query: what is the dense bone on the outside surfaces of a skeletal element called

pos: Bone and release chemical elements, mainly calcium. It consists of multiple microscopic columns, each called an osteon. Each column is multiple layers of osteoblasts and osteocytes around a central canal called the haversian canal. Volkmann's canals at right angles connect the osteons together. The columns are metabolically active, and as bone is reabsorbed and created the nature and location of the cells within the osteon will change. Cortical bone is covered by a periosteum on its outer surface, and an endosteum on its inner surface. The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone. The primary anatomical

pos: Vertebra called a neural arch. The body is composed of cancellous bone, which is the spongy type of osseous tissue, whose micro-anatomy has been specifically studied within the pedicle bones. This cancellous bone is in turn, covered by a thin coating of cortical bone (or compact bone), the hard and dense type of osseous tissue. The vertebral arch and processes have thicker coverings of cortical bone. The upper and lower surfaces of the body of the vertebra are flattened and rough in order to give attachment to the intervertebral discs. These surfaces are the vertebral endplates which are in direct contact

pos: Bone and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon. Cancellous bone, also called trabecular or spongy bone, is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone because it is less dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red

pos: Preotact acid polypeptide. Physiological actions of PTH include stimulation of bone formation by direct effects on bone forming cells (osteoblasts) indirectly increasing the intestinal absorption of calcium and increasing the tubular reabsorption of calcium and excretion of phosphate by the kidney. The skeletal effects of PTH depend upon the pattern of systemic exposure. Transient elevations in PTH levels after subcutaneous injection of Preotact stimulates new bone formation on trabecular and cortical bone surfaces by preferential stimulation of osteoblastic activity over osteoclastic activity. PTH is the principal regulator of serum calcium hemostasis. In response to subcutaneous doses of Preotact (100 micrograms), serum

pos: FNDC5 protein called UCP1 that contributes to the browning of white fat and found other markers that would indicate that the white cells were browning and that fat cells were more metabolically active. Many of the stem cells became a type of cell that matures into bone. The tissue treated with irisin produced about 40 percent fewer mature fat cells. In mice, irisin released from skeletal muscle during exercise acts directly on bone by increasing cortical bone mineral density, bone perimeter and polar moment of inertia. FNDC5 Fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5, the precursor of irisin, is a protein that

pos: Haversian canal Haversian canal Haversian canals (sometimes canals of Havers, named after British physician Clopton Havers) are a series of microscopic tubes in the outermost region of bone called cortical bone that allow blood vessels and nerves to travel through them. Each haversian canal generally contains one or two capillaries and nerve fibres. The channels are formed by concentric layers called lamellae. The haversian canals surround blood vessels and nerve cells throughout bones and communicate with bone cells (contained in spaces within the dense bone matrix called lacunae) through connections called canaliculi. This unique arrangement is conducive to mineral salt deposits and

neg: Dense connective tissue arranged in sheets. It is classified as either dense regular connective tissue or dense irregular connective tissue. Dense connective tissue Dense connective tissue, also called dense fibrous tissue, is a type of connective tissue with fibers as its main matrix element. The fibers are mainly composed of type I collagen. Crowded between the collagen fibers are rows of fibroblasts, fiber-forming cells, that generate the fibers. Dense connective tissue forms strong, rope-like structures such as tendons and ligaments. Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to bones at joints. Ligaments are more stretchy and contain more elastic fibers than

neg: Dense connective tissue Dense connective tissue Dense connective tissue, also called dense fibrous tissue, is a type of connective tissue with fibers as its main matrix element. The fibers are mainly composed of type I collagen. Crowded between the collagen fibers are rows of fibroblasts, fiber-forming cells, that generate the fibers. Dense connective tissue forms strong, rope-like structures such as tendons and ligaments. Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to bones at joints. Ligaments are more stretchy and contain more elastic fibers than tendons. Dense connective tissue also make up the lower layers of the skin (dermis), where it is

neg: Bone large multinucleate cells that are responsible for the breakdown of bones by the process of bone resorption. New bone is then formed by the osteoblasts. Bone is constantly remodelled by the resorption of osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are large cells with multiple nuclei located on bone surfaces in what are called "Howship's lacunae" (or "resorption pits"). These lacunae are the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon

neg: Long bone length is stimulated by the production of growth hormone (GH), a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The long bone includes the femora, tibiae, and fibulae of the legs; the humeri, radii, and ulnae of the arms; metacarpals and metatarsals of the hands and feet, the phalanges of the fingers and toes, and the clavicles or collar bones. The long bones of the human leg comprise nearly half of adult height. The other primary skeletal component of height are the vertebrae and skull. The outside of the bone consists of a layer of connective tissue called the

neg: Petrous part of the temporal bone bone is important for studies of ancient DNA from skeletal remains, as it tends to have extremely high DNA preservation. The base is fused with the internal surfaces of the squamous and mastoid parts. The apex, rough and uneven, is received into the angular interval between the posterior border of the great wing of the sphenoid bone and the basilar part of the occipital bone; it presents the anterior or internal opening of the carotid canal, and forms the postero-lateral boundary of the foramen lacerum. The anterior surface forms the posterior part of the middle cranial fossa of the base

neg: Arrhinoceratops lack of a separate ossification or "os epinasale" for the nose-horn, is in fact normal for the ceratopids, in which group this horn is an outgrowth of the nasal bone, not a distinct element. Other incorrect observations by Parks included the conclusion that the "os rostrale", the bone core of the upper beak, directly touched the nasals instead of being separated from them by the premaxillae; a presumed anterior process of the jugal touching the premaxilla; and thinking that the interparietal bar of the frill presented a separate skeletal element, an "os interparietale". "Arrhinoceratops" was by Parks placed within the

neg: Skeletal survey Skeletal survey A skeletal survey (also called a bone survey) is a series of X-rays of all the bones in the body, or at least the axial skeleton and the large cortical bones. A very common use is the diagnosis of multiple myeloma, where tumour deposits appear as "punched-out" lesions. The standard set of X-rays for a skeletal survey includes X-rays of the skull, entire spine, pelvis, ribs, both humeri and femora (proximal long bones). It is more effective than isotope scans at detecting bone involvement in multiple myeloma. Although significantly less sensitive than MRI, it is easier to include

neg: Osteodontokeratic culture ultimately result in fossil assemblages (see Maguire "et al". 1980 and Kuhn "et al". 2010). Amidst the growing contention surrounding the validity of the ODK hypothesis, a young Southern Rhodesian (now Zimbabwe) researcher, Dr. Charles Kimberlin Brain ("Bob" Brain) became fascinated with Dart's work describing prehistory's "predatory ape-men", and conducted research upon the bone breakage and skeletal element representation patterns expounded in Dart's writings (see above). Brain (1967) examined the remains of goat bones within Hottentot villages in Namibia, finding that the skeletal element representation patterns, which formed the crux of Dart's support for the ODK culture, were more simply

neg: Dysbaric osteonecrosis relatively long periods of hyperbaric exposure and aetiology is uncertain. The diagnosis is made by x-ray/MRI appearance and has five juxta-articular classifications and forehead, neck, and shaft classifications indicating early radiological signs. Early on there is flattening of articular surfaces, thinning of cartilage with osteophyte (spur) formation. In juxta-articular lesions without symptoms, there is dead bone and marrow separated from living bone by a line of dense collagen. Microscopic cysts form, fill with necrotic material and there is massive necrosis with replacement by cancellous bone with collapse of the lesions. The following staging system is sometimes useful when managing lesions.

