Nutrition, the Delbert A Fisher Research Scholar Award from the Endocrine Society, and the American College of Nutrition's Communication Media Award. Michael F. Holick Michael F. Holick (born 1946) is an American adult endocrinologist, specializing in the field of vitamin D, such as the identification of both calcidiol, the major circulating form of vitamin D, and calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D. His work has been the basis for diagnostic tests and therapies for vitamin D-related diseases. He is a professor of medicine

neg: Canadian health claims for food lycopene) neutralize free radicals in the body and thus prevent cell damage and oxidative damage to DNA. The Journal of Internal medicine published a paper in 2007 which reviews 41 studies conducted concerning Vitamin C and Vitamin E and their role in cancer prevention and treatment. Thirty eight studies did show statistically insufficient beneficial effects of Vitamin E and C on cancer patients. Three of the studies show that there are statistically significant beneficial results. Overall, the systemic review of literature does not support the hypothesis that increased intake of Vitamin E and C (in the form of supplements) can

neg: Tocopheryl acetate Tocopheryl acetate Tocopheryl acetate, also known as vitamin E acetate, is a common vitamin supplement with the molecular formula CHO (for 'α' form). It is the ester of acetic acid and tocopherol (vitamin E). It is often used in dermatological products such as skin creams. Tocopheryl acetate is not oxidized and can penetrate through the skin to the living cells, where about 5% is converted to free tocopherol. Claims are made for beneficial antioxidant effects. Tocopheryl acetate is used as an alternative to tocopherol itself because the phenolic hydroxyl group is blocked, providing a less acidic product with a longer

neg: Vitamin E RRS, RSS, SSS, RSR, SRS, SRR and SSR with progressively decreasing biological equivalency, so that 1.36 mg of dl-tocopherol is considered equivalent to 1.0 mg of d-tocopherol, the natural form. Rephrased, the synthetic has 73.5% of the potency of the natural. alpha-Tocopherol is a lipid-soluble antioxidant functioning within the glutathione peroxidase pathway, and protecting cell membranes from oxidation by reacting with lipid radicals produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction. This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the oxidation reaction from continuing. The oxidized α-tocopheroxyl radicals produced in this process may be recycled back to the active reduced form

neg: Vitamin B6 pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. Vitamin B was named pyridoxine to indicate its structural homology to pyridine. Vitamin B6 Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism. All forms except pyridoxic acid and pyritinol can be interconverted. Absorbed pyridoxamine is converted to PMP by pyridoxal kinase, which is further converted to PLP by pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase which

neg: Pyridoxine 5'-phosphate oxidase and is converted to PLP, the active site of the enzyme is in a partially “closed” conformation. Specific amino acid residues can form hydrogen bonds with the PLP, thus forming a lid that physically covers the active site, giving rise to the “closed” conformation. Pyridoxine 5’-phosphate oxidase is the enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limited step of the B metabolism pathway. Vitamin B, which is also known as pyridoxine, is a crucial nutrient for the human body, as it is responsible for more bodily functions than any other vitamin. Vitamin B is a coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and

neg: Transmethylation Transmethylation Transmethylation is a biologically important organic chemical reaction in which a methyl group is transferred from one compound to another. An example of transmethylation is the recovery of methionine from homocysteine. In order to sustain sufficient reaction rates during metabolic stress, this reaction requires adequate levels of vitamin B and folate. Methyl tetrahydrofolate delivers methyl groups to form the active methyl form of vitamin B that is required for methylation of homocysteine. Deficiencies of vitamin B or folate cause increased levels of circulating homocysteine. Elevated homocysteine is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and is linked to the metabolic

