query: when did chemistry replace alchemy as a science

pos: History of chemistry distinction began to emerge when a clear differentiation was made between chemistry and alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661). While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, chemists are seen as applying scientific method to their work. Chemistry is considered to have become an established science with the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed a law of conservation of mass that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. A 100,000-Year-Old ochre-processing

pos: History of science from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when 'chemistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work "The Sceptical Chymist", in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier ("Father of Modern Chemistry") on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that

pos: Chemistry making alloys like bronze. Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, alchemy, which is an intuitive but non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. It was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, but, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry. Chemistry as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy began to emerge when a clear differentiation was made between them by Robert Boyle in his work "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661). While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was

pos: Scientific Revolution landmark publication "The Sceptical Chymist" in 1661, which is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. In the work, Boyle presents his hypothesis that every phenomenon was the result of collisions of particles in motion. Boyle appealed to chemists to experiment and asserted that experiments denied the limiting of chemical elements to only the classic four: earth, fire, air, and water. He also pleaded that chemistry should cease to be subservient to medicine or to alchemy, and rise to the status of a science. Importantly, he advocated a rigorous approach to scientific experiment: he believed all theories

neg: Lawrence M. Principe 2015-2016 Guggenheim Fellowship. Principe is recognized as one of the foremost experts on the history of alchemy. He earned undergraduate degrees at the University of Delaware (B.A. Liberal Studies, 1983; B.S. Chemistry, 1983) and did his graduate work at Indiana University (Ph.D. Organic Chemistry, 1988) and at Johns Hopkins (Ph.D. History of Science, 1996). Principe is recognized as one of the foremost experts on the history of alchemy. Principe's main studies concern the early history of chemistry, particularly alchemy, although he is also active in the study of the relationships between science and religion. His early studies focused particularly on

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam He therefore proposes that the early spelling of chemistry as "chymistry" refers to a unified science including both alchemy and early chemistry. Principe goes on to argue that, "[a]ll their chymical activities were unified by a common focus on the analysis, synthesis, transformation, and production of material substances." Therefore, there is not a defined contrast between the two fields until the early 18th century. Though Principe's discussion is centered on the Western practice of alchemy and chemistry, this argument is supported in the context of Islamic science as well when considering the similarity in methodology and Aristotelian inspirations, as noted

neg: Alchemy and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam there are many distinguishing factors to contrast with science of the Western hemisphere regarding physical location, culture, and language, though there are also several similarities in the goals pursued by scientists of the Middle Ages, and in the origins of thinking from which both were derived. Lawrence Principe describes the relationship between alchemy and chemistry in his article entitled, "Alchemy Restored," in which he states, "The search for metallic transmutation — what we call "alchemy" but that is more accurately termed "Chrysopoeia" — was ordinarily viewed in the late seventeenth century as synonymous with or as a subset of chemistry."

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. In considering Islamic sciences as a distinct, local practice, it is important to define words such as "Arabic," "Islamic," "alchemy," and "chemistry." In order to gain a better grasp on the concepts discussed in this article, it is important to come to an understanding of what these terms mean historically. This may also help to clear up any misconceptions regarding the possible differences between alchemy and early chemistry in the context of medieval times. As A.I. Sabra writes in his article entitled, "Situating Arabic Science: Location versus Essence,"

neg: Isaac Newton's occult studies of alchemy. Newton was deeply interested in all forms of natural sciences and materials science, an interest which would ultimately lead to some of his better-known contributions to science. During Newton's lifetime, the study of chemistry was still in its infancy, so many of his experimental studies used esoteric language and vague terminology more typically associated with alchemy and occultism. It was not until several decades after Newton's death that experiments of stoichiometry under the pioneering works of Antoine Lavoisier were conducted, and analytical chemistry, with its associated nomenclature, came to resemble modern chemistry as we know it today. However,

neg: Etymology of chemistry use a letter "e", as in "chemic" in English. In English after the spelling shifted from "chimical" to "chemical", there was corresponding shift from "alchimical" to "alchemical", which occurred in the early 19th century. In French, Italian, Spanish and Russian today it continues to be spelled with an i as in for example Italian "chimica" "chemistry". Etymology of chemistry In the history of science, the etymology of the word chemistry is debatable. It is agreed that the word derives from the word "alchemy", which is a European one, derived from "kimiya" () and alchemy "al-kīmiyāʾ" (). The Arabic term is

neg: Etymology of chemistry Etymology of chemistry In the history of science, the etymology of the word chemistry is debatable. It is agreed that the word derives from the word "alchemy", which is a European one, derived from "kimiya" () and alchemy "al-kīmiyāʾ" (). The Arabic term is derived from the Ancient Greek "khēmia" or "khēmeia". However, the ultimate origin of the root word, "chem", is uncertain. According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", "al-kīmiyāʾ" is derived from , which is derived from the ancient Egyptian name of Egypt ("khem" or "khm", "khame", or "khmi", meaning "blackness" Therefore, alchemy is the "Black Art". However, it

neg: Marie Meurdrac foreshadowing of the paradigm shift that would later occur in the shift of alchemy to modern chemistry. Whether or not her work can be considered chemistry, Meurdrac directly contributed in a visible way that allowed for collaborative processes, and scrutiny, that would later define the field of modern chemistry and science as a whole. Since the 1970s scholars have been discussing the nature of "La Chymie Charitable et Facile, en Faveur des Dames", with some arguing that it is a work on alchemy rather than chemistry. Recently, Londa Shiebinger placed Meurdrac's "La Chymie" in the tradition of medical cookery books.

