query: when did the ussr became a nuclear power

pos: Nuclear arms race until the mid-1950s, the first Soviet bomb was detonated on August 29, 1949, shocking the entire world. The bomb, named "First Lightning" by the West, was more or less a copy of "Fat Man", one of the bombs the United States had dropped on Japan in 1945. Both governments spent massive amounts to increase the quality and quantity of their nuclear arsenals. Both nations quickly began the development of a hydrogen bomb and the United States detonated the first hydrogen bomb on November 1, 1952, on Enewetak, an atoll in the Pacific Ocean. Code-named "Ivy Mike", the project was led

neg: Nuclear power debate a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy. The accident raised concerns about the safety of the nuclear power industry, slowing its expansion for a number of years. Despite the fact the Chernobyl disaster became a nuclear power safety debate icon, there were other nuclear accidents in USSR at the Mayak nuclear weapons production plant (nearby Chelyabinsk, Russia) and total radioactive emissions in

neg: Anti-nuclear movement in Russia out of the ten nuclear power plants can be found in the European part of Russia. In the Eastern part of Urals, two other nuclear power plants can be found. Russia has a long history of nuclear power plants. It was beneficial to the country when it first began but the view quickly changed in the post-Chernobyl period. On April 26, 1986 when the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant malfunctioned, it gave birth to the anti-nuclear movement in Russia and many anti-nuclear organizations emerged in the USSR. Many of these anti-nuclear protest or activities took place in the 1980s, which motivated people

neg: Iraq and weapons of mass destruction in 1972, but did not ratify it until June 11, 1991. Iraq has not signed to the Chemical Weapons Convention. 1959 August 17 USSR and Iraq signed an agreement for the USSR to build a nuclear power plant and established a nuclear program as part of their mutual understanding. 1968 a Soviet supplied IRT-2000 research reactor together with a number of other facilities that could be used for radioisotope production was built close to Baghdad. 1975 Saddam Hussein arrived in Moscow and asked about building an advanced model of an atomic power station. Moscow would approve only if the station

neg: Pakistan–Soviet Union relations 1981, the USSR financially funded and solely establishing the Guddo Thermal Power Station, and surprise Pakistan by offering to build a second nuclear power plant in May 1981. On 1 March 1990, the USSR again offered its nuclear deal with Pakistan and officially stated that the Pakistan has to increase its power generation needs and the USSR Ambassador to Pakistan, V.P. Yakunin, quoted that "once the required guarantees are provided, there is no harm in supplying a nuclear power plant to Pakistan." The Pakistan Production Minister, Shahid Zafar immediately traveled to Moscow for such offer and discussed the issue on

neg: Nuclear energy in Libya Libya confirmed that it intended to create a nuclear energy sector. Nuclear energy in Libya Libya became a member of the IAEA in 1963. Libya has a Soviet-designed 10 MWt research reactor in Tajura that was built 1981. In the late 1970s Libya signed a contract with the Soviet nuclear company Atomenergoexport for two VVER-440 reactors, each delivering 440 MW of electrical power on the Gulf of Sirte. The reactors were intended to serve a dual-use for electric power generation and seawater desalination. As Libya was discontented with the technology the USSR wanted to provide them with, the Belgian nuclear

neg: Nuclear energy in Libya Nuclear energy in Libya Libya became a member of the IAEA in 1963. Libya has a Soviet-designed 10 MWt research reactor in Tajura that was built 1981. In the late 1970s Libya signed a contract with the Soviet nuclear company Atomenergoexport for two VVER-440 reactors, each delivering 440 MW of electrical power on the Gulf of Sirte. The reactors were intended to serve a dual-use for electric power generation and seawater desalination. As Libya was discontented with the technology the USSR wanted to provide them with, the Belgian nuclear company Belgonucleaire was asked to take over the contract. However, due

neg: Nuclear power phase-out Nuclear power phase-out A nuclear power phase-out is the discontinuation of usage of nuclear power for energy production. Often initiated because of concerns about nuclear power, phase-outs usually include shutting down nuclear power plants and looking towards fossil fuels and renewable energy. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the discontinuation of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island partial nuclear meltdown in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR, and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. As of 2018, Italy is the only country that operated nuclear reactors but has since phased out nuclear power completely. Following

neg: Nuclear power debate 342 for coal, 85 for natural gas, and 8 for nuclear. Nuclear power plant accidents rank first in terms of their economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage attributed to energy accidents. The Chernobyl steam explosion was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. A steam explosion and graphite fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as

neg: Modern history Soviet Union fostered [[communist revolution]]ary movements, which the United States and many of its allies opposed and, in some cases, attempted to "[[rollback|roll back]]". Many countries were prompted to align themselves with the nations that would later form either NATO or the Warsaw Pact, though other movements would also emerge. [[File:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|left|thumb|US and USSR nuclear stockpiles]] In China [[Mao Zedong]] ("Máo zé dōng") utilized [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] thought. When the [[Communist Party of China]] assumed power in 1959, previous schools of Chinese thought, excepting notably [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], were denounced as backward. Many parts of China's past were even

neg: Organic nuclear reactor the USSR ever generated power, and then only experimentally. Conventional fission power plants rely on the chain reaction caused when nuclear fission events release neutrons that cause further fission events. Each fission event in uranium releases two or three neutrons, so by careful arrangement and the use of various absorber materials, you can balance the system so one of those neutrons causes another fission event while the other one or two are lost. This careful balance is known as criticality. Natural uranium is a mix of several isotopes, mainly a trace amount of U-235 and over 99% U-238. When they

neg: Igor Serafimovich Tashlykov A.F.Tulinov, USSR State Prize Laureate) on the methods of fast nuclear analysis of the Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences (later RAS) on the application of methods of nuclear physics in related fields and to the Coordination Group of Electrostatic Accelerators in the Council of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Section of accelerators of direct action and sources of charged particles) headed by V.A.Romanov (Obninsk Institute of Physics and Power Engineering). At the invitation of Academician S.T. Belyaev he consulted the method of spectroscopy of Rutherford backscattering and ion channeling in the Department of Nuclear Physics of

neg: Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan for reducing greenhouse-gas emissions to the United Nations, and the proposal included a target for nuclear power to meet at least 20% of Japan's electricity consumption by 2030. Renewable energy sources, such as hydropower and solar power, would contribute more than 22%. Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan Long one of the world's most committed promoters of civilian nuclear power, Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident (USA) or the 1986 Chernobyl disaster (USSR) as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s and

