query: when did the first bacteria appear on earth

pos: Bacteria the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called "Bacteria" and "Archaea". The word "bacteria" is the plural of the New Latin "", which is the latinisation of the Greek ("bakterion"), the diminutive of βακτηρία ("bakteria"), meaning "staff, cane", because the first ones to be discovered were rod-shaped. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and

pos: Marine microorganism constituting the class "Schizomycetes", bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles. Although the term "bacteria" traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called "Bacteria" and "Archaea". The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3 billion

pos: Marine life the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called "Bacteria" and "Archaea". The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. Although bacterial fossils exist, such as stromatolites, their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution, or to date

neg: Bacteria came in 1977 when Carl Woese recognised that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria. This new phylogenetic taxonomy depended on the sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA, and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains, as part of the three-domain system. Bacteria Bacteria (; common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most

neg: Marine microorganism last universal common ancestor of life on Earth. Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth. Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Once regarded as plants

neg: Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii mild skin reactions upon exposure. The last two toxins, anatoxin-a and saxitoxin, are thought to be shellfish neurotoxins. Research has shown that "C. raciborskii" can naturally produce butylated hydroxytoluene, an antioxidant, food additive, and industrial chemical. Domain – Bacteria The Tree of Life contains three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Kingdom – Bacteria Bacteria consists of prokaryotic microorganisms. They were among the first life forms to appear on Earth and appear in a wide variety of habitats. Phylum – Cyanobacteria This phylum is characterized by their ability to obtain energy through photosynthesis. They are often called the blue-green algae stemming

neg: Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria (; common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about half of the

neg: Marine life ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Once regarded as plants constituting the class "Schizomycetes", bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles. Although the term "bacteria" traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after

neg: Nature in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of Earth. The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi-cellular organisms began to appear. Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. They include Bacteria, Fungi, Archaea, and Protista. These life forms are found in almost every location on

neg: Coliform bacteria to Gram (+) bacteria, and will produce a color change in the Gram (-) bacterial colonies based on lactose fermentation abilities. Strong lactose fermenters will appear as dark blue/purple/black, and "E.coli" (which also ferments lactose) colonies will be dark colored, but will also appear to have a metallic green sheen. Other coliform bacteria will appear as thick, slimy colonies, with non-fermenters being colorless, and weak fermenters being pink. Coliform bacteria Coliform bacteria are defined as rod-shaped Gram-negative non-spore forming and motile or non-motile bacteria which can ferment lactose with the production of acid and gas when incubated at 35–37°C. They

neg: Ice-minus bacteria trasher". The BBC quoted Andy Caffrey from Earth First!: "When I first heard that a company in Berkley was planning to release these bacteria Frostban in my community, I literally felt a knife go into me. Here once again, for a buck, science, technology and corporations were going to invade my body with new bacteria that hadn't existed on the planet before. It had already been invaded by smog, by radiation, by toxic chemicals in my food, and I just wasn't going to take it anymore." Rifkin's successful legal challenge forced the Reagan Administration to more quickly develop an overarching

neg: Three-domain system appear to be more closely related to eukaryotes than they are to other prokaryotic bacteria. The current system has the following listed kingdoms in the three domains: Domain Archaea – prokaryotic, no nuclear membrane, distinct biochemistry and RNA markers from bacteria, possess unique ancient evolutionary history for which they are considered some of the oldest species of organisms on Earth; traditionally classified as archaebacteria; often characterized by living in extreme environments. Some examples of archaeal organisms are methanogens which produce the gas methane, halophiles which live in very salty water, and thermoacidophiles which thrive in acidic high temperature water. Domain

neg: Chandra Wickramasinghe detection of evidence for viable microorganisms from 41 km above the Earth's surface was presented. However, the experiment did not present evidence as to whether the findings are incoming microbes from space rather than microbes carried up to 41 km from the surface of the Earth. In 2005 the ISRO group carried out a second stratospheric sampling experiment from 41 km altitude and reported the isolation of three new species of bacteria including one that they named "Janibacter hoylei" sp.nov. in honour of Fred Hoyle. However, these facts do not prove that bacteria on Earth originated in the cosmic environment.