neg: Flat bone Flat bone Flat bones are bones whose principal function is either extensive protection or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment. These bones are expanded into broad, flat plates, as in the cranium (skull), the ilium (pelvis), sternum and the rib cage. The flat bones are: the occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, hip bone (coxal bone), sternum, ribs, and scapulae. In the cranial bones, the layers of compact tissue are familiarly known as the tables of the skull; the outer one is thick and tough; the inner is thin, dense, and brittle, and hence is termed the vitreous

neg: Skeletal fluorosis Skeletal fluorosis Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis causes painful damage to bones and joints. Symptoms are mainly promoted in the bone structure. Due to a high fluoride concentration in the body, the bone is hardened and thus less elastic, resulting in an increased frequency of fractures. Other symptoms include thickening of the bone structure and accumulation of bone tissue, which both contribute to impaired joint mobility. Ligaments and cartilage can become ossified. Most patients suffering from skeletal fluorosis show side effects from the high fluoride

neg: Anatomy are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The

neg: Stillwater Marsh and bony outgrowths around the outer surfaces of joints. Of the approximately 67 cases of osteoarthritis found in the remains, a multitude of those cases had the disorder to the point of eburnation. The amount of effort required to remove the soft tissues in joints, leaving just bone-to-bone contact, such as in the hips or knees, is immense. Osteoarthritis that extreme indicated a highly mobile lifestyle. With the exception of the amount of osteoarthritis represented in the skeletal remains, the Stillwater Marsh people fit the definition of a hunter-gatherer society; the males ventured away from camping sites to hunt game,

neg: Osteochondrodysplasia The enchondromas affect the extremities and their distribution is asymmetrical. "Osteosclerosis", an elevation in bone density, is normally detected on an X-ray as an area of whiteness, and is where the bone density has significantly increased. Localized osteosclerosis can be caused by injuries that compress the bone, by osteoarthritis, and osteoma. Osteochondrodysplasia Osteochondrodysplasia or skeletal dysplasia is a general term for a disorder of the development (dysplasia) of bone ("osteo") and cartilage ("chondro"). Osteochondrodysplasias are rare diseases. About 1 in 5,000 babies are born with some type of skeletal dysplasia. Nonetheless, if taken collectively genetic skeletal dysplasias or osteochondrodysplasias comprise

neg: Femoral head ostectomy not replaced, but is allowed to heal and develop its own fibrous scar tissue so that the joint is no longer bone-to-bone, a pseudoarthrosis (also called a "false joint"). The neck of the femur is usually removed at the same time as the head. This prevents the post operative complication of bone rubbing on bone and continued pain. This has led to the procedure often also called "Femoral head and neck ostectomy". Animals who have had the operation are required to maintain a lower weight to compensate for the loss of skeletal integrity, and typically have excellent functional outcomes with

neg: Californium low concentration in the environment. Californium can enter the body from ingesting contaminated food or drinks or by breathing air with suspended particles of the element. Once in the body, only 0.05% of the californium will reach the bloodstream. About 65% of that californium will be deposited in the skeleton, 25% in the liver, and the rest in other organs, or excreted, mainly in urine. Half of the californium deposited in the skeleton and liver are gone in 50 and 20 years, respectively. Californium in the skeleton adheres to bone surfaces before slowly migrating throughout the bone. The element is

neg: Kulindadromeus preservation. Since 2010, the area has brought forth considerable amounts of additional fossil material, including subadult and juvenile individuals. In 2014, based on fossils from this material, the genera "Kulindapteryx" and "Daurosaurus" were named. According to Godefroit, this publication was based on stolen specimens, and should be ignored. The material consists of six skulls, and hundreds of disarticulated skeletons found in two bone beds. Each skeletal element shows a single morphotype and Godefroit et al concluded, contrary to the earlier publication, that the bone beds are monospecific, containing but a single species. According to a cladistic analysis performed by the

neg: Trabecula Trabecula A trabecula (plural trabeculae, from Latin for "small beam") is a small, often microscopic, tissue element in the form of a small beam, strut or rod that supports or anchors a framework of parts within a body or organ. A trabecula generally has a mechanical function, and is usually composed of dense collagenous tissue (such as the trabecula of the spleen). They can be composed of other materials such as muscle and bone. In the heart, muscles form trabeculae carneae and septomarginal trabecula. Cancellous bone is formed from groupings of trabeculated bone tissue. In cross sections, trabeculae of a

neg: Skeletal survey a child who is not yet walking. A skull CT is also done in connection with the radiographs if the child is under one year old or, if the child is older, where there is a clinical requirement (perioribtal ecchymosis, for example) as to rule out abusive head trauma. The results of a skeletal survey may be used in a court of law as evidence of child abuse. Skeletal survey A skeletal survey (also called a bone survey) is a series of X-rays of all the bones in the body, or at least the axial skeleton and the large cortical

neg: Archaeology of Central Africa what is believed to be the oldest graves containing iron in Central Africa. In feature AKO 05/6 no skeletal material was found, but the “content as well as the content’s arrangement suggested that they are graves. This interpretation is supported by the discovery of bone residue during the preparation and conservation of the iron bracelets.” Feature AKO 05/2, yielded “three almost complete ceramic vessels, several iron bracelets and two socketed iron hoes, both of which [were] decorated.” No skeletal remains were found at this feature either, however, decomposed bone material was again found. Meister and Eggert also believe that this

neg: Dyrosaurus are two types of structural bone organization that can occur in aquatic tetrapods: osteoporotic or pachyostotic. Osteoporotic bone is spongy and porous whereas pachyostotic involves an increase in skeletal mass. Spongy/porous bone such as osteoporotic is associated with faster swimming and better maneuverability in water because of the reduction in bone tissue, many extant cetaceans and marine turtles have osteoporotic bone which enables them to be good swimmers. Pachyostotic bone is a general/local increase in skeletal mass which can be caused by osteosclerosis (inner compaction of bone), pachyostosis (hyperplasy of compact cortices) or pachyeosclerosis (combination of the two). Research on