neg: History of nuclear weapons the nuclear arms race itself, and many prominent scientists and statesmen lobbied for a ban on nuclear testing. In 1958, the U.S., USSR, and the United Kingdom (a new nuclear power) declared a temporary testing moratorium for both political and health reasons, but by 1961 the Soviet Union had broken the moratorium and both the USSR and the U.S. began testing with great frequency. As a show of political strength, the Soviet Union tested the largest-ever nuclear weapon in October 1961, the massive Tsar Bomba, which was tested in a reduced state with a yield of around 50 megatons—in its

neg: Indira Gandhi helped in winning and consolidating the victory over Pakistan in the 1971 Bangladesh liberation war. Prior to the war Indira signed a treaty of friendship with the USSR. The USSR was not happy with the 1974 nuclear test conducted by India but did not support further action because of the ensuing cold war with the United States. Indira was not happy with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan but once again calculations involving relations with Pakistan and China kept from criticizing the Soviet Union harshly. USSR became the main arms supplier during the Indira years by offering cheap credit and transactions

neg: Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom power, but increased the value to Britain of an independent nuclear deterrent that would give it greater influence with the US and USSR. While the military target of British nuclear weapons was the Soviet Union, the political target was the United States. Independent targeting was vital. The Chiefs of Staff believed that—contrary to Tizard's view—once the Soviet Union became able to attack the United States itself with nuclear weapons in the late 1950s, America might not risk its own cities to defend Europe, or not emphasise targets that endangered the United Kingdom more than the United States: Britain thus needed

neg: Fossil fuel phase-out opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased. China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power. Several countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations. Several European countries have debated nuclear phase-outs and others have completely shut down some reactors. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR, and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany

neg: Rosatom the USSR on January 29, 1992 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The newly created ministry received about 80% of the enterprises of the union department, including 9 nuclear power plants with 28 power units. Under this name, the ministry existed until March 9, 2004, when it was transformed into the Federal Agency on Atomic Energy, also known as Rosatom, in accordance to presidential decree. Physicist and academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, USSR State Prize winner laureate, and former Minister for Atomic Energy Alexander Rumyantsev was appointed head of the agency. On November 15, 2005, he was

neg: History of nuclear weapons game theorists at the RAND think tank developed a nuclear warfare strategy that was eventually called Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). MAD divided potential nuclear war into two stages: "first strike" and "second strike". First strike meant the first use of nuclear weapons by one nuclear-equipped nation against another nuclear-equipped nation. If the attacking nation did not prevent the attacked nation from a nuclear response, the attacked nation would respond with a second strike against the attacking nation. In this situation, whether the U.S. first attacked the USSR or the USSR first attacked the U.S., the end result would be that

neg: Campaign Against Nuclear Energy the new Australian Labor Party State Government abandoned plans for a nuclear power station. The Cabinet decided to stop all State Energy Commission inquires that could lead to a nuclear power station. The Premier, Mr Brian Burke, said that the Cabinet had reaffirmed that in no circumstances would a nuclear power station be built in WA. After this announcement, many of the CANE activists joined People for Nuclear Disarmament (WA) to campaign against the efforts of the United States and USSR to place short range nuclear missiles into Europe, and CANE ceased to exist in the late 1980s. Campaign Against

neg: Rudolf V. Perina Pact." The diplomat also never got the sense things were loosening up in the USSR. Although he personally did not know whether the Strategic Defense Initiative system (SDIs) would even work, he understood that the Soviets were threatened by the possibility: He said, "They realized their strength as a world power came from possession of nuclear weapons, and not from their GDP or anything else." (There was talk too in Germany about NATO deployment of immediate range nuclear missiles.) Perina served as interpreter between ambassadors Arthur Burns and Piotr Abrassimov, then Vyacheslav Kochemasov during their twice yearly social lunches. There

neg: Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan Long one of the world's most committed promoters of civilian nuclear power, Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident (USA) or the 1986 Chernobyl disaster (USSR) as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s and into the 1990s. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident, the Mihama

neg: Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy on September 23, 1949, Andrey Vyshinsky, the Soviet representative to the United Nations, delivered a statement justifying their efforts to develop their own nuclear weapons capability. He said: However the USSR did not immediately follow the U.S. lead in 1958 in establishing a program. Presumably, their position in support of a comprehensive nuclear testing ban stalled any efforts to establish such a program until the mid-1960s. When Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy was finally formally established, Alexander D. Zakharenkov, a chief weapons designer, was appointed head of the program. Initially, the Soviet program was focused on two applications, nuclear

neg: History of nuclear weapons great power of hydrogen bombs made worldwide annihilation possible. The Castle Bravo incident itself raised a number of questions about the survivability of a nuclear war. Government scientists in both the U.S. and the USSR had insisted that fusion weapons, unlike fission weapons, were cleaner, as fusion reactions did not produce the dangerously radioactive by-products of fission reactions. While technically true, this hid a more gruesome point: the last stage of a multi-staged hydrogen bomb often used the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions to induce fissioning in a jacket of natural uranium, and provided around half of the yield

neg: 2016 Kagoshima gubernatorial election peace of minds of residents was necessary, and that he would "aim for a society that did not rely upon nuclear power". It was reported that anti-nuclear protest groups were preparing to field an "anti-Ito" candidate in the election, but the groups eventually supported Mitazono when his position on nuclear power became clearer. Ito and Mitazono were the only two candidates to contest the election, and both ran as officially independent candidates. Ito received official endorsements from the conservative Liberal Democratic and Komeito parties. Mitazono was considered a "conservative independent" candidate, and received official endorsement from the Democratic and Social

neg: Project Candor to be held by the President. The planning of the campaign began in the spring of 1953. The background for Project Candor was that Eisenhower's administration found out of the nuclear weapons capabilities of The Soviet Union. When informed of their massive capabilities, Eisenhower became convinced that the U.S. public had a right to understand the dangers the USA confronted in the USSR. In addition, Eisenhower needed U.S. public support on the great expenditure going to the government's nuclear arms race against the USSR. These talks would create understanding as to why the U.S. had to spend vast amounts on

