query: in which layer of the intestine does most chemical digestion take place

pos: Small intestine the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach. The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates: Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport.

pos: Carbohydrate digestion their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine. Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the epithelium covering the villi (small hair-like structure). It is not a simple

pos: Small intestine and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine. Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter. The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from

pos: Hindgut fermentation limits the amount of further digestion or absorption that can occur after the food is fermented. In smaller hindgut fermenters of the order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas), cecotropes formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Cecotropes are surrounded by a layer of mucus which protects them from stomach acid but which does not inhibit nutrient absorption in the small intestine. Coprophagy is also practiced by some rodents, such as the capybara, guinea pig and related species, and by the marsupial common ringtail possum. This process is

pos: Digestion Digestion Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the

pos: Digestion The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine. In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed

pos: Lipid metabolism intestinal wall. In the epithelial cells, fatty acids are packaged and transported to the rest of the body. Digestion is the first step to lipid metabolism, and it is the process of breaking the triglycerides down into smaller monoglyceride units with the help of lipase enzymes. Digestion of fats begin in the mouth through chemical digestion by lingual lipase. Ingested cholesterol is not broken down by the lipases and stays intact until it enters the epithelium cells of small intestine. Lipids then continue to the stomach where chemical digestion continues by gastric lipase and mechanical digestion begins (Peristalsis). The majority

pos: Human digestive system teeth, and also by the contractions of peristalsis, and segmentation. Gastric acid, and the production of mucus in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion. Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the

pos: Fish physiology the intestine. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both. The small intestine is the part of the digestive tract following the stomach and followed by the large intestine, and is where much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not clear, and the terms "anterior" or "proximal" intestine may be used instead of duodenum. The small intestine is found in all teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively

pos: Bean in the large intestine. This digestion process produces flatulence-causing gases as a byproduct. Since sugar dissolves in water, another method of reducing flatulence associated with eating beans is to drain the water in which the beans have been cooked. Some species of mold produce alpha-galactosidase, an anti-oligosaccharide enzyme, which humans can take to facilitate digestion of oligosaccharides in the small intestine. This enzyme, currently sold in the United States under the brand-names Beano and Gas-X Prevention, can be added to food or consumed separately. In many cuisines beans are cooked along with natural carminatives such as anise seeds, coriander seeds

pos: Large intestine more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet. The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral). Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid.

pos: Human digestive system The duodenum is the first and shortest section of the small intestine. It is a hollow, jointed C-shaped tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It starts at the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. The attachment of the suspensory muscle to the diaphragm is thought to help the passage of food by making a wider angle at its attachment. Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine. Segmentation contractions act to mix and move the chyme more slowly in the small intestine allowing more time for absorption (and these continue in the large intestine).

pos: Extracellular digestion initial components of the gastrointestinal tract are the mouth and the pharynx, which is the common passage of the oral and nasal cavities. The pharynx leads to the esophagus, a muscular tube that delivers food to the stomach, where some preliminary digestion occurs; here, the digestion is extracellular. From the stomach, food passes to the small intestine, where a battery of digestive enzymes continue the digestive process. The products of digestion are absorbed across the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream. What remains is emptied into the large intestine, where some of the remaining water and minerals are absorbed;

pos: Carbohydrate digestion Carbohydrate digestion All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is taken up much faster than fructose. Monosaccharide transport saturates with -glucose at 30 mM. Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to

pos: Digestion energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.). The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion. In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the

pos: Small intestine type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods. In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into

pos: Fetal pig have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the gallbladder, pancreas and spleen are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system because they contain digestive enzymes that will perform chemical digestion of food. After food is digested and nutrients are absorbed,

pos: Fish physiology the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight, but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods. In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which

pos: Protein (nutrient) Acid Score. Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract. Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine. Before the absorption in the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids. Absorption of the

pos: Fish anatomy for dozens of turns. This fold creates a valve-like structure that greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods. In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions. The pyloric caecum is a pouch, usually peritoneal, at the beginning of the large intestine. It receives

pos: Jejunoileal bypass less weight loss initially and greater subsequent weight regain. Bile is secreted by the liver, enters the upper small intestine by way of the bile duct, and is absorbed in the small intestine. Bile has an important role in fat digestion, emulsifying fat as the first stage in its digestion. Bypassing the major site of bile acid reabsorption in the small intestine therefore further reduces fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. As a result, huge amounts of fatty acids, which are normally absorbed in the small intestine, enter the colon, where they cause irritation of the colon wall and the secretion

pos: Feed phosphates layer fatigue syndrome. Also for all species osteomalacia and reduced fertility are possible. All these symptoms are more or less irreversible, resulting in economic losses for the farmer. The mechanisms of phosphorus digestion and metabolism differ substantially between ruminant and non-ruminant (monogastric) species. In pigs, most phosphorus is absorbed from the small intestine -jejunum, duodenum- in the form of ortho-phosphate where its solubility is greatest. The phosphorus is then transported across the gut wall. The kidney plays the major regulatory role in controlling phosphorus levels, any excess is excreted primarily via the urine. In poultry available phosphorus solubilises in the

