query: who claimed to have discovered an iron law of oligarchy

pos: Iron law of oligarchy Iron law of oligarchy The iron law of oligarchy is a political theory, first developed by the German sociologist Robert Michels in his 1911 book, "Political Parties". It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as an "iron law" within any democratic organization as part of the "tactical and technical necessities" of organization. Michels's theory states that all complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies. Michels observed that since no sufficiently large and complex organization can function purely as a direct democracy, power within an organization will always get delegated

pos: Iron law of oligarchy universal principles, such as neutrality, verifiability, civility, and consensus. The ambiguity and interpretability of these abstract concepts may drive them to decouple from each other over time." The Iron Law of Oligarchy is similar to the concept in "The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism", a fictional book in the dystopian novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four" (1949) by George Orwell. The book begins: Iron law of oligarchy The iron law of oligarchy is a political theory, first developed by the German sociologist Robert Michels in his 1911 book, "Political Parties". It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as

pos: Fascism and ideology theory of domination of society by an organized minority over a disorganized majority was Robert Michels' theory of the iron law of oligarchy that has become a mainstream political theory. The theory of the iron law of oligarchy, created in 1911 by Michels, was a major attack on the basis of contemporary democracy. Michels argues that oligarchy is inevitable as an "iron law" within any organization as part of the "tactical and technical necessities" of organization and on the topic of democracy, Michels stated: "It is organization which gives birth to the dominion of the elected over the electors, of

pos: Iron law of oligarchy red scare brought about by McCarthyism. In 1911 Robert Michels argued that paradoxically the socialist parties of Europe, despite their democratic ideology and provisions for mass participation, seemed to be dominated by their leaders just like traditional conservative parties. Michels' conclusion was that the problem lay in the very nature of organizations. The more liberal and democratic modern era allowed the formation of organizations with innovative and revolutionary goals, but as such organizations become more complex, they became less and less democratic and revolutionary. Michels formulated the "Iron Law of Oligarchy": "Who says organization, says oligarchy." At the time Michels

pos: Criticism of democracy election of the average person). That is, if the revolutionaries prioritized consent to be governed over equal opportunity to serve as the government, then their choice of elections over lotteries makes sense. A major scholarly attack on the basis of democracy was made by German-Italian political scientist Robert Michels who developed the mainstream political science theory of the iron law of oligarchy in 1911. Michels argued that oligarchy is inevitable as an "iron law" within any organization as part of the "tactical and technical necessities" of organization and on the topic of democracy, Michels stated: "It is organization which gives

pos: Oligarchy which another term commonly used today is plutocracy. In the early 20th century Robert Michels developed the theory that democracies, as all large organizations, have a tendency to turn into oligarchies. In his "Iron law of oligarchy" he suggests that the necessary division of labor in large organizations leads to the establishment of a ruling class mostly concerned with protecting their own power. This was already recognized by the Athenians in the fourth century BCE: After the restoration of democracy from oligarchical coups, they used the drawing of lots for selecting government officers to counteract that tendency toward oligarchy in

pos: Representative democracy monarchies and republics with strong representative branches. Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in political philosophy and social science investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent the interests or preferences of one or another constituency. In his book "Political Parties", written in 1911, Robert Michels argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an oligarchy or particracy. This is known as the iron law of oligarchy. Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by Adolf Gasser and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book "Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas" which was published

pos: Union Democracy Union Democracy Union Democracy: The Internal Politics of the International Typographical Union is a book by Seymour Martin Lipset, Martin Trow and James S. Coleman, originally published by New York Free Press in 1956. The book addresses the factors that influence the power structure and decision making processes in organizations, with a specific focus on the political systems of democracy and oligarchy. The problem seen as central by the authors was the difficulty of maintaining democracy in organizations. The issue was first raised by Robert Michels in his "Political Parties" and termed the Iron law of oligarchy: all forms of

pos: Robert Michels Robert Michels Robert Michels (; 9 January 1876, Cologne, Germany – 3 May 1936, Rome, Italy) was a German-born Italian sociologist who contributed to elite theory by describing the political behavior of intellectual elites. He belonged to the Italian school of elitism. He is best known for his book "Political Parties", published in 1911, which contains a description of the "iron law of oligarchy." He was a friend and disciple of Max Weber, Werner Sombart and Achille Loria. Politically, he moved from the Social Democratic Party of Germany to the Italian Socialist Party, adhering to the Italian revolutionary syndicalist wing

pos: Political Parties quickly became a classic of social sciences. His theory was quickly vindicated on a large scale during First World War, when most socialist parties of that time endorsed the war policies of their respective governments, thus showing that their corresponding party leaders put the short-term goals of organizational survival (allying with the state) over doctrinal points of "proletariat against bourgeoisie". Sigmund Neumann said that "the study of sociology of political parties have been completely dominated by Robert Michels' iron law of [oligarchy]." Michels work significantly influenced the views on political party theory by his friend and one of the founding

pos: Hierarchical organization governance rules are an attempt to mitigate this tendency. The organizational development theorist Elliott Jacques identified a special role for hierarchy in his concept of requisite organization. The iron law of oligarchy, introduced by Robert Michels, describes the inevitable tendency of hierarchical organizations to become oligarchic in their decision making. The Peter Principle is a term coined by Laurence J. Peter in which the selection of a candidate for a position in an hierarchical organization is based on the candidate's performance in their current role, rather than on abilities relevant to the intended role. Thus, employees only stop being promoted

pos: Political Parties Political Parties Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy () is a book by the sociologist Robert Michels, published in 1911 and first introducing the concept of iron law of oligarchy. It is considered one of the classics of social sciences, in particular sociology and political science. It was translated to Italian as "Sociologia del partito politico nella democrazia moderna: studi sulle tendenze oligarchiche degli aggregati politici" by Alfredo Polledro in 1912, and then translated from the Italian to English by Eden Paul and Cedar Paul for Hearst's International Library Co. in 1915. This work