neg: Nuclear power in Ukraine much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy. Ukraine used to receive its nuclear fuel exclusively from Russia by the Russian company TVEL. Since 2008 the country also gets nuclear fuel from Westinghouse. Since 2014 Westinghouse's share of

neg: Nuclear proliferation smaller economy, Pakistan was expected to push its own expenditures yet higher. Both have lost their patrons: India, the former USSR, and Pakistan, the United States. But it is the growth and modernization of China's nuclear arsenal and its assistance with Pakistan's nuclear power programme and, reportedly, with missile technology, which exacerbate Indian concerns. In particular, as viewed by Indian strategists, Pakistan is aided by China's People's Liberation Army. Nuclear power for civil use is well established in India. Its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the nuclear fuel cycle, necessary because of its outspoken rejection

neg: Indira Gandhi in rupees rather than in dollars. The easy trade deals also applied to non-military goods. Under Indira by the early 1980s the USSR became the largest trading partner of India. When Indira came to power in 1966, Lyndon Johnson was the US President. At that time, India was reliant on USA for food aid. Indira resented the US policy of food aid as a tool in forcing India to adopt policies favored by the US. She also resolutely refused to sign the NPT (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons). Relations with US strained badly under President Richard Nixon and

neg: James Peck (pacifist) notorious Seabrook plant in New Hampshire. On October 16, the opening day of the Arms Bazzar in Washington, Peck joined a picket line to protest the manufacturing of military weapons. On February 12, 1979, during the trial of the "White House 11," Peck held up a giant banner in court that read: "NO NUCLEAR WEAPONS/NO NUCLEAR POWER USA OR USSR." He then led a march to the White House, where he was one of 22 persons arrested for performing a sit-down. When the near-meltdown almost occurred at Three Mile Island in March, the anti-nuclear movement expanded dramatically. Only two days

neg: Grace Paley Paley joined the War Resisters League. In 1968, she signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War, and in 1969 she came to national prominence as an activist when she accompanied a peace mission to Hanoi to negotiate the release of prisoners of war. She served as a delegate to the 1974 World Peace Conference in Moscow and, in 1978, was arrested as one of "The White House Eleven" for unfurling an anti-nuclear banner (that read "No Nuclear Weapons—No Nuclear Power—USA and USSR") on the White House lawn.

neg: Committee on Human Rights in the USSR Committee on Human Rights in the USSR The Committee on Human Rights in the USSR () was founded in 1970 by dissident Valery Chalidze together with Andrei Sakharov and Andrei Tverdokhlebov. Valery Chalidze was a writer and dissident who published the samizdat journal "Social Problems". Andrei Sakharov was an eminent Soviet nuclear physicist who had publicly opposed the Soviet plans for atmospheric nuclear tests. In 1968, Sakharov had published "Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom," a plea for nuclear disarmament emphasizing the role of human rights. As a result, his professorship was revoked by Soviet authorities. He became a spokesman for

neg: Nuclear safety and security An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy. The accident raised concerns about the safety of the nuclear power industry, slowing its

neg: History of nuclear weapons 1950s, the U.S. undertook a nuclear testing program to improve the nuclear arsenal. Starting in 1951, the Nevada Test Site (in the Nevada desert) became the primary location for all U.S. nuclear testing (in the USSR, Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan served a similar role). Tests were divided into two primary categories: "weapons related" (verifying that a new weapon worked or looking at exactly how it worked) and "weapons effects" (looking at how weapons behaved under various conditions or how structures behaved when subjected to weapons). In the beginning, almost all nuclear tests were either atmospheric (conducted above ground, in

neg: Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster optimum performance. Current interplanetary spacecraft power systems (such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators and solar arrays) are incapable of producing that much power. NASA's Project Prometheus reactor was expected to generate power in the hundreds of kilowatts range but was discontinued in 2005. A project to produce a space-going nuclear reactor designed to generate 600 kilowatts of electrical power began in 1963 and ran for most of the 1960s in the USSR. It was to power a communication satellite which was in the end not approved. Nuclear reactors supplying kilowatts of electrical power (of the order of ten times more than

neg: Maine Yankee Nuclear Power Plant Maine Yankee Nuclear Power Plant Maine Yankee Nuclear Power Plant was a nuclear power plant built at an 820-acre site on Bailey Peninsula of Wiscasset, Maine, in the United States. It ran from 1972 until 1996, when safety and other problems at the plant became too expensive to fix. It was finally decommissioned and dismantled between 1997 and 2005, though some of the plant's nuclear waste is still stored on site, pending final disposal. The Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company formed in 1966, when plans for a pressurized water reactor in Wiscasset, Maine were made. The four-year $231 million (approx

neg: Science and technology in France an atomic bomb in Algeria in 1960 and some operational French nuclear weapons became available in 1964. Then, France executed its first test of the much more powerful hydrogen bomb over its South Pacific Ocean test range in 1968; this first hydrogen bomb was dropped from a strategic bomber. France was the fourth de facto nuclear power after United States, Soviet Union and United Kingdom. In 1965, France was the third nation, after the former USSR and the United States, to launch its own space satellite. The French no longer launch their own satellites, however, preferring instead to contribute to

neg: Nuclear proliferation join the treaty if they forswear nuclear weapons. Research into the development of nuclear weapons was initially undertaken during World War II by the United States (in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada), Germany, Japan, and the USSR. The United States was the first and is the only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war, when it used two bombs against Japan in August 1945. After surrendering to end the war, Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research. In August 1949, the USSR tested a nuclear weapon, becoming the second country to

neg: Project Sapphire the former communist nation. Once a part of the USSR, Kazakhstan was very reliant on relations with Russia in the 90's. With millions of ethnic Russians living in the country, leaders of Kazakhstan did not want to create trouble because of Russia's influence on their economics, factories, and technology. They also wanted to remove post-Soviet nuclear materials because Kazakhstan lacked the facilities and technical capacity to sustain nuclear weapons. Prior to the collapse of the USSR, Kazakhstan's first president Nazarbayev announced that the country would be a non-nuclear state once it was admitted into the United Nations. In May 1992,

neg: Gerboise Bleue with an orange-red centre” gave way to the typical “mushroom” cloud” With Gerboise Bleue, France became the fourth nuclear power, after the United States, the USSR, and the United Kingdom. Prior to this test, there had been no nuclear detonations for 15 months. Gerboise Bleue was by far the largest first test bomb up to that date, larger than the American "Trinity" (20 kt), the Soviet "RDS-1" (22 kt), or the British "Hurricane" (25 kt). The yield was 70 kilotons, bigger than these three bombs put together. In comparison, Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, was 22 kilotons, one-third as powerful.