neg: Transmethylation syndrome (insulin insensitivity). Transmethylation is decreased sometimes in parents of children with autism. Transmethylation Transmethylation is a biologically important organic chemical reaction in which a methyl group is transferred from one compound to another. An example of transmethylation is the recovery of methionine from homocysteine. In order to sustain sufficient reaction rates during metabolic stress, this reaction requires adequate levels of vitamin B and folate. Methyl tetrahydrofolate delivers methyl groups to form the active methyl form of vitamin B that is required for methylation of homocysteine. Deficiencies of vitamin B or folate cause increased levels of circulating homocysteine. Elevated homocysteine

neg: Fetal warfarin syndrome for activating vitamin K during vitamin K recycling. Vitamin K, once activated, is able to add a carboxylic acid group to glutamate residues of certain proteins which assists in correct protein folding. Without active vitamin K, a fetus exposed to warfarin is unable to produce large quantities of clotting and bone growth factors. Without vitamin K, clotting factors II, VII, IX and X are unable to be produced. Without these vital parts of the coagulation cascade a durable fibrin plug cannot form to block fluid escaping from damaged or permeable vasculature. Anemia is common in fetuses exposed to warfarin as

neg: Vitamin E deficiency Vitamin E deficiency Vitamin E deficiency in humans is a very rare condition, occurring as a consequence of abnormalities in dietary fat absorption or metabolism rather than from a diet low in vitamin E. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs for vitamin E and other essential nutrients are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). Vitamin E deficiency can cause nerve problems due to poor conduction of electrical impulses along nerves due to changes in nerve membrane structure and function. Signs of vitamin E deficiency include the following: Vitamin E deficiency is rare. There are no records of it

neg: Vitamin E Vitamin E Vitamin E is a group of eight fat soluble compounds that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Vitamin E deficiency, which is rare and usually due to an underlying problem with digesting dietary fat rather than from a diet low in vitamin E, can cause nerve problems. The crucial function played by Vitamin E that makes it a vitamin is poorly understood, but may involve antioxidant functions in cell membranes. Other theories hold that vitamin E – specifically the RRR stereoisomer of alpha-tocopherol – act by controlling gene expression and cell signal transduction. Worldwide, government organizations recommend adults

neg: Cholecalciferol consensus is that supplementing levels is not beneficial. It is thought that tuberculosis may result in lower levels. It, however, is not entirely clear how the two are related. Cholecalciferol is one of the five forms of vitamin D. Cholecalciferol is a secosteroid, that is, a steroid molecule with one ring open. By itself cholecalciferol is inactive. It is converted to its active form by two hydroxylations: the first in the liver, by CYP2R1 or CYP27A1, to form 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol, 25-OH vitamin D). The second hydroxylation occurs mainly in the kidney through the action of CYP27B1 to convert 25-OH vitamin

neg: VKORC1 VKORC1 The human gene "VKORC1" encodes for the enzyme, Vitamin K epOxide Reductase Complex (VKORC) subunit 1. This enzymatic protein complex is responsible for reducing vitamin K 2,3-epoxide to its active form, which is important for effective clotting. In humans, mutations in this gene can be associated with deficiencies in vitamin-K-dependent clotting factors. The VKORC1 protein is a key enzyme in the vitamin K cycle. VKORC1 is a 163 amino acid integral membrane protein associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and VKORC1 mRNA is broadly expressed in many different tissues. VKORC1 is involved in the vitamin K cycle by reduction of

neg: Parathyroid hormone of phosphate is not as dependent on vitamin D as is that of calcium. The end result of PTH release is a small net drop in the serum concentration of phosphate. PTH upregulates the activity of 1-α-hydroxylase enzyme, which converts 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, the major circulating form of inactive vitamin D, into 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, the active form of vitamin D, in the kidney. Secretion of parathyroid hormone is determined chiefly by serum ionized calcium concentration through negative feedback. Parathyroid cells express calcium-sensing receptors on the cell surface. PTH is secreted when [Ca] is decreased (calcitonin is secreted when serum calcium levels are elevated).