pos: Georges Sorel theory and write long newspaper articles. This point was made by Sorel in "Reflections on Violence", and was later developed further by Robert Michels and his Iron Law of Oligarchy. Isaiah Berlin identifies three anti-scientific currents in Sorel's work, but Sorel's attack on science is neither general nor piecemeal. Rather than "attacks", as is clear from the quotations below, Sorel explains how we should view "science" in relation to what he called "the real thing". He dismissed science as "a system of idealised entities: atoms, electric charges, mass, energy and the like – fictions compounded out of observed uniformities... deliberately

pos: New class the existence of a new socio-economic system, which cannot be reconciled with the old class system. Of course, the specific notions of Đilas are his own development, however the idea that bureaucrats in a typical Marxist–Leninist style state become a new class is not his original idea. Mikhail Bakunin had made this point in his International Workingmen's Association debates with Marx in the mid-to-late 19th century. This idea was repeated after the Russian revolution by anarchists like Kropotkin and Makhno, as well as some Marxists. In 1911 Robert Michels first proposed the Iron law of oligarchy, which described the development

neg: Iron law of oligarchy they have "an engaged student community", an "independent student media," a "strong tradition of freedom of information," and an "unbiased elections authority" capable of administrating elections fairly. Research by Bradi Heaberlin and Simon DeDeo has found that the evolution of Wikipedia's network of norms over time is consistent with the iron law of oligarchy. Their quantitative analysis is based on data-mining over a decade of article and user information. It shows the emergence of an oligarchy derived from competencies in five significant "clusters": administration, article quality, collaboration, formatting, and content policy. Heaberlin and DeDeo note, "The encyclopedia’s core norms address

neg: Iron law of oligarchy to individuals within that group, elected or otherwise. Using anecdotes from political parties and trade unions struggling to operate democratically to build his argument in 1911, Michels addressed the application of this law to representative democracy, and stated: "Who says organization, says oligarchy." He went on to state that "Historical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy." According to Michels all organizations eventually come to be run by a "leadership class", who often function as paid administrators, executives, spokespersons or political strategists for the organization. Far from being "servants of the masses",

neg: Iron law of oligarchy formulated his Law, he was an anarcho-syndicalist. He later became an important ideologue of Benito Mussolini's fascist regime in Italy, teaching economics at the University of Perugia. Michels stressed several factors that underlie the Iron Law of Oligarchy. Darcy K. Leach summarized them briefly as: "Bureaucracy happens. If bureaucracy happens, power rises. Power corrupts." Any large organization, Michels pointed out, has to create a bureaucracy in order to maintain its efficiency as it becomes larger—many decisions have to be made daily that cannot be made by large numbers of disorganized people. For the organization to function effectively, centralization has to

neg: Iron law of oligarchy structure of the Canadian Federation of Students, consisting of individual student unions, encourages oligarchy. Titus Gregory argues that University Students' union today "exhibit both oligarchical and democratic tendencies." Unlike unions they have an ideologically diverse membership, and frequently have competitive democratic elections covered by independent campus media who guard their independence. These factors are strongly democratizing influences, creating conditions similar to those described by Lipset about the ITU. However, Gregory argues student unions can also be highly undemocratic and oligarchical as a result of the transient membership of the students involved. Every year between one quarter and one half of

neg: Iron law of oligarchy authority. Therefore, the rank and file show little initiative, and wait for the leaders to exercise their judgment and issue directives to follow. The "iron law of oligarchy" states that all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations. The relative structural fluidity in a small-scale democracy succumbs to "social viscosity" in a large-scale organization. According to the "iron law," democracy and large-scale organization are incompatible. An example that Michels used in his

neg: Iron law of oligarchy leaders. Leaders also have control over sanctions and rewards. They tend to promote those who share their opinions, which inevitably leads to self-perpetuating oligarchy. People achieve leadership positions because they have above-average political skill (see "charismatic authority"). As they advance in their careers, their power and prestige increases. Leaders control the information that flows down the channels of communication, censoring what they do not want the rank-and-file to know. Leaders will also dedicate significant resources to persuade the rank-and-file of the rightness of their views. This is compatible with most societies: people are taught to obey those in positions of

neg: Iron law of oligarchy to effectively compete in elections, raise funds, run large rallies and demonstrations and work with other political parties once elected, led the Greens to adopt more conventional structures and practices. One of the best known exceptions to the iron law of oligarchy was the now defunct International Typographical Union, described by Seymour Martin Lipset in his 1956 book, "Union Democracy". Lipset suggests a number of factors that existed in the ITU that are allegedly responsible for countering this tendency toward bureaucratic oligarchy. The first and perhaps most important has to do with the way the union was founded. Unlike many

neg: Bongbong Marcos claimed to break up an old oligarchy, but martial law instead created a new type under his control, a crony oligarchy. "Economic crises characterized the Marcos years, as economists have consistently revealed, the most telling indicator was the extent of poverty. Poverty incidence grew from 41% in the 1960s to 59% in the 1980s. Vaunted growth was far from inclusive and driven by debt, which further weighed down on the nation. From 1970 to 1983, foreign debt increased twelve times and reached $20 billion (Dr. Manuel Montes, 1984). It grew at anaverage rate of 25% from 1970 to 1981. Much

neg: Political Parties oligarchy. The iron law of oligarchy is based on the following logic. First, any large scale organization will necessitate the development of bureaucracy for efficient administration. Such leaders will amass resources (superior knowledge control over the formal means of communication with the membership, and the skill in the art of politics) given them power at the expense of rank and file members. Second, Michels expressed doubts about whether the rank and file possess the skills necessary to compete with the leaders, a concept he phrased as the "incompetence of the masses". In order to prevent the development of an oligarchy,

neg: Iron law of oligarchy the membership turns over, and Gregory argues this creates a situation where elected student leaders become dependent on student union staff for institutional memory and guidance. Since many students' unions extract compulsory fees from their transient membership, and many smaller colleges and/or commuter campus can extract this money with little accountability, oligarchical behaviour becomes encouraged. For example, Gregory points out how often student union election rules "operate under tyrannical rules and regulations" that are used frequently by those in power to disqualify or exclude would-be election challengers. Gregory concludes that students' unions can "resist the iron law of oligarchy" if