neg: Pressurized water reactor USSR), on insistence from Admiral Hyman G. Rickover that a viable commercial plant would include none of the "crazy thermodynamic cycles that everyone else wants to build." The United States Army Nuclear Power Program operated pressurized water reactors from 1954 to 1974. Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station initially operated two pressurized water reactor plants, TMI-1 and TMI-2. The partial meltdown of TMI-2 in 1979 essentially ended the growth in new construction of nuclear power plants in the United States for two decades. The pressurized water reactor has three new Generation III reactor evolutionary designs: the AP-1000, VVER-1200, ACPR1000+ Nuclear

neg: Nuclear Freeze campaign development between the USSR the U.S. At the time of proposal START served as a fairly insincere demonstration of the administration's willingness to negotiate with the USSR on a winding-down of nuclear armaments. Its desired effect, to slow down the Nuclear Freeze Campaign, while maintaining a steady build in nuclear weapons capacity, was largely achieved. This is shown in the Senate failure of a freeze resolution in 1983, and a marked decline of the nuclear book boom beginning after November 1982. Previously prolific anti-nuclear literature then met only modest sales. The initiative, perhaps ironically, spawned a legacy of initiatives when

neg: Nuclear Secrets struggle in the USSR following the death of Stalin results in the downfall of Beria shortly before the testing of the Soviet H-bomb. Strauss orders the FBI to revoke Oppenheimer's security clearance under suspicion of spying for the Soviets. When U.S. testing runs out of control the American public are alerted to the power of this new weapon. Teller testifies against Oppenheimer at a security hearing and Strauss's objections are upheld. Sakharov becomes a leading dissident after civilians are killed in a Soviet bomb test. February 1977 Nuclear Technician Mordechai Vanunu is assigned to work at the top secret Dimona

neg: Nuclear arms race appear they had far more than they truly did. The 1960 American presidential election saw accusations of a wholly spurious missile gap between the Soviets and the Americans. On the other side, the Soviet government exaggerated the power of Soviet weapons to the leadership and Nikita Khrushchev. In addition to the United States and the Soviet Union, three other nations, the United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, and France developed nuclear weapons during the early cold war years. In 1952, the United Kingdom became the third nation to possess nuclear weapons when it detonated an atomic bomb in Operation Hurricane

neg: François Mitterrand he feared were falling under "Anglo-Saxon influence." His drive to preserve French power in Africa led to controversies concerning Paris' role during the Rwandan Genocide. Despite Mitterrand's left-wing affiliations, the 1980s saw France becoming more distant from the USSR, especially following events such as the expulsion of 47 Soviet diplomats and their families from the country in 1982 after they were accused of large-scale industrial and military espionage. Mitterrand also sharply criticized the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan as well as the country's nuclear weapons buildup. When Mitterrand visited the USSR in November 1988, the Soviet media claimed to be 'leaving

neg: Nuclear power in Japan Law, but they have been reorganized several times since their inception. Long one of the world’s most committed promoters of civilian nuclear power, Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident (USA) or the 1986 Chernobyl disaster (USSR) as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s and into the 1990s. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included

neg: William Anders non-nuclear power R&D. He was also named as U.S. Chairman of the joint U.S./USSR technology exchange program for fission and fusion power. Following the reorganization of national nuclear regulatory and developmental activities on January 19, 1975, Anders was named by President Ford to become the first chairman of the newly established Nuclear Regulatory Commission, which is responsible for nuclear safety and environmental compatibility. At the completion of his term as NRC chairman, Anders was appointed Ambassador to Norway and held that position until 1977. He then ended his career with the federal government after 26 years and began work in

neg: Kuosheng Nuclear Power Plant add vibration monitoring sensor near the supporting base of the reactor for continuous monitoring. The first nuclear reactor of the plant automatically shut down on Friday, 21 June 2013. The event was triggered by protective device activated by the grounding signal of the generator. The signal occurred when the blade of the air damper became loose and fell into busbar between the generator and main transformer. The incident did not damage the reactor and there was no release of radioactivity. Mitigation actions taken by Taipower were done by resecuring the blade and replacing the related components. The power plant was

neg: Nuclear activities in Brazil to a halt and plans to build two additional nuclear power plants were put on hold. Only in 1994 did the Brazilian government decide to resume construction of Angra 2. In 2001 more than two decades after the beginning its construction, the nuclear power plant of Angra 2 started its commercial operations. Under President Lula da Silva (2003–2011), the nuclear program was revived. INB's Nuclear Fuel Factory (Fábrica de Combustível Nuclear – FCN), a commercial-scale uranium enrichment facility, became operational in 2004. However, disagreements between Brazil and the IAEA regarding the inspection procedures delayed the full start of operations. Brazil

neg: James Bay Project Kosygin visited Montreal in October 1971. Kosygin supported Bourassa's project and expressed concerns regarding his country's own nuclear power, explaining his country had to develop the technology because the USSR lacked suitable rivers to expand its own hydroelectric network of dams and power stations. Two options were considered when Bourassa unveiled his plan for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the Nottaway, Broadback, Rupert and Harricana Rivers in the south (NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to the north. The northerly rivers were selected in

neg: Tehreek-e-Tahaffuz-e-Pakistan for future generations. Abdul Qadeer Khan took up this challenge and this Tahreek aimed to follow his guidelines and aspirations to achieve its objectives. When the Pakistani nation was demoralized after the separation of East Pakistan in 1971, Khan, a nuclear scientist and patriotic Pakistani came forward and started working on a nuclear programme. Pakistan officially became a nuclear Power in 1998. All the aggression against Pakistan came to halt with this, and national moral peaked. Unfortunately successive governments did not harvest the socio-economic benefits that the situation offered. To safeguard the sovereignty and integrity of Pakistan. To implement the

neg: Tereza Khristoforovna Margulova 1957 was the first graduation. All methods developed in the NPP of MPEI have led to creation of similar departments and disciplines in higher education of Soviet Bloc Countries, she was personally instrumental an involved with. For The textbook "Nuclear Power Plants" in 1971 Margulova T.C. was awarded The State Prize. All generations of The Atomic Eastern Bloc Nuclear Engineers grew up with this book. At NPP T.C. Margulova also led international courses for retraining engineering graduates to work in The nuclear power industry in Russia, other republics of The USSR, and many foreign countries. Teresa Christoforovna have been a