neg: Panoramio to Google for the people, and especially the Panoramio community, to sign, called "Google: Keep The Panoramio Community Alive". It requested that Google refrain from closing Panoramio. it received 10,512 supporters. The information about the Panoramio protest and petition, quickly made headlines on international media. Panoramio's strength had been that many geo-positioned Panoramio images were selected to appear on Google Earth software. However, photos selected for Google Earth since May 14, 2015 did not appear on the desktop version of Google Earth. Google did not publicly acknowledge this decision nor did the Company explain the reason for it. On June

neg: Magnetofossil environments. These magnetite bearing magnetotatic bacteria are found in the oxic-anoxic transition zone where conditions are such that oxygen levels are less than those found in the atmosphere (microaerophilic). Compared to the magnetite producing magnetotactic bacteria and subsequent magnetofossils, little is known about the environments in which greigite magnetofossils are created and the magnetic properties of the preserved greigite particles. Existence of magnetotactic bacteria was first suggested in the 1960s, when Salvatore Bellini of the University of Pavia discovered bacteria in a bog that appeared to align themselves with the magnetic field lines of the Earth. Following this discovery researchers

neg: Milky seas effect Milky seas effect Milky seas, also called mareel, is a luminous phenomenon in the ocean in which large areas of seawater (up to ) appear to glow brightly enough at night to be seen by satellites orbiting Earth. Modern science only tentatively attributes this effect to bioluminescent bacteria or dinoflagellates, causing the sea to uniformly display an eerie blue glow at night. However, no modern research proves that bioluminescent bacteria are capable of illuminating the ocean from horizon to horizon and for days at a time, as described in mariners' tales for centuries (notably appearing in chapter 23 of Jules

neg: Fungivore "Gigaspora margarita", have reduced genome sizes indicating that they have become entirely dependent on the metabolic functions of the fungal cells in which they live. When all the endocellular bacteria inside "G. margarita" were removed, the fungus grew differently and was less fit, suggesting that some bacteria may also provide services to the fungi they live in. The ciliate family Grossglockneridae, including the species "Grossglockneria acuta", feed exclusively on fungi. "G. acuta" first attaches themselves to a hyphae or sporangium via a feeding tube and then a ring-shaped structure, around 2 μm in diameter is observed to appear on the

neg: Thrust (Transformers) versions of Scourge, Thunderwing, and Dirge - and subsequently beaten to a pulp. He did not appear again in the "Armada" comics. Although the character of Thrust did not appear in the "Energon" animated series he continued to appear in the "Transformers: Energon" comic series by Dreamwave, allying himself with the Autobots after the disappearance of Megatron. He was one of those who aided the Autobots when Cybertron was attacked by the Four Horsemen of Unicron: Airazor, Cheetor, Rhinox and Terrorsaur. Subsequently, he was one of those who volunteered to head to Earth to battle the Terrorcon invasion. He was

neg: Repugnus their war, Fortress Maximus' band left Nebulos for the planet Earth (Transformers: Headmasters #4). Maximus' group joined up with the Earthen Autobots, but encountered stiff resistance from local leader Grimlock. Repugnus was present when Grimlock fought Blaster for leadership of the Autobots on Earth's moon. The Autobots were then attacked by the Decepticons led by Ratbat (Transformers #41). Repugnus did not appear again, leaving the possibility he was killed either in the ensuing battle or during the Underbase powered Starscream's rampage in issue #50. Although the Monsterbots were introduced after the end of the U.S. animated series, they did appear

neg: James Irwin with Al Worden's EVA to retrieve film magazines from the CSM's SIM bay, by donning a pressure suit and monitoring him. He was able to rest and apparently recover during the rest of the mission. The flight surgeons continued to monitor his EKG until splashdown, but his heart rhythm was normal. This incident was not discussed during the mission debriefing sessions, and the condition did not appear when he returned to Earth. After the return of Apollo 15 to Earth, it was discovered that, without authority, the crew had taken 398 commemorative first day covers to the moon of which