pos: Discovery and development of gastrointestinal lipase inhibitors the catalytic activity of gastric lipase. At the N-terminal, Lys4 is necessary for the enzyme to bind at lipid-water interfaces. Pancreatic lipase is the most important lipolytic enzyme in the gastrointestinal tract and is essential for fat digestion. Pancreatic lipase is secreted from acinar cells in the pancreas and its secretion, with the pancreatic juice to the small intestine, is stimulated by hormones. These hormones are induced in the stomach by hydrolysed products in gastric digestion. The pancreatic lipase is secreted to the small intestine where it is most active, at pH 7-7,5. Pancreatic lipase hydrolyses triglycerides and diglycerides by

pos: Chyme will be absorbed along with other nutrients. Chyme has a low pH that is countered by the production of bile, helping to further digest food. Chyme is part liquid and part solid: a thick semifluid mass of partially digested food and digestive secretions that is formed in the stomach and small intestine during digestion. Chyme also contains cells from the mouth and esophagus that slough off from the mechanical action of chewing and swallowing. After hours of mechanical and chemical digestion, food has been reduced into chyme. As particles of food become small enough, they are passed out of the

pos: Human digestive system the colon or large intestine. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste matter is stored prior to defecation. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. A major digestive organ is the stomach. Within its mucosa are millions of embedded gastric glands. Their secretions are vital to the functioning of the organ. There are many specialised cells of the GI tract. These include the various cells of the gastric glands, taste cells, pancreatic duct cells, enterocytes and microfold cells. Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the excretory system, including the large

pos: ENPP7 is a lipid constituent of cell membrane, and a dietary component being particularly abundant in milk, cheese, egg, and meat. Digestion of sphingomyelin mainly occurs in the middle part of the small intestine, where ENPP7 is abundant, indicating a role of the enzyme in sphingomyelin digestion. Recent studies on ENPP7 knockout mice clearly showed that digestion of sphingomyelin and generation of ceramide is severely affected in ENPP7 deficiency mice. ENPP7 is fully developed in the intestine before birth, which gives the infant ability to digest sphingomyelin in the milk. The daily intake of sphingomyelin for human with Western diet is

pos: Digestion close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine. Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons

pos: Isomaltulose breaks down isomaltulose slowly compared to sucrose. The maximum rate at which an enzyme can use a substrate is known as the V. The V of isomaltase for isomaltulose is 4.5 times slower than that of sucrase for sucrose. As a result of its slow digestion, isomaltulose reaches more distally in the human small intestine than does sucrose, as evidenced by their different incretin hormones responses. The incretin hormone glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is secreted from the earlier (proximal) part of the small intestine in lower amounts after isomaltulose than for sucrose ingestion, whereas the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)

pos: Isomaltulose instead or together. Isomaltulose is an available carbohydrate like sucrose and most others sugars or maltodextrins. Available or “nutritive” carbohydrates serve the body as a source of energy for its physiological functions. Whether a carbohydrate becomes available to the body largely depends on its digestion, absorption, and metabolism, When present in foods and beverages that are ingested by humans, isomaltulose is digested completely and absorbed. Its intestinal digestion involves the enzyme isomaltase, which is located at the surface of the brush border lining the inner wall of the small intestine. This enzyme is otherwise involved in the digestion of α-1,6

pos: Gastrointestinal disease Gastrointestinal disease Gastrointestinal diseases refer to diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum, and the accessory organs of digestion, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Even though anatomically part of the GI tract, diseases of the mouth are often not considered alongside other gastrointestinal diseases. By far the most common oral conditions are plaque-induced diseases (e.g. gingivitis, periodontitis, dental caries). Some diseases which involve other parts of the GI tract can manifest in the mouth, alone or in combination, including: Oesophageal diseases include a spectrum of disorders affecting the oesophagus. The most common

pos: Chyme stomach at regular intervals into the small intestine, which stimulates the pancreas to release fluid containing a high concentration of bicarbonate. This fluid neutralizes the gastric juices, which can damage the lining of the intestine and result in duodenal ulcer. Other secretions from the pancreas, gallbladder, liver, and glands in the intestinal wall help in digestion. When food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down proteins and

pos: Omeprazole 72 hours. When omeprazole is stopped, baseline stomach acid secretory activity returns after 3 to 5 days. The inhibitory effect of omeprazole on acid secretion will plateau after 4 days of repeated daily dosing. The absorption of omeprazole takes place in the small intestine and is usually completed within 3 to 6 hours. The systemic bioavailability of omeprazole after repeated doses is about 60%. Omeprazole, as well as other PPIs, are only effective on active H/K-ATPase pumps. These pumps are stimulated in the presence of food to aid in digestion. For this reason, patients should be advised to take omeprazole