neg: Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant a nuclear reactor, and at no point did they encounter any attempts by security staff to impede their travels. The guard shack at the entrance to the plant was not only empty, but also padlocked shut. In 2001, when the Dominion Cove Point LNG plant was scheduled to reopen, many local residents were concerned about the proximity to this nuclear power plant (3 miles). Residents thought that the FERC did not consider the risks could be caused by an attack or an explosion before opening the plant. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's estimate of the risk each year of an earthquake

neg: Energy policy of Scotland view that Scotland did not need new nuclear power stations. By January 2008, when the UK Government gave the go-ahead for a new generation of nuclear power stations to be built across the UK, the SNP formed the Scottish Government and First Minister Alex Salmond made clear there was "no chance" of more nuclear power stations being built in Scotland. The Government's stance was backed by the Scottish Parliament which voted 63-58 to support the Scottish Government's policy of opposing new nuclear power stations. A proposed 400 kV upgrade to the existing 132 kV transmission network, seen as key to

neg: Chernobyl disaster period, 8 of which were caused by negligence or poor competence on the part of personnel. In 1991 a Commission of the USSR State Committee for the Supervision of Safety in Industry and Nuclear Power reassessed the causes and circumstances of the Chernobyl accident and came to new insights and conclusions. Based on it, in 1992 the IAEA Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG) published an additional report, INSAG-7, which reviewed "that part of the INSAG-1 report in which primary attention is given to the reasons for the accident," and was included the USSR State Commission report as Appendix I. In

neg: Nuclear proliferation (North Korea). The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) acceded to the NPT in 1985 as a condition for the supply of a nuclear power station by the USSR. However, it delayed concluding its NPT Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA, a process which should take only 18 months, until April 1992. During that period, it brought into operation a small gas-cooled, graphite-moderated, natural-uranium (metal) fuelled "Experimental Power Reactor" of about 25 MWt (5 MWe), based on the UK Magnox design. While this was a well-suited design to start a wholly indigenous nuclear reactor development, it also exhibited all the features

neg: Antanas Sniečkus was together working in underground. Lithuania was the only republic of USSR where not only mass persecution of old communists did not happen and not even one communist of pre-Soviet times was accused and arrested. At around this time his policies started to gain a national character. This policy had the form of sabotaging some orders of Moscow, demanding some privileges for Lithuania, and others. His wife Mira Bordonaitė was also a convinced communist and spent many years in prison. Sniečkus had two children, Vladas and Marytė. Sniečkus, a village for employees of the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant on the

neg: Nuclear escalation U.S. Corporal missile with a range of 120 kilometers (70–80 miles) and had a one kiloton warhead. After the late 1950’s the USSR was able to raise its Nuclear arsenal and delivery methods to have the U.S become a capable target. Many of the European NATO countries became worried that the US’s massive firepower was equaled by the USSR and that the United states would have no reason to come to European aid with the new possibility of any attack from the U.S being met in kind with similar or greater means of nuclear arms directed at the U.S. created

neg: Nuclear weapons of the United States B41 bomb. Between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent at least $ in present-day terms on nuclear weapons development. Over half was spent on building delivery mechanisms for the weapon. $ in present-day terms was spent on nuclear waste management and environmental remediation. Richland, Washington was the first city established to support plutonium production at the nearby Hanford nuclear site, to power the American nuclear weapons arsenals. It produced plutonium for use in cold war atomic bombs. Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. and USSR threatened with all-out nuclear attack in case of war, regardless of whether it was a

neg: Bertrand Russell became known, Russell wrote that USSR would be unable to develop nuclear weapons because following Stalin's purges only science based on Marxist principles would be practiced in the Soviet Union. After it became known that the USSR carried out its nuclear bomb tests, Russell declared his position advocating for the total abolition of atomic weapons. In 1948, Russell was invited by the BBC to deliver the inaugural Reith Lectures—what was to become an annual series of lectures, still broadcast by the BBC. His series of six broadcasts, titled "Authority and the Individual", explored themes such as the role of individual

neg: Nuclear energy policy of the United States in a year. The 1986 disaster in Chernobyl, USSR is generally considered to be the worst nuclear disaster, to date. On 25 April 1986, during routine maintenance, the crew at Chernobyl began preparing for a test of the reactor's turbine. During the test, the site experienced a loss of their main electrical power supply Because of this loss of power, the automatic shutdown mechanisms failed, and the reactor started to become unstable. As the Chernobyl operators tried to cool the rods by inserting them into the reactor core, a large power surge occurred. This is generally believed to be from

neg: Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster current RTG power supplies) have been orbited by the USSR: RORSAT; and TOPAZ. Plans to develop a megawatt-scale nuclear reactor for the use aboard a manned spaceship were announced in 2009 by Russian nuclear Kurchatov Institute, national space agency Roskosmos, and confirmed by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in his November 2009 address to the Federal Assembly. Another plan, proposed by Bradley C. Edwards, is to beam power from the ground. This plan utilizes 5 200 kW free electron lasers at 0.84 micrometres with adaptive optics on the ground to beam power to the MPD-powered spacecraft, where it is converted to

neg: Nuclear-free zone Union in the early 1990s, Estonia became a nuclear-free country. The two land-based nuclear reactors at the Soviet Navy nuclear submarine training centre in Paldiski were removed when Russia finally relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in September 1995. There are no nuclear power stations in Estonia. As a resource-poor nation, Japan is heavily reliant on nuclear power, but its unique experience in World War II has led to the wholesale rejection of nuclear weapons, holding nuclear weapons shall not be manufactured in, possessed by, or allowed entry into Japan. These tenets, known as the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, were

neg: Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project compulsory land acquisition. Debate about the nuclear power project at Jaitapur is ongoing on various levels. Environmental effects of nuclear power and geological issues have been raised by anti nuclear activists. Many protests have been carried out by local people against the proposed nuclear power plant. On 4 December 2010, protests became violent when over 1500 people were detained from among thousands of protesters, who included environmentalists and local villagers. Members and leaders of the "Konkan Bachao Samiti" (KBS) and the "Janahit Seva Samiti" (organisations that are spearheading opposition to the project) were also detained. In Mumbai, members of various