neg: Gram-positive bacteria Gram-positive bacteria Gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their cell wall. Gram-positive bacteria take up the crystal violet stain used in the test, and then appear to be purple-coloured when seen through a microscope. This is because the thick peptidoglycan layer in the bacterial cell wall retains the stain after it is washed away from the rest of the sample, in the decolorization stage of the test. Gram-negative bacteria cannot retain the violet stain after the decolorization step;

neg: Non-motile bacteria Non-motile bacteria Non-motile bacteria are those bacterial species that lack the ability and structures that would allow them to propel themselves, under their own power, through their environment. When non-motile bacteria are cultured in a stab tube, they only grow along the stab line. If the bacteria are mobile, the line will appear diffuse and extend into the medium. The cell structures that provide the ability for locomotion are the cilia and flagella. Coliform and Streptococci are examples of non-motile bacteria as are "Klebsiella pneumoniae", and "Yersinia pestis". Motility is one characteristic used in the identification of bacteria and evidence

neg: Out to Lunch (video game) a door to the next level will appear somewhere in the stage. Along the way, the player will encounter germs and bacteria which, if the player gets touched by, loses a life. The bacteria can also turn the ingredients into hostile enemies against Pierre when they touch them. The player must also be wary of Chef le Noir, who will appear in certain levels to hinder the player's progress. Additionally, the player can pick up weapons like flour bags or hot sauce which can be used to stun ingredients and the bacteria. The player must guide Pierre le Chef through

neg: Zoothamnium niveum regulated. When there is a low supply of sulfur compounds, the bacteria use the sulfur that is stored inside their cells. They eventually appear pale and transparent after four hours because the stored sulfur has been consumed. However, if the sulfide concentration is too high, it can be toxic to the "Zoothamnium" colonies and kill the ciliates despite the bacteria. Bacteria close to the oral end of the microzooids have a coccoid form, a larger volume, and a higher division rate than the rod-shaped bacteria on the stalks, despite both belonging to the same species. This is because the mixing

neg: Colostrum natural colostrum nearly always had higher antibody titers than did the hyperimmune version clinical trials have shown that if the immunization is by surface antigens of the bacteria,the Bovine Colostrum Powder can be used to make tablets capable of binding to the bacteria so that they are excreted in stools. This prevents the successful colonization of the gut, which would otherwise lead to bacteria releasing enterotoxigenic materials. These small immune signaling peptides (PRPs) were independently discovered in colostrum and other sources, such as blood plasma, in the United States, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Hence they appear under various names in the

neg: Galactosidases is used, X-gal. The hydrolysis of X-gal by B-galactosidase produces galactose, a blue colored compound. Therefore, when the bacteria is transformed with the recombinant plasmid B-galactosidase is inactive and the colonies appear white, but when bacteria are transformed with the original plasmid, lacking the target gene, B-galactosidase is active and the colonies appear blue. Galactosidases Galactosidases are enzymes (glycoside hydrolases) that catalyze the hydrolysis of galactosides into monosaccharides. Galactosides can be classified as either alpha or beta. If the galactoside is classified as an alpha-galactoside, the enzyme is called alpha-galactosidase, and is responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of substrates that

neg: Earth-One would confuse that Earth and its history with the so-called real Earth. That would change when the existence of another reliable Earth was established in a story titled "Flash of Two Worlds" in which Barry Allen, the modern Flash later referred to as Earth-One (the setting of the Silver Age stories) first travels to another Earth, accidentally vibrating at just the right speed to appear on Earth-Two, where he meets Jay Garrick, his Earth-Two counterpart. "Crisis on Infinite Earths" (1985–1986) was an effort by DC Comics to clean up their continuity, resulting in the multiple universes, including that of Earth-One,