neg: Political Parties contrary to democratic and egalitarian principles, both society in general, and specific organizations in particular are dominated by the leadership – the oligarchy. This, according to Michels, was not because of any particular weakness of a particular society or organization in question, but a characteristic of any and all complex social systems. Such social systems have to be organized along the bureaucratic principles, and bureaucracies inevitably develop oligarchies. Michels concluded that in any complex organization, and such dominate the modern world, it is impossible to escape domination of oligarchy - a conclusion which became known as the iron law of

neg: Iron law of oligarchy class lifestyle and pay. For this latter point he draws upon Aristotle who argued that a democratic polity was most likely where there was a large, stable middle class, and the extremes of wealth and poverty were not great. Finally, the authors note the irregular work hours which led shopmates to spend more of their leisure time together. These latter factors are less persuasive, since they do not apply to many industrial forms of organization, where the greatest amount of trade union democracy has developed in recent times. Titus Gregory uses Michels "iron law" to describe how the democratic centralist

neg: Jerry Pournelle (top being complete confidence in rational planning, bottom being complete lack of confidence in rational planning). Pournelle suggested several "laws". His first use of the term "Pournelle's law" appears to be for the expression "one user, one CPU." He has also used "Pournelle's law" to apply to the importance of checking cable connections when diagnosing computer problems. His best-known "law" is "Pournelle's Iron Law of Bureaucracy": He eventually restated it as: This can be compared to the iron law of oligarchy. His blog, "The View from Chaos Manor", often references apparent examples of the law. Some of Pournelle's standard themes

neg: Iron law of oligarchy book was Germany's Social Democratic Party. The size and complexity of a group or organization is important to the Iron Law as well. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the Green Party of Germany made a conscious effort to break the Iron Law. Anyone could be or could remove a party official. There were no permanent offices or officers. Even the smallest, most routine decisions could be put up for discussion and to a vote. When the party was small, these anti-oligarchic measures enjoyed some success. But as the organization grew larger and the party became more successful, the need

neg: Iron law of oligarchy Michels argues this "leadership class," rather than the organization's membership, will inevitably grow to dominate the organization's power structures. By controlling who has access to information, those in power can centralize their power successfully, often with little accountability, due to the apathy, indifference and non-participation most rank-and-file members have in relation to their organization's decision-making processes. Michels argues that democratic attempts to hold leadership positions accountable are prone to fail, since with power comes the ability to reward loyalty, the ability to control information about the organization, and the ability to control what procedures the organization follows when making decisions.

neg: Elite theory a whole elite can be replaced by a new one and how one can circulate from being elite to non-elite. Mosca emphasized the sociological and personal characteristics of elites. He said elites are an organized minority and that the masses are an unorganized majority. The ruling class is composed of the ruling elite and the sub-elites. He divides the world into two groups: Mosca asserts that elites have intellectual, moral, and material superiority that is highly esteemed and influential. Sociologist Michels developed the iron law of oligarchy where, he asserts, social and political organizations are run by few individuals, and

neg: Iron law of oligarchy occur and power will end up in the hands of a few. Those few—the oligarchy—will use all means necessary to preserve and further increase their power. According to Michels, this process is further compounded as delegation is necessary in any large organization, as thousands—sometimes hundreds of thousands—of members cannot make decisions via participatory democracy. This has to-date been dictated by the lack of technological means for large numbers of people to meet and debate, and also by matters related to crowd psychology, as Michels argued that people feel a need to be led. Delegation, however, leads to specialization—to the development

neg: Union democracy an iron law of oligarchy: all groups, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, eventually and inevitably develop into oligarchies with swollen bureaucracies. Michels himself, after falling out with the German Social Democrat Party, migrated to Italy and joined Mussolini's Fascist Party. Nevertheless, his ideas were popularized after the Second World War in particular by Seymour Martin Lipset, Trow, and James Samuel Coleman in a book entitled, "" (1957). This book argued that the ITU was an exception to Michels' general law, and that the conditions necessary to ensure democracy were that an opposition to the union's

neg: Iron law of oligarchy All of these mechanisms can be used to strongly influence the outcome of any decisions made 'democratically' by members. Michels stated that the official goal of representative democracy of eliminating elite rule was impossible, that representative democracy is a façade legitimizing the rule of a particular elite, and that elite rule, which he refers to as oligarchy, is inevitable. Later Michels migrated to Italy and joined Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party, as he believed this was the next legitimate step of modern societies. The thesis became popular once more in post-war America with the publication of "" (1956) and during the

neg: Iron law of oligarchy of knowledge bases, skills and resources among a leadership—which further alienates the leadership from the rank and file and entrenches the leadership in office. Bureaucratization and specialization are the driving processes behind the Iron Law. They result in the rise of a group of professional administrators in a hierarchical organization, which in turn leads to the rationalization and routinization of authority and decision-making, a process described first and perhaps best by Max Weber, later by John Kenneth Galbraith, and to a lesser and more cynical extent by the Peter Principle. Bureaucracy by design leads to centralization of power by the

neg: Twenty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India to make social change impossible." Then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi described the bill as "a small but necessary step towards the fulfillment of the goal of socialism". She claimed that it was not her government or party's intention to weaken the judiciary. She further stated that "the judiciary must not take over the power of Parliament." The bill was trenchantly criticised by Piloo Mody of the Swatantra Party, who stated that India's secular and democratic Constitution was being converted into an instrument of a "totalitarian oligarchy devoid of the rule of law". Mody criticized the government for the "arbitrary exercise

neg: Paros war leader Themistocles, who exacted a heavy fine. Under the Delian League, the Athenian-dominated naval confederacy (477–404 BC), Paros paid the highest tribute of the island members: 30 "talents" annually, according to the estimate of Olympiodorus (429 BC). This implies that Paros was one of the wealthiest islands in the Aegean. Little is known about the constitution of Paros, but inscriptions seem to show that it was modeled on the Athenian democracy, with a "boule" (senate) at the head of affairs. In 410 BC, Athenian general Theramenes discovered that Paros was governed by an oligarchy; he deposed the oligarchy and

neg: Iron law of oligarchy other unions (e.g., the CIO's United Steel Workers of America (USWA), and numerous other craft unions) which were organized from the top down, the ITU had a number of large, strong, local unions who valued their autonomy, which existed long before the international was formed. This local autonomy was strengthened by the economy of the printing industry which operated in largely local and regional markets, with little competition from other geographical areas. Large locals continued to jealously guard this autonomy against encroachments by international officers. Second, the existence of factions helped place a check on the oligarchic tendencies that existed