neg: 1980 Swedish nuclear power referendum 1980 Swedish nuclear power referendum A non-binding referendum on nuclear power was held in Sweden on 23 March 1980. Three proposals were put to voters: The second option won a narrow plurality of the vote, receiving 39.1% of the ballots cast to 38.7% for option 3. Option 1 was the least popular, receiving only 18.9% of the votes. The actual long term result of the nuclear power politics in Sweden after the referendum has been most similar to option 1. Nuclear power plants did not change ownership. Some were fully private and other owned by the government, and this did

neg: Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan nuclear weapons, an illusory distinction made not only in Japan but throughout the world. Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident (USA) or the 1986 Chernobyl disaster (USSR) as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s and into the 1990s. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident, the Mihama steam explosion, and

neg: International reactions to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster way in which it was used in Japan. Russian nuclear opponent Iouli Andreev was critical of the response to Fukushima, and says that the IAEA did not learn from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. He has accused the IAEA and corporations of "wilfully ignoring lessons from the world's worst nuclear accident 25 years ago to protect the industry's expansion". The IAEA's role "as an advocate for nuclear power has made it a target for protests". One of the IAEA statutory functions is to establish safety standards to protect the health, life and property in the use of nuclear power. When reports

neg: Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station, a nuclear power plant, is located southeast of Harrisburg in Peach Bottom Township, York County, Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna River three miles north of the Maryland border. The Philadelphia Electric Company (later shortened first to PECO Energy and later to just PECO) became one of the pioneers in the commercial nuclear industry when it ordered Peach Bottom 1 in 1958. The U.S.'s first nuclear power plant (the Shippingport Reactor) had gone on line a year earlier. Peach Bottom Unit 1 was an experimental helium-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor. It operated from 1966

neg: Nuclear navy Nuclear navy A nuclear navy, or nuclear-powered navy, refers to the portion of a navy consisting of naval ships powered by nuclear marine propulsion. The concept was revolutionary for naval warfare when first proposed. Prior to nuclear power, submarines were powered by diesel engines and could only submerge through the use of batteries. In order for these submarines to run their diesel engines and charge their batteries they would have to surface or snorkel. The use of nuclear power allowed these submarines to become true submersibles and unlike their conventional counterparts, they became limited only by crew endurance and supplies.

neg: Army Nuclear Power Program Program and assigned it to the Corps of Engineers. The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 made the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) responsible for R&D in the nuclear field, so that the ANPP then became a joint interagency 'activity' of the Department of the Army (DA) and the AEC. When the Atomic Energy Act was revised in 1954, Paragraph 91b authorized the Department of Defense to obtain special nuclear material for use in defense utilization facilities. The focus of the Army Nuclear Power Program was on power production facilities while the Naval Reactors Program concentrated on nuclear propulsion for submarines and

neg: Nuclear weapons of the United States the USSR detonated its first weapon in 1949, though, the U.S. under President Dwight D. Eisenhower sought to encourage a program of sharing nuclear information related to civilian nuclear power and nuclear physics in general. The Atoms for Peace program, begun in 1953, was also in part political: the U.S. was better poised to commit various scarce resources, such as enriched uranium, towards this peaceful effort, and to request a similar contribution from the Soviet Union, who had far fewer resources along these lines; thus the program had a strategic justification as well, as was later revealed by internal memos.

neg: Nuclear weapons and Ukraine to become a nuclear power again. Nuclear weapons and Ukraine Prior to 1991, Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union and had Soviet nuclear weapons in its territory. On December 1, 1991, Ukraine, the second most powerful republic in the Soviet Union (USSR), voted overwhelmingly for independence, which ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale. More than 90% of the electorate expressed their support for Ukraine's declaration of independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk as the first president of the country. At the meetings in Brest, Belarus

neg: Pre-emptive nuclear strike the military-industrial complex; these forces encouraged the constant development of weapons systems of greater accuracy, power, and destruction. In addition, each side doubted the other side's commitment to not deploy first-strike weapons, or even in the event of their deployment, to not strike first. Some first-strike weapons were deployed; however like most nuclear weapons, they were never used. Of the nuclear powers, only the People's Republic of China and India have declarative, unqualified, unconditional no-first-use policies. In 1982, at a special session of the General Assembly of United Nations, the USSR pledged not to use nuclear weapons first, regardless of

neg: Anatoly Ivanovich Akishin 1979 he received the State Prize of the USSR as a member of a group of scientists for his work in the field of space research. As a scientist, he became famous for the studies related to methods of simulating the effects of the space environment on materials and elements of space vehicles. Anatoly Ivanovich Akishin Anatoly Ivanovich Akishin (; born 9 June 1926) is a Soviet and Russian scientist in the field of space materials science and nuclear physics, professor. He was born in June 9, 1926 in Moscow. In 1950 he graduated from the Moscow Power Engineering Institute,

neg: Nuclear power in Germany energy policy would be safe, reliable, and independent from imports, with affordable prices for both consumers and industry. Increased investment in natural gas plants would provide a backup to ensure consistency for those times when the solar, wind and hydroelectric sources did not meet demand. At the time of the Japanese Fukushima disaster, Germany was getting just under a quarter of its electricity from nuclear power. After the Fukushima disaster, the following eight German nuclear power reactors were declared permanently shut down on 6 August 2011: BiblisA andB, Brunsbuettel, Isar1, Kruemmel, Neckarwestheim1, Philippsburg1 and Unterweser. Some German manufacturers and energy

neg: NSC 68 the USSR was committing such large portion of its GDP: "I suspect a larger portion of Soviet investment went into housing." William Schaub of the Bureau of the Budget was particularly harsh, believing that "in every arena," the Air Force, the Army, the Navy, the stockpiling of atomic bombs, the economy, the US was far superior to the Soviet Union. Kennan, although "father" of the containment policy, also disagreed with the document, particularly its call for massive rearmament (FRUS, 1950, Vol. I). President Harry S. Truman, even after the Soviets became a nuclear power, sought to curb military spending. However,

neg: United States Soviet Union jockeyed for power during what became known as the Cold War, driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism and, according to the school of geopolitics, a divide between the maritime Atlantic and the continental Eurasian camps. They dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies on the other. The U.S. developed a policy of containment towards the expansion of communist influence. While the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear arsenals, the two countries avoided

