query: the percentage of carbon in high speed steel is

pos: High-speed steel result of local iron ores containing natural traces of tungsten or other favorable alloying components. In 1868 the English metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet developed Mushet steel, considered to be the forerunner of modern high-speed steels. It consisted of 2% carbon (C), 2.5% manganese (Mn), and 7% tungsten (W). The major advantage of this steel was that it hardened when air cooled from a temperature at which most steels had to be quenched for hardening. Over the next 30 years, the most significant change was the replacement of manganese (Mn) with chromium (Cr). In 1899 and 1900, Frederick Winslow Taylor and

pos: Japanese swordsmithing iron contains more than 2% carbon. The high-carbon steel has about 1 to 1.5% carbon while the low-carbon iron contains about 0.2%. Steel that has a carbon content between the high and low carbon steel is called "bu-kera", which is often resmelted with the pig iron to make "saga-hagane", containing roughly 0.7% carbon. Most of the intermediate-carbon steel, wrought iron and resmelted steel will be sold for making other items, like tools and knives, and only the best pieces of high-carbon steel, low-carbon iron, and pig iron are used for swordsmithing. The various metals are also filled with slag, phosphorus

pos: General Electric GE9X has 22 and the GEnx has 18. This makes the engine lighter, and allows the low pressure (LP) fan and booster to spin faster to better match its speed with the LP turbine. The fan blades feature steel leading edges and glass-fibre trailing edges to better absorb bird impacts with more flexibility than carbon fiber. Fourth generation carbon fiber composite materials, comprising the bulk of the fan blades, make them lighter, thinner, stronger, and more efficient. Using a composite fan case will also reduce weight. The high pressure (HP) compressor is up to 2% more efficient. As the GE90 fan

neg: High-speed steel such as files, chisels, hand plane blades, and damascus kitchen knives and pocket knives. High speed steel tools are the most popular for use in woodturning, as the speed of movement of the work past the edge is relatively high for handheld tools, and HSS holds its edge far longer than high carbon steel tools can. High-speed steel High-speed steel (HSS or HS) is a subset of tool steels, commonly used as cutting tool material. It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the older high-carbon steel tools used extensively through the 1940s in

neg: High-speed steel High-speed steel High-speed steel (HSS or HS) is a subset of tool steels, commonly used as cutting tool material. It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the older high-carbon steel tools used extensively through the 1940s in that it can withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper (hardness). This property allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name "high-speed steel". At room temperature, in their generally recommended heat treatment, HSS grades generally display high hardness (above Rockwell hardness 60) and abrasion resistance (generally linked to tungsten and vanadium content

neg: Straight razor difficult to hone, or high-carbon steel, which is much easier to hone, obtains a sharper edge but will rust more easily than stainless steel if neglected. Cheap stainless steel straight razors from Asia and more expensive stainless steel and carbon steel razors from Europe are available. A razor blade starts as a shape called the blank supplied by the steel manufacturer. The first step is to clean the blank using a heavy forge. The material used for open razors is steel with a minimum carbon content of 0.6%. This percentage of carbon content ensures optimum hardness, flexibility and resistance to

neg: Woodturning product. The wood can also be screwed or glued to a faceplate—a strong disk that is threaded to mount on the headstock's spindle. The use of a chuck or faceplate allows the woodturner to forego tailstock support for the rotating wood. This type of secure holding system is essential for hollowing bowls or hollow forms. Turning tools are generally made from three different types of steel; carbon steel, high speed steel (HSS), and more recently powdered metal. Comparing the three types, high speed steel tools maintain their edge longer, requiring less frequent sharpening than carbon steel, but not as long

neg: Crucible steel the carbon percentage: high carbon steel is stronger but more brittle than low carbon steel. Crucible steel sequesters the raw input materials from the heat source, allowing precise control of carburization (raising) or oxidation (lowering carbon content). Fluxes, such as limestone, could be added to the crucible to remove or promote sulfur, silicon, and other impurities, further altering its material qualities. Various methods were used to produce crucible steel. According to Islamic texts such as al-Tarsusi and Abu Rayhan Biruni, three methods are described for indirect production of steel. The medieval Islamic historian Abu Rayhan Biruni (c. 973–1050) provides the

neg: Crucible steel steels like mangalloy, high-speed steel, and stainless steel. Due to variations in the carbon content of the blister steel, the carbon steel produced could vary in carbon content between crucibles by as much as 0.18%, but on average produced a eutectoid steel containing ~ 0.79% carbon. Due to the quality and high hardenability of the steel, it was quickly adopted for the manufacture of tool steel, machine tools, cutlery, and many other items. Because no oxygen was blown through the steel, it exceeded Bessemer steel in both quality and hardenability, so Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until

neg: Tempering (metallurgy) (A) temperature and then quickly cooled, in a process called quenching, using methods such as immersing the hot steel in water, oil, or forced-air. The quenched-steel, being placed in or very near its hardest possible state, is then tempered to incrementally decrease the hardness to a point more suitable for the desired application. The hardness of the quenched-steel depends on both cooling speed and on the composition of the alloy. Steel with a high carbon-content will reach a much harder state than steel with a low carbon-content. Likewise, tempering high-carbon steel to a certain temperature will produce steel that is

neg: Carbon steel Carbon steel Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content up to 2.1% by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states: The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating; however, it becomes less ductile. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.