neg: Stillwater Marsh the joints is another way in which osteoarthritis presents itself. In the case of the Stillwater Marsh people, it seems more likely that continual movement of the joints, making bone come through the tissue layers, is the cause of their osteoarthritis. The most common joint affected by the disorder was the lumbar vertebrae of both males and females. There was extensive damage, when compared to the other joint surfaces on the skeletal remains, to the lumbar vertebrae. This damage indicates that there was lifting and heavy work being conducted by the Stillwater Marsh people. Females, however, had a higher frequency

neg: Skeletal animation of bone configurations identifies a unique pose. Each bone in the skeleton is associated with some portion of the character's visual representation in a process called "skinning". In the most common case of a polygonal mesh character, the bone is associated with a group of vertices; for example, in a model of a human being, the 'thigh' bone would be associated with the vertices making up the polygons in the model's thigh. Portions of the character's skin can normally be associated with multiple bones, each one having a scaling factors called vertex weights, or blend weights. The movement of skin

neg: Mechanostat and Webster Jee's "Utah Paradigm of Skeletal Physiology" in the 1960s. The Mechanostat is often defined as a practical description of Wolff's law described by Julius Wolff (1836–1902), but this is not completely accurate. Wolff wrote his treatises on bone after images of bone sections were described by Culmann and von Meyer, who suggested that the arrangement of the struts (trabeculae) at the ends of the bones were aligned with the stresses experienced by the bone. It has since been established that the static methods used for those calculations of lines of stress were inappropriate for work on what were

neg: Distraction osteogenesis Distraction osteogenesis Distraction osteogenesis (DO), also called callus distraction, callotasis and osteodistraction, is a process used in orthopedic surgery, podiatric surgery, and oral and maxillofacial surgery to repair skeletal deformities and in reconstructive surgery. The procedure involves cutting and slowly separating bone, allowing the bone healing process to fill in the gap. Distraction osteogenesis (DO) is used in orthopedic surgery, podiatric surgery, and oral and maxillofacial surgery to repair skeletal deformities and in reconstructive surgery. It was originally used to treat problems like unequal leg length, but since the 1980s is most commonly used to treat issues like hemifacial microsomia,

neg: Large deformation diffeomorphic metric mapping computational codes for constructing correspondences between coordinate systems based on dense images. These large deformation methods have been extended to landmarks without registration via measure matching, curves, surfaces, dense vector and tensor imagery, and varifolds removing orientation. Deformable shape in Computational Anatomy (CA)is studied via the use of diffeomorphic mapping for establishing correspondences between anatomical coordinates in Medical Imaging. In this setting, three dimensional medical images are modelled as a random deformation of some exemplar, termed the template formula_1, with the set of observed images element in the random orbit model of CA for images formula_2. The template is mapped

neg: Osteoblast that connect osteoblasts, allowing the cells in one cohort to function as a unit. The gap junctions also connect deeper layers of cells to the surface layer ("osteocytes" when surrounded by bone). This was demonstrated directly by injecting low molecular weight fluorescent dyes into osteoblasts and showing that the dye diffused to surrounding and deeper cells in the bone-forming unit. Bone is composed of many of these units, which are separated by impermeable zones with no cellular connections, called cement lines. Almost all of the organic (non-mineral) component of bone is dense collagen type I, which forms dense crosslinked ropes

neg:
Skeletal fluorosis is not known, but a conservative estimate would number in the tens of millions." In India, 20 states have been identified as endemic areas, with an estimated 60 million people at risk and 6 million people disabled; about 600,000 might develop a neurological disorder as a consequence. The histological changes which are induced through fluorine on rats resemble those of humans.

 Skeletal fluorosis Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis causes painful damage to bones and joints. Symptoms are mainly promoted in the bone structure.

neg: Head and neck anatomy start chemical digestion. Saliva helps to hold together the formed bolus which is swallowed after chewing. Saliva is composed primarily of water, ions, salivary amylase, lysozymes, and trace amounts of urea. The tongue is a specialized skeletal muscle that is specially adapted for the activities of speech, chewing, developing gustatory sense (taste) and swallowing. The tongue contains two sets of muscles, the intrinsic- involved with shape of tongue, and the extrinsic- involved with tongue movement. It is attached to the hyoid bone. Terms meaning tongue include "glosso" () and "lingual" ((). The outer surfaces of the head and neck are

neg: Osteodontokeratic culture skeletal element representation patterns were more likely generated from factors relating to the resilience of bone to weathering, carnivore damage and diagenesis. Further, he found that the breakage patterns from faunal remains at Swartkrans were consistent with large carnivore damage upon bone, such as leopards and hyenas. During Brain's excavations, he found a partial skull-cap of a juvenile "Paranthropus robustus" (SK 54) bearing two puncture marks (1970). Brain found that these punctures aligned perfectly with the spacing of the canines in a leopard mandible. He then summarized the findings of his research spanning nearly 20 years in the authoritative volume

neg: Osteochondrodysplasia bone(s) can be involved. "Langer-Giedion syndrome" is a very rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion of chromosomal material. Diagnosis is usually made at birth or in early childhood. The features associated with this condition include mild to moderate learning difficulties, short stature, unique facial features, small head and skeletal abnormalities including bony growths projecting from the surfaces of bones. "Maffucci syndrome" is a sporadic disease characterized by the presence of multiple enchondromas associated with multiple simple or cavernous soft tissue hemangiomas. Also lymphangiomas may be apparent. Patients are normal at birth and the syndrome manifests during childhood and puberty.

neg: Actinin alpha 3 Actinin alpha 3 Alpha-actinin-3, also known as alpha-actinin skeletal muscle isoform 3 or F-actin cross-linking protein, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "ACTN3" gene. Alpha-actinin is an actin-binding protein with multiple roles in different cell types. This gene expression is limited to skeletal muscle. It is localized to the Z-disc and analogous dense bodies, where it helps to anchor the myofibrillar actin filaments. Skeletal muscle is composed of long cylindrical cells called muscle fibers. There are two types of muscle fibers, slow twitch or muscle contraction (type I) and fast twitch (type II). Slow twitch fibers

neg: Mechanostat other due to the asymmetric applications of force. Harold Frost applied the Mechanostat model not only to skeletal tissues but also to fibrous collagenous connective tissues, such as ligaments, tendons and fascia. He described their adaptational responsiveness to strain in his "stretch-hypertrophy rule": Similar to the responsiveness of bony tissues this adaptational response occurs only if the mechanical strain exceeds a certain threshold value. Harold Frost proposed that for dense collagenous connective tissues the related threshold value is around 4% strain elongation. Mechanostat The Mechanostat is a term describing the way in which mechanical loading influences bone structure by changing