neg: Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant the agreement did not meet the 1992 terms of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). M R Srinivasan, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Chairman from 1987 to 1990, called the project "a non-starter". However, the project was revived on 21 June 1998. Construction began on 31 March 2002, with Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) predicting that the first unit would be operational in March 2007, instead of the original target of December 2007. A small port became operational in Kudankulam on 14 January 2004. This port was established to receive barges carrying over-sized light water reactor equipment from ships anchored

neg: Industry of Bulgaria coal plants were constructed. The extraction of coal was increased and Bulgaria's first oil field, in Shabla, went into production. During the next decade many military and metallurgical plants were constructed, including the Kremikovtsi and Stomana steelworks. Cooperation on space technologies with the USSR was encouraged and the country supplied the Soviet space program with research devices and computers. Many new factories in the field of micro and precision electronics were inaugurated. In the 1970s the industrial component of the Bulgarian economy continued to increase. In 1974 Bulgaria became the third communist state to have a functioning nuclear power station

neg: Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament third atomic power, after the USA and the USSR, and had recently tested an H-bomb. In November 1957 J. B. Priestley wrote an article for the "New Statesman" magazine, "Britain and the Nuclear Bombs", advocating unilateral nuclear disarmament by Britain. In it he said: In plain words: now that Britain has told the world she has the H-bomb she should announce as early as possible that she has done with it, that she proposes to reject, in all circumstances, nuclear warfare. The article prompted many letters of support and at the end of the month the editor of the "New

neg: Blaenau Ffestiniog passenger stations did so in the knowledge that the FR were hard on their heels striving to open their part of the new station. "14:" The FR fulfilled its part of the bargain on 25 May 1982 when it opened its part of the interchange. "15:" The nuclear power station having closed and all fissile material having been removed the branch south of became redundant and closed. It has been protected, if not actively mothballed. Hopes have been expressed that an industrial use such as more nuclear activity at Trawsfynydd will once again secure the branch. Blaenau Ffestiniog passenger stations North west

neg: Nuclear reactor accidents in the United States the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy that: "the cumulative effect of all design defects and deficiencies in the design, construction and operations of nuclear power plants makes a nuclear power plant accident, in our opinion, a certain event. The only question is when, and where. On March 28, 1979, equipment failures and operator error contributed to loss of coolant and a partial core meltdown of Unit 2's pressurized water reactor at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania. The scope and complexity of this reactor accident became clear over the course of five days, as a number of

neg: Rosatom operation under the direction of Igor Kurchatov, a Soviet nuclear physicist in Obninsk, Kaluga Oblast. As the Soviet nuclear industry grew, so did the ministry, and from the 1970s to the 1980s, more than 1.5 million people worked in the ministry's organizations and enterprises. In 1989, Minsredmash and the Ministry of Atomic Energy merged to form the Ministry of Nuclear Engineering and Industry of the USSR. The Ministry for Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation [(, also known as Minatom (Russian: )] was established as a successor to the Russian part of the Ministry of Nuclear Engineering and Industry of

neg: Ontario electricity policy limited in capacity. To address these problems, the HEC began constructing new coal-fired electricity generation plants near major sources of electricity demand and launched plans to build nuclear power plants across the province of Ontario. Between the early 1970s and early 1990s twenty CANDU power reactors were brought into service at the Pickering (8 reactors), Bruce (8 reactors) and Darlington (4 reactors) nuclear generating facilities. The Power Corporation Act required Ontario Hydro, (formerly HEPCO, renamed in 1974) to provide "power at cost". This philosophy became part of the culture and lore of electricity supply in Ontario. The utility did not

neg: Konstantin Petrzhak free path of Pu-239 alpha particles. Petrzhak founded a laboratory of neutron physics and nuclear fission at the Khlopin Radium Institute in 1947. He was the head of this laboratory until 1986, when he became a part-time contractor. In 1949, Petrzhak was appointed a member of the Uranium Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He was one of the founders of the Engineering faculty of the Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology. Petrzhak founded the Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology department of nuclear physics in 1949, and remained its chair for 22 years. In 1958, he supervised Vladimir

neg: Wylfa Nuclear Power Station The Nuclear Power Group (TNPG) and the turbines by English Electric. These were the largest and last Magnox-type reactors to be built in the UK. Wylfa was also the second British nuclear power station, following Oldbury, to have a pre-stressed concrete pressure vessel instead of steel for easier construction and enhanced safety. Wylfa's two 490 MW Magnox nuclear reactors, "Reactor 1" and "Reactor 2" became operational in 1971. They typically supplied 23 GW h of electricity daily when they were both in service. Although the original design output was 1,190 MW, unexpected accelerated ("breakaway") corrosion of mild steel components of

neg: Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions submitted a proposal that the USSR and the US should reduce manpower by 2 to 3 per cent, and that both the US and the USSR would remove the same number of nuclear warheads, 354 nuclear-capable aircraft, a number of SCUD-B and Pershing I launchers, 300 tanks and a corps headquarters. In 1976, the different estimates for the number of forces the Warsaw Pact countries were fielding in Eastern Europe became an issue that was never resolved during the period of the talks. (In 1976 the Warsaw Pact gave figures of 815,000 ground force personnel and 182,000 air force personnel,

neg: Harold Denton Chernobyl site and was instrumental in establishing nuclear safety cooperation with the former USSR. In a ceremony in the Rose Garden at the White House, President Carter presented him with the Presidential Distinguished Executive Award for extraordinary accomplishment and leadership. Mr. Denton issued operating licenses to over forty nuclear power reactors during his career. He often testified before Senate and House committees concerning NRC's positions and activities. Later in his career, he directed the Commission's interactions with Congress, State Governments, foreign countries, the Nuclear Energy Agency, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the media. He attended North Carolina State College,

neg: Sendai Nuclear Power Plant Sendai Nuclear Power Plant The is a nuclear power plant located in the city of Satsumasendai in Kagoshima Prefecture. The two 846 MW net reactors are owned and operated by the Kyūshū Electric Power Company. The plant, like all other nuclear power plants in Japan, did not generate electricity after the nationwide shutdown in the wake of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011, but was restarted on August 11, 2015, and began providing power to nearby towns again. Sendai is the first of Japan's nuclear power plants to be restarted. The plant is on a site of 1.45 km