neg: Carbon steel property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core tough. Carbon steel Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content up to 2.1% by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states: The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating; however, it becomes less ductile. Regardless of

neg: Mushet steel type of hardened self-hardening steel was the first high speed steel. Mushet steel Mushet steel, also known as Robert Mushet's Special Steel (RMS), self-hardening steel and air-hardening steel, is considered the first tool steel and air-hardening steel. It was invented in 1868 by Robert Forester Mushet. Prior to Mushet steel, steel had to be quenched to harden it. It later led to the discovery of high speed steel. The chemical composition of Mushet steel varied; tungsten was the main alloying constituent, which ranged between 4 and 12%, while manganese (2–4%) and carbon (1.5–2.5%) were the secondary alloying constituents. A typical

neg: High-speed steel often used in HSS) compared with common carbon and tool steels. Although the development of modern high-speed steel began in the second half of the 19th century, there is documented evidence of steels produced earlier with similar content. These include hardened steels in China in 13th century BC, wootz steel manufactured in India around 350 BC and production of Damascus and Japanese layered steel blades in years 540 AD and 900 AD. High-speed properties of those steels would be mostly coincidental (as no machining technology that involved quantification of speeds and feeds existed at the time) and would be the

neg: Vanadium stable nitrides and carbides, resulting in a significant increase in the strength of steel. From that time on, vanadium steel was used for applications in axles, bicycle frames, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components. There are two groups of vanadium steel alloys. Vanadium high-carbon steel alloys contain 0.15% to 0.25% vanadium, and high-speed tool steels (HSS) have a vanadium content of 1% to 5%. For high-speed tool steels, a hardness above HRC 60 can be achieved. HSS steel is used in surgical instruments and tools. Powder-metallurgic alloys contain up to 18% percent vanadium. The high content of vanadium carbides in

neg: Jigsaw (power tool) plastics. High-speed steel (HSS) is a stronger metal that can cut all types of metals and aluminum. Bi-Metal (BIM) is a combination of high-carbon steel and high-speed steel. The combination creates a strong and flexible material that is built for demanding applications when there is a risk of breakage or when extreme flexibility and versatility is required in an application. Bi-Metal has a longer life span and prolonged job performance. Tungsten carbide (TC) blades have the strength to cut through abrasive metals such as reinforced plastics, fiberglass, cement board, stainless steel, tile, glass, cast iron, and brick. Diamond grit blades

neg: Mushet steel Mushet steel Mushet steel, also known as Robert Mushet's Special Steel (RMS), self-hardening steel and air-hardening steel, is considered the first tool steel and air-hardening steel. It was invented in 1868 by Robert Forester Mushet. Prior to Mushet steel, steel had to be quenched to harden it. It later led to the discovery of high speed steel. The chemical composition of Mushet steel varied; tungsten was the main alloying constituent, which ranged between 4 and 12%, while manganese (2–4%) and carbon (1.5–2.5%) were the secondary alloying constituents. A typical sample contained 9% tungsten, 2.5% manganese, and 1.85% carbon. Mushet steel

neg: Carbon steel Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing. In applications where large cross-sections are used to minimize deflection, failure by yield is not a risk

neg: Spyderco inclusion of vanadium. Sharpens easily, and has moderate edge holding and corrosion resistance. AUS-10, a Japanese stainless steel series made by Aichi with the same carbon content as 440C but with slightly less chromium. BG-42, a high performance stainless steel formulated for ball bearings, similar to ATS-34 (same composition, but with added vanadium), which has similar properties. CPM S30V steel an American powder-metallurgy, high-carbide steel developed for the cutlery market. CPM-M4 9aka AISI M4), usually tempered to 62-65 HRC, a high-speed steel with combination of high carbon, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten for excellent wear resistance and toughness; a powder-metallurgical, non-stainless

neg: Émile Jaboulay (now part of Saint-Étienne). He directed this company until 1947. Émile Jaboulay specialized in research into alloys, and conducted more than 10,000 tests between 1910 and 1923. Based on these results his business in Terrenoire produced and marketed high-carbon steel that had great value in high-speed steel tools. High-carbon steel was requisitioned during World War II to make German tanks and airplanes. Jaboulay was made a knight of the Legion of Honor in 1959. Émile Jaboulay died in Saint-Étienne on 28 January 1961. A street in Saint-Étienne is named after him. Citations Sources Émile Jaboulay Émile Jaboulay (14 February 1879

neg: Heat treating decarburization, because the iron oxide keeps oxygen in contact with the decarburization zone even after the steel is moved into an oxygen-free environment, such as the coals of a forge. Thus, the carbon atoms begin combining with the surrounding scale and slag to form both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which is released into the air. Steel contains a relatively small percentage of carbon, which can migrate freely within the gamma iron. When austenized steel is exposed to air for long periods of time, the carbon content in the steel can be lowered. This is the opposite from what happens

neg: Steel its tensile strength and make the austenite form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while making it less prone to metal fatigue. To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus are considered contaminants that make

neg: Semi-steel Semi-steel Semi-steel casting is a lower cost method to produce a casting that is not quite as strong as a steel casting but less expensive to manufacture. It was used more commonly as a marketing term. The carbon and silicon percentages are reduced to the amount approximately consistent with those in steel. This is done using pig iron or gray iron casting scrap and reducing the amount of carbon through the addition of relatively pure steel or wrought iron scrap in a well heated cupola furnace. The percentage of carbon is typically between foundry cast iron and wrought iron. 6-pounder

neg: Martensite percentage of the austenite transforms to martensite until the lower transformation temperature M is reached, at which time the transformation is completed. For a eutectoid steel (0.78% C), between 6 and 10% of austenite, called retained austenite, will remain. The percentage of retained austenite increases from insignificant for less than 0.6% C steel, to 13% retained austenite at 0.95% C and 30–47% retained austenite for a 1.4% carbon steels. A very rapid quench is essential to create martensite. For a eutectoid carbon steel of thin section, if the quench starting at 750 °C and ending at 450 °C takes place