neg: Orbital process of palatine bone cells and the sphenoidal sinus. The non-articular surfaces are: Orbital process of palatine bone The orbital process of the palatine bone is placed on a higher level than the sphenoidal, and is directed upward and lateralward from the front of the vertical part, to which it is connected by a constricted neck. It presents five surfaces, which enclose an air cell. Of these surfaces, three are articular and two non-articular. The articular surfaces are: In some cases the air cell opens on this surface of the bone and then communicates with the posterior ethmoidal cells. More rarely it opens on

neg: Orbital process of palatine bone Orbital process of palatine bone The orbital process of the palatine bone is placed on a higher level than the sphenoidal, and is directed upward and lateralward from the front of the vertical part, to which it is connected by a constricted neck. It presents five surfaces, which enclose an air cell. Of these surfaces, three are articular and two non-articular. The articular surfaces are: In some cases the air cell opens on this surface of the bone and then communicates with the posterior ethmoidal cells. More rarely it opens on both surfaces, and then communicates with the posterior ethmoidal

neg: Lateral parts of occipital bone Lateral parts of occipital bone The lateral parts of the occipital bone (also called the exoccipitals) are situated at the sides of the foramen magnum; on their under surfaces are the condyles for articulation with the superior facets of the atlas. The condyles are oval or reniform (kidney-shaped) in shape, and their anterior extremities, directed forward and medialward, are closer together than their posterior, and encroach on the basilar portion of the bone; the posterior extremities extend back to the level of the middle of the foramen magnum. The articular surfaces of the condyles are convex from before backward and

neg: Bone cyst who called these lesions "homerus ossifying haematoma". In 1940 Ewing used the term "aneurismal" to describe these lesions. Jaffé and Lichtenstein first coined the term "aneurismal cyst" in 1942 In 1950 they modified this term to "aneurismal bone cyst". They may be associated with bone tumors. The simple bone cyst is a common, benign, fluid-containing lesion, most commonly found in the metaphysis of long bones, typically the proximal humerus or femur. Pathologic fractures are common, often with minor trauma. These cysts typically resolve after skeletal maturity and are not typically associated with bone tumors. The cause is unknown. These were

neg: Tarsal coalition occur in the same location, regardless of the location of coalition: on the lateral foot, just anterior and below the lateral malleolus. This area is called the sinus tarsi. The bones of children are very malleable in infancy. This will generally mean that, despite the presence of a coalition, the bones can deform enough to allow painless walking until the child's skeleton has matured enough. 'Skeletal maturing' means that bone is laid down in the tissue that forms the immature bone shape gradually until adult bone is achieved at about the age of seventeen years in the feet. Other body

neg: Triopticus groove. The backmost pair of bosses form a thick shelf that stretches outwards and backwards over the rear end of the skull, comparable to the domes of pachycephalosaurs and the frills of ceratopsians. The bosses have very roughly textured surfaces, suggesting that they would have been covered by keratin in life. CT scans show that the bosses internally have three distinct layers of bone, with an dense innermost layer which resembles the typical skull roof in texture, followed by a spongy, porous layer filled with blood vessels, and the least dense third layer close to the surface. Pachycephalosaurs like "Stegoceras"

neg: Einsteinium 0.035% to the testicles or 0.01% to the ovaries – where einsteinium stays indefinitely. About 10% of the ingested amount is excreted. The distribution of einsteinium over the bone surfaces is uniform and is similar to that of plutonium. Einsteinium Einsteinium is a synthetic element with symbol Es and atomic number 99. A member of the actinide series, it is the seventh transuranic element. Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952, and named after Albert Einstein. Its most common isotope einsteinium-253 (half-life 20.47 days) is produced artificially from decay of

neg: Short stature syndrome, or other conditions. Genetic skeletal dysplasias also known as osteochondrodysplasia usually manifest in short-limbed disproportionate short stature. When the cause is unknown, it is called "idiopathic short stature". Short stature can also be caused by the bone plates fusing at an earlier age than normal, therefore stunting growth. Normally, the bone age is the same as the biological age but for some people, it is older. For many people with advanced bone ages, they hit a growth spurt early on which propels them to average height but stop growing at an earlier age. However, in some cases, people who

neg: Peter Bone He subsequently voted against the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013. In 2013, Bone was one of four MPs who camped outside Parliament in a move to facilitate parliamentary debate on what they called an "Alternative Queen's Speech" – an attempt to show what a future Conservative government might deliver. 42 policies were listed including reintroduction of the death penalty and conscription, privatizing the BBC, banning the burka in public places and preparation to leave the European Union. The "Daily Telegraph" believes the whips sent Edward Leigh to try to persuade the group not to table the amendments. Bone blamed

neg: Skeletal animation near the joints of two bones, can therefore be influenced by both bones. In most state-of-the-art graphical engines, the skinning process is done on the GPU thanks to a shader program. For a polygonal mesh, each vertex can have a blend weight for each bone. To calculate the final position of the vertex, a transformation matrix is created for each bone which, when applied to the vertex, first puts the vertex in bone space then puts it back into mesh space. After applying a matrix to the vertex, it is scaled by its corresponding weight. This algorithm is called matrix

neg: Diastrophic dysplasia are born with an opening in the roof of the mouth called a cleft palate. Swelling of the external ears is also common in newborns and can lead to thickened, deformed ears. The signs and symptoms of diastrophic dysplasia are similar to those of another skeletal disorder called atelosteogenesis, type 2; however diastrophic dysplasia tends to be less severe. It is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the "SLC26A2" gene. The protein encoded by this gene is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Cartilage is a tough, flexible

neg: Distraction osteogenesis simultaneously. As of 2013 work was underway on distraction devices using Shape-memory alloy that could precisely separate bone without the need for intervention, as well as springs and motors; the use of biopharmaceuticals like BMP in combination with devices was also being explored. Distraction osteogenesis Distraction osteogenesis (DO), also called callus distraction, callotasis and osteodistraction, is a process used in orthopedic surgery, podiatric surgery, and oral and maxillofacial surgery to repair skeletal deformities and in reconstructive surgery. The procedure involves cutting and slowly separating bone, allowing the bone healing process to fill in the gap. Distraction osteogenesis (DO) is used

neg: Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) is a condition characterized by abnormal calcification/bone formation (""hyperostosis"") of the soft tissues surrounding the joints of the spine, and also the peripheral or appendicular skeleton. In the spine, there is bone formation along the anterior longitudinal ligament and sometimes the posterior longitudinal ligament, which may lead to partial or complete fusion of adjacent spinal levels. The facet and sacroiliac joints tend to be uninvolved. The thoracic spine is the most common level involved. In the peripheral skeleton, DISH manifests as a calcific enthesopathy, with pathologic bone formation at sites where