neg: Old Harry's Game to God (first name Nigel), who makes the occasional appearance, originally played by David Swift, then in series 7 by Timothy West. God is usually portrayed as being quick-tempered and vengeful; in the series he says he created the universe accidentally, when he was messing about with some matter and energy. He put it down to have a sip of his drink and then, kaboom! he had a universe on his hands. Life on Earth was created for a bet, as Earth was dull viewing; God, for a bit of fun, sprinkled some mutating bacteria into the oceans and ran

neg: Who's That Chick? Guetta was asked to produce songs for Rihanna's fifth studio album, "Loud" (2010). After he brainstormed ideas, Guetta conceptualised "Who's That Chick?" and played the demo recording to Rihanna backstage at one of her Last Girl on Earth concerts. In an interview with "MTV News", Guetta revealed that he thought Rihanna did not like the song on first impressions, but was honoured when she agreed to record it. It was confirmed at a later date by Rihanna that the song would not appear on "Loud"s final track list, and that it would instead be included on the re-release of Guetta's

neg: Evolution organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6–2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in

neg: Earth-Two one would confuse that Earth and its history with the so-called real Earth. That would change when the existence of another reliable Earth was established in a story titled "Flash of Two Worlds" in which Barry Allen, the modern Flash later referred to as the Flash of Earth-One (the setting of the Silver Age stories) first travels to another Earth, accidentally vibrating at just the right speed to appear on Earth-Two, where he meets Jay Garrick, his Earth-Two counterpart. He claims Gardner Fox's dreams were tuned into Earth-Two, explaining their depiction as a fictional world in earlier Barry Allen stories.

neg: Evacuate Earth as scientists are lured to the private ark ship. As the neutron star enters our solar system, Saturn is destroyed, and the Earth experiences calamitous shifts in its seasons and bursts of radiation leading to fatalities and ecological damage. The private ark ship, equipped with an antimatter engine, explodes when its antimatter containment fails. Families are potentially broken up as they prepare to board the remaining ark ship, and experts discuss the basic necessities for human life: bacteria, air, water, and food. Bacteria are easily stored, and air is synthesized from water. Food, however, remains a difficult problem, and experts

neg: Pinito del Oro States with her husband. She worked for seven years at the Ringling Circus, where she won many awards during the 1960s. Cecil B. DeMille tried to hire Pinito for "The Greatest Show on Earth", but she rejected it because DeMille did not want her to appear on the credits. Pinito suffered three near-fatal falls in Huelva, Sweden and Laredo. In the first, when she was 17 years old, she fractured her skull and remained in a coma for eight days. She would soon fracture her skull again, her hands three times, and had to undergo foot surgery to raise her

neg: Spheres of Chaos called "common aliens" appear that must be eradicated to complete the level. With each subsequent level, the enemies get more plentiful and powerful. When hit, enemies typically split into smaller versions which must also be eradicated. Black holes also appear that either attract or repel the spaceship. Many black holes at once may make the game field unnavigable. When a level isn't completed within a certain period of time, enemies called "bugs" appear that shoot at the spaceship. Many types of enemies appear in later levels, from "spinshooters" to multiplying "daisies" and "bacteria". Often, when all common aliens are defeated,

neg: Duganella be dry and wrinkly, “leather-like.” Duganella Duganella is a genus of bacteria in the Oxalobacteraceae family. "Duganella" is named after the American microbiologist, P.R. Dugan, who first isolated the organism from sewage and polluted water. "Duganella" is in class Betaproteobacteria and order Burkholderiales. The molecular percent of Duganella’s G/C content is 63-64. Morphological characteristics consist of: straight or slightly curved rods, and in liquid growth media, either colonies that are “occasionally fingerlike,” appear, or dispersed growth with little or no formation of colonies appear. When grown on nutrient agar, the colonies are pale yellow to “straw-colored.” "Duganella" is able to