neg: Equivalent carbon content Equivalent carbon content The equivalent carbon content concept is used on ferrous materials, typically steel and cast iron, to determine various properties of the alloy when more than just carbon is used as an alloyant, which is typical. The idea is to convert the percentage of alloying elements other than carbon to the equivalent carbon percentage, because the iron-carbon phases are better understood than other iron-alloy phases. Most commonly this concept is used in welding, but it is also used when heat treating and casting cast iron. In welding, equivalent carbon content (C.E) is used to understand how the different

neg: Tungsten carbide resistant and can also withstand higher temperatures than standard high-speed steel (HSS) tools. Carbide cutting surfaces are often used for machining through materials such as carbon steel or stainless steel, and in applications where steel tools would wear quickly, such as high-quantity and high-precision production. Because carbide tools maintain a sharp cutting edge better than steel tools, they generally produce a better finish on parts, and their temperature resistance allows faster machining. The material is usually called cemented carbide, solid carbide, hardmetal or tungsten-carbide cobalt. It is a metal matrix composite, where tungsten carbide particles are the aggregate, and metallic

neg: Equivalent carbon content are formed. Also, there is less shrinkage as the CE increases. When heat treating cast iron, various CE samples are tested to empirically determine the correlation between CE and hardness. The following is an example for induction hardened gray irons: Equivalent carbon content The equivalent carbon content concept is used on ferrous materials, typically steel and cast iron, to determine various properties of the alloy when more than just carbon is used as an alloyant, which is typical. The idea is to convert the percentage of alloying elements other than carbon to the equivalent carbon percentage, because the iron-carbon phases

neg: Alloy forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys.

neg: Woodturning as powdered metal tools. The harder the type of high speed steel used, the longer the edge will maintain sharpness. Powdered steel is even harder than HSS, but takes more effort to obtain an edge as sharp as HSS, just as HSS is harder to get as sharp as carbon steel. Woodturning tools must be sharpened more frequently than other edged woodworking tools to maintain a clean cut because the wood passes at great speed. Sharpening is usually accomplished with the aid of mechanical devices such as powered sharpening wheels and abrasives. This sharpening process requires either skill of the

neg: Amine gas treating and hence corrosive to carbon steel. However, in an amine treating unit, CO is the stronger acid of the two. HS forms a film of iron sulfide on the surface of the steel that acts to protect the steel. When treating gases with a high percentage of CO, corrosion inhibitors are often used and that permits the use of higher concentrations of amine in the circulating solution. Another factor involved in choosing an amine concentration is the relative solubility of HS and CO in the selected amine. The choice of the type of amine will affect the required circulation rate

neg: Machinability Taylor tool life equation, formula_2, in order to determine cutting speeds or tool life. It is known that B1112 has a tool life of 60 minutes at a cutting speed of 100 sfpm. If a material has a machinability rating of 70%, it can be determined, with the above knowns, that in order to maintain the same tool life (60 minutes) the cutting speed must be 70 sfpm (assuming the same tooling is used). The carbon content of steel greatly affects its machinability. High-carbon steels are difficult to machine because they are strong and because they may contain carbides that

neg: Steel but brittle material called cementite (FeC). When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the austenitic phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as cementite, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, ferrite and cementite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called pearlite, named

neg: Flash welding of rail. This smoother rail reduces the wear on the rails themselves, effectively reducing the frequency of inspections and maintenance. Continuous welded rail is particularly used on high-speed rail lines because of the smoothness of the rail head. A study published in "Materials Science and Design" proved that flash welding is also beneficial in the railroad industry because it allows dissimilar metals, including non ferrous metals, to be joined. This allows switches and crossings, which are generally composed of high manganese steel, to be effectively welded to carbon steel rail with the use of a stainless steel insert, while keeping

neg: Bar stock "drill rod". Commonly available material grades in the U.S. are A2, D2, M2, M42, O1, S7, W1, and high speed steel (including M2/M7). "Ground flat stock" is annealed steel that has been ground to close tolerances (compare to drill rod). There are four types of materials available: O-1 tool steel, A-2 tool steel, A-6 tool steel, and 1018 steel (low-carbon or low-carb steel). Lengths are either long, various widths up to are available, and thicknesses range from . Some geometrical sizes are known as "". Bar stock Bar stock, also (colloquially) known as blank, slug or billet, is a common

neg: Crucible steel better methods, utilizing an electric arc, were developed in the early 20th century. In another method, developed in the United States in the 1880s, iron and carbon were melted together directly to produce crucible steel. Throughout the 19th century and into the 1920s a large amount of crucible steel was directed into the production of cutting tools, where it was called "tool steel". The crucible process continued to be used for specialty steels, but is today obsolete. Similar quality steels are now made with an electric arc furnace. Some uses of "tool steel" were displaced, first by high speed steel

neg: Cemented carbide the cutter-workpiece interface than standard high-speed steel tools (which is a principal reason for the faster machining). Carbide is usually superior for the cutting of tough materials such as carbon steel or stainless steel, as well as in situations where other cutting tools would wear away faster, such as high-quantity production runs. Cemented carbides are metal matrix composites where carbide particles act as the aggregate and a metallic binder serves as the matrix (like gravel aggregate in a matrix of cement makes concrete). Its structure is thus conceptually similar to that of a grinding wheel, except that the abrasive particles

neg: Bimetal cans proved difficult to recycle owing to their mix of metals. Blades for bandsaws and reciprocating saws are often made with bimetal construction. The teeth, made of high speed steel, are bonded (by various methods, for example, electron beam welding or laser beam welding) to the high-strength carbon steel base. Such construction makes for blades with a better combination of cutting speed and durability than shown by non-bimetal blades, because the advantages and disadvantages of each of the metals are applied in the best locations: the teeth are harder (and thus cut better), but therefore also brittler; meanwhile, the body

neg: Steel for its resemblance to mother of pearl. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeuctoid steel.