neg: Acacia arida the type specimen saying "parched desert shores of Cambridge Gulf, NW Coast" when it was collected by Allan Cunningham in 1819. It is native to an area of the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia. "A. arida" has a scattered, wide distribution within the Pilbara but generally does not dominate the vegetation. It can form dense stands on many hilltops, called "sky islands", particularly in the Hamersley Range. Grows in skeletal sandy soils along shallow, ephemeral watercourses or on slopes of hills and in breakaways it will also grow in red sandy loam or coarse, gravelly, skeletal sandy soils

neg: Weak inverse inverse is called a 2-group. Weak inverse In mathematics, the term weak inverse is used with several meanings. In the theory of semigroups, a weak inverse of an element "x" in a semigroup is an element "y" such that . If every element has a weak inverse, the semigroup is called an "E"-inversive or "E"-dense semigroup. An "E"-inversive semigroup may equivalently be defined by requiring that for every element , there exists such that and are idempotents. An element "x" of "S" for which there is an element "y" of "S" such that is called regular. A regular semigroup is

neg: Pseudocomplement this algebra is *). In general, "S"("L") is not a sublattice of "L". In a distributive "p"-algebra, "S"("L") is the set of complemented elements of L. Every element "x" with the property "x"* = 0 (or equivalently, "x"** = 1) is called dense. Every element of the form "x" ∨ "x"* is dense. "D"("L"), the set of all the dense elements in "L" is a filter of "L". A distributive "p"-algebra is Boolean if and only if "D"("L") = {1}. Pseudocomplemented lattices form a variety. Pseudocomplement In mathematics, particularly in order theory, a pseudocomplement is one generalization of the notion

neg: MEG3 characterized by defects in skeletal muscle maturation, bone formation, placenta size and organization and prenatal lethality. The sheep homolog is associated with the callipyge mutation which in heterozygous individuals affects a muscle-specific long-range control element located in the DLK1-GTL2 intergenic region and results in the callipyge muscular hypertrophy. The non-Mendelian inheritance pattern, known as polar overdominance, likely results from the combination of the cis-effect on the expression levels of genes in the DLK1-GTL2 imprinted domain, and trans interaction between the products of reciprocally imprinted genes. MEG3 MEG3 (maternally expressed 3) is a maternally expressed, imprinted long non-coding RNA gene. At

neg: Face and neck development of the human embryo tensor palati, and tensor tympani. This arch originates maxillar and mandibular prominences, part of the temporal bone and Meckel's cartilage (malleus and incus) as skeletal structures. The second pharyngeal arch is innervated by the facial cranial nerve. Muscles that arise from the arch are those involved with facial expression and the posterior digastric muscle. Skeletal structures that originate here are the cervical sinus, Reichert cartilage (stape) the styloid process of the temporal bone, the lesser cornu and the hyoid bone. The third pharyngeal arch is innervated by glossopharyngeal nerve. It molds the stylopharyngeus muscle and forms the skeletal structures of

neg: Paget's disease of bone The osteolysis is followed by a compensatory increase in bone formation induced by the bone forming cells, called osteoblasts, that are recruited to the area. This is associated with accelerated deposition of lamellar bone in a disorganized fashion. This intense cellular activity produces a chaotic picture of trabecular bone ("mosaic" pattern), rather than the normal linear lamellar pattern. The resorbed bone is replaced and the marrow spaces are filled by an excess of fibrous connective tissue with a marked increase in blood vessels, causing the bone to become hypervascular. The bone hypercellularity may then diminish, leaving a dense "pagetic bone",

neg: Hypervitaminosis A and osteoclasts). This change in bone turnover is likely to be the reason for numerous effects seen in hypervitaminosis A, such as hypercalcemia and numerous bone changes such as bone loss that potentially leads to osteoporosis, spontaneous bone fractures, altered skeletal development in children, skeletal pain, radiographic changes, and bone lesions. Vitamin A is fat-soluble and high levels have been reported to affect metabolism of the other fat-soluble vitamins D, E, and K. The toxic effects of vitamin A might be related to altered vitamin D metabolism, concurrent ingestion of substantial amounts of vitamin D, or binding of vitamin A

neg: German Shepherd skeletal system and aid in preventing orthopaedic diseases like Canine Hip Dysplasia. Furthermore, the ratio of calcium and phosphorus must be balanced and at a recommended ratio of 1.2:1 to ensure proper bone development and structure. Imbalances in calcium and phosphorus levels can result in various skeletal complications. Excess phosphorus can produce lesions in bones whereas excessive calcium can lead to hypocalcaemia and result in excess bone deposition, interfering with normal bone development. In extreme circumstances of insufficient calcium intake, bone resorption can occur due to the body withdrawing calcium deposits from the skeletal frame as a last resort to

neg: Fish anatomy shaped by the physical characteristics of water, the medium in which fish live. Water is much denser than air, holds a relatively small amount of dissolved oxygen, and absorbs more light than air does. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs

neg: E-dense semigroup introduced by Gabriel Thierrin in 1955. Some authors use "E"-dense to refer only to "E"-inversive semigroups in which the idempotents commute. More generally, a subsemigroup "T" of "S" is said dense in "S" if, for all "x" ∈ "S", there exists "y" ∈ "S" such that both "xy" ∈ "T" and "yx" ∈ "T". A semigroup with zero is said to be an "E"*-dense semigroup if every element other than the zero has at least one non-zero weak inverse. Semigroups in this class have also been called 0-inversive semigroups. E-dense semigroup In abstract algebra, an E"-dense semigroup (also called an

neg: Pathologic fracture compression fracture of a spinal vertebra fractures will commonly appear to collapse the entire body of vertebra. Pathologic fractures in children and adolescents can result from a diverse array of disorders namely; metabolic, endocrine, neoplastic, infectious, immunologic, and genetic skeletal dysplasias. In circumstances where other pathologies are excluded (for example, cancer), a pathologic fracture is diagnostic of osteoporosis irrespective of bone mineral density. Pathologic fracture A pathologic fracture (also called insufficiency fracture) is a bone fracture caused by disease that led to weakness of the bone structure. This process is most commonly due to osteoporosis, but may also be due

neg: Atelosteogenesis, type II called diastrophic dysplasia. Atelosteogenesis, type 2 tends to be more severe, however. Atelosteogenesis, type 2 is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the SLC26A2 gene. The protein made by this gene is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene disrupt the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of atelosteogenesis, type 2. This condition is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means the defective gene is located on an autosome, and two copies of the gene—one

neg: Weak inverse Weak inverse In mathematics, the term weak inverse is used with several meanings. In the theory of semigroups, a weak inverse of an element "x" in a semigroup is an element "y" such that . If every element has a weak inverse, the semigroup is called an "E"-inversive or "E"-dense semigroup. An "E"-inversive semigroup may equivalently be defined by requiring that for every element , there exists such that and are idempotents. An element "x" of "S" for which there is an element "y" of "S" such that is called regular. A regular semigroup is a semigroup in which every