pos: Enterohepatic circulation travel to the gall bladder during the interdigestive phase for storage and to the descending part of the duodenum via the common bile duct through the major duodenal papilla during digestion. 95% of the bile acids which are delivered to the duodenum will be recycled by the enterohepatic circulation. Due to the pH of the small intestine, most of the bile acids are ionized and mostly occur as their sodium salts which are then called “primary conjugated bile salts.” In the lower small intestine and colon, bacteria dehydroxylate some of the primary bile salts to form secondary conjugated bile salts

pos: Cholera secretion of water, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate into the lumen of the small intestine and rapid dehydration. The gene encoding the cholera toxin was introduced into "V. cholerae" by horizontal gene transfer. Virulent strains of "V. cholerae" carry a variant of a temperate bacteriophage called CTXφ. Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the "V. cholerae" bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the

pos: Stomach disease Stomach disease Stomach diseases (or gastropathy) include gastritis, gastroparesis, diarrhea, Crohn's disease and various cancers. The stomach is an important organ in the body. It plays a vital role in digestion of foods, releases various enzymes and also protects the lower intestine from harmful organisms. The stomach connects to the esophagus above and to the small intestine below. It is intricately related to the pancreas, spleen and liver. The stomach does vary in size but its J shape is constant. The stomach lies in the upper part of the abdomen just below the left rib cage. Examples including the name

pos: Stomach disease Other tests include a 24-hour pH study, CT scans or MRI. Stomach disease Stomach diseases (or gastropathy) include gastritis, gastroparesis, diarrhea, Crohn's disease and various cancers. The stomach is an important organ in the body. It plays a vital role in digestion of foods, releases various enzymes and also protects the lower intestine from harmful organisms. The stomach connects to the esophagus above and to the small intestine below. It is intricately related to the pancreas, spleen and liver. The stomach does vary in size but its J shape is constant. The stomach lies in the upper part of the

pos: Solitary lymphatic nodule spaces which surround the gland, through which they communicate with the lacteal system. They are situated partly in the submucous tissue, partly in the mucous membrane, where they form slight projections of its epithelial layer. The solitary lymphatic nodules of the large intestine are most abundant in the cecum and vermiform process, but are irregularly scattered also over the rest of the intestine. They are similar to those of the small intestine. Solitary lymphatic nodule The Solitary lymphatic nodules (or solitary follicles) are structures found in the small intestine and large intestine. The solitary lymphatic nodules are found scattered throughout

pos: Digestion proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides. Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate

pos: Human digestive system its nutrients the remaining waste material changes into the semi-solids called feces, which pass to the large intestine, where bacteria in the gut flora further break down residual proteins and starches. The cecum is a pouch marking the division between the small intestine and the large intestine. The cecum receives chyme from the last part of the small intestine, the ileum, and connects to the ascending colon of the large intestine. At this junction there is a sphincter or valve, the ileocecal valve which slows the passage of chyme from the ileum, allowing further digestion. It is also the site

pos: Lepidosaur herbivory in the digestion of plant material. Much of the fermentation of the plant material occurs in the hindgut, or colon, where symbiotic organisms breakdown plant material that has otherwise been resistant to digestion. In both small and large lizards the small intestine is relatively shorter, whereas the large intestine is relatively longer. There have also been additional transverse valves documented in the large intestine, specifically in "Ctenosaura pectinata". The number of these septa increased through ontogeny, with juveniles (who are insectivorous) having two to four valves, whereas adults possessed five to six. These valves help slow the passage of food,

pos: Acarbose intestine, whereas the membrane-bound intestinal alpha-glucosidases hydrolyze oligosaccharides, trisaccharides, and disaccharides to glucose and other monosaccharides in the small intestine. Inhibition of these enzyme systems reduces the rate of digestion of complex carbohydrates. Less glucose is absorbed because the carbohydrates are not broken down into glucose molecules. In diabetic patients, the short-term effect of these drug therapies is to decrease current blood glucose levels; the long-term effect is a reduction in HbA level. This reduction averages an absolute decrease of 0.7%, which is a decrease of about 10% in typical HbA values in diabetes studies. Since acarbose prevents the digestion

pos: Frog eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat. The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where

pos: Henricia sanguinolenta and a thin coelomic myoepithelial layer. "Henricia sanguinolenta" has two stomachs, a small intestine, and an rectum leading to an anus. The two stomachs are called the cardiac stomach, and the pyloric stomach. The cardiac stomach is on the oral side, in the center of the disc. It is covered by a thin membrane and sphincter. When the sea star has its prey, it extends the stomach to envelope the prey. Once the prey is enveloped, it then retracts back into the disc, and transfers it to the pyloric stomach for further digestion. The pyloric stomach has two extensions into

pos: ENPP7 about 300 mg. Under physiological conditions, only part of the sphingomyelin can be digested and absorbed. The limitation is thought to be caused by several factors that are present in the intestine such as cholesterol, phospholipids, fat and high concentrations of bile salts. It is thus understandable why SM digestion occurs most effectively in the low part of the small intestine, where most fat, phospholipids, and bile salt have been absorbed or up taken. It is also understandable that considerable amount of dietary sphingomyelin is delivered into the colon and excreted in the feces. ENPP7 may have important roles in