neg: Woodturning craftsman, or one of the many available sharpening jigs, which facilitate maintaining a specific bevel on the tool. As with any mechanical sharpening method, overheating or blueing is a danger to be avoided as it will ruin the steel's temper, rendering the steel too soft to maintain a sharp edge. When this happens, the blued area must then be ground away to expose fresh steel and the tool must then have the bevel reestablished and the edge re-honed. High speed steel is not prone to blueing (overheating) whereas carbon steel blues easily, requiring frequent quenching in water or oil to

neg: Dneprospetsstal BS (Great Britain), AFNOR (France), JIS (Japan). Dneprospetsstal Dneprospetsstal (; ), known as DSS, is a Ukrainian manufacturer of special stainless steel. The company is based in Zaporizhia in southeastern Ukraine, and was founded as a state-run enterprise in 1932. Its full name is JPrSC Electrometallurgical Works Dneprospetsstal named after A. N. Kuzmin. It is a publicly traded company. Dneprospetsstal manufactures and sells metal products of stainless, tool, high-speed (including those produced by the PM-method), bearing, structural, alloyed and carbon steel grades. Dneprospetsstal manufactures over 800 steel grades of 1200 section sizes. DSS' products are used in the manufacture of

neg: Dneprospetsstal Dneprospetsstal Dneprospetsstal (; ), known as DSS, is a Ukrainian manufacturer of special stainless steel. The company is based in Zaporizhia in southeastern Ukraine, and was founded as a state-run enterprise in 1932. Its full name is JPrSC Electrometallurgical Works Dneprospetsstal named after A. N. Kuzmin. It is a publicly traded company. Dneprospetsstal manufactures and sells metal products of stainless, tool, high-speed (including those produced by the PM-method), bearing, structural, alloyed and carbon steel grades. Dneprospetsstal manufactures over 800 steel grades of 1200 section sizes. DSS' products are used in the manufacture of machinery parts, tools for metal and alloy

neg: Rhondite a high carbon and low carbon steel, such that the mixture as a whole has the desired carbon content. The mixture is then heated to a temperature at which the high carbon steel will melt, but kept below the melting point of the low carbon steel (~2750 F). The mixture is slightly cooled then maintained for time sufficient for the carbon present to form fullerenes and fullerene chains (approximately 15 minutes), and finally allowed to cool to room temperature. Rhondite is: Rhondite Rhondite is a nano-scale helical carbon-based structure created by Robert Job that may be used in the production

neg: Garter spring when temporarily deformed. The carbon content in carbon steel wires range from 0.50 to 0.95 percent. This relatively small amount of carbon is enough to improve the toughness of the spring. The close proximity to oil and high-pressure engines mean heat treated garter springs are essential for enduring temperatures over 100 °C (212 °F). However, carbon steel is not suitable for highly corrosive environments; stainless steel would be a more viable option. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel in the amount of chromium present; stainless steel has between 10.5% to 11% chromium by mass, while carbon steel has about 1%.

neg: Laminated steel blade carbon steel or wrought iron. A thin strip of high carbon steel could be laminated between two layers of softer steel, or a core of soft steel could be wrapped in high carbon steel. The Japanese katana was often found with complex patterns of soft and hard steels; having 5 sections of differing hardness welded together to form the final blade was not uncommon. The end result would be a blade with a very high carbon edge (as much as 1.0%, equal to the highest carbon content found in low alloy steels in use today) and a softer spine. The

neg: Cold Steel quality issues they switched to Taiwan for production. At the same time Cold Steel moved all of their folding knife manufacturing from Seki Japan to Taiwan. The carbon steel was SK5 and stainless was AUS-8 both imported to Taiwan from Japan. However the Sanmai III models remained strictly Seki production. Today the knives made in Japan use VG-1 stainless steel and VG1 core Sanmai III, the Taiwan models use German 4116 stainless steel, D2 steel, 1055 high carbon steel, O-1 high carbon, SK-5 high carbon steel, Japanese AUS 8A stainless steel and American CPM 3V tool steel. The Aus 8A

neg: Ferrochrome in the production of stainless steel. In 2006 28 Mt of stainless steel were produced. Stainless steel depends on chromium for its appearance and its resistance to corrosion. The average chrome content in stainless steel is approximately 18%. It is also used when it is desired to add chromium to carbon steel. FeCr from Southern Africa, known as "charge chrome" and produced from a Cr containing ore with a low carbon content, is most commonly used in stainless steel production. Alternatively, high carbon FeCr produced from high grade ore found in Kazakhstan (among other places) is more commonly used in

neg: Hardened steel it must be heated to very high temperatures. The final result of exactly how hard the steel becomes depends on the amount of carbon present in the metal. Only steel that is high in carbon can be hardened and tempered. If a metal does not contain the necessary quantity of carbon, then its crystalline structure cannot be broken, and therefore the physical makeup of the steel cannot be altered. Frequently, the term "hardening" is associated with tempered steel. Both processes are used hand in hand when hardening steel. The two part process begins with hardening the steel so that it

neg: Justus von Liebig weight of carbon in the sample. For any substance consisting only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the percentage of oxygen was found by subtracting the carbon and hydrogen percentages from 100%; the remainder must be the percentage of oxygen. A charcoal furnace (a sheet-steel tray in which the combustion tube was laid) was used for the combustion. Weighing carbon and hydrogen directly, rather than estimating them volumetrically, greatly increased the method's accuracy of measurement. Liebig's assistant Carl Ettling perfected glass-blowing techniques for producing the "Kaliapparat", and demonstrated them to visitors. Liebig's kaliapparat simplified the technique of quantitative organic analysis and

neg: Knife manufactured from a variety of materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. Carbon steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, can be very sharp. It holds its edge well, and remains easy to sharpen, but is vulnerable to rust and stains. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. It is not able to take quite as sharp an edge as carbon steel, but is highly resistant to corrosion. High carbon stainless steel is stainless steel with a higher amount of carbon, intended to incorporate the better attributes