neg: Iron cage cage" of such a bureaucratic system. Bureaucracies concentrate large amounts of power in a small number of people and are generally unregulated. Weber believed that those who control these organizations control the quality of our lives as well. Bureaucracies tend to generate oligarchy; which is where a few officials are the political and economic power. According to Weber, because bureaucracy is a form of organization superior to all others, further bureaucratization and rationalization may be an "inescapable fate". Because of these aforementioned reasons, there will be an evolution of an iron cage, which will be a technically ordered, rigid, dehumanized

neg: Government spread power and elect candidates equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler but several rulers. Some historical examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. The Athenian democracy used sortition to elect candidates, almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of land, wealth and status. A theocracy is

neg: The Iron Heel robber barons) who manage to squeeze out the middle class by bankrupting most small to mid-sized business as well as reducing all farmers to effective serfdom. This Oligarchy maintains power through a "labor caste" and the Mercenaries. Laborers in essential industries like steel and rail are elevated and given decent wages, housing, and education. Indeed, the tragic turn in the novel (and Jack London's core warning to his contemporaries) is the treachery of these favored unions which break with the other unions and side with the Oligarchy. Further, a second, military caste is formed: the Mercenaries. The Mercenaries are officially

neg: Thirty Tyrants a man known for his justice and upright character, for execution. While the other four men obeyed, Socrates refused, not wanting to partake in the guilt of the executioners. However, he did not attempt to warn or save Leon of Salamis. By disobeying, Socrates may have been placing his own life in jeopardy, and he claimed it was only the disbanding of the oligarchy soon afterward that saved his life: "When the oligarchy came into power, the Thirty Commissioners in their turn summoned me and four others to the Round Chamber and instructed us to go and fetch Leon of

neg: General Election Law did not have the right to vote. General Election Law The was a law passed in Taishō period Japan, extending suffrage to all males aged 25 and over. It was proposed by the Kenseitō political party and it was passed by the Diet of Japan on 5 May 1925. Meiji period Japan was dominated by the Meiji oligarchy, who viewed popular democracy and party politics with suspicion. However, after the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution, limited suffrage was extended to male property holders, aged over 25 years, who paid more than 15 Yen in annual taxes for elections to the

neg: Representative democracy in 1943 (first edition in German) and a second edition in 1947 (in German). Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by the iron law of oligarchy: A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self-interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance. Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority-won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among the marginalized. The system

neg: Never at War democracy used today. In contrast, the Confederate States of America was an oligarchy. In order to help differentiate between oligarchies and democracies, Weart requires that the classification should not differ from how the people at the time viewed the differences, the oligarchic elite should live in constant fear of a rebellion, and for democracies a war should not have been prevented if everyone had the vote. For example, it was the Greeks who first created the concepts of democracy and oligarchy and they classified Athens as a democracy while Sparta was an oligarchy. There is no mention in the historical

neg: Oligarchy interests have substantial political influence, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little to none. The study did concede that "Americans do enjoy many features central to democratic governance, such as regular elections, freedom of speech and association, and a widespread (if still contested) franchise." Gilens and Page do not characterize the US as an "oligarchy" per se; however, they do apply the concept of "civil oligarchy" as used by Jeffrey Winters with respect to the US. Winters has posited a comparative theory of "oligarchy" in which the wealthiest citizens – even in a "civil oligarchy" like the United

neg: Chinguetti meteorite Chinguetti meteorite The Chinguetti meteorite is a find reputed to come from a large unconfirmed 'iron mountain' in Africa. The existence of a huge stony-iron mesosiderite approximately 45 kilometers from the Saharan city Chinguetti, Mauritania, has been a mystery since 1916, when Captain Gaston Ripert, a French consular official, claimed to have discovered 'a huge iron hill high and long.' Ripert said that he had been guided blindfolded by a local chieftain to a natural source of iron, after a 12-hour-long camel ride to the south-east of Chinguetti. He bagged a 4 kilogram fragment of the rock, which found its

neg: Politics of the United States issue, and often a single issue of enormous emotional weight, they compete with the parties for citizens' dollars, time, and passion." The amount of money spent by these special interests continues to grow, as campaigns become increasingly expensive. Many Americans have the feeling that these wealthy interests, whether corporations, unions or PACs, are so powerful that ordinary citizens can do little to counteract their influences. Some views suggest that the political structure of the United States is in many respects an oligarchy, where a small economic elite overwhelmingly determines policy and law. Some academic researchers suggest a drift toward oligarchy

neg: Green theory 'iron law of oligarchy' where leaders can do job rotation with teaching environmental education, group decision-making, policy-making, as well as with other leaders, taking turns with administrative and diplomatic tasks. Much leaders make for much participation and many types of participation. Therefore diversity is increased. Goodin (1992) also discusses norms or values by focusing on "goods" and "the good" as well as "agency" which is more in the direction of "the right." Such a critical analysis of Green Theory at what is also a critical point in history is invaluable. An obvious modern point about environment and security is distribution

neg: Lang Hancock claim in 1948. The mine would later become the source of much controversy, when hundreds of cases of asbestos-related diseases came to light. He was aware of the dangers of asbestos prior to selling his stake in Australian Blue Asbestos (as recently discovered papers have shown) but never accepted any liability, nor have his companies since his death. Neither the Australian federal government nor the Western Australian state government have pursued his companies for damages as of 2017. On 16 November 1952, Hancock claimed he discovered the world's largest deposit of iron ore in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.