neg: Endochondral ossification Endochondral ossification Endochondral ossification is one of the two essential processes during fetal development of the mammalian skeletal system by which bone tissue is created. Unlike intramembranous ossification, which is the other process by which bone tissue is created, cartilage is present during endochondral ossification. Endochondral ossification is also an essential process during the rudimentary formation of long bones, the growth of the length of long bones, and the natural healing of bone fractures. The cartilage model will grow in length by continuous cell division of chondrocytes, which is accompanied by further secretion of extracellular matrix. This is called interstitial

neg: Differential geometry of surfaces if a minimal surface is non-planar, then its image under the Gauss map is dense in . If a surface has constant Gaussian curvature, it is called a surface of constant curvature. Each of these surfaces of constant curvature has a transitive Lie group of symmetries. This group theoretic fact has far-reaching consequences, all the more remarkable because of the central role these special surfaces play in the geometry of surfaces, due to Poincaré's uniformization theorem (see below). Other examples of surfaces with Gaussian curvature 0 include cones, tangent developables, and more generally any developable surface. For any surface embedded

neg: The Bladebone Inn and 180 rounds, and was eventually called a draw. The name comes from the blade bone of a mammoth that was killed by prehistoric hunters. The skeletal remains of the animal were found preserved in the silt of the Kennet Valley; the name "Bladebone" was used to refer to the pub by 1666. The bone is encased in copper and hangs from the front of the pub as the pub sign. The copper casing is regularly repaired, and the bone within has been found to be preserved in an excellent state. In 1922, the pub was bought by Strange's Brewery

neg: Øyvind S. Bruland Øyvind S. Bruland Øyvind Sverre Bruland (born 14 December 1952) is a professor of Clinical Oncology and faculty of Medicine at the University of Oslo. Bruland holds a B.Sc., M.D and Ph.D. from the University of Oslo, Norway. His research includes: primary bone and soft tissue cancers (sarcomas) and skeletal metastases from prostate cancer and breast cancer; targeted radionuclide therapy, for instance the clinical development of Alpharadin, based on Radium-223; the tumor biology and prognostic impact of micro-metastases in bone-marrow aspirates on patients with primary bone cancer (osteosarcoma); external beam radiotherapy; and the radiotherapy of skeletal metastases and soft-tissue sarcomas.

neg: Columbian mammoth convex backs like Asian elephants. Other skeletal features include a short, deep rostrum (front part of the jaws), a rounded mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the lower jaw connected) and the coronoid process of the mandible (upper protrusion of the jaw bone) extending above the molar surfaces. Apart from its larger size and more primitive molars, the Columbian mammoth also differed from the woolly mammoth by its more downturned mandibular symphysis; the dental alveoli (tooth sockets) of the tusks were directed more laterally away from the midline. Its tail was intermediate in length between that of modern elephants

neg: Tissue expansion have shown some success, such as in the fitbone surgery. This technique was pioneered in 1951 by the Russian physician Ilizarov, and is called the Ilizarov apparatus. It is capable of lengthening limbs in cases of pathological loss of bone, asymmetry of limbs, dwarfism, short stature, etc. In reconstructive and cosmetic surgery, bone expanders have been used to elongate the mandibula in cases of congenital disorders, trauma, tumors, etc. Other newer devices such as the orthofix and intramedullary skeletal kinetic distractor (ISKD) are also used for limb lengthening. It can add over 6 inches per bone, but is expensive, painful,

neg: Bony labyrinth facial nerve injury, sensorineural deafness and cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea. On radiographic images, the otic capsule is the most dense portion of the temporal bone. In otospongiosis, a leading cause of adult-onset hearing loss, the otic capsule is exclusively affected. This area normally undergoes no remodeling in adult life, and is extremely dense. With otospongiosis, the normally dense enchondral bone is replaced by haversian bone, a spongy and vascular matrix that results in sensorineural hearing loss due to compromise of the conductive capacity of the inner ear ossicles. This results in hypodensity on CT, with the portion first affected usually being

neg: Temporomandibular joint dysfunction temporomandibular joints are the dual articulation of the mandible with the skull. Each TMJ is classed as a "ginglymoarthrodial" joint since it is both a ginglymus (hinging joint) and an arthrodial (sliding) joint, and involves the condylar process of the mandible below, and the articular fossa (or glenoid fossa) of the temporal bone above. Between these articular surfaces is the articular disc (or meniscus), which is a biconcave, transversely oval disc composed of dense fibrous connective tissue. Each TMJ is covered by a fibrous capsule. There are tight fibers connecting the mandible to the disc, and loose fibers which connect

neg: Pygmy peoples rainforests. This might mean that relatively little vitamin D can be made in human skin, thereby limiting calcium uptake from the diet for bone growth and maintenance, and leading to the evolution of the small skeletal size. Other explanations include lack of food in the rainforest environment, low calcium levels in the soil, the need to move through dense jungle, adaptation to heat and humidity, and as an association with rapid reproductive maturation under conditions of early mortality. (See also .) Other evidence points towards unusually low levels of expression of the genes encoding the growth hormone receptor and growth

neg: SULF1 smaller stature, skeletal lesions, and unusually small but functioning kidneys. The skeletal lesions (axial and appendicular skeleton showing decreases in ossified bone volume; sternal fusion and defective basisphenoid patterning) display similar phenotype to heparan sulfate 2-O-transferase (Hs2st)-deficient mice, BMP deficient mice and hypermorphic Fgfr1 and 3 mice. This provides evidence that Sulf1 and 2 is linked to HS modulation effecting BMP and FGF. In addition, this confirms that Sulf1 and 2 perform overlapping functions, but are needed for survival. Further studies on MSulf1-/-;MSulf2-/- mice extended the role of Sulfs in skeletal development. Double nulls displayed reduced bone length, premature ossification,

neg: Bat wing development bones found in their forelimbs are reduced to achieve a light body weight required for flight. In particular, their ulna is reduced in width and fused to the other zeugopod element, the radius. One of the possible molecular pathways involved in reduction of bat skeletal forelimb thickness is differences in SHH expression. Mice with "shh" null mutations lose their ulna structure. Another good candidate for bat bone reduction is "Hox-d13", a gene belonging to the Hox gene family. In situ hybridization studies have found that the "Hoxd13" expression domain in bat limbs has been shifted posteriorly in comparison to mouse.