neg: Carbon-fiber tape Carbon-fiber tape Carbon-fiber tape is a flat material made of carbon fiber. It weighs one-seventh as much as steel for a given strength. The carbon fiber core lasts longer than conventional steel cable. The material is resistant to wear and abrasion and, unlike steel, does not densify and stretch. In June 2013, KONE elevator company announced Ultrarope for use as a replacement for steel cables in elevators. It seals the carbon fibers in high-friction polymer. Unlike steel cable, Ultrarope was designed for buildings that require up to 1,000 meters of lift. Steel elevators top out at 500 meters. The company

neg: Rupture disc Device sizes range from under to at least , depending upon the industry application. Rupture discs and vent panels are constructed from carbon steel, stainless steel, hastelloy, graphite, and other materials, as required by the specific use environment. Rupture discs are widely accepted throughout industry and specified in most global pressure equipment design codes (ASME, PED, etc.). Rupture discs can be used to specifically protect installations against unacceptably high pressures or can be designed to act as one-time valves or triggering devices to initiate with high reliability and speed a sequence of actions required. The dome is weakened by precision

neg: Welding joint most common form of preparation. This technique is advantageous because of its speed, low cost, and adaptability. Machining is the most effective for reproducibility and mass production of parts. Preparation of J or U joints is common prepared by machining due to the need for high accuracy. The chipping method is used to prepare parts that were produced by casting. The use of grinding to prepare pieces is reserved for small sections that cannot be prepared by other methods. Air carbon arc cutting is common in industries that work with stainless steels, cast iron, or ordinary carbon steel. Prior to

neg: Iron ore 0.07 and 0.12%. It also increases the depth of hardening due to quenching, but at the same time also decreases the solubility of carbon in iron at high temperatures. This would decrease its usefulness in making blister steel (cementation), where the speed and amount of carbon absorption is the overriding consideration. The addition of phosphorus has a down side. At concentrations higher than 0.2% iron becomes increasingly cold short, or brittle at low temperatures. Cold short is especially important for bar iron. Although bar iron is usually worked hot, its uses often require it to be tough, bendable, and resistant

neg: Steel high-carbon steel. Large-scale Wootz steel production in Tamilakam using crucibles and carbon sources such as the plant Avāram occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy. The Chinese of the Warring States period (403–221 BC) had quench-hardened steel, while Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent are found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu area,

neg: Laser beam welding HSLA steels, stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when welding high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of electron beam welding. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but also depends on the type and thickness of the workpieces. The high power capability of gas lasers make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly dominant in the automotive industry. Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows: - the laser beam can be transmitted through air

neg: Carbon-fiber tape estimated that in a 500-meter-high building, an elevator would use 15 per cent less electrical power than a steel-cabled version. As of June 2013, the product had passed all European Union and US certification tests. Carbon-fiber tape Carbon-fiber tape is a flat material made of carbon fiber. It weighs one-seventh as much as steel for a given strength. The carbon fiber core lasts longer than conventional steel cable. The material is resistant to wear and abrasion and, unlike steel, does not densify and stretch. In June 2013, KONE elevator company announced Ultrarope for use as a replacement for steel cables

neg: TVR Typhon calipers and 298 mm brake rotors Chassis/Body Body: Carbon fibre mono shell bonded around the entire chassis. Chassis: Tubular steel space frame with aluminium/carbon fiber reinforcement, integral steel roll cage, all bonded into the composite shell Performance Acceleration: 0-62 mph: Under 4.0 seconds Top Speed: Approx. 200 mph ("215 mph+ for supercharged variant") Dimensions TVR Typhon The TVR Typhon is a sports car produced by the British car manufacturer TVR in their factory in Blackpool between 2000 and 2006. It is the fastest production TVR ever built. (The earlier TVR Cerbera Speed 12 was never put into production.) Only three

neg: Carbon additive sulfur (≤ 0.5) petroleum coke in the world. G-high carbon has been the origin for many trading companies and metallurgical factories when they look for qualified carbon additives. Carbon additive Carbon additive is a product that is added to molten steel. Carbon additive includes calcined petroleum coke, graphite petroleum coke, calcined anthracite coal, electrical calcined anthracite, and natural graphite. For the steel-making industry, the most suitable carbon additive is calcined petroleum coke with fixed carbon of 98.5%min. Sulfur in calcined petroleum coke is a crucial element, for sulfur impacts the quality of steel. The lower the sulfur, the better quality

neg: Tempering (metallurgy) proportionately to carbon steel. However, during tempering, elements like chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum precipitate with the carbon. If the steel contains fairly low concentrations of these elements, the softening of the steel can be retarded until much higher temperatures are reached, when compared to those needed for tempering carbon steel. This allows the steel to maintain its hardness in high temperature or high friction applications. However, this also requires very high temperatures during tempering, to achieve a reduction in hardness. If the steel contains large amounts of these elements, tempering may produce an increase in hardness until a specific temperature

neg: Carbon steel modulus (elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in the austenite phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming iron-carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming martensite. The rate at which the steel is

neg: Hacksaw blades were of carbon steel, now termed 'low alloy' blades, and were relatively soft and flexible. They avoided breakage, but also wore out rapidly. Except where cost is a particular concern, this type is now obsolete. 'Low alloy' blades are still the only type available for the Junior hacksaw, which limits the usefulness of this otherwise popular saw. For several decades now, hacksaw blades have used high speed steel for their teeth, giving greatly improved cutting and tooth life. These blades were first available in the 'All-hard' form which cut accurately but were extremely brittle. This limited their practical use