pos: Bile acid malabsorption (also called bile salts) are produced in the liver, secreted into the biliary system, stored in the gallbladder and are released after meals stimulated by cholecystokinin. They are important for the digestion and absorption of fats (lipids) in the small intestine. Usually over 95% of the bile acids are absorbed in the terminal ileum and are taken up by the liver and resecreted. This enterohepatic circulation of bile acids takes place 4-6 times in 24 hours and usually less than 0.5 g of bile acids enter the large intestine per 24 h. When larger amounts of bile acids enter the

pos: Ruminant passing through. This is also where the ruminant digests the microbes produced in the rumen. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. The small intestine is the main site of nutrient absorption. the surface area of the digesta is greatly increased here because of the villi that are in the small intestine. This increased surface area allows for greater nutrient absorption. Microbes produced in the reticulorumen are also digested in the small intestine. After the small intestine is the large intestine. The major roles here are breaking down mainly fiber by

pos: Peristalsis intestine. Once past the stomach, a typical peristaltic wave only lasts for a few seconds, travelling at only a few centimeters per second. Its primary purpose is to mix the chyme in the intestine rather than to move it forward in the intestine. Through this process of mixing and continued digestion and absorption of nutrients, the chyme gradually works its way through the small intestine to the large intestine. In contrast to peristalsis, segmentation contractions result in that churning and mixing without pushing materials further down the digestive tract. Although the large intestine has peristalsis of the type that the

pos: Isomaltooligosaccharide GI. Consumption of IMO effectively improved bowel movements, stool output and microbial fermentation in the colon without any adverse effects in elderly people. The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) defines soluble fiber as "the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine". Dietary fiber consists of many plant components including oligosaccharides. For a dietary substrate to be classified as a fiber, it must be resistant to digestion and absorption in upper GI tract, and cause a bulking effect in defecation. IMO

pos: Carbohydrate digestion produces gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane) and short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate). The gases are absorbed and excreted by breathing or through the anus (flatulence). Fatty acids are rapidly metabolized. Butyrate is used mainly by cells in the colon and acetate is absorbed into the blood and taken up by the liver, muscle and other tissue. Propionate is an important precursor of glucose in some animals, but not humans. Carbohydrate digestion All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is

pos: Resistant starch manufactured foods. Starches with high amylose content generally have increased resistant starch. Resistant starch (RS) is any starch or starch digestion products that are not digested and absorbed in the stomach or small intestine and pass on to the large intestine. RS has been categorized into four types: Processing may affect the natural resistant starch content of foods. In general, processes that break down structural barriers to digestion reduce resistant starch content, with greater reductions resulting from processing. Whole grain wheat may contain as high as 14% resistant starch, while milled wheat flour may contain only 2%. Resistant starch content

pos: Lactose intolerance to the addition of gastric juices from the stomach. Unfortunately, too much acid can denature it, so it should not be taken on an empty stomach. Also, the enzyme is ineffective if it does not reach the small intestine by the time the problematic food does. Lactose-sensitive individuals can experiment with both timing and dosage to fit their particular needs. While essentially the same process as normal intestinal lactose digestion, direct treatment of milk employs a different variety of industrially produced lactase. This enzyme, produced by yeast from the genus "Kluyveromyces", takes much longer to act, must be thoroughly mixed

pos: Gastrointestinal tract the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the anus and, as in other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the, cecum, ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal. The small intestine begins at the duodenum and is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. Its mucosal area in an adult human is about 30 m. Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates,

pos: Enterocyte Enterocyte Enterocytes, or intestinal absorptive cells, are simple columnar epithelial cells found in the small intestine. A glycocalyx surface coat contains digestive enzymes. Microvilli on the apical surface increase surface area for the digestion and transport of molecules from the intestinal lumen. The cells also have a secretory role. The major functions of enterocytes include: Dietary fructose intolerance occurs when there is a deficiency in the amount of fructose carrier. Lactose intolerance is the most common problem of carbohydrate digestion and occurs when the human body doesn't produce a sufficient amount of lactase (a disaccharidase) enzyme to break down the

pos: Microfold cell Microfold cell Microfold cells (or M cells) are found in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) of the Peyer's patches in the small intestine, and in the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) of other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. These cells are known to initiate mucosal immunity responses on the apical membrane of the M cells and allow for transport of microbes and particles across the epithelial cell layer from the gut lumen to the lamina propria where interactions with immune cells can take place. Unlike their neighbor cells, M cells have the unique ability to take up antigen from the lumen

pos: Malabsorption enzymatic breakdown of food. Mechanical processes include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the small intestine. Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the intestinal epithelial cells. Malabsorption constitutes the pathological interference with the normal physiological sequence of digestion (intraluminal process), absorption (mucosal process) and transport (postmucosal events) of nutrients. Intestinal malabsorption can be due to: There is no single, specific test for malabsorption. As for most medical conditions, investigation is guided by symptoms and signs. A range of different conditions can produce malabsorption