neg: Lacrimal bone bones. The boundaries where some of these bones meet with the others are called sutures. Rarely, the lacrimal bones fused with the nasal bones to form a pair of "nasolacrimal" crests, which are present in dinosaurs such as "Dilophosaurus", "Megapnosaurus" and "Sinosaurus". Lacrimal bone The lacrimal bone is a small and fragile bone of the facial skeleton; it is roughly the size of the little fingernail. It is situated at the front part of the medial wall of the orbit. It has two surfaces and four borders. Several bony landmarks of the lacrimal bone function in the process of lacrimation

neg: Osteoblast Osteoblast Osteoblasts (from the Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, "osteo-" and βλαστάνω, "blastanō" "germinate") are cells with a single nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the process of bone formation, osteoblasts function in groups of connected cells. Individual cells cannot make bone. A group of organized osteoblasts together with the bone made by a unit of cells is usually called the osteon. Osteoblasts are specialized, terminally differentiated products of mesenchymal stem cells. They synthesize dense, crosslinked collagen and specialized proteins in much smaller quantities, including osteocalcin and osteopontin, which compose the organic matrix of bone. In organized groups of

neg: Skeletal system of the horse to muscles. Synovial membranes are found in joint capsules, where they contain synovial fluid, which lubricates joints. Bones are covered by a tough membrane called periosteum, which covers the entire bone excluding areas of articulation. Ligaments attach bone to bone, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal. Ligaments of the upper body include: Ligaments of the legs include: The axial skeleton contains the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and

neg: Hajdu–Cheney syndrome therapy with bisphosphonates (a class of osteoporosis drugs) to treat problems with bone resorption associated with the bone breakdown and skeletal malformations that characterize this disorder. Brand names include Actonel (risedronate/alendronate), made by Merck Pharmaceuticals. Other drugs include Pamidronate, made by Novartis and Strontium Ranelate, made by Eli Lilly. However, for more progressive cases, surgery and bone grafting are necessary. It is named after Nicholas Hajdu (1908–1987), a Hungarian-English radiologist working in the UK and William D. Cheney, MD (1899–1985), a US radiologist. Hajdu–Cheney syndrome Hajdu–Cheney syndrome, also called acroosteolysis with osteoporosis and changes in skull and mandible, arthrodentoosteodysplasia and

neg: Stegosauridae on their lateral surfaces, suggesting the presence of a circulatory network. Stegosaurids also have osteoderms on the throat in the form of small depressed ossicles and two pairs of elongated spike-like tail-spines. In an ontogenetic histological analysis of "Stegosaurus" plates and spikes, Hayashi et al. (2012) examined their structure and function through juveniles to old adults. They found that throughout the ontogeny, the dorsal osteoderms are composed of dense ossified collagen fibres in both the cortical and cancellous sections of the bone, suggesting that plates and spikes are formed from the direct mineralization of already existing fibrous networks in the

neg: Deinocheirus forelimbs indicate the presence of powerful muscles. Most articular surfaces of the arm bones were deeply furrowed, indicating that the animal had thick pads of cartilage between the joints. Though the arms of "Deinocheirus" were large, the ratio between them and the shoulder girdle was less than that of the smaller ornithomimosaur "Ornithomimus". The arm bones of "Deinocheirus" were similar in proportions to those of the small theropod "Compsognathus". The wishbone (furcula), an element not known from any other ornithomimosaurs, was U-shaped. The hindlimbs were relatively short, and the thigh bone (femur) was longer than the shin bone (tibia), as

neg: Ertebølle culture inland waters, which they traversed in paddled dugouts. Like many peoples known in history, they were able to hunt whales and seals from their dugouts. Their materials were mainly wood, with bone, antler and flint for functions requiring harder surfaces. Homes were constructed of brush or light wood. The materials encourage us to view them as transitory. They were, nevertheless, able to place the dead in longer-used cemeteries. Perhaps the dwelling-places were transitory, but the territories were not. Skeletal remains are relatively meagre. They have been studied and described in great detail from an anthropometric, or "man-measuring", point of view.

neg: Jean-Michel Basquiat for sale on the street, and became known for the political–poetical graffiti under the name of SAMO. On one occasion Basquiat painted his girlfriend's dress with the words "Little Shit Brown". He would often draw on random objects and surfaces, including other people's property. The conjunction of various media is an integral element of Basquiat's art. His paintings are typically covered with text and codes of all kinds: words, letters, numerals, pictograms, logos, map symbols, diagrams and more. A middle period from late 1982 to 1985 featured multi-panel paintings and individual canvases with exposed stretcher bars, the surface dense with

neg: Rickets United States and Europe, except among certain minority groups. It begins in childhood, typically between the ages of 3 and 18 months old. Rates of disease are equal in males and females. Cases of what is believed to have been rickets have been described since the 1st century, and the condition was widespread in the Roman Empire. The disease was common into the 20th century. Early treatments included the use of cod liver oil. Signs and symptoms of rickets can include bone tenderness, and a susceptibility for bone fractures particularly greenstick fractures. Early skeletal deformities can arise in infants such

neg: Plasmacytoma plasmacytomas are mostly treated with radiotherapy, but surgery is used in some cases of extramedullary plasmacytoma. The skeletal forms frequently progress to multiple myeloma over the course of 2–4 years. Due to their cellular similarity, plasmacytomas have to be differentiated from multiple myeloma. For SPB and extramedullary plasmacytoma the distinction is the presence of only one lesion (either in bone or soft tissue), normal bone marrow (<5% plasma cells), normal skeletal survey, absent or low paraprotein and no end organ damage. For SPB the most common presenting symptom is that of pain in the affected bone. Back pain and other

neg: Lateral force transmission in skeletal muscle Lateral force transmission in skeletal muscle A key component in lateral force transmission in skeletal muscle is the extracellular matrix (ECM). Skeletal muscle is a complex biological material that is composed of muscle fibers and an ECM consisting of the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium. It can be described as a collagen fiber-reinforced composite. The ECM has at least three functions: (1) to provide a framework binding muscle fibers together and ensure their proper alignment, (2) to transmit the forces, either from active muscle contraction or ones passively imposed on it, and (3) providing lubricated surfaces between muscle fibers and bundles

neg: Mir-199 microRNA precursor developing notochord and in all tissues surrounding developing skeletal elements. Comparative miRNA array led to the isolation of several Bone Morphogenic Protein 2 (BMP2)-responsive miRNAs. Among them, miR-199a* is of particular interest, because it was reported to be specifically expressed in the skeletal system and was shown to inhibit chondrogenesis by down-regulation of Smad1, a major regulator of bone and cartilage formation and development. Also, Twist-1, whichis a major actor in skeleton formation, regulates miR-199 and miR-214 cluster expression in mouse. Furthermore, miR199-214 cluster deletion in mouse lead to skeletal development abnormalities including craniofacial defects, neural arch and spinous processes

neg: Tobler's first law of geography presentation, this idea is profound. Without it, "the full range of conditions anywhere on the Earth's surface could in principle be found packed within any small area. There would be no regions of approximately homogeneous conditions to be described by giving attributes to area objects. Topographic surfaces would vary chaotically, with slopes that were everywhere infinite, and the contours of such surfaces would be infinitely dense and contorted. Spatial analysis, and indeed life itself, would be impossible." Less well known is his second law, which complements the first: "The phenomenon external to an area of interest affects what goes on