neg: Geneviève Thiroux d'Arconville was a translation of a text on morality written by George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax. In the preface of the translation Thiroux d'Arconville discussed how unqualified governesses often raised daughters because mothers did not want to raise them. In 1759, she translated Peter Shaw’s "Chemical Lectures", at the encouragement of Macquer. Thiroux d'Arconville did not hesitate to fix any errors in Shaw’s work and added information on the history of practical chemistry to the beginning of Shaw’s text. In discussing the history of chemistry, she started with alchemy, which she claimed was not a true science. According to her,

neg: William R. Newman as "early chemistry" and "alchemy" did scant justice to the expansive field in which figures like Starkey operated, so they advocated for a return to the archaic term "chymistry" in two seminal articles: this use of “chymistry” is now widely recognized, and has been acknowledged by the "Oxford English Dictionary" (see the "OED" entry for “Chemistry”). In 2004, Newman published "Promethean Ambitions", a work that explores alchemy’s important role as a focus for the widespread debate about the powers of art and nature in Western culture. His "Atoms and Alchemy", which argues that medieval and early modern alchemy were fundamental

neg: Natural science using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "the central science" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize this science,

neg: Ambix the word alembic. Ambix Ambix is a peer-reviewed academic journal on the history of chemistry and alchemy that was established in 1937. It was not published from 1939 to 1945. It was one of the first journals of the history of science in the English-speaking world, preceded by "Isis" (1912) and "Annals of Science" (1936). It is currently published for the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry by Taylor & Francis, which in 2015 purchased Maney Publishing, the previous publisher of Ambix. The name of the journal comes from the Greek word for a still-head (ἄμβιξ), which later

neg: Ambix Ambix Ambix is a peer-reviewed academic journal on the history of chemistry and alchemy that was established in 1937. It was not published from 1939 to 1945. It was one of the first journals of the history of science in the English-speaking world, preceded by "Isis" (1912) and "Annals of Science" (1936). It is currently published for the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry by Taylor & Francis, which in 2015 purchased Maney Publishing, the previous publisher of Ambix. The name of the journal comes from the Greek word for a still-head (ἄμβιξ), which later gave rise to

neg: Non-science alchemy was accepted as scientific: it produced some useful information, and it supported experiments and open inquiry in the pursuit of understanding the physical world. Since the 20th century, it has been considered a pseudoscience. Modern chemistry, which developed out of alchemy, is considered a major natural science. Some philosophers, such as Paul Feyerabend, object to the effort to classify knowledge into science and non-science. The distinction is artificial, as there is little or nothing that ties together all of the bodies of knowledge that are called "sciences". Some systems of organizing knowledge separate systematic knowledge from non-systematic methods of

neg: Science in the medieval Islamic world and that other metals formed a series down to the basest, such as lead. They believed, too, that a fifth element, the elixir, could transform a base metal into gold. Jabir ibn Hayyan (8th–9th centuries) wrote on alchemy, based on his own experiments. He described laboratory techniques and experimental methods that would continue to be used when alchemy had transformed into chemistry. Ibn Hayyan identified many substances including sulphuric and nitric acids. He described processes such as sublimation, reduction and distillation. He made use of equipment such as the alembic and the retort stand. Astronomy was a major discipline within

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam to base their beliefs and results, while the Islamic tradition differed greatly. While the motives differed in some ways, as did the calculations, the practice and development of alchemy and chemistry was similar given the contemporaneous nature of the fields and the ability with which scientists could transmit their beliefs. "Marie-Louise von Franz" describes in her introduction to Ibn Umails "Book of the Explanation of the Symbols — Kitāb Ḥall ar-Rumūz" the contributions of Islamic alchemy as follows: In the 7th to 8th century, Islamic scholars were mainly concerned with translating ancient Hermetic-Gnostic texts without changing them. Gradually they began

neg: Rasayana with water or milk. With thick consistency it is used as accompaniment to Dosa, Chapati or meals. Rasayana may also be known as "lassi". Many believe this rasayana helps to beat the heat of Indian summers. Rasayana Rasāyana, रसायन is a Sanskrit word, with the literal meaning: "Path" ("āyana") "of essence" ("rasa"). It is a term that in early ayurvedic medicine means the science of lengthening lifespan, and in later (post 8th-century) works sometimes refers to Indian alchemy. The name of the science of Indian alchemy or proto-chemistry, is more generally "The Science of Mercury", or "Rasaśāstra, रसशास्त्र " in

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry year. From 1956 onwards, when Desmond Geoghegan became editor, "Ambix" began to extend its readership and its period of historical coverage to the time of John Dalton and the nineteenth century. The Society altered its name to the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry in 1975. The Society’s journal "Ambix" is published four times a year in February, May, August, and November. Papers are refereed by an international editorial board. Its coverage is wide and varied, ranging from studies in exoteric and esoteric alchemy to recent chemistry. Recently, more attention has been given to the history of alchemy,

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, founded as the "Society for the Study of Alchemy and Early Chemistry" in 1935, holds biennial meetings and a yearly Graduate Workshop, publishes the journal "Ambix" and a biennial newsletter "Chemical Intelligence", and offers prizes and grants to scholars. Its members represent twenty-eight countries. The Society was first established in November 1935 by J.R. Partington (1886-1965), Frank Sherwood Taylor (1897-1956), Douglas McKie (1896-1967), and Gerard Heym (1888-1972), and named the Society for the Study of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. Its object was “the