pos: Fish protein powder have a residual moisture content in the 4-8% range. Any animal that consumes a whole protein must break down and digest the protein order to absorb the nutrients. For humans this begins with chewing and the addition of saliva enzymes, followed by acid and protease enzyme digestion in the stomach, whereby the end result is a peptide or amino acid fraction ready for uptake into the blood stream via the small intestine. Research has confirmed that most animals have more Peptide receptors in the gut and lower intestine than they do free amino acid receptors - as such the peptide

pos: Large intestine large intestine is truly distinct only in tetrapods, in which it is almost always separated from the small intestine by an ileocaecal valve. In most vertebrates, however, it is a relatively short structure running directly to the anus, although noticeably wider than the small intestine. Although the caecum is present in most amniotes, only in mammals does the remainder of the large intestine develop into a true colon. In some small mammals, the colon is straight, as it is in other tetrapods, but, in the majority of mammalian species, it is divided into ascending and descending portions; a distinct transverse

pos: Extracellular digestion down outside the cell either mechanically or with acid by special molecules called enzymes. Then the newly broken down nutrients can be absorbed by the cells nearby. Humans use extracellular digestion when they eat. Their teeth grind the food, enzymes and acid in the stomach liquefy it, and additional enzymes in the small intestine break the food down into parts their cells can use. Although fungi do not have a digestive tract like humans, they still use extracellular digestion. Fungi and other decomposers utilize nutrients derived from breaking down the substrate they grow on. Another example of extracellular digestion being

pos: Enterohepatic circulation that each bile salt molecule is reused about 20 times, often multiple times during a single digestive phase. The presence of biliary acids in the intestines helps in digestion of fats and other substances. Bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid in the liver by the enzyme glucuronyltransferase, making it soluble in water. Much of it goes into the bile and thus out into the small intestine. Although 95% of the secreted bilirubinoid bile is reabsorbed by the small intestine, conjugated bilirubin is not reabsorbed in small intestine. All conjugated bilirubin in the large intestine is metabolised by colonic bacteria to

pos: Protein (nutrient) food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body. Newborns of mammals are exceptional in protein digestion and assimilation in that they can absorb intact proteins at the small intestine. This enables passive immunity, i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via milk. Considerable debate has taken place regarding issues surrounding protein intake requirements. The amount of protein required in a person's diet is determined in large part by overall energy intake, the body's need for nitrogen and essential amino acids, body weight and composition, rate of growth in the individual, physical activity level, the

pos: Hindgut fermentation as rabbits and rodents. However, in spite of the terminology, colonic fermenters such as horses make extensive use of the cecum to break down cellulose. Also, colonic fermenters typically have a proportionally longer large intestine than small intestine, whereas cecal fermenters have a considerably enlarged cecum compared to the rest of the digestive tract. In addition to mammals, several insects are also hindgut fermenters, the best studied of which are the termites, which are characterised by an enlarged "paunch" of the hindgut that also houses the bulk of the gut microbiota. Digestion of wood particles in lower termites is accomplished

neg: Digestion gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body. In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires

neg: Amoebiasis eating and digesting bacteria and food particles in the gut, a part of the gastrointestinal tract. It does not usually come in contact with the intestine itself due to the protective layer of mucus that lines the gut. Disease occurs when amoeba comes in contact with the cells lining the intestine. It then secretes the same substances it uses to digest bacteria, which include enzymes that destroy cell membranes and proteins. This process can lead to penetration and digestion of human tissues, resulting first in flask-shaped ulcerations in the intestine. "Entamoeba histolytica" ingests the destroyed cells by phagocytosis and is

neg: Digestion intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation. Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where

neg: Jundiz recycling plant the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane. Populations of anaerobic microorganisms typically take a significant period of time to establish themselves to be fully effective. It is therefore common practice to introduce anaerobic microorganisms from materials with existing populations, a process known as "seeding" the digesters, and typically takes place with the addition of sewage sludge or cattle slurry. The key process stages of anaerobic digestion There are four key biological and chemical stages of anaerobic digestion: 1. Hydrolysis 2. Acidogenesis 3. Acetogenesis 4. Methanogenesis In most cases biomass is made up

neg: Extracellular digestion more digestive glands or digestive caeca. Digestive enzymes are secreted into the lumen of these glands. Additional extracellular digestion takes place in the stomach. In cephalopods, digestion is entirely extracellular. In the most other mollusks, the terminal stages of digestion are completed intracellularly, within the tissue of the digestive glands. The absorbed nutrients enter the circulatory system for distribution throughout the body or are stored in the digestive glands for later use. Undigested waste pass through an intestine and out through the anus. Other aspects of food collection and processing have already been discussed where appropriate for each group. The