neg: Executive Intelligence Review that another member of the British royal family killed Roberto Calvi, the Italian banker who died in London in 1982, and that the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995 was the first strike in a British attempt to take over the United States. In 1997 it published review of the book "La face cachee de Greenpeace" (The hidden face of Greenpeace), which claimed that Greenpeace "is an irregular warfare apparatus in the service of the British oligarchy". The magazine sometimes expands its articles into book-length pieces, which have included "Dope, Inc: The Book that Drove Henry Kissinger Crazy" (1992) and "The

neg: Israel's Anti-Concentration Law American oligarchy in the U.S and in its opening column Rolnik called for a Brandiesian movement in Israel to curtail the increasing power of the Israeli oligarchy. "In taking on power-hungry tycoons 100 years ago” Rolnik wrote, “Louis Brandeis became the social conscience of the most capitalist country in the world. Who will be Israel’s savior from the oligarchs?” The campaign of TheMarker, Rolnik and civic groups such as the Movement for Quality Government in Israel eventually prevailed. The report of the concentration October 2010 committee, the eventual law and Israel’s Anti-trust Authority all adopted some of the ideas of

neg: Australian gold rushes September 1890, a Select Committee of the Victorian Legislative Assembly began sitting to decide who was the first to discover gold at Bendigo. They stated that there were 12 claimants who had made submissions to being the first to find gold at Bendigo (this included Mrs Margaret Kennedy, but not Mrs Julia Farrell who was deceased), plus the journalist Henry Frencham who claimed to have discovered gold at Bendigo Creek in November 1851. (Frencham had previously also claimed to have been the first to have discovered gold at Warrandyte in June 1851 when he, unsuccessfully, claimed the £200 reward for

neg: The Iron Heel very remarkable prophecy of the rise of Fascism", in the book and believed that London's understanding of the primitive had made him a better prophet "than many better-informed and more logical thinkers." Harry Bridges, influential labor leader in the mid-1900s, was "set afire" by Jack London's "The Sea-Wolf" and "The Iron Heel." Granville Hicks, reviewing Kurt Vonnegut's "Player Piano", was reminded of "The Iron Heel": "we are taken into the future and shown an America ruled by a tiny oligarchy, and here too there is a revolt that fails." Chapter 7 of "The Iron Heel" is an almost verbatim copy

neg: Spa when the location was called "Aquae Spadanae", sometimes incorrectly connected to the Latin word "spargere" meaning to scatter, sprinkle or moisten. Since medieval times, illnesses caused by iron deficiency were treated by drinking chalybeate (iron-bearing) spring water (in 1326, the iron-master Collin le Loup claimed a cure, when the spring was called "Espa", a Walloon word for "fountain"). In 16th-century England, the old Roman ideas of medicinal bathing were revived at towns like Bath ("not" the source of the word bath), and in 1596 William Slingsby who had been to the Belgian town (which he called "Spaw") discovered a chalybeate

neg: Green League Michels' iron law of oligarchy, which claims that movements inevitably degenerate into oligarchies when they create a formal organization. The party still especially stresses openness and democratic decision-making. Even though "liitto" has been dropped from the party's website and advertisements, the word still remains in the official name. The first two parliamentary representatives were elected even before the registration, in the 1983 parliamentary election. These were the first independent representatives in the Finnish Parliament. In 1987 the number of seats rose to four, and in 1991 to ten. About half of the party’s members were against Finland joining the European

neg: The Iron Heel of Oligarchy" (1999). A stage adaptation by Edward Einhorn was produced in 2016 in New York. According to "The New York Times", "it serves up food for thought with an appealing heart-on-sleeve warmth" The Iron Heel The Iron Heel is a dystopian novel by American writer Jack London, first published in 1908. Generally considered to be "the earliest of the modern dystopian" fiction, it chronicles the rise of an oligarchic tyranny in the United States. It is arguably the novel in which Jack London's socialist views are most explicitly on display. A forerunner of soft science fiction novels and stories

neg: Iron law of oligarchy at the national headquarters. Leaders that are unchecked tend to develop larger salaries and more sumptuous lifestyles, making them unwilling to go back to their previous jobs. But with a powerful out faction ready to expose profligacy, no leaders dared take overly generous personal remuneration. These two factors were compelling in the ITU case. Lipset and his collaborators also cite a number of other factors which are specific to craft unions in general and the printing crafts in particular, including the homogeneity of the membership, with respect to their work and lifestyles, their identification with their craft, their more middle

neg: Robert Michels he associated with , a leftist branch of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). He left both parties in 1907. He achieved international recognition for his historical and sociological study, "Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens", which was published in 1911; its title in English is "Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy". In it, he presented his "Iron law of oligarchy" theory that political parties, including those considered socialist, cannot be democratic because they quickly transform themselves into bureaucratic oligarchies. Michels was considered a brilliant pupil

neg: Democracy an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a

neg: Antony Grey Grey began working as a journalist in Yorkshire before moving to London to study law. From 1949, he worked as a press officer for the British Iron and Steel Federation, later merged into British Steel Corporation, where he claimed to have learned the lobbying techniques he later applied so successfully. He remained there for 12 years. Though he was called to the bar, he never practiced law. Grey began his career as an advocate for gay rights with a letter to the "Sunday Times" newspaper in 1954. In 1958, Grey started voluntary work for the Homosexual Law Reform Society (HLRS).

neg: Dean drive a Dean drive. Dean, who was trying to find potential buyers for his technology, was secretive about the details of how it was supposed to work, but it was said to contain asymmetrical rotating weights and to generate a great deal of vibration. Dean and Campbell claimed that Newton’s laws of motion were only an approximation, and that Dean had discovered a fourth law of motion. This has been described as a nonlinear correction to one of Newton’s laws, which, if correct, would allegedly have rendered a reactionless drive feasible after all. One result of the initial articles in Campbell's

neg: Martin family disappearance Martins did. Various other tips were submitted to law enforcement in the weeks and months following the family's disappearance, including over 200 letters and hundreds of phone calls. Among them were a report from an orchard owner east of Portland who claimed to have witnessed a man and woman on December 7, gathering greenery in a canyon where a Native American burial ground was located. He added that the following week, he noticed a flock of buzzards flying in this direction. The canyon was searched, but nothing was found. On December 28, 1958, a women's glove was discovered near the

neg: James Harrod the grounds that her previous husband was still living. It is not clear whether Ann had contact with Harrod following his disappearance or if she was simply seeking a means of escaping an undesirable marriage. Harrod's wife, daughter, and son-in-law believed that Harrod had been killed by one of his fellow hunters, a man named Bridges. The family claimed that Harrod and his companions had not been hunting beaver, but were instead searching for a silver mine that a man named Jonathan Swift had claimed to have discovered years before. Ann Harrod claimed that she had warned her husband that