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by scholars in the medieval Islamic world. The word "alchemy" was derived from the Arabic word كيمياء or "kīmiyāʾ". and may ultimately derive from the ancient Egyptian word "kemi", meaning black. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Caliphate and the Islamic civilization. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy as it was better documented; most of the earlier writings

neg: Alchemy as a series of four stages represented by colors. Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum,

neg: J. R. Partington J. R. Partington James Riddick Partington (30 June 1886 – 9 October 1965) was a British chemist and historian of chemistry who published multiple books and articles in scientific magazines. Partington was a fellow and council member of the Chemical Society of London as well as the first president of the Society for History of Alchemy and Early Chemistry when it was founded in 1935. The society founded the Partington Prize in his memory in 1975. He was President of the British Society for the History of Science from 1949 to 1951. Partington was born on 30 June 1886 in

neg: Catalyst Science Discovery Centre Catalyst Science Discovery Centre The Catalyst Science Discovery Centre (originally The Museum of the Chemical Industry) is a science centre and museum, focusing on chemistry and the history of the chemical industry, next to Spike Island and the River Mersey in Widnes, Cheshire. The museum is accredited by the Arts Council England. The centre contains static exhibitions, hands-on experiments and the Alchemy Theatre which gives shows on chemistry. Family workshops are arranged during school and bank holidays. The centre is housed in an old four-storey building known as Tower Building constructed around 1860 by John Hutchinson as the administrative centre

neg: Science History Institute C. Hach Gallery for rotating exhibitions opened in 2008. The Arnold O. Beckman permanent exhibition, "Making Modernity", was designed by Ralph Appelbaum Associates. It has been described as an "art gallery for science", and showcases objects from the institution's widely varying collections. "The instruments are only a fraction of the objects on display. The exhibition also includes books, documents, and artwork from CHF's collection, as well as an array of consumer products." The exhibition is organized around thematic arcs illustrative of the history of science, particularly chemistry. Displays include the influence of alchemy in early chemistry, the development of the

neg: Rasayana Rasayana Rasāyana, रसायन is a Sanskrit word, with the literal meaning: "Path" ("āyana") "of essence" ("rasa"). It is a term that in early ayurvedic medicine means the science of lengthening lifespan, and in later (post 8th-century) works sometimes refers to Indian alchemy. The name of the science of Indian alchemy or proto-chemistry, is more generally "The Science of Mercury", or "Rasaśāstra, रसशास्त्र " in Sanskrit, Nepali, Marathi, Hindi, Kannada and several other languages. Early Indian alchemical texts discuss the use of prepared forms of mercury or cinnabar (see samskaras). However, there is also ample mention of the preparation of medical

neg: History of chemistry and describing more than twenty instruments, many parts of which are still in use today, such as a crucible, cucurbit or retort for distillation, and the head of a still with a delivery tube (ambiq, Latin alembic), and various types of furnace or stove. For practitioners in Europe, alchemy became an intellectual pursuit after early Arabic alchemy became available through Latin translation, and over time, they improved. Paracelsus (1493–1541), for example, rejected the 4-elemental theory and with only a vague understanding of his chemicals and medicines, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in what was to be called iatrochemistry.

neg: Albertus Magnus belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include "Metals and Materials"; the "Secrets of Chemistry"; the "Origin of Metals"; the "Origins of Compounds", and a "Concordance "which is a collection of "Observations on the philosopher's stone"; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of "Theatrum Chemicum". He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including silver nitrate. He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work "De mineralibus". However, there is

neg: John Maxson Stillman John Maxson Stillman John Maxson Stillman (1852-1923) was a pioneer of the history of science in the United States. He was also the first head of the chemistry department at Stanford University, as well as its first Chemistry Professor. His most enduring work was the posthumously published book "The Story of Early Chemistry", decades later republished as "The Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry". Son of physician Jacob Davis Babcock Stillman and of Caroline Maxson, John Maxson studied chemistry first at University of California (1874), and then for two years abroad at University of Strasbourg and University of Würzburg. On

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam the element's physical properties. Al-Rāzī mentions the following chemical processes: distillation, calcination, solution, evaporation, crystallization, sublimation, filtration, amalgamation, and ceration (a process for making solids pasty or fusible.) Some of these operations (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) are also known to have been practiced by pre-Islamic Alexandrian alchemists. In his "Secretum secretorum", Al-Rāzī mentions the following equipment: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by scholars in the medieval Islamic world. The word "alchemy"

neg: Elementeo more strength and can help you quickly win the game—and like elements, you can use their special properties. The Elementeo Chemistry Card Game (v2) includes new compounds such as Citric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide. Alchemy: Alchemy cards in the game include "Black Hole," "Sizzling Supernova," and "Chemist Wizards." Alchemy cards take chemistry and physics concepts and bring them into the game. Black hole, for example, can use its gravity to take away your opponent's cards for a turn. The Elementeo Chemistry Card Game (v2) includes new alchemy cards such as Newton's Laws. The "battlefield" of the game is a 5x5

neg: Alchemy from the alchemical "magnum opus" and, in the Hellenistic and Western mystery tradition, the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was variously connected with all of these projects. In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Muslim world. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy, alchemists played a significant role in early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists developed

neg: Henry Carrington Bolton United States. Bolton published large bibliographies of chemistry and later of all scientific periodicals which are still used. He included alchemy in the chemistry listings and emphasized the continuity of the transition. He was a member of many scientific societies, perhaps more than any contemporary. The Science History Institute hosts the Bolton Society, which is named for H.C. Bolton, to support "printed materials devoted to chemistry and related sciences" and to support its Othmer Library of Chemical History. Henry Carrington Bolton Henry Carrington Bolton (1843–1903) was an American chemist and bibliographer of science. He graduated from Columbia in 1862, and