neg: Bird anatomy dinosaurs, which left gastroliths as trace fossils. The partially digested and pulverized gizzard contents, now called a bolus, are passed into the intestine, where pancreatic and intestinal enzymes complete the digestion of the digestible food. The digestion products are then absorbed through the intestinal mucosa into the blood. The intestine ends via the large intestine in the vent or cloaca which serves as the common exit for renal and intestinal excrements as well as for the laying of eggs. However, unlike mammals, many birds do not excrete the bulky portions (roughage) of their undigested food (e.g. feathers, fur, bone fragments,

neg: Rabbit are not reingested. Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing, after the hard pellets have all been excreted. They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls. Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract. The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the

neg: Onychophora Historically, the salivary glands probably evolved from the waste-elimination organs known as nephridia, which are found homologously in the other body segments. The throat itself is very muscular, serving to absorb the partially liquified food and to pump it, via the oesophagus, which forms the rear part of the front intestine, into the central intestine. Unlike the front intestine, this is not lined with a cuticula but instead consists only of a single layer of epithelial tissue, which does not exhibit conspicuous indentation as is found in other animals. On entering the central intestine, food particles are coated with a

neg: Snake dormant while the process of digestion takes place. Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is . So much metabolic energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake ("Crotalus durissus"), surface body temperature increases by as much as during

neg: Chyme the chyme to 7. The chyme then moves through the jejunum and the ileum, where digestion progresses, and the nonuseful portion continues onward into the large intestine. The duodenum is protected by a thick layer of mucus and the neutralizing actions of the sodium bicarbonate and bile. At a pH of 7, the enzymes that were present from the stomach are no longer active. This then leads into the further breakdown of the nutrients still present by anaerobic bacteria, which at the same time help to package the remains. These bacteria also help synthesize vitamin B and vitamin K, which

neg: Onychophora mucus-based peritrophic membrane, which serves to protect the lining of the intestine from damage by sharp-edged particles. The intestinal epithelium secretes further digestive enzymes and absorbs the released nutrients, although the majority of digestion has already taken place externally or in the mouth. Indigestible remnants arrive in the rear intestine, or rectum, which is once again lined with a cuticula and which opens at the anus, located on the underside near to the rear end. In almost every segment is a pair of excretory organs called nephridia, which are derived from coelom tissue. Each consists of a small pouch that

neg: Glucose-galactose malabsorption Glucose-galactose malabsorption Glucose-galactose malabsorption is a rare condition in which the cells lining the intestine cannot take in the sugars glucose and galactose, which prevents proper digestion of these molecules and larger molecules made from them. Glucose and galactose are called simple sugars, or monosaccharides. Sucrose and lactose are called disaccharides because they are made from two simple sugars, and are broken down into these simple sugars during digestion. Sucrose is broken down into glucose and another simple sugar called fructose, and lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose. As a result, lactose, sucrose and other compounds made from

neg: Lethal white syndrome system where most digestion takes place, and comprises the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. Necropsies on LWS foals reveal a pale, underdeveloped colon and intestinal obstruction (impaction). Samples of affected tissue show a lack of nerves that allow the intestine to move material through the digestive system, a condition called intestinal agangliosis. Closer examination of the skin and hair shows both to be unpigmented, and most hair follicles are inactive and many are devoid of hair altogether. All LWS foals test homozygous for a genetic abnormality. Genetic conditions which affect more than one physical trait—in the case of lethal

neg: Pacific angelshark be transferred to the intestine for digestion. The internal yolk sac is fully resorbed before birth; if the pup is released prematurely, it does not feed until this process is complete. Off Santa Barbara, birthing takes place from March to June after a gestation period of ten months, and the females mate again shortly afterward. The average litter size is 6 with a range of 1–11 (rarely 13); there is no correlation between female size and number of offspring. The young are born in water deep, probably to protect them from predators. Pacific angelshark embryos grow at per month when

neg: Tropopause World Meteorological Organization: The tropopause as defined above renders as a first-order discontinuity surface, that is, "temperature" as a function of height varies continuously through the atmosphere but the "temperature gradient" does not. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere; it is located right above the planetary boundary layer, and is the layer in which most weather phenomena take place. The troposphere contains the boundary layer, and ranges in height from an average of at the poles, to at the Equator. In the absence of inversions and not considering moisture, the temperature lapse rate for this layer

neg: Large intestine the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of

neg: Ileum into the lumen of the intestine. These enzymes are present in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells. The villi contain large numbers of capillaries that take the amino acids and glucose produced by digestion to the hepatic portal vein and the liver. Lacteals are small lymph vessels, and are present in villi. They absorb fatty acid and glycerol, the products of fat digestion. Layers of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle enable the chyme (partly digested food and water) to be pushed along the ileum by waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis. The remaining chyme is passed to the colon. It

neg: Port Jackson shark it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get any further than the stomach, and are coughed up again. They have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and spit it out of their mouths to get rid of any unwanted contents. One of the biggest differences in digestion in the shark when compared to mammals is the extremely short intestine. This short length is achieved by the spiral valve with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a very long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a very long surface area for the digestion