neg: Rusticle in Canada. A new species of bacteria living inside the "Titanic"s rusticles called "Halomonas titanicae" was discovered in 2010. Henrietta Mann, the scientist who discovered the bacteria, has estimated that the "Titanic" may collapse circa 2030. Rusticles can form on any submerged steel object and have been seen on other subsea structures such as mooring chains and subsea equipment. They form more rapidly in warmer climates and can form in water with little to no dissolved oxygen. The rusticle consists of up to 35% iron compounds including iron oxides, iron carbonates and iron hydroxides. The remainder of the structure is

neg: Criticism of democracy birth to the dominion of the elected over the electors, of the mandataries over the mandators, of the delegates over the delegators. Who says organization, says oligarchy" and went on to state "Historical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy." Michels stated that the official goal of democracy of eliminating elite rule was impossible, that democracy is a façade legitimizing the rule of a particular elite, and that elite rule, that he refers to as oligarchy, is inevitable. Michels had formerly been a Marxist but became drawn to the syndicalism of Sorel,

neg: Kim Voss 1995 for her book, "The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century". The book "Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth," which she co-authored, won the Myers Center Award for the Study of Human Rights in North America in 1997. Her article "Breaking the Iron Law of Oligarchy," which she co-authored Rachel Sherman and which appeared in the "American Journal of Sociology" in September 2000 won the Distinguished Article Award from the Labor Studies Division of the Society for the Study of Social Problems in 2001. Voss has served in a

neg: Rachel Sherman (sociologist) School for Social Research and Eugene Lang College. Sherman is a member of the American Sociological Association (ASA). She serves on the Editorial Board of Oxford University Press book series on Global Ethnography, a program which publishes research monographs and books aimed at sociologists, social scientists and policy-makers on wide-ranging sociological questions or social policy issues. She is also the editor of the newsletter of the ASA Section on Labor and Labor Movements. Sherman's article, "Breaking the Iron Law of Oligarchy: Tactical Innovation and the Revitalization of the American Labor Movement" (co-authored with Kim Voss) won the Distinguished Article Award

neg: Protecting Children from Internet Pornographers Act of 2011 time, ranging from a couple hours, days, or weeks, and that a lack of uniformity across ISPs "significantly hinders law enforcement's ability to identify predators when they come across child pornography." He then provided an actual account of when his county received a cybertip from the NCMEC involving an individual who posted that they were exposing themselves to a toddler. The only information he claimed law enforcement possessed was the IP address that was accessing a YAHOO Chat room through an nTelos wireless connection. During the investigation, law enforcement discovered that the ISP only retained the Media access control address

neg: Fascism and ideology the mandataries over the mandators, of the delegates over the delegators. Who says organization, says oligarchy". He claims: "Historical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy". He states that the official goal of contemporary democracy of eliminating elite rule was impossible, that democracy is a façade legitimizing the rule of a particular elite and that elite rule, that he refers to as oligarchy, is inevitable. Michels had formerly been a Marxist, but became drawn to the syndicalism of Georges Sorel, Édouard Berth, Arturo Labriola and Enrico Leone and had become strongly opposed

neg: Oligarchy political candidates. Oligarchy Oligarchy (; ) is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, family ties, education or corporate, religious or political, military control. Such states are often controlled by families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term. Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as a synonym for rule by the

neg: Oligarchy Oligarchy Oligarchy (; ) is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, family ties, education or corporate, religious or political, military control. Such states are often controlled by families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term. Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as a synonym for rule by the rich, for

neg: Point Blank (2008 video game) replace it with a true democracy. Through support from civilian anti-corporation groups, funding from wealthy patrons, and black market connections in the criminal underworld, The Corps built up an impressive and well-armed underground army. They plan to wear down Aegis with a guerrilla war campaign, strike at the corporate leadership cabal that runs the oligarchy, and eliminate any civilian collaborators and traitors who support them. The player will have to choose sides - "Aegis Inc." (the Blue Team), supports law and order, but represents tyranny and oppression or "The Corps" (the Red Team), supports democracy and freedom, but represents indiscriminate

neg: Fiskerton log boat Fiskerton log boat The Fiskerton log boat is an Iron Age log boat, found during excavations in 2001 on the banks of the River Witham near Fiskerton, Lincolnshire. The earliest excavations on the site were undertaken in 1981 by Naomi Field and Mike Parker Pearson, who discovered an Iron Age timber causeway with Iron Age and Roman votive offerings associated with it. The 2001 excavations uncovered more of the timber causeway, used during the Iron Age by the Corieltavi tribe to deposit valuable objects into the waters as ritual offerings. The Witham Shield may have been one such object. The

neg: The Iron Heel with the U.S. (London remains silent as to the fates of South America, Africa, and the Middle East.) In North America, the Oligarchy maintains power for three centuries until the Revolution succeeds and ushers in the Brotherhood of Man. During the years of the novel, the First Revolt is described and preparations for the Second Revolt are discussed. From the perspective of Everhard, the imminent Second Revolt is sure to succeed but from Meredith's frame story, the reader knows that Ernest Everhard's hopes would go unfulfilled until centuries after his death. The Oligarchy is the largest monopoly of trusts (or

neg: Congresbury to Blagdon. Congresbury is named after St Congar, who is said to have performed three miracles in the area. The second part of the name is thought to come from "burh" meaning fortified place. The remains of an Iron Age hill fort at Cadbury Hill have been discovered, as well as a Roman villa, temple and hoard of coins. Christian burial grounds have also been discovered on Cadbury Hill. The archaeologist Mick Aston identified an Anglo-Saxon sculpture of St Congar which is believed to have come from St Andrew's Church, and which is now in the Museum of Somerset in

neg: Stump Cross Caverns given the date of their discovery as 1858. By 1867 1,100 yards of the caves had been explored. In 1922 the caves were explored more thoroughly by Christopher Long, a student at Caius College, Cambridge. His discoveries included stalactites in a range of colours, suggesting that they were impregnated with iron and lead. Long claimed that he had also discovered an underground lake, but is said to have sealed its entrance when the caves' owners refused to allow him a share of the revenue generated by tourism to the site. The caverns were sold in 1926 to Septimus Wray, the