neg: Vitamin A Vitamin A Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids (most notably beta-carotene). Vitamin A has multiple functions: it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, the light-absorbing molecule necessary for both low-light (scotopic vision) and color vision. Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid (an irreversibly oxidized form of

neg: Vitamin B6 Vitamin B6 Vitamin B refers to a group of chemically similar compounds which can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B is part of the vitamin B group of essential nutrients. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in some 100 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism. All forms except pyridoxic acid and pyritinol can be interconverted. Absorbed pyridoxamine is converted to PMP by pyridoxal kinase, which is further converted to PLP by pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase which also catalyzes the conversion of PNP to PLP. Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase is dependent on flavin

neg: Alfacalcidol hydroxylation step required for the formation of the physiologically active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Alfacalcidol is an active vitamin D3 metabolite, and therefore does not require the second hydroxylation step in the kidney. Used as a poultry feed additive, it prevents tibial dyschondroplasia and increases phytate bioavailability. Pharmaceutical trade names include AlphaD and One-Alpha. Alfacalcidol Alfacalcidol (or 1-hydroxycholecalciferol) is an analogue of vitamin D used for supplementation in humans and as a poultry feed additive. Alfacalcidol has a weaker impact on calcium metabolism and parathyroid hormone levels than calcitriol, however alfacalcidol has significant effects on the immune system,

neg: Vitamin E healing and reduced scar tissue, reviews have repeatedly concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support these claims. There are reports of vitamin E-induced allergic contact dermatitis from use of vitamin-E derivatives such as tocopheryl linoleate and tocopherol acetate in skin care products. Incidence is low despite widespread use. Vitamin E Vitamin E is a group of eight fat soluble compounds that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Vitamin E deficiency, which is rare and usually due to an underlying problem with digesting dietary fat rather than from a diet low in vitamin E, can cause nerve problems. The crucial

neg: Provitamin Provitamin A provitamin is a substance that may be converted within the body to a vitamin. The term previtamin is a synonym. For example, "Provitamin B5" is a name for panthenol, which may be converted in the body to vitamin B (pantothenic acid). The term "provitamin" is used when it is desirable to label a substance with little or no vitamin activity, but which can be converted to an active form by normal metabolic processes. For example, "provitamin A" is a name for β-carotene, which has only about 1/6 the biological activity of retinol (vitamin A); the body uses an

neg: Vitamin E deficiency from simple lack of vitamin E in a person's diet, but it can arise from physiological abnormalities. It occurs in the people in the following situations: The U.S. Institute of Medicine defines deficiency as a serum concentration of less than 12 µmol/L. Treatment is oral vitamin E supplementation. Vitamin E deficiency Vitamin E deficiency in humans is a very rare condition, occurring as a consequence of abnormalities in dietary fat absorption or metabolism rather than from a diet low in vitamin E. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs for vitamin E and other essential nutrients are referred to as

neg: Vitamin B6 mononucleotide (FMN) as a cofactor produced from riboflavin (vitamin B). PLP, the metabolically active form of vitamin B, is involved in many aspects of macronutrient metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, histamine synthesis, hemoglobin synthesis and function, and gene expression. PLP generally serves as a coenzyme (cofactor) for many reactions including decarboxylation, transamination, racemization, elimination, replacement, and beta-group interconversion. The liver is the site for vitamin B metabolism. PLP is a required coenzyme of glycogen phosphorylase, the enzyme necessary for glycogenolysis to occur. PLP can catalyze transamination reactions that are essential for providing amino acids as a substrate for gluconeogenesis. PLP is an

neg: Oligospermia hypogonadism, antibiotics in case of infections, or operative corrections of a hydrocele, varicocele, or vas deferens obstruction. In most cases of oligospermia including its idiopathic form there is no direct medical or surgical intervention agreed to be effective. Empirically many medical approaches have been tried including clomiphene citrate, tamoxifen, HMG, FSH, HCG, testosterone, Vitamin E, Vitamin C, anti-oxidants, carnitine, acetyl-L-carnitine, zinc, high-protein diets. In a number of pilot studies some positive results have been obtained. Clomiphene citrate has been used with modest success. The combination of tamoxifen plus testosterone was reported to improve the sperm situation. The use of carnitine