neg: Boiling a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a thin layer of vapor, which has low thermal conductivity, insulates the surface. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes "film boiling". As a method of disinfecting water, bringing it to its boiling point at , is the oldest and most effective way since it does not affect the taste, it is effective despite contaminants or particles present in it, and is a single step process which eliminates most microbes responsible for causing intestine related diseases. According

neg: Fish physiology food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it

neg: Intracellular digestion digested by the lysosome's enzymes. Intracellular digestion can also refer to the process in which animals that "lack" a digestive tract bring food items into the cell for the purposes of digestion for nutritional needs. This kind of intracellular digestion occurs in many unicellular protozoans, in Pycnogonida, in some molluscs, Cnidaria and Porifera. There is another type of digestion, called extracellular digestion. In amphioxus, digestion is both extracellular and intracellular. Intracellular digestion is divided into heterophagic digestion and autophagic digestion. These two types take place in the lysosome and they both have very specific functions. Heterophagic intracellular digestion has an

neg: Cheung Chau Mini Great Wall Peng Rock. Honeycomb weathering takes place on Rock of the Ringing Bell. Salt sprays from seawater dissolved chemical materials in the rock and so produced a honeycomb look. The Eagle Rock is located near Fa Peng Rock. It looks like an eagle standing on the coast facing to the South China Sea. Fa Peng (vase) Rock is one of the most famous tor in Hong Kong. The rocks were originally below the ground surface. As the main rock type in Cheung Chau is granite, chemical weathering can easily take place. Due to the presence of deep weathering profiles, granite layer

neg: Enteric fermentation and cats, cannot digest. Enteric fermentation occurs when methane (CH) is produced in the rumen as microbial fermentation takes place. Over 200 species of microorganisms are present in the rumen, although only about 10% of these play an important role in digestion. Most of the CH byproduct is belched by the animal, however, a small percentage of CH is also produced in the large intestine and passed out as flatulence. Methane emissions are an important contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC reports that methane is more than twenty times as effective as CO at trapping heat in the

neg: Chemical change all the process involved in photosynthesis, a process in which carbon dioxide and water are changed into sugars and oxygen by plants, digestion in which energy rich materials are used by organisms to grow and move, Krebs cycle which liberates energy from stored reserves, protein synthesis which enable organisms to grow using processes controlled by RNA etc. The following can indicate that a chemical change has taken place, although this evidence is not conclusive: Chemical change Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or

neg: Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels carboxylate salts. Methanogenesis, being the natural final stage of anaerobic digestion, is inhibited by the presence of the ammonium ions or by the addition of an inhibitor (e.g., iodoform). The resulting fermentation broth contains the produced carboxylate salts that must be dewatered. This is achieved efficiently by vapor-compression evaporation. Further chemical refining of the dewatered fermentation broth may then take place depending on the final chemical or biofuel product desired. The condensed distilled water from the vapor-compression evaporation system is recycled back to the fermentation. On the other hand, if raw sewage or other waste water with high BOD in

neg: Earthworm mammalian intestine, an earthworm's intestine increases surface area to increase nutrient absorption by having many folds running along its length. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like the body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. The earthworm has a dual circulatory system in which both the coelomic fluid and a closed circulatory system carry the food, waste, and respiratory gases. The closed circulatory system has five main blood vessels: the dorsal (top) vessel, which runs above the digestive tract; the ventral (bottom) vessel, which runs below the digestive tract; the subneural

neg: Eimeria varies from mild to severe, and is largely dependent on the magnitude of infection. In light infections, the damage to the gut might only be minimal and be rapidly repaired as cells are rapidly replaced by the body. However, in heavy infections, it may only take two weeks for many intestinal epithelial cells to be infected with either "Eimeria" meronts or gametocytes. These cause the epithelial cells to burst, which causes significant damage to the intestine epithelial layer, resulting in the release of blood, fluid, and electrolytes into the intestine. Good animal husbandry practices and prophylactic application of anticoccidial drugs

neg: Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor inhibitor suffers from an episode of hypoglycemia, the patient should eat something containing monosaccharides, such as glucose tablets. Since the drug will prevent the digestion of polysaccharides (or non-monosaccharides), non-monosaccharide foods may not effectively reverse a hypoglycemic episode in a patient taking an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are oral anti-diabetic drugs used for diabetes mellitus type 2 that work by preventing the digestion of carbohydrates (such as starch and table sugar). Carbohydrates are normally converted into simple sugars (monosaccharides) by alpha-glucosidase enzymes present on cells lining the intestine, enabling monosaccharides to be absorbed through the intestine. Hence, alpha-glucosidase

neg: Supercapacitor in conventional capacitors is transferred via electrons, capacitance in double-layer capacitors is related to the limited moving speed of ions in the electrolyte and the resistive porous structure of the electrodes. Since no chemical changes take place within the electrode or electrolyte, charging and discharging electric double-layers in principle is unlimited. Real supercapacitors lifetimes are only limited by electrolyte evaporation effects. Applying a voltage at the electrochemical capacitor terminals moves electrolyte ions to the opposite polarized electrode and forms a double-layer in which a single layer of solvent molecules acts as separator. Pseudocapacitance can originate when specifically adsorbed ions out