neg: Mary Carleton brother-in-law of the landlord of the "Exchange" tavern which she frequented. After the wedding, however, an anonymous letter exposed her. Her trial in 1663 was the first recorded appearance of Mary Carleton. She was charged for masquerading as a German princess and marrying John Carleton in London under that name. She claimed that John Carleton himself had claimed to be a lord and was trying to extract himself from marriage as he had discovered there was no money in it. Divorce would have been an unheard of scandal in those times. Both sides of the conflict published pamphlets to support

neg: Hull Castle an expansion of the docks. From 1969 onwards there have been a range of archaeological investigations around the area. The foundations of the Citadel, which had been too substantial to dismantle in the 19th century, were uncovered during urban regeneration works in 1987, and archaeological digs have occurred on both the castle and the South Blockhouse sites. The foundations of these two buildings, along with the southern end of the Citadel remains, are protected under UK law as an Ancient Monument. During excavations in 1997, an iron portpiece was discovered on the site of the South Blockhouse. The weapon, now

neg: Cecil Husk claimed to have the psychic ability to push his entire arm through an iron ring with a size that did not allow its passage over the hand, however, it was discovered that he performed the trick by using a local anesthetic on his hand. Alfred Edward Turner attended séances with Husk. He became convinced that Husk could materialize spirits and defended the medium in various newspaper articles. During one of the séances he stated that he had witnessed the materialization of W. T. Stead. The magician Will Goldston exposed the fraudulent mediumship of Husk. During a séance that Goldston attended

neg: Galway opposed to Galway's Hiberno-Norman citizens) unrestricted access into Galway, saying "neither O’ nor Mac shall strutte nor swagger through the streets of Galway" without permission. During the Middle Ages, Galway was ruled by an oligarchy of fourteen merchant families (twelve who claimed to be of Norman origin and two of Irish origin). These were the "Tribes of Galway". The city thrived on international trade, and in the Middle Ages, it was the principal Irish port for trade with Spain and France. The most famous reminder of those days is "ceann an bhalla" ("the end of the wall"), now known as

neg: Colin Evans (medium) Colin Evans (medium) Colin Evans was an early 20th-century Welsh Spiritualist medium who claimed to have the ability to levitate but was discovered to be a fraud. In a flash-illuminated picture taken at a séance in Wortley Hall, Finsbury Park in 1937 Evans can be seen "levitating" in mid-air. He claimed that spirits had lifted him. Evans was later discovered to be a fraud, as a cord leading from a device in his hand has indicated that it was himself who triggered the flash-photograph and that all he had done was jump from his chair into the air and pretend

neg: Penikisite X=Ba, Y=Mg, Fe, Mn, and Z=Al, Fe. Penikisite was found in a Yukon phosphate deposit near Rapid Creek. The mineral, along with kulanite, occurs in an iron-formation. In these iron-formations, Mg-rich zones were discovered and named penikisite in honor of Gunar Penikis who discovered these phosphate occurrences with Alan Kulan. The chemical formula of Penikisite is Ba(Mg,Fe,Ca)Al(PO)(OH). Mandarino and Sturman analyzed two penikisite samples and eight kulanite samples using an AMX electron miscroprobe (1977). Their study showed weight percent oxides, including HO, that help determine what the formula is for penikisite and kulanite. Members of the bjarebyite group have the

neg: Economic history of the Philippines improving the well-being of present and future generations of Filipinos”. The Marcos regime cornered an increasing share of the profits from the traditional export crops, sugar cane and coconut. The result was a redistribution of income from agro-export elite as a whole to a politically well-connected subset of that elite. In declaring martial law, Marcos promised to save the country from “an oligarchy that appropriated for itself all power and bounty.” But while he did indeed tame selected oligarchs most threatening to his regime, was a “new oligarchy” of Marcos and his relatives and cronies which achieved dominance within many

neg: Oldest town in Britain Oldest town in Britain The title of oldest town in Britain is claimed by a number of settlements in Great Britain. Abingdon in the English county of Oxfordshire (historically Berkshire) claims to be the oldest town in Britain in "continuous settlement". Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age remains have been found in and around the town, and evidence of a late-Iron Age enclosure of 33 hectares known as an 'oppidum' was discovered underneath the town centre in 1991. It continued to be used as a town throughout the Roman occupation of Britain and subsequently became a Saxon settlement, named Sevekesham

neg: Cristina Schultz ordered to pay the government $243,000 instead of the $313,000 in the original arrangement. As of September 2009, she is divorced and resides in Los Angeles. Cristina Schultz Cristina Warthen, née Cristina Schultz, is a 2001 graduate of Stanford Law School and a fitness model who has been pictured in "Iron Man", "Muscular Development", "Maxim", and "Playboy". Schultz was in the news in 2009 as the alleged "law school escort," the woman who allegedly claimed to repay hundreds of thousands of dollars of law school loans through a career as a professional escort. Her story appeared on the front page

neg: Richie Ryan (Highlander) a young woman, Laura Daniels. Richie intervened to save her, and took her back to Duncan to get help. Richie put her under his protection. But they discovered she was wanted for murder, and Mako was a bounty hunter, tracking down those on the run from the law. She claimed she killed her husband in self-defense, but the local law was corrupt and she would never get a fair trial. Mako was an immortal who lived by the letter of the law. Duncan met Mako a long time ago and he knew Mako won't give up. Richie and the girl

neg: Antwan Wilson was strongly opposed by some teachers and parents, who saw it as an attempt to turn public schools into charter schools. Some parents felt this would segregate African American students into the lowest-performing public schools, and drain public schools of much-needed funds. Several people claimed Wilson was "the face of new Jim Crow" an "Uncle Tom", and a stooge of "corporate oligarchy". Parents of special needs students accused Wilson of attempting to mainstream their children without providing adequate personnel or funds to mainstream teachers, thereby harming their children's health and education. Wilson's certification by the Broad Superintendents Academy generated controversy