neg: Skin whitening stress. This might expose people to potential health risks associated with long-term use of high dose of glutathione. Of all the glutathione products, glutathione tablet remains the most effective type. Glutathione can be combined with many other agents like vitamin C to increase its absorption, N-acetyl cysteine to boost its level, and other antioxidants like vitamin E. Some oral intake of glutathione could have dangerous effect when combined with other skin whitening agents such as hydroquinone which is a carcinogenic element and monobenzone which causes irreversible depigmentation. Alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs) primarily in the form of lactic acid and glycolic

neg: 24,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol 24,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol 24,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol, also known as 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and (24"")-hydroxycalcidiol (abbreviated as 24(R),25-(OH)D), is a compound which is closely related to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, the active form of vitamin D, but like vitamin D itself and 25-hydroxyvitamin D is inactive as a hormone both "in vitro" and "in vivo". It was identified by Michael F. Holick. 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D is formed from 25-hydroxyvitamin D by the action of P450cc24 (25-hydroxyvitamin D3-24-hydroxylase), which appears to be "a multicatalytic enzyme catalyzing most, if not all, of the reactions in the C-24/C-23 pathway of 25-OH-D3 metabolism." It has been proposed that 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D is a metabolite

neg: Vitamin B12 this synthesis is complete, the human body has the ability (except in rare cases) to convert any form of B to an active form, by means of enzymatically removing certain prosthetic chemical groups from the cobalt atom and replacing them with others. The four vitamers of B are all deeply red-colored crystals and water solutions, due to the color of the cobalt-corrin complex. The U.S. Institute of Medicine (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin B in 1998. The EAR for vitamin B for women and men ages

neg: Vitamin E of the vitamin E family–there is no discrimination among the vitamin E vitamers during absorption. Unabsorbed vitamin E is excreted via feces. Additionally, vitamin E is excreted by the liver via bile into the intestinal lumin, where it will either be reabsorbed or excreted via feces, and all of the vitamin E vitamers are metabolized and then excreted via urine. Upon reaching the liver, RRR-alpha-tocopherol is preferentially taken up by alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP). All other forms are degraded to 2'-carboxethyl-6-hydroxychromane (CEHC), a process that involves truncating the phytic tail of the molecule, then either sulfated or glycuronidated. This renders

neg: Carboxyglutamic acid by a carboxylase that requires vitamin K as its cofactor. It is not exactly known how vitamin K participates, but it is hypothesized that a free cysteine residue in the carboxylase converts vitamin K into an active strong base that in turn abstracts a hydrogen from glutamic acid's formula_1-carbon. Then CO is added to the formula_1-carbon to form formula_1-carboxyglutamic acid. Fig. 1. A number of gamma-carboxyglutamate residues are present in the gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-rich ("GLA") domain. This GLA domain is known to be found in over a dozen known proteins, including coagulation factors X, VII, IX, and XIV, vitamin K-dependent protein

neg: Keshan disease day for women after pregnancy. A doctor may insist that if a man is sexually active, he may have to take up to seventy micrograms of selenium per day. A doctor may also recommend that the individual take vitamin E; selenium and vitamin E are medically linked and seem to work to together. An individual will also be advised to have a diet that includes seafood, meats such as kidney, and liver, and some grains and seeds; all of these are high in selenium. Brewer's yeast and wheat germ both contain high levels of selenium. Garlic, onions, mushroom, broccoli, tomatoes,