neg: Gastrointestinal tract allergies. The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules that the human body cannot otherwise break down. This is an example of symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host-pathogen interface, inside our intestine(this gas is released as "flatulence" when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus) and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum. Health-enhancing intestinal bacteria of the gut

neg: Typhlosole of the intestine wall, whereas in some other families (e.g. Megascolecidae), it is an infolding of only the inner layer, and in many earthworms it is absent. Typhlosole A typhlosole is an internal fold of the intestine or intestine inner wall. Typhlosoles occur in bivalve mollusks, lampreys and some annelids and echinoderms. In earthworms, it is a dorsal flap of the intestine that runs along most of its length, effectively forming a tube within a tube, and increasing the absorption area by that of its inner surface. Its function is to increase intestine surface area for more efficient absorption of

neg: Gerhard Ertl the 2007 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces. The Nobel academy said Ertl provided a detailed description of how chemical reactions take place on surfaces. His findings applied in both academic studies and industrial development, the academy said. “Surface chemistry can even explain the destruction of the ozone layer, as vital steps in the reaction actually take place on the surfaces of small crystals of ice in the stratosphere,” the award citation reads. In 2015, Ertl signed the Mainau Declaration 2015 on Climate Change on the final day of the 65th Lindau Nobel

neg: Pedosphere diversify the chemical makeup of the early soil layer. Once weathering and decomposition products accumulate, a coherent soil body allows the migration of fluids both vertically and laterally through the soil profile, causing ion exchange between solid, fluid and gaseous phases. As time progresses, the bulk geochemistry of the soil layer will deviate away from the initial composition of the bedrock and will evolve to a chemistry that reflects the type of reactions that take place in the soil. The primary conditions for soil development are controlled by the chemical composition of the rock that the soil will eventually be

neg: Caenorhabditis elegans this valve operates is not understood. After digestion, the contents of the intestine are released via the rectum, as is the case with all other nematodes. No direct connection exists between the pharynx and the excretory canal, which functions in the release of liquid urine. Males have a single-lobed gonad, a vas deferens, and a tail specialized for mating, which incorporates spicules. Hermaphrodites have two ovaries, oviducts, and spermatheca, and a single uterus. Numerous gut granules are present in the intestine of "C. elegans", the functions of which are still not fully known, as are many other aspects of this

neg: Anaerobic digestion such as silage, for dedicated biogas production. In Germany and continental Europe, these facilities are referred to as "biogas" plants. A codigestion or cofermentation plant is typically an agricultural anaerobic digester that accepts two or more input materials for simultaneous digestion. The length of time required for anaerobic digestion depends on the chemical complexity of the material. Material rich in easily digestible sugars breaks down quickly, whereas intact lignocellulosic material rich in cellulose and hemicellulose polymers can take much longer to break down. Anaerobic microorganisms are generally unable to break down lignin, the recalcitrant aromatic component of biomass. Anaerobic digesters

neg: Lipase Lipase A lipase (, ) is any enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fats (lipids). Lipases are a subclass of the esterases. Lipases perform essential roles in digestion, transport and processing of dietary lipids (e.g. triglycerides, fats, oils) in most, if not all, living organisms. Genes encoding lipases are even present in certain viruses. Most lipases act at a specific position on the glycerol backbone of a lipid substrate (A1, A2 or A3)(small intestine). For example, human pancreatic lipase (HPL), which is the main enzyme that breaks down dietary fats in the human digestive system, converts triglyceride substrates found in

neg: Gnathostomulid digestion takes place; there is no true anus. However, there is tissue connecting the intestine to the epidermis which may serve as an anal pore. Gnathostomulids are simultaneous hermaphrodites. Each individual possesses a single ovary and one or two testes. After fertilization, the single egg ruptures through the body wall and adheres to nearby sand particles; the parent is able to rapidly heal the resulting wound. The egg hatches into a miniature version of the adult, without a larval stage. There are approximately 100 described species and certainly many more as yet undescribed. The known species are grouped in two

neg: Acorn worm mouth opens posteriorly into a pharynx with a row of gill slits along either side. The remainder of the digestive system consists of an oesophagus and intestine; there is no stomach. In some families there are openings in the dorsal surface of the oesophagus connecting to the external surface, through which water from the food can be squeezed, helping to concentrate it. Digestion occurs in the intestine, with food material being pulled through by cilia, rather than by muscular action. Acorn worms breathe by drawing in oxygenated water through their mouth. The water then flows out the animal's gills which

neg: Sea urchin the small and large intestines of sea urchins are in no way homologous to the similarly named structures in vertebrates. Digestion occurs in the intestine, with the caecum producing further digestive enzymes. An additional tube, called the siphon, runs beside much of the intestine, opening into it at both ends. It may be involved in resorption of water from food. The water vascular system leads downwards from the madreporite through the slender stone canal to the ring canal, which encircles the oesophagus. Radial canals lead from here through each ambulacral area to terminate in a small tentacle which passes through