neg: SRT Tomahawk car all-wheel-drive. Five exhaust pipes deliver all of the continuously increasing fumes of the engine out of the car. The body is shaped with a continuous flow to decrease the coefficient of drag. It also uses a material called graphene lattice, a type of carbon that is reported to be stronger than steel, and lighter than carbon-fiber. The chassis includes a structural spine that extends throughout the car, most likely to steady the car in high speed. The light components, both front and rear, consist of plasma lights. The Tomahawk S (labeled the Tomahawk Street in Brand Central of "Gran

neg: Tool bit gets keener due to the lessening support behind the edge and the reduced ability to absorb heat generated by cutting. The Rake angles on the top of the tool need not be precise in order to cut but to cut efficiently there will be an optimum angle for back and side rake. Originally, all tool bits were made of high carbon tool steels with the appropriate hardening and tempering. Since the introductions of high-speed steel (HSS) (early years of the 20th century), sintered carbide (1930s), ceramic and diamond cutters, those materials have gradually replaced the earlier kinds of tool steel

neg: Case-hardening involves packing the low-carbon iron within a substance high in carbon, then heating this pack to encourage carbon migration into the surface of the iron. This forms a thin surface layer of higher carbon steel, with the carbon content gradually decreasing deeper from the surface. The resulting product combines much of the toughness of a low-carbon steel core, with the hardness and wear resistance of the outer high-carbon steel. The traditional method of applying the carbon to the surface of the iron involved packing the iron in a mixture of ground bone and charcoal or a combination of leather, hooves,

neg: Bladesmith modern times, are often crafted of 5160 carbon spring steel, which is not as hard or brittle as a high carbon steel (such as 1095), but is more durable and less prone to breakage, and therefore more suitable for longer weapons. 5160 carbon spring steel is sometimes used for leaf springs in American trucks, making it readily available in the US. In Europe, EN-45 is more commonly used. Many bladesmiths are able to forge a special type of steel using a technique called pattern welding, producing a metal erroneously referred to as Damascus steel. Modern pattern-welded steel can be highly

neg: Carbon carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel: Carbon monoxide can be recycled to smelt even more iron: with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction: Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting

neg: Laser cutting "burning stabilized laser gas cutting", "flame cutting". Reactive cutting is like oxygen torch cutting but with a laser beam as the ignition source. Mostly used for cutting carbon steel in thicknesses over 1 mm. This process can be used to cut very thick steel plates with relatively little laser power. Laser cutters have positioning accuracy of 10 micrometers and repeatability of 5 micrometers. Standard roughness Rz increases with the sheet thickness, but decreases with laser power and cutting speed. When cutting low carbon steel with laser power of 800 W, standard roughness Rz is 10 μm for sheet thickness of

neg: Materials science polyethylene (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints. The study of metal alloys is a significant part of materials science. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels. An iron-carbon alloy is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00%. For

neg: Bladesmith a blade. Forges formerly fed by wood, coke, or coal are still in use, but gas forges are becoming the standard. Likewise the smith's hammer is being eclipsed by the use of hydraulic forging presses and power hammers. Modern bladesmiths use a variety of steels to produce their blades, most commonly high carbon steel, such as SAE 1075 or SAE 1095 (the '10' representing the 10-series carbon steels, while '75' '85' and '95' reflect the carbon content of the steel), tool steel such as O-1, A-2, D2 other tool or high carbon steels, or a variety of steels welded in

neg: Heat treating when steel is heated in a reducing environment, in which carbon slowly diffuses further into the metal. In an oxidizing environment, the carbon can readily diffuse outwardly, so austenized steel is very susceptible to decarburization. This is often used for cast steel, where a high carbon-content is needed for casting, but a lower carbon-content is desired in the finished product. It is often used on cast-irons to produce malleable cast iron, in a process called "white tempering." This tendency to decarburize is often a problem in other operations, such as blacksmithing, where it becomes more desirable to austenize the steel

neg: High-strength low-alloy steel and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) maintains standards for HSLA steel grades because they are often used in automotive applications. High-strength low-alloy steel High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel. HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition but rather to specific mechanical properties. They have a carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability and weldability. Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese

neg: Cast iron iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle. Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide and the production of white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, and the formation of those carbides. Nickel

neg: Tool steel to identify various grades of tool steel. Individual alloys within a grade are given a number; for example: A2, O1, etc. W-group tool steel gets its name from its defining property of having to be water quenched. W-grade steel is essentially high carbon plain-carbon steel. This group of tool steel is the most commonly used tool steel because of its low cost compared to others. They work well for small parts and applications where high temperatures are not encountered; above it begins to soften to a noticeable degree. Its hardenability is low, so W-group tool steels must be subjected to

neg: Hardened steel process, the metal file should easily 'bite' into the sample. If the metal has been hardened, the file fails to cut into the sample and glances off with little visible effect. Case hardened articles starting as low carbon steel (0.5 - 1.5% carbon content) can also be labeled hardened steel. Hardened steel The term hardened steel is often used for a medium or high carbon steel that has been given heat treatment and then quenching followed by tempering. The quenching results in the formation of metastable martensite, the fraction of which is reduced to the desired amount during tempering. This

neg: Ledeburite Ledeburite In iron and steel metallurgy, ledeburite is a mixture of 4.3% carbon in iron and is a eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite. Ledeburite is not a type of steel as the carbon level is too high although it may occur as a separate constituent in some high carbon steels. It is mostly found with cementite or pearlite in a range of cast irons. It is named after the metallurgist Karl Heinrich Adolf Ledebur (1837–1906). He was the first professor of metallurgy at the Bergakademie Freiberg and discovered ledeburite in 1882. Ledeburite arises when the carbon content is between

neg: Case-hardening for case-hardening; typically mild steels are used, with low carbon content, usually less than 0.3% (see plain-carbon steel for more information). These mild steels are not normally hardenable due to the low quantity of carbon, so the surface of the steel is chemically altered to increase the hardenability. Case-hardened steel is formed by diffusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) and/or boron (boriding) into the outer layer of the steel at high temperature, and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. The term "case-hardening" is derived from the practicalities of the carburization process itself, which is essentially the same