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam tone" by using much more a poetic language than the antique Hermetists did, also giving "a greater emphasis on the coniunctio motif", i.e. images of the union of male and female, sun and moon, king and queen etc. "The mystical masters of Islam understood alchemy as a transformative process of the alchemist's psyche. The fire which promoted this transformation was the love of God." According to the bibliographer Ibn al-Nadīm, the first Muslim alchemist was Khālid ibn Yazīd, who is said to have studied alchemy under the Christian Marianos of Alexandria. The historicity of this story is not clear; according

neg: Alchemy History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society. Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the Classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven Classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone. In the eyes of a

neg: Natural magic Natural magic Natural magic in the context of Renaissance magic is that part of the occult which deals with natural forces directly, as opposed to ceremonial magic, in particular goety and theurgy, which deals with the summoning of spirits. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa so uses the term in his 1526 "de vanitate". Natural magic so defined thus includes astrology, alchemy, and disciplines that we would today consider fields of natural science, such as astronomy and chemistry (which developed and diverged from astrology and alchemy, respectively, into the modern sciences they are today) or botany (from herbology). In a modern context, white

neg: Diana's Tree use of minerals, metals, and the synthesis of medications. Although now considered a pseudoscience, the practice of alchemy has contributed experimental techniques to the chemistry world such as the process of distillation and sublimation. Alchemy was an early version of chemistry combined with metal work; one of the main goals of early alchemists was to create what was known as the Philosopher’s Stone, a substance that when heated and combined with a non precious metal like copper or iron (known as the “base”) would turn into gold. The Tree of Diana was a precursor to the Philosopher's stone: experiments involving

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry study of alchemy and early chemistry in their scientific and historical aspects, and the publication of relevant material.” Sherwood Taylor was responsible for launching the Society’s journal "Ambix" in May 1937, with J.R. Partington as its first Chairman. From these early days onwards, the Society worked on "chemistry and chemical technology in antiquity and the Latin West and the development of iatrochemistry and chemical philosophy." During the Second World War, the Society for the History of Alchemy & Early Chemistry was closed down, but it was re-established again in 1946, with the second volume of "Ambix" published in the same

neg: James George Frazer personal, supernatural forces and attempts to appease them. As historian of religion Jason Josephson-Storm describes Frazer's views, Frazer saw religion as "a momentary aberration in the grand trajectory of human thought." He thus ultimately proposed - and attempted to further - a narrative of secularization and one of the first social-scientific expressions of a disenchantment narrative. At the same time, Frazer was aware that both magic and religion could persist or return. He noted that magic sometimes returned so as to become science, such as when alchemy underwent a revival in Early Modern Europe and became chemistry. On the other

neg: Whig history celebratory and didactic narratives of scientific discovery and progress that had proliferated in the inter-war years. More recently, some scholars have argued that Whig history is essential to the history of science. At one level, "the very term 'the history of science' has itself profoundly Whiggish implications. One may be reasonably clear what 'science' means in the 19th century and most of the 18th century. In the 17th century 'science' has very different meaning. For example chemistry is inextricably mixed up with alchemy. Before the 17th century dissecting out such a thing as 'science' in anything like the modern sense

neg: Science in the medieval Islamic world Science in the medieval Islamic world Science in the medieval Islamic world was the science developed and practised during the Islamic Golden Age under the Umayyads of Córdoba, the Abbadids of Seville, the Samanids, the Ziyarids, the Buyids in Persia, the Abbasid Caliphate and beyond, spanning the period c. 800 to 1250. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included alchemy and chemistry, botany, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics, and zoology. Medieval Islamic science had practical purposes as well as the goal of understanding. For example,

neg: F. Sherwood Taylor Friedberg, Sydney Brenner said: F. Sherwood Taylor wrote many books on the history of alchemy and chemistry in particular, and also of science in general: F. Sherwood Taylor Frank Sherwood Taylor (1897 – 5 January 1956) was a British historian of science, museum curator, and chemist who was Director of the Science Museum in London, England. F. Sherwood Taylor was educated at Sherborne School in Dorset, southern England and Lincoln College, Oxford. He then undertook a PhD at University College, London in the new Department of History and Method of Science. He spent a period as a schoolmaster and then

neg: History of chemistry toiled to make transformations on an esoteric (spiritual) and/or exoteric (practical) level. It was the protoscientific, exoteric aspects of alchemy that contributed heavily to the evolution of chemistry in Greco-Roman Egypt, the Islamic Golden Age, and then in Europe. Alchemy and chemistry share an interest in the composition and properties of matter, and prior to the eighteenth century were not separated into distinct disciplines. The term "chymistry" has been used to describe the blend of alchemy and chemistry that existed before this time. The earliest Western alchemists, who lived in the first centuries of the common era, invented chemical apparatus.