neg: Rice bran oil vitamin E. Rice bran oil is also rich in other phytosterols. Isolated Γ-oryzanol () is available in China as an over-the-counter drug, and in other countries as a dietary supplement. Literature review shows rice bran oil and its active constituents improve blood cholesterol by reducing total plasma cholesterol and triglycerides, and increasing the proportion of HDL cholesterol. Results of an animal study indicated a 42% decrease in total cholesterol with a 62% drop in LDL cholesterol, when researchers supplemented test subjects' diets with fractionated vitamin E obtained from rice bran oil. One small-scale study of γ-oryzanol, a mixture of chemicals

neg: Dietary supplement be obtained from the diet. The term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for anthropoid primates, humans, guinea pigs and bats, but not for other mammals. Vitamin D is not an essential nutrient for people who get sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an artificial source, as then they synthesize vitamin D in skin. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules, "vitamers", (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and tocotrienols, vitamin K includes vitamin

neg: Vitamin E plays a role in smooth muscle growth – with vitamin E participating in deactivation of PKC to inhibit smooth muscle growth. Vitamin E deficiency is rare in humans, occurring as a consequence of abnormalities in dietary fat absorption or metabolism rather than from a diet low in vitamin E. One example of a genetic abnormality in metabolism is mutations of genes coding for alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP). Humans with this genetic defect exhibit a progressive neurodegenerative disorder known as ataxia with vitamin E deficiency (AVED) despite consuming normal amounts of vitamin E. Large amounts of alpha-tocopherol as a dietary supplement

neg: Retinol A are measured in Retinol Equivalents (RE). One RE is equivalent to 0.001 mg of retinol, or 0.006 mg of β-carotene, or 3.3 International Units of vitamin A. In the intestine, vitamin A is protected from being chemically changed by vitamin E. Vitamin A is fat-soluble and can be stored in the body. Most of the vitamin A consumed is stored in the liver. When required by a particular part of the body, the liver releases some vitamin A, which is carried by the blood and delivered to the target cells and tissues. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) Recommended Daily

neg: Calcifediol Calcifediol Calcifediol (INN), also known as calcidiol, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, or 25-hydroxyvitamin D (abbreviated 25(OH)D), is a prehormone that is produced in the liver by hydroxylation of vitamin D (cholecalciferol) by the enzyme cholecalciferol 25-hydroxylase which was isolated by Michael F. Holick. Physicians worldwide measure this metabolite to determine a patient's vitamin D status. At a typical daily intake of vitamin D3, its full conversion to calcifediol takes approximately 7 days. Calcifediol is then converted in the kidneys (by the enzyme 25(OH)D-1α-hydroxylase) into calcitriol (1,25-(OH)D), a secosteroid hormone that is the active form of vitamin D. It can also be converted into

neg: Vitamin E artery territory, the parietal lobes, or the cingulate gyrus. Both types of dementia may be present. Vitamin E status (and that of other antioxidant nutrients) is conjectured as having a possible impact on risk of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. A review of dietary intake studies reported that higher consumption of vitamin E from foods lowered the risk of developing AD by 24%. A second review examined serum vitamin E levels and reported lower serum vitamin E in AD patients compared to healthy, age-matched people. A Cochrane review reported on vitamin E as treatment for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and

neg: Vitamin D deficiency Vitamin D deficiency Vitamin D deficiency, or hypovitaminosis D, most commonly results from inadequate sunlight exposure (in particular sunlight with adequate ultraviolet B rays). Vitamin D deficiency can also be caused by inadequate nutritional intake of vitamin D, disorders limiting vitamin D absorption, and conditions impairing vitamin D conversion into active metabolites—including certain liver, kidney, and hereditary disorders. Deficiency impairs bone mineralization, leading to bone softening diseases such as rickets in children. It can also worsen osteomalacia and osteoporosis in adults, leading to an increased risk of bone fractures. Muscle weakness is also a common symptom of vitamin D deficiency,