neg: Khatam an-Nabiyyin last prophet to have brought a complete and comprehensive universal law for humanity (last law-bearing Prophet), believe that prophethood subordinate to Muhammad is still open. Muhammad is believed to have brought prophethood to perfection and was the last law-bearing prophet, the apex of man's spiritual evolution. New prophets can come but they must be subordinate to Muhammad and cannot exceed him in excellence nor alter his teaching or bring any new law or religion. The Ahmadiyya community believes Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be the promised Messiah and Mahdi, who claimed a certain kind of prophethood but never claimed to have

neg: Faraday's law of induction equation of Faraday's law describes both the transformer EMF and the motional EMF. Electromagnetic induction was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph Henry in 1832. Faraday was the first to publish the results of his experiments. In Faraday's first experimental demonstration of electromagnetic induction (August 29, 1831), he wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron ring (torus) (an arrangement similar to a modern toroidal transformer). Based on his assessment of recently discovered properties of electromagnets, he expected that when current started to flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring

neg: Cristina Schultz Cristina Schultz Cristina Warthen, née Cristina Schultz, is a 2001 graduate of Stanford Law School and a fitness model who has been pictured in "Iron Man", "Muscular Development", "Maxim", and "Playboy". Schultz was in the news in 2009 as the alleged "law school escort," the woman who allegedly claimed to repay hundreds of thousands of dollars of law school loans through a career as a professional escort. Her story appeared on the front page of the "Los Angeles Daily Journal" on October 26, 2004. In 2004, the government filed a civil forfeiture complaint against money found in her safe-deposit boxes

neg: General Election Law General Election Law The was a law passed in Taishō period Japan, extending suffrage to all males aged 25 and over. It was proposed by the Kenseitō political party and it was passed by the Diet of Japan on 5 May 1925. Meiji period Japan was dominated by the Meiji oligarchy, who viewed popular democracy and party politics with suspicion. However, after the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution, limited suffrage was extended to male property holders, aged over 25 years, who paid more than 15 Yen in annual taxes for elections to the lower house starting in 1890. The number

neg: Cartilage–hair hypoplasia in some more severe cases, mortality from infections early in childhood. There has also been detected combined immunodeficiency in some patients Patients with CHH often have increased predispositions to malignancies. A verified treatment for this disease is yet to be discovered. Over the years, a number of treatments have been claimed to have been discovered in the east. Chinese medicines have claimed to be able to cure dwarfism for many years, but as of yet, not one verified case has been demonstrated of someone who is a dwarf or suffering from any other similar disability growing to a "normal" height.

neg: SS Iron Knight (1937) "Mildura" passed under the bow of "Townsville" and struck "Iron Knight", which was at the head of the convoy. Her position was . "Iron Knight" sank, bow first, within two minutes. Out of the crew of 50 only 14 survived after climbing on board a single lifeboat, while the other 36 crew members' lives were claimed by "Iron Knight"'s sinking. The convoy steamed ahead and the survivors were picked up by the French destroyer "Le Triomphant" ten hours later. The wreck of the "Iron Knight" was discovered in waters off the town of Bermagui, New South Wales at a depth

neg: Fenian Brotherhood The rebellion was suppressed, but the principles of the United Irishmen were to have a powerful influence on the course of Irish history. Following the collapse of the rebellion, the British Prime Minister William Pitt introduced a bill to abolish the Irish parliament and manufactured a Union between Ireland and Britain. Opposition from the Protestant oligarchy that controlled the parliament was countered by the widespread and open use of bribery. The Act of Union was passed and became law on 1 January 1801. The Catholics, who had been excluded from the Irish parliament, were promised emancipation under the Union. This

neg: Evo Morales and the Roman Catholic Church After these protests Patzi went further in his claims, saying "The Church is now showing her true face. The Church is now on the side of the oligarchy, because for 514 years the Church has been at the service of the oligarchy and the rich. Nobody can deny it." Morales then came out in support of Patzi accusing the bishops of acting “as if this were the Inquisition.” He claimed that the bishops were “still seeking a certain vestige of power.” Morales explained his comments to reporters, saying "I want to ask the (church) hierarchies that they understand freedom of

neg: Oligarchy to rule Zimbabwe. Some contemporary authors have characterized current conditions in the United States as oligarchic in nature. Simon Johnson wrote that "the reemergence of an American financial oligarchy is quite recent", a structure which he delineated as being the "most advanced" in the world. Jeffrey A. Winters wrote that "oligarchy and democracy operate within a single system, and American politics is a daily display of their interplay."<ref name='TAI 11-12/2011'> </ref> The top 1% of the U.S. population by wealth in 2007 had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. In 2011, according to PolitiFact

neg: Shell Oil Co v Canada (Commissioner of Patents) Shell Oil Co v Canada (Commissioner of Patents) Shell Oil Co v Canada (Commissioner of Patents), [1982] 2 S.C.R. 536, is a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of Canada in the area of Canadian patent law. Prior to this decision, there was no general principle of patent law, and no direct authority, for the proposition that a new use of an old compound can be claimed as a patentable invention. Furthermore, the decision is a leading case on the test for patentable "art". Shell Oil discovered that compounds having a specific chemical structure have useful properties in respect of

neg: James Balfour (died 1845) and iron workings. In November 1820, the death of Henry St Paul MP triggered a by-election for the borough of Berwick-upon-Tweed, where Balfour's father-in-law Lord Lauderdale had great influence. Balfour was also supported by Admiral Sir David Milne, who had defeated St Paul at the general election in March 1820 but was unseated on petition in July. However, Lauderdale was disliked for his opposition to the popular Queen Caroline, which became a significant issue in the campaign. His agents claimed that Balfour would have opposed her trial for alleged adultery, but he was portrayed as too close to Liverpool's Tory

neg: Brad Carlton For the duration of their marriage, Brad continued to fight his feelings for Victoria's one-time sister-in-law, Sharon Newman. During this time, he also had an affair with Sharon. Upon Victor's initiation of a background check on Brad, it was discovered in a Retroactive continuity storyline after almost twenty years of being on the show that Brad was not who he had initially claimed to be. Brad's real name was George Kaplan, and he assumed the identity of a friend who died in an accident in order to hide from the people who had killed his family. A 2006 story arc