neg: Pseudoscience set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to be properly called such. Distinguishing between proper science and pseudoscience is sometimes difficult. One proposal for demarcation between the two is the falsification criterion, attributed most notably to the philosopher Karl Popper. In the history of science and the history of pseudoscience it can be especially difficult to separate the two, because some sciences developed from pseudosciences. An example of this transformation is the science chemistry, which traces its origins to pseudoscientific or pre-scientific study of alchemy. The vast diversity in pseudosciences further complicates

neg: F. Sherwood Taylor founder editor of the "Ambix" journal, started in 1937, and the journal of the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry In 1940, he succeeded Robert Gunther as Curator of the Museum of the History of Science in Oxford. Towards the end of his life, he was Director of the Science Museum from 1950 until his death in 1956. During this time, he delivered the 1952 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in London on "How Science has Grown". He was President of the British Society for the History of Science from 1951 to 1953. In an interview conducted by Errol

neg: Zbigniew Szydlo public lectures in the United Kingdom on topics including the History of Chemistry. Recent performances at Cambridge University, Durham University, University College London, the Royal Institution, Cheltenham Science Festival and Hampton Court have received much acclaim: writing in the journal "Chemistry & Industry" on Szydlo’s performance at Cambridge, John Wilkins remarked that ‘Dr Szydlo exceeded all expectations; he raced through vast tracts of practical chemistry, history, alchemy, the discovery of oxygen, the internal combustion engine, and on occasion, introduced music too. His lecture was interspersed with flashes, bangs, colour changes, detonations and eruptions, keeping the 350-strong crowd on the edge

neg: History of chemistry be subservient to medicine or to alchemy, and rise to the status of a science. Importantly, he advocated a rigorous approach to scientific experiment: he believed all theories must be proved experimentally before being regarded as true. The work contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical reaction, and marks the beginning of the history of modern chemistry. Boyle also tried to purify chemicals to obtain reproducible reactions. He was a vocal proponent of the mechanical philosophy proposed by René Descartes to explain and quantify the physical properties and interactions of material substances. Boyle was an

neg: Chemisches Zentralblatt Chemisches Zentralblatt Chemisches Zentralblatt is the first and oldest abstracts journal published in the field of chemistry. It covers the chemical literature from 1830 to 1969 and describes therefore the “birth” of chemistry as science, in contrast to alchemy. The information contained in this German journal is comparable with the content of the leading source of chemical information Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), which started publishing abstracts in English in 1907. "Chemisches Zentralblatt" was founded as "Pharmaceutisches Centralblatt" by Gustav Theodor Fechner and published by Leopold Voß in Leipzig in 1830. In the first year, 544 pages containing 400 abstracts were

neg: Midnight Lamp As Love Sequence is conjured into science fictional reality (literally conjured, on stage at the Hollywood Bowl!) through the mediation of historical precedents: the sheer, limitless terror of the atom bomb when it was new; and the transition from alchemy into chemistry, myth into manufacture, in the midst of the French Revolution. And above all, there is the desert: Vireo Lake, Lavoisier, the "Cow Castle"—lyrical images of austerity and endurance, of human/nature, flayed to the point of death but undefeated. This is the lightest in tone of the Bold As Love books, despite some inventively gory crime scenes. Dissolution has

neg: History of chemistry of the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus. He reasoned that Aristotle's four-element theory appeared in bodies as three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke described the volatility (the mercurial principle), the heat-giving flames described flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash described solidity (salt). Alchemy is defined by the Hermetic quest for the philosopher's stone, the study of which is steeped in symbolic mysticism, and differs greatly from modern science. Alchemists

neg: Alchemy who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were

neg: Zbigniew Szydlo thesis of his book ""Water that does not wet hands": The Alchemy of Michael Sendivogius", which argues that Sendivogius' role in the discovery of oxygen has not received proper attention, has won widespread acceptance within the academic community. He advanced this argument in a leading article for History Today, co-authored with Richard Brzezinski, entitled 'A New Light on Alchemy'. His work on seventeenth-century science is an ongoing project to which he hopes to devote further attention. In 2015 he published "Schoolmaster's Diary", a photo diary celebrating four decades of school life seen through his chemistry teacher's lens. He frequently gives

neg: Occult Chemistry Chapter 2 of "Modern Alchemy: Occultism and the Emergence of Atomic Theory", and in an online article from the Chemistry department at Yale University. Critics regard the book to be an example of pseudoscience. According to Philip Ball, most scientists did not take the book seriously. Occult Chemistry Occult Chemistry: "Investigations by Clairvoyant Magnification into the Structure of the Atoms of the Periodic Table and Some Compounds" (originally subtitled "A Series of Clairvoyant Observations on the Chemical Elements") is a book written by Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater, who were all members of the Theosophical Society based in Adyar, India.

neg: History of chemistry 5-year tree experiment, as well as being considered the founder of pneumatic chemistry. Anglo-Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is considered to have refined the modern scientific method for alchemy and to have separated chemistry further from alchemy. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. Although Boyle was not the original discoverer, he is best known for Boyle's law, which he presented in 1662: the law describes the

neg: Science in the medieval Islamic world caliphate was followed by the Ottoman Empire ( 1299–1922), centred in Turkey, and the Safavid Empire (1501–1736), centred in Persia, where work in the arts and sciences continued. Islamic scientific achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included physics, alchemy and chemistry, ophthalmology, and geography and cartography. Alchemy was already well established before the rise of Islam. It was based on the belief that substances were made up of the four Aristotelian elements, fire, earth, air, and water in different proportions. Alchemists supposed that gold was the noblest metal,

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry respectively, while the November 2014 special issue concerned Analysis and Synthesis in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. In 2013, the Society launched the series Sources of Alchemy and Chemistry, which provides readers with critical editions and English translations of foundational texts in the history of alchemy and early chemistry. The readership of Ambix is international and includes historians, chemists, philosophers, and scholars in other disciplines. Issues of "Ambix" are sent to members and libraries around the world and are also available online free to members through the Society’s website ambix.org. The Society publishes its newsletter Chemical Intelligence twice a year.