neg: Renal osteodystrophy or other soft-tissue calcification. Renal osteodystrophy may exhibit no symptoms; if it does show symptoms, they include: Renal osteodystrophy has been classically described to be the result of hyperparathyroidism secondary to hyperphosphatemia combined with hypocalcemia, both of which are due to decreased excretion of phosphate by the damaged kidney. Low activated vitamin D levels are a result of the damaged kidneys' inability to convert vitamin D into its active form, calcitriol, and result in further hypocalcaemia. High levels of fibroblast growth factor 23 seem now to be the most important cause of decreased calcitriol levels in CKD patients. In CKD,

neg: Nut (fruit) and seeds that do not meet the botanical definition but are nuts in the culinary sense are: Nuts are the source of energy and nutrients for the new plant. They contain a relatively large quantity of calories, essential unsaturated and monounsaturated fats including linoleic acid and linolenic acid, vitamins, and essential amino acids. Many nuts are good sources of vitamin E, vitamin B, folate, fiber, and the essential minerals magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, copper, and selenium. Nuts are most healthy in their raw unroasted form, because roasting can significantly damage and destroy fats during the process. Unroasted walnuts have twice as

neg: Hypervitaminosis D D toxicity (starting at a plasmatic concentration of ≈750 nmol/L) propose that: All of which affect gene transcription and overwhelm the vitamin D signal transduction process, leading to vitamin D toxicity. Evidence suggests that dietary vitamin D may be carried by lipoprotein particles into cells of the artery wall and atherosclerotic plaque, where it may be converted to active form by monocyte-macrophages. This raises questions regarding the effects of vitamin D intake on atherosclerotic calcification and cardiovascular risk as it may be causing vascular calcification. Calcifediol is implicated in the etiology of atherosclerosis, especially in non-Caucasians. The levels of the

neg: Tlingit cuisine animals they harvested. Bones used for soup stock provide leached calcium, as well as fish vertebrae from boiled salmon. Vitamin A is obtained from livers. Vitamin C is found in berries and plants, such as wild celery, wild crab apples, and a wide assortment of berries. Bone marrow provides valuable iron and vitamin D. Intestines and stomachs are harvested to provide vitamin E and the B complexes. Today, most Tlingit eat a number of packaged products as well as imported staples such as dairy products, grains, beef, pork, and chicken. In the larger towns most of the American restaurant standards

neg: Eldecalcitol for their regulatory effects on calcium metabolism with the purpose of treating osteoporosis, a skeletal disease associated with low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue. Vitamin D is imperative for absorption of calcium to maintain bone strength. Eldecalcitol is an orally administered drug to patients, which binds to vitamin D receptors and binding protein for the goal of achieving greater specificity to bind calcium for its absorption. This greater affinity is 2.7-fold that of the active vitamin D form of calcitriol. Eldecalcitol is readily absorbed into the body, with a long elimination half-life of over eight hours, reaching maximum

neg: Hydroxocobalamin Vitamin B compounds are used as a prescription medicine (injection) for vitamin B replacement therapy, usually at 100 µg/dose. In the UK, 1,000 µg (1 mg) per dose is generally used. Damage that results from vitamin B deficiency can be prevented with early diagnosis and adequate treatment. For most, the standard therapy for treatment of vitamin B deficiency has been intramuscular (IM) injections in the form of cyanocobalamin (CNCbl) or hydroxocobalamin (OHCbl). Cyanocobalamin is traditionally prescribed in the United States. Outside of the United States, hydroxocobalamin is most generally used for vitamin B replacement therapy and is considered the “drug

neg: Vitamin E acetic acid or succinic acid because the esters are more chemically stable, providing for a longer shelf-life. The ester forms are de-esterified in the gut and absorbed as free alpha-tocopherol. Vitamin E was discovered in 1922 by Herbert McLean Evans and Katharine Scott Bishop and first isolated in a pure form by Evans and Gladys Anderson Emerson in 1935 at the University of California, Berkeley. Because the vitamin activity was first identified as a dietary fertility factor (in rats) it was given the name "tocopherol" from the Greek words "τόκος" [tókos, birth], and "φέρειν", [phérein, to bear or carry] meaning