neg: Hypophosphatasia Hypophosphatasia Hypophosphatasia (also called deficiency of alkaline phosphatase or phosphoethanolaminuria) is a rare, and sometimes fatal, metabolic bone disease. Clinical symptoms are heterogeneous, ranging from the rapidly fatal, perinatal variant, with profound skeletal hypomineralization and respiratory compromise, to a milder, progressive osteomalacia later in life. Tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase (TNSALP) deficiency in osteoblasts and chondrocytes impairs bone mineralization, leading to rickets or osteomalacia. The pathognomonic finding is subnormal serum activity of the TNSALP enzyme, which is caused by one of 200 genetic mutations identified to date, in the gene encoding TNSALP. Genetic inheritance is autosomal recessive for the perinatal and

neg: Talus bone surface, is somewhat flattened, and articulates with the facet on the upper surface of the anterior part of the calcaneus. The neck of talus is directed anteromedially, and comprises the constricted portion of the bone between the body and the oval head. Its upper and medial surfaces are rough, for the attachment of ligaments; its lateral surface is concave and is continuous below with the deep groove for the interosseous talocalcaneal ligament. The body of the talus comprises most of the volume of the talus bone (ankle bone). It presents with five surfaces; a superior, inferior, medial, lateral and a

neg: McCune–Albright syndrome but CT and/or MRI scans can reveal microfractures. Regular screening for scoliosis should also be undertaken. Surgical management of skeletal abnormalities has evolved over the years. Surgical intervention may be necessary for some skeletal abnormalities. Bisphosphonates are helpful in relieving bone pain, but it is no longer believed that they prevent progression of the disease. Denosumab has been found successful in reducing bone pain and decreasing tumor growth. Muscle strengthening exercises are important for preventing bone fractures; cycling and swimming are recommended in order to reduce the risk of fracture during exercise. Precocious puberty is more common in females, but

neg: Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva in lymphocytes containing excess bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) provided during the immune system response. The bone that results occurs independently of the normal skeleton, forming its own discrete skeletal elements. These elements, however, can fuse with normal skeletal bone. The diaphragm, tongue, and extra-ocular muscles are spared in this process, as well as cardiac and smooth muscle. Since the incorrect enzyme remains unresolved within the immune response, the body continues providing the incorrect BMP4-containing lymphocytes. BMP4 is a product that contributes to the development of the skeleton in the normal embryo. DNA sequencing electropherograms of a typical FOP patient

neg: Osteoblast are found in large numbers in the periosteum, the thin connective tissue layer on the outside surface of bones, and in the endosteum. Normally, almost all of the bone matrix, in the air breathing vertebrates, is mineralized by the osteoblasts. Before the organic matrix is mineralized, it is called the osteoid. Osteoblasts buried in the matrix are called osteocytes. During bone formation, the surface layer of osteoblasts consists of cuboidal cells, called "active osteoblasts". When the bone-forming unit is not actively synthesizing bone, the surface osteoblasts are flattened and are called "inactive osteoblasts". Osteocytes remain alive and are connected by

neg: Tendon ornithischian dinosaurs, ossified axial muscle tendons form a latticework along the neural and haemal spines on the tail, presumably for support. Tendon A tendon or sinew is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments; both are made of collagen. Ligaments join one bone to bone, while tendons connect muscle to bone for a proper functioning of the body. Histologically, tendons consist of dense regular connective tissue fascicles encased in dense irregular connective tissue sheaths. Normal healthy tendons are composed mostly of parallel arrays

neg: Fifth metatarsal bone bone. The bone is somewhat flat giving it two surfaces; the plantar (towards the sole of the foot) and the dorsal side (the area facing upwards while standing). These surfaces are rough for the attachment of ligaments. The bone is curved longitudinally, so as to be concave below, slightly convex above. The base articulates behind, by a triangular surface cut obliquely in a transverse direction, with the cuboid; and medially, with the fourth metatarsal. The fifth metatarsal has a rough eminence on the lateral side of its base, known as the tuberosity or the styloid process. The plantar surface of

neg: Enthesitis Enthesitis Enthesitis is inflammation of the entheses, the sites where tendons or ligaments insert into the bone. It is also called enthesopathy, or any pathologic condition involving the entheses. The entheses are any point of attachment of skeletal muscles to the bone, where recurring stress or inflammatory autoimmune disease can cause inflammation or occasionally fibrosis and calcification. One of the primary entheses involved in inflammatory autoimmune disease is at the heel, particularly the Achilles tendon. It is associated with HLA B27 arthropathies like ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, and reactive arthritis. Symptoms include multiple points of tenderness at the heel, tibial

neg: Enthesitis tuberosity, iliac crest, and other tendon insertion sites. Information resource at www.enthesis.info Enthesitis Enthesitis is inflammation of the entheses, the sites where tendons or ligaments insert into the bone. It is also called enthesopathy, or any pathologic condition involving the entheses. The entheses are any point of attachment of skeletal muscles to the bone, where recurring stress or inflammatory autoimmune disease can cause inflammation or occasionally fibrosis and calcification. One of the primary entheses involved in inflammatory autoimmune disease is at the heel, particularly the Achilles tendon. It is associated with HLA B27 arthropathies like ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, and

neg: Osteodontokeratic culture explained by the durability and resistance of certain bone elements to soil-chemical weathering and the consumption habits of carnivores. This stimulated Brain's interest in how such patterns within cave systems might be affected by the weight, density, cortical thickness and size of bones in relation to weathering and erosion processes. In 1965, Brain took over the directorship of Swartkrans cave (next to Sterkfontein caves) and found a very similar skeletal element representation pattern of fossil faunal remains (including ungulates, primates, large carnivores and hominins) to that of the Makapansgat Member 3 Grey breccia assemblages. This confirmed Brain’s earlier work that

neg: Prism hyper- or hypotropia. In contrast, spectacles with prisms of equal power for both eyes, called yoked prisms (also: "conjugate prisms", "ambient lenses" or "performance glasses") shift the visual field of both eyes to the same extent. Prism In optics, a prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light. At least two of the flat surfaces must have an angle between them. The exact angles between the surfaces depend on the application. The traditional geometrical shape is that of a triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides, and in colloquial use "prism" usually refers

neg: Flux linkage Riemann surfaces: what is called "flux linkage" in engineering is simply the flux passing through the Riemann surface bounded by the coil's turns, hence no particularly useful distinction between flux and "linkage". Due to the equivalence of flux linkage and total magnetic flux in the case of inductance, it is popularly accepted that the flux linkage is simply an alternative term for total flux, used for convenience in engineering applications. Nevertheless, this is not true, especially for the case of memristor, which is also referred to as the fourth fundamental circuit element. For a memristor, the electric field in the