neg: Carbon steel resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components. Approximately 0.8–2.0% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs, edged tools, and high-strength wires. Approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy. The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's

neg: High Speed 2 paper" published in March 2010 stated that the project was likely to be roughly carbon neutral. The "Eddington Report" cautioned against the common argument of modal shift from aviation to high-speed rail as a carbon-emissions benefit, since only 1.2% of UK carbon emissions are due to domestic commercial aviation, and since rail transport energy efficiency is reduced as speed increases. The 2007 Government White Paper "Delivering a Sustainable Railway" stated trains that travel at a speed of used 90% more energy than at ; which would result in carbon emissions for a London to Edinburgh journey of approximately per passenger

neg: High-strength low-alloy steel High-strength low-alloy steel High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel. HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition but rather to specific mechanical properties. They have a carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability and weldability. Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare earth elements, or zirconium. Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening purposes. These elements

neg: Martensitic stainless steel Martensitic stainless steel Martensitic stainless steel is a specific type of stainless steel alloy. Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into three main types: "austenitic", "ferritic" and "martensitic". Martensitic stainless steels can be high- or low-carbon steels built around the Type 410 composition of iron, 12% chromium, and up to 1.2% carbon. They are hardenable by heat treatment (specifically by quenching, or by quenching and tempering). The alloy composition, and the high cooling rate of quenching enable the formation of martensite. Tempered martensite gives steel good hardness and high toughness; used largely for medical tools (scalpels, razors

neg: Japanese swordsmithing greatly in carbon content, ranging from wrought iron to pig iron. Three types of steel are chosen for the blade; a very low carbon steel called "hocho-tetsu" is used for the core of the blade ("shingane"). The high carbon steel ("tamahagane"), and the remelted pig iron (cast iron or "nabe-gane"), are combined to form the outer skin of the blade ("kawagane"). Only about 1/3 of the kera produces steel that is suitable for sword production. The best known part of the manufacturing process is the folding of the steel, where the swords are made by repeatedly heating, hammering and folding

neg: Artega GT according to the Artega-website. On September 30, 2012 the production of the Artega GT was halted. There are currently no plans to resume production. Frame: Aluminum spaceframe. Rear module tubular space frame of high-tensile stainless steel Bodywork: Carbon fiber reinforced polyurethane compound material Dimensions (L X B X H): 3950 x 1880 x Kg/PS: About 3.6 kg/PS Engine: VR6 direct-injection engine in the rear mid Displacement: 3597 cc Performance: at 6600/min Torque: at 2400/min Drive: Rear-wheel-drive Transmission: Six-speed direct-shift with Artega inverting stage (pat.appl.) Acceleration 0 - : 4.8 sec Speed: more than Artega GT The Artega GT is a

neg: Pallet reduced height, providing substantial freight cost reduction. Low profile hand pallet trucks allow picking up pallets as low as 25 mm. Steel pallets are strong and are used for heavy loads, high-stacking loads, long term dry storage, and loads moved by abusive logistic systems. They are often used for military ammunition. Metal pallets make up less than 1% of the market. Materials include carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. Of these, carbon steel offers excellent durability at the lowest cost. Stainless steel doesn’t require a paint coating, and is preferred for such applications as clean room environments. Carbon steel units

neg: Crucible steel out of the high-carbon steel into the lower-carbon iron. However, the more the steel was heated and worked; the more it tended to decarburize, and this outward diffusion occurs much faster than the inward diffusion between layers. Thus, further attempts to homogenize the steel resulted in a carbon content too low for use in items like springs, cutlery, swords, or tools. Therefore, steel intended for use in such items, especially tools, was still being made primarily by the slow and arduous bloomery process in very small amounts and at high cost, which, albeit better, had to be manually separated from

neg: Concorde nose and main wheels rotate at the same rate. Additionally, due to the high average take-off speed of , Concorde needed upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has anti-skid braking – a system which prevents the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied for greater control during roll-out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner. The use of carbon over equivalent steel brakes provided a weight-saving of . Each wheel has multiple discs which are cooled by electric fans. Wheel sensors include brake overload, brake temperature, and tyre deflation. After a

neg: Forge welding and into the surrounding air. By the end of a blacksmithing job, the steel will be of a lower carbon content than it was prior to heating. Therefore, most blacksmithing operations are done as quickly as possible to reduce decarburization, preventing the steel from becoming too soft. To produce the right amount of hardness in the finished product, the smith generally begins with steel that has a carbon content that is higher than desired. In ancient times, forging often began with steel that had a carbon content much too high for normal use. Most ancient forge-welding began with hypereutectoid steel,

neg: Structural material compression. It has a relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability and wear resistance. Though almost entirely replaced by steel in building structures, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts. Cast iron retains high strength in fires, despite its low melting point. It is usually around 95% iron, with between 2.1% and 4% carbon and between 1% and 3% silicon. It does not corrode as easily as steel. Steel is an iron alloy with controlled level of carbon (between 0.0 and 1.7% carbon). Steel is used

neg: Steel belt method of flattening out deformed steel belts without interrupting production. Steel belt Steels belts are used in many industries such as food, chemical, wood processing, and transportation. They are generally made from carbon steel or stainless steel. Stainless steel belts are corrosion resistant and provide excellent surface quality. Stainless steel belts are used primarily in the chemical, food, rubber, plastic, wood, and laminate industries. Carbon steel belts are energy efficient and ideal for applications necessitating radiant heating of products or in high-temperature applications that might exceed the annealing temperatures of stainless steel belts also carbon steel belts can more evenly