neg: Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate Mühleberg nuclear power plant. This finding prompted the operator of the power plant, BKW-FMB Energie AG, to shut the plant down prior to the date of the planned maintenance outage in order to carry out back-fitting. There were 35 reportable events at the Swiss nuclear plants during 2012. 14 of these concerned the two units of the Beznau nuclear power plant; eight were at the Gösgen nuclear power plant, five occurred at the Leibstadt nuclear power plant, six took place at the Mühleberg nuclear power plant and two involved the nuclear facilities of the PSI. ENSI did not register any

neg: Sweden and weapons of mass destruction 37 Viggen). The choice fell with the new fighter. All the plans for a Swedish nuclear weapon were scrapped by 1968, when Sweden signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1972, the last remnants of a plan for nuclear weapons was discontinued when the FOA stopped their experiments with plutonium. Sweden did, however, continue with civilian nuclear power and, as of 2012, Sweden had 10 active nuclear reactors. In March 2012, Sweden exported of plutonium and approximately of natural and depleted uranium to the United States under framework of the Global Threat Reduction Initiative. After World War I, Sweden started research

neg: Naum Meiman development of nuclear weapons in the USSR. Starting in 1968, Meiman became active in politics and signed several letters of protest against political trials in the USSR. In 1971, he retired and applied for permission to emigrate to Israel. Denied on grounds of knowing state secrets, he soon became a refusenik. Gradually he became more active in politics, and was a member of the Moscow Helsinki Group beginning in 1977. Later he became deputy chairman and the last active free member, writing hundreds of the group's documents. He also participated in a Refusenik scientific seminar. He was permanently under surveillance

neg: Nuclear peace Nuclear peace Nuclear peace is a theory of international relations that argues that under some circumstances nuclear weapons can induce stability and decrease the chances of crisis escalation. In particular, nuclear weapons are said to have induced stability during the Cold War, when both the US and the USSR possessed mutual second strike retaliation capability, eliminating the possibility of nuclear victory for either side. Proponents of nuclear peace argue that controlled nuclear proliferation may be beneficial for inducing stability. Critics of nuclear peace argue that nuclear proliferation not only increases the chance of interstate nuclear conflict, but increases the chances

neg: Nuclear peace and materials." Nuclear peace Nuclear peace is a theory of international relations that argues that under some circumstances nuclear weapons can induce stability and decrease the chances of crisis escalation. In particular, nuclear weapons are said to have induced stability during the Cold War, when both the US and the USSR possessed mutual second strike retaliation capability, eliminating the possibility of nuclear victory for either side. Proponents of nuclear peace argue that controlled nuclear proliferation may be beneficial for inducing stability. Critics of nuclear peace argue that nuclear proliferation not only increases the chance of interstate nuclear conflict, but increases

neg: German Goncharov proposed methods of measuring the power of underground nuclear tests in 1963. In 1965, using his theoretical results, he suggested a new direction for the design of Soviet thermonuclear weapons of megatonne yields. The first successful test of these improved weapons was conducted in 1966, using his measurement scheme, in tunnels at Novaya Zemlya. This generation of weapons went into mass production and was put into service with the USSR on land and sea-based missiles. Goncharov was appointed to the post of head of the theoretical department of KB-11 in 1967, a position he held until 2004. He officially became

neg: Lungmen Nuclear Power Plant Lungmen Nuclear Power Plant The Lungmen Nuclear Power Plant () (formerly Gongliao Nuclear Power Plant and Fourth Nuclear Power Plant, often abbreviated as: ), located nearby Fulong Beach, Gongliao District, New Taipei City, is Taiwan's fourth nuclear power plant, consisting of two ABWRs each of 1,300 MWe net. It is owned by Taiwan Power Company (Taipower). It was intended to be the first of these advanced Generation III reactors built outside Japan. In 2014 construction of the plant was deferred. The preceding four reactors in Japan were completed in four to five years. Taipower, however, did not award the contract

neg: History of the European Union again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their Great Power status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers. To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: Allied plans for German industry after World War II) and its main coal-producing regions were detached (Saarland, Silesia), or put under international control (Ruhr area). (See: Monnet Plan) With statements such as Winston Churchill's 1946 call

neg: Sergei Shmatko Sergei Shmatko Sergei Ivanovich Shmatkó (born September 26, 1966) is a Russian businessman and politician specializing in the energy industry. He was Russia's Minister of Energy from May 2008 until May 2012. Shmatko was born in Stavropol (South-West of Russia). He earned degrees from both Urals State University in Yekaterinburg (USSR), and the University of Marburg in West Germany. His business career from 1992 involved stints consulting in Germany and Russia, and working at the All-Russia Bank of Regional Development. He was appointed head of economic strategy at Rosenergoatom in 1997, and in 2005 became president of Russia's nuclear-power export

neg: Nuclear power in France the instability of the Fourth Republic and the lack of finances available. However, in the 1950s a civil nuclear research program was started, a by-product of which would be plutonium. In 1956 a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed and a development program for delivery vehicles started. In 1957, soon after the Suez Crisis and the diplomatic tension with both the USSR and the United States, French president René Coty decided the creation of the C.S.E.M. in what was then French Sahara, a new nuclear testing facility replacing the CIEES testing facility. See France and

neg: Swedish nuclear weapons program still advocating for Swedish nuclear weapons in general terms, they were no longer emphasized in defense planning. They felt that there was an imminent risk that Swedish nuclear possession would be prohibited as a result of the ongoing disarmament negotiations. The report also looked favorably on the notion of defending Sweden with modern conventional forces as they now embraced the Margin Doctrine. The Margin Doctrine assumed that an invasion of Sweden would not occur in isolation, but rather as a part of a major conflict; in such a situation, a large power (e.g. the USSR) would be unlikely to deploy

neg: Nuclear weapons of the United States many politicians and scientists to advocate some degree of international control or sharing of nuclear weapons and information, many politicians and members of the military believed that it was better in the short term to maintain high standards of nuclear secrecy and to forestall a Soviet bomb as long as possible (and they did not believe the USSR would actually submit to international controls in good faith). Since this path was chosen, the United States was, in its early days, essentially an advocate for the prevention of nuclear proliferation, though primarily for the reason of self-preservation. A few years after