neg: Natural philosophy natural philosopher Robert Boyle wrote a seminal work on the distinction between physics and metaphysics called, "A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature", as well as "The Skeptical Chymist", after which the modern science of chemistry is named, (as distinct from proto-scientific studies of alchemy). These works of natural philosophy are representative of a departure from the medieval scholasticism taught in European universities, and anticipate in many ways, the developments which would lead to science as practiced in the modern sense. As Bacon would say, "vexing nature" to reveal "her" secrets, (scientific experimentation), rather than a mere

neg: Science in the Age of Enlightenment dark star could be determined by the strong gravitational force it would exert on surrounding stars. While differing somewhat from a black hole, the dark star can be understood as a predecessor to the black holes resulting from Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. The chemical revolution was a period in the 18th century marked by significant advancements in the theory and practice of chemistry. Despite the maturity of most of the sciences during the scientific revolution, by the mid-18th century chemistry had yet to outline a systematic framework or theoretical doctrine. Elements of alchemy still permeated the study of

neg: Douglas McKie and Lavoisier. He retired in 1964 and died in London on 28 August 1967. In 1936 he was co-founder of the journal “Annals of Science” and he served as its Editor until his death. The French awarded him Chevalier of the Legion D’Honeur in 1957 for his work on Lavoisier. In 1922 he married Mary Smith. Douglas McKie Prof Douglas McKie FRSE FRIC FSA (1896–1967) was a British chemist and science historian. He was a member of the International Academy of the History of Science, the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and the Society of Apothecaries. He

neg: History of chemistry ordered all alchemists to leave France for making counterfeit money. A law was passed in England in 1403 which made the "multiplication of metals" punishable by death. Despite these and other apparently extreme measures, alchemy did not die. Royalty and privileged classes still sought to discover the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life for themselves. There was also no agreed-upon scientific method for making experiments reproducible. Indeed, many alchemists included in their methods irrelevant information such as the timing of the tides or the phases of the moon. The esoteric nature and codified vocabulary of alchemy appeared to be

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry This publication advertises and reports not only the Society’s events and activities, but also those of other organisations involved in the history of alchemy and chemistry. Chemical Intelligence is distributed to members by email and is made available free to the public online via www.ambix.org. The Society generally organises a Spring meeting and an Autumn meeting each year. Recent topics included John Dee and Print Culture; Chemistry and its Audiences; Making Chemistry: History, Materials, and Practices; New and Old Themes in the History of Chemistry and Chemistry in Europe. The Society also organises annual postgraduate workshops usually held in the

neg: Thomas Hager Thomas Hager Thomas Hager is an American author of popular science and narrative nonfiction. Thomas Hager is the author of eleven books on health and science, as well as more than 100 feature and news articles in a variety of popular and professional periodicals. His national awards include the American Chemical Society's 2017 James T. Grady–James H. Stack Award for Interpreting Chemistry for the Public. Hager's 2008 book "The Alchemy of Air" was a finalist for the National Academies Communication Award; listed among the "Best Books of The Year" by Kirkus Reviews; and named a Borders "Original Voices" Selection. He

neg: Isaac Newton the Cambridge Platonist philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians." Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science. This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam in other sections of this article. This distinction between alchemy and early chemistry is one that lies predominately in semantics, though with an understanding of previous uses of the words, we can better understand the historical lack of distinct connotations regarding the terms despite their altered connotations in modern contexts. The transmission of these sciences throughout the Eastern and Western hemispheres is also important to understand when distinguishing the sciences of both regions. The beginnings of cultural, religious, and scientific diffusion of information between the Western and Eastern societies began with the successful conquests of Alexander the Great (334-323 B.C).

neg: Papa Smurf so, Papa handed over his signature red hat, allowing each Smurf the chance to direct others on a construction project. The Smurfs were then referred to as "Papa Greedy", "Papa Clumsy" or "Mama Smurfette," depending on whose turn it was to be the village leader. While Papa did see the importance of each Smurf gaining leadership skills, his true purpose was to guide the Smurfs and help fix their problems and mistakes. When he is not actively acting as the leader or helping other Smurfs, Papa Smurf indulges in his favorite hobby: magical chemistry, or alchemy. He often makes elixirs

neg: History of materials science History of materials science Materials science has shaped the development of civilizations since the dawn of mankind. Better materials for tools and weapons has allowed mankind to spread and conquer, and advancements in material processing like steel and aluminum production continue to impact society today. Historians have regarded materials as such an important aspect of civilizations such that entire periods of time have defined by the predominant material used (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, etc.). For most of recorded history, control of materials had been through alchemy or empirical means at best. The study and development of chemistry and

neg: Science History Institute apparatus". Instrumentation, however, was only one of several areas of interest as the institution began to expand its collections. The Science History Institute is particularly interested in the origins of early science and chemistry. Its varied holdings have considerable depth both in alchemical books and fine-art depictions of early modern alchemists. The institution's collection of alchemy-related artwork, one of the largest in the world, builds upon two significant collections. Chester Garfield Fisher, founder of Fisher Scientific, started collecting alchemical art in the 1920s. In 2000, his collection of alchemical paintings was donated by Fisher Scientific International to the Chemical Heritage

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry Autumn. Workshops have been held at Cambridge, London, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Philadelphia. The Society offers three prizes: the Partington Prize, awarded every three years for an original essay by a new scholar on any aspect of the history of alchemy and chemistry; the John and Martha Morris Award, which is also made every three years, for outstanding achievements in the history of modern chemistry or the history of the chemical industry; and the Oxford Part II Prize, which can be awarded in any year for an excellent history of chemistry thesis submitted for a Chemistry Part II at Oxford University.