neg: Steel belt Steel belt Steels belts are used in many industries such as food, chemical, wood processing, and transportation. They are generally made from carbon steel or stainless steel. Stainless steel belts are corrosion resistant and provide excellent surface quality. Stainless steel belts are used primarily in the chemical, food, rubber, plastic, wood, and laminate industries. Carbon steel belts are energy efficient and ideal for applications necessitating radiant heating of products or in high-temperature applications that might exceed the annealing temperatures of stainless steel belts also carbon steel belts can more evenly distributed heat since most stainless steel alloys are comparatively poor

neg: Mechel coking and steam coal and iron ore. The company controls more than 25% of all Russian coking coal production capacity. Mechel operations in the metal and steel segment include production and sale of semi-finished products and profiled rolled steel of high-carbon steel and specialty steel, sheet rolled high-carbon steel and stainless steel, including steel products with a high added value, including metal wares and stampings. The group has its own in-house sources of key raw materials, producing both coking coal and iron ore in concentrate. In 2012, Mechel produced 11.5 million metric tons of coking coal in concentrate (compared to

neg: Steel multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight. Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as aircraft, sports equipment and high end automobiles. Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with radionuclides by nuclear weapons testing. Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications such as Geiger counters and radiation shielding. Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements. Because of

neg: Toledo steel world had special weapons crafted in Toledo using the Toledo steel. [4]. Other countries tried to produce their own Toledo steel, but they failed. For example, the Damascus steel was created in response to the Toledo steel, but the Damascus steel was too hard and not flexible enough. Production The production process of Toledo steel had been kept a secret until the 20th century. Toledo steel is basically two different types of steel (one high and one low in carbon content) that are forged together. Since the steels that were being forged together had different carbon content, one is considered

neg: X46Cr13 X46Cr13 X46Cr13 is the European Norm name for a common martensitic stainless steel with the numeric name 1.4034. It is equivalent to American Iron and Steel Institute standard 420C. It has the highest carbon content of the SAE 420 series. X46Cr13 has good workability when hot, and potential to reach high hardness of up to 56 HRC. It contains a moderately high carbon ratio of approximately 0.46% which gives it a good compromise between high hardness and corrosion resistance for many applications. It is also relatively inexpensive to produce. X46Cr13 is a basic steel without molybdenum, nitrogen or vanadium. It

neg: Heat treating tools, bearings, or other items that require good wear resistance. However, it is usually only effective in high-carbon or high-alloy steels in which more than 10% austenite is retained after quenching. The heating of steel is sometimes used as a method to alter the carbon content. When steel is heated in an oxidizing environment, the oxygen combines with the iron to form an iron-oxide layer, which protects the steel from decarburization. When the steel turns to austenite, however, the oxygen combines with iron to form slag, which provides no protection from decarburization. The formation of slag and scale actually increases

neg: Japanese swordsmithing about of satetsu and of charcoal leaving about of kera, from which less than a ton of "tamahagane" can be produced. A single kera can typically be worth hundreds of thousands of dollars, making it many times more expensive than modern steels. The swordsmiths will carefully break the kera apart, and separate the various carbon steels. The lowest carbon steel is called "hocho-tetsu" (soft iron), which is used for the "shingane" (translated as "core-steel") of the blade. The high carbon steel ("tamahagane") and higher carbon pig iron, called "nabe-gane", will then be forged in alternating layers, using very intricate methods

neg: Crucible steel Crucible steel of this type was produced in South and Central Asia during the medieval era. This generally produced a very hard steel, but also a composite steel that was inhomogeneous, consisting of a very high-carbon steel (formerly the pig-iron) and a lower-carbon steel (formerly the wrought iron). This often resulted in an intricate pattern when the steel was forged, filed or polished, with possibly the most well-known examples coming from the wootz steel used in Damascus swords. Due to the use of fluxes the steel was often much higher in quality (lacking impurities) and in carbon content compared to

neg: Carbon fiber reinforced polymer of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out. A quicker method uses a compression mold. This is a two-piece (male and female) mold usually made out of aluminum or steel that is pressed together with the fabric and resin between the two. The benefit is the speed of the entire process. Some car manufacturers, such as BMW, claimed to be able to cycle a new part every 80 seconds. However, this technique has a very high initial cost since the molds require CNC machining of very high precision. For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used

neg: Crucible steel steel was the manufacture of shear steel. In this method, blister steel produced by cementation was used, which consisted of a core of wrought iron surrounded by a shell of very high-carbon steel, typically ranging from 1.5 to 2.0% carbon. To help homogenize the steel, it was pounded into flat plates, which were stacked and forge welded together. This produced steel with alternating layers of steel and iron. The resulting billet could then be hammered flat, cut into plates, which were stacked and welded again, thinning and compounding the layers, and evening out the carbon more as it slowly diffused

neg: High-speed steel Although molybdenum-rich high-speed steels such as AISI M1 have been used since the 1930s, material shortages and high costs caused by World War II spurred development of less expensive alloys substituting molybdenum for tungsten. The advances in molybdenum-based high speed steel during this period put them on par with and in certain cases better than tungsten-based high speed steels. This started with the use of M2 steel instead of T1 steel. High speed steels are alloys that gain their properties from either tungsten or molybdenum, often with a combination of the two. They belong to the Fe–C–X multi-component alloy system

neg: Knife of carbon steel and stainless steel. High carbon stainless steel blades do not discolor or stain, and maintain a sharp edge. Laminated blades use multiple metals to create a layered sandwich, combining the attributes of both. For example, a harder, more brittle steel may be sandwiched between an outer layer of softer, tougher, stainless steel to reduce vulnerability to corrosion. In this case, however, the part most affected by corrosion, the edge, is still vulnerable. Damascus steel is a form of pattern welding with similarities to laminate construction. Layers of different steel types are welded together, but then the stock