neg: Douglas McKie Douglas McKie Prof Douglas McKie FRSE FRIC FSA (1896–1967) was a British chemist and science historian. He was a member of the International Academy of the History of Science, the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and the Society of Apothecaries. He was born on 15 July 1896 in Tredegar in Wales. He was the son of James McKie of Port William in Scotland, and his wife, Janet Moseley. His father was an officer in the South Wales Borderers and after local education he was sent to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst to train as an army officer

neg: Industrial gas of sulfur inside empty wine vessels would keep them fresh and prevent them gaining a vinegar smell. Early understanding consisted of empirical evidence and the protoscience of alchemy; however with the advent of scientific method and the science of chemistry, these gases became positively identified and understood. The history of chemistry tells us that a number of gases were identified and either discovered or first made in relatively pure form during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries by notable chemists in their laboratories. The timeline of attributed discovery for various gases are carbon dioxide (1754), hydrogen (1766),

neg: Lawrence M. Principe the works of Robert Boyle, especially their connection to the earlier study of alchemy. His book "The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest" (Princeton, 1998) makes the case that Boyle was himself active as an alchemist. His later book with William R. Newman, "Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry" (University of Chicago Press, 2002) also promotes the continuity between alchemy and chemistry. His most recent book, "The Secrets of Alchemy" (University of Chicago Press, 2013), provides a survey of the history of alchemy and includes explanations and replications of alchemical processes

neg: Kizhakeyil Lukose Sebastian time evolution of the FMO complex. Kizhakeyil Lukose Sebastian Kizhakeyil Lukose Sebastian (K. L. Sebastian) is a professor of chemistry at the department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry of Indian Institute of Technology, Palakkad, India. Prior to becoming a professor at IIT Palakkad, he was a professor of chemistry at the department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, for about 20 years. He did his Bachelor of Science (special degree) from the University of Kerala and his Master of Science from the University of Calicut. He stood first in the university when he completed his

neg: Kizhakeyil Lukose Sebastian Kizhakeyil Lukose Sebastian Kizhakeyil Lukose Sebastian (K. L. Sebastian) is a professor of chemistry at the department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry of Indian Institute of Technology, Palakkad, India. Prior to becoming a professor at IIT Palakkad, he was a professor of chemistry at the department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, for about 20 years. He did his Bachelor of Science (special degree) from the University of Kerala and his Master of Science from the University of Calicut. He stood first in the university when he completed his undergraduate and post graduate studies. In

neg: Alchemy relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between "alchemy" and "chemistry" for the first time. By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans,

neg: Alchemy seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his "Remarks Upon Alchymists" (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations

neg: Oswald Croll Oswald Croll Oswald Croll or Crollius (c. 1563 – December 1609) was an alchemist, and professor of medicine at the University of Marburg in Hesse, Germany. A strong proponent of alchemy and using chemistry in medicine, he was heavily involved in writing books and influencing thinkers of his day towards viewing chemistry and alchemy as two separate fields. Croll received his doctorate in medicine in 1582 at Marburg, then continued studies at Heidelberg, Strasburg, and Geneva. After working as a tutor, he arrived in Prague in 1597. He remained there for two years, and again from 1602 until his death.

neg: History of chemistry known as the scientific method. In 1605, Michal Sedziwój publishes the alchemical treatise "A New Light of Alchemy" which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized as oxygen. In 1615 Jean Beguin published the "Tyrocinium Chymicum", an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first-ever chemical equation. In 1637 René Descartes publishes "Discours de la méthode", which contains an outline of the scientific method. The Dutch chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont's work "Ortus medicinae" was published posthumously in 1648; the book is cited by some as a major transitional work between alchemy and

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam should be thought of as not the ordinary elements but ideal, hypothetical substances. Which metal is formed depends on the purity of the mercury and sulfur and the proportion in which they come together. The later alchemist al-Rāzī followed Jābir's mercury-sulfur theory, but added a third, salty, component. Thus, Jābir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jābir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to

neg: Alchemy and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius ("Michał Sędziwój", 1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel

neg: Scientific Revolution alchemy and to have separated chemistry further from alchemy. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. Although Boyle was not the original discover, he is best known for Boyle's law, which he presented in 1662: the law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system. Boyle is also credited for his

neg: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam "the term Arabic (or Islamic) science denotes the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that roughly extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa to the Indus valley and from southern Arabia to the Caspian Sea - that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic language." This definition of Arabic science provides a sense that

neg: University of Edinburgh Medical School specifications). A levels must include Chemistry and one of Biology, Maths or Physics. Only one of Maths or Further Maths will be considered. Human Biology may replace Biology. GCSE grade B in Biology, Chemistry, English, Maths. Double Award Combined Sciences at grade BB may replace GCSE grades in sciences. International Baccalaureate: 37 points. Including 667 at Higher Level with Chemistry and at least one other science subject (Biology preferred). For the 2012 admissions year, no offer was given to a student who achieved below 41 IB points with 776 at Higher Level. Additional requirements include the UK Clinical Aptitude Test

neg: Chemistry elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book "De rerum natura" (On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. In the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic

neg: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry The Society further offers yearly grants, for which members of the Society may apply. The Society offers two types of competitive grants, both part of its Award Scheme. The New Scholars Awards are aimed to support research. This Award is open to postgraduate students and those who have obtained their PhD within five years as of the preceding 1 January. The second grant is the Subject Development Award, which supports activities such as seminars, workshops, colloquia, lecture series, conferences, etc. In addition, non-competitive grants may be awarded to individuals and organisations. Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry The

neg: History of chemistry by scientific advances, and was still the domain of respected scientists and doctors until the early eighteenth century. Early modern alchemists who are renowned for their scientific contributions include Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton. There were several problems with alchemy, as seen from today's standpoint. There was no systematic naming scheme for new compounds, and the language was esoteric and vague to the point that the terminologies meant different things to different people. In fact, according to "The Fontana History of Chemistry" (Brock, 1992): The language of alchemy soon developed an arcane and secretive technical vocabulary

neg: Alchemy ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work. Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of chemistry", albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote: Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation: Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Kindi ("Alkindus") and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rasis" or "Rhazes") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia,

neg: David Holt (psychotherapist) of alchemy to contemporary therapy by referring to Holt's paper "Jung and Marx" in Spring 1973 and writes, "There Holt shows that Jung imagined his work to be theoretically and historically substantiated by alchemy ... As Holt indicates, it is to alchemy that we must turn to gain the proper placing of Jung's entire endeavour." Stanton Marlan cites Holt's article "Alchemy: Jung and the historians of science" in Harvest as providing "a reference guide to the historical literature for those who have an interest in Jung's work in relation to the history of science and to scientific ideas." These references

neg: Jean Louis Lassaigne years later Lassaigne wrote an investigation about chemistry as part of medical sciences ""Abrégé élémentaire de chimie considérée comme science accessoire à l'étude de la médecine, de la pharmacie et de l'histoire naturelle"" (Elementary summary of chemistry considered as an ancillary science to the study of medicine, pharmacy and natural history), at the same time he was admitted as member to prestigious ""Société de Chimie Médicale"" (Medical Chemistry Society) in Paris. He became a chemical researcher, where he did research related to pure chemistry, inorganic chemistry, industrial chemistry, animal chemistry, and forensic chemistry, which led to many discoveries. His major

neg: Natural magic magic may be referred to as "high magic" (not to be confused with the alternate meaning of "high magic", which denotes ceremonial or ritual magic). Natural magic Natural magic in the context of Renaissance magic is that part of the occult which deals with natural forces directly, as opposed to ceremonial magic, in particular goety and theurgy, which deals with the summoning of spirits. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa so uses the term in his 1526 "de vanitate". Natural magic so defined thus includes astrology, alchemy, and disciplines that we would today consider fields of natural science, such as astronomy and chemistry

neg: Isaac Newton's occult studies Newton's contemporary and fellow Royal Society member, Robert Boyle, had already discovered the basic concepts of modern chemistry and began establishing modern norms of experimental practice and communication in chemistry, information which Newton did not use. Much of Newton's writing on alchemy may have been lost in a fire in his laboratory, so the true extent of his work in this area may have been larger than is currently known. Newton also suffered a nervous breakdown during his period of alchemical work, possibly due to some form of chemical poisoning (possibly from mercury, lead, or some other substance). Newton's writings

neg: Paul Zane Pilzer call economics the 'Dismal Science.'" In contrast, Pilzer offered a new theory called Economic Alchemy based on abundance: that the earth contains unlimited resources because of human ingenuity continually defining new resources and/or learning how to better obtain and use our existing resources. The central equation of Economic Alchemy is W = P x T : Wealth = Physical Resources times Technology, and T (Technology) has an exponential multiplier effect on itself. Pilzer began developing Economic Alchemy in 1975 as a graduate student at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania when he theologically could not accept his professor's

neg: Spondent Pariter fraudulent alchemy. Pope John XXII had himself studied chemistry before entering the clergy, and his papacy was marked by events which led one historian to remark that he was "one of the most liberal patrons of education and of science in history.". "Spondent Pariter" is sometimes referred to as a papal bull, though canonically it is not a bull but a less important document termed a decretal, specifically an Extravagantes. It is listed in "Corpus Juris Canonici" Tome II (published in Lyons, 1799), but not in the ordinary list of Pope John XXII's bulls. Spondent Pariter Spondent Pariter (sometimes referred

neg: Ferrante Imperato had a small garden and corresponded with botanists, but historians of botany discount his interest in plants as "curiosa". The book was so sought after that a second edition was issued in Venice, 1672, edited by Giovanni Maria Ferro, who added new material and new illustrations to the concluding chapter. The catalogue is presented in twenty-eight books, which include nine books devoted to alchemy, a wholly reputable science at the time, which towards the end of the following century would give birth to chemistry. Other books are devoted to mining, animals and plant specimens. Charles Lyell wrote the following in

neg: Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont (baptised 20 October 1614 – 1698 or 1699) was a Flemish alchemist and writer, the son of Jan Baptist van Helmont. He is now best known for his publication in the 1640s of his father's pioneer works on chemistry, which link the origins of the science to the study of alchemy. From his early work as a physician, he became a kabbalist, and also with Henry More of the Cambridge Platonists. Together they annotated Christian Knorr von Rosenroth's translations of kabbalist texts. He led an itinerant life in wanderings in Europe, an

neg: Arabs be the oldest in the world. Founded by Fatima al Fihri in 859, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in Fez is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university. There are many scientific Arabic loanwords in Western European languages, including English, mostly via Old French. This includes traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like "alchemy" (whence also "chemistry"), "algebra", "algorithm", "alcohol", "alkali", "cipher", "zenith", etc. Under Ottoman rule, cultural life and science in the Arab

neg: Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab, also known as BPAL, is an online retailer of perfumes. BPAL is owned by Elizabeth Moriarty Barrial and Brian Constantine, and is based in Los Angeles. Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab does not test their products on animals. Their perfume oils are blended by hand, using sustainably sourced essential oils and absolutes, with synthetics to replace substances such as civet and ambergris. With the exception of blends containing honey and beeswax and CO2 Butter Extract, the oils are vegan-friendly. The blends are inspired by works of art, mythology, folk superstitions, voodoo, classical literature,