neg: Duganella Duganella Duganella is a genus of bacteria in the Oxalobacteraceae family. "Duganella" is named after the American microbiologist, P.R. Dugan, who first isolated the organism from sewage and polluted water. "Duganella" is in class Betaproteobacteria and order Burkholderiales. The molecular percent of Duganella’s G/C content is 63-64. Morphological characteristics consist of: straight or slightly curved rods, and in liquid growth media, either colonies that are “occasionally fingerlike,” appear, or dispersed growth with little or no formation of colonies appear. When grown on nutrient agar, the colonies are pale yellow to “straw-colored.” "Duganella" is able to produce violacein, a vibrant purple

neg: Fungicide use in the United States season when tissue is damaged by freezing temperatures. The bacteria invade the tissue of the plant and spread throughout the plant as long as it remains cool and damp. As the infection spreads thin strands of ooze appear on the surface of the tissue. When temperatures rise the disease will retreat until fall when the colder weather allows it to return. Copper is primarily used to control the bacteria population. Ripe rot, the more common name for anthracnose, is a disease localized mostly to the northern and southern blueberry-growing regions. However has been spreading east and it is now estimated

neg: Zoothamnium niveum colony can contract into a ball-shaped bunch through the contraction of myonemes in their stalks. The white color is produced by chemolithoautotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, which cover the entire surface of the "Z. niveum" colony. In most other species of "Zoothamnium", bacteria are only known to cover the stalks. The bacteria contain elemental sulfur, which appear white. "Z. niveum" appears colorless when the bacteria are absent. Like in other ciliates, a contractile vacuole maintains osmotic balance for the cell, and allows it to survive the salt concentrations in both marine and brackish water. The vacuole is located in "Z. niveum" directly

neg: Carl Woese of biological organization taking two prominent directions today. The first is the evolution of (proteinaceous) cellular organization, which includes sub-questions such as the evolution of the translation apparatus and the genetic code, and the origin and nature of the hierarchies of control that fine-tune and precisely interrelate the panoply of cellular processes that constitute cells. It also includes the question of the number of different basic cell types that exist on earth today: did all modern cells come from a single ancestral cellular organization? The second major direction involves the nature of the global ecosystem. . . . Bacteria are

neg: Phage ecology exceed bacterial densities by a ratio of 10-to-1 or more (VBR or virus-to-bacterium ratio; see for a summary of actual data). As there exist estimates of bacterial numbers on Earth of approximately 10, there consequently is an expectation that 10 or more individual virus (mostly phage) particles exist , making phages the most numerous category of "organisms" on our planet. Bacteria (along with archaea) appear to be highly diverse and there possibly are millions of species. Phage-ecological interactions therefore are quantitatively vast: huge numbers of interactions. Phage-ecological interactions are also qualitatively diverse: There are huge numbers of environment types, bacterial-host

neg: Space: Above and Beyond the Chig homeworld. This moon is sacred to the Chigs because it is where life originated via panspermia and where Chigs still go to be born. The Chigs actually evolved from bacteria that originated on Earth billions of years ago: an asteroid collision threw these bacteria into space, carried by meteorites, where they eventually landed on the Chig sacred moon. Life on Earth had already advanced to the eukaryote stage of development, and the rate of evolution proceeded slightly faster for the bacteria on their new world, allowing life there to evolve to the point that it could produce the

neg: Marine life further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms. Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species, which increases genetic diversity and drives evolution. It is thought that viruses played a central role in the early evolution, before the diversification of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, at the time of the last universal common ancestor of life on Earth. Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth. Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes,

neg: L-form bacteria since they are not derived from bacteria that normally have cell walls. Bacterial morphology is determined by the cell wall. Since the L-form has no cell wall, its morphology is different from that of the strain of bacteria from which it is derived. Typical L-form cells are spheres or spheroids. For example, L-forms of the rod-shaped bacterium "Bacillus subtilis" appear round when viewed by phase contrast microscopy or by transmission electron microscopy. Although L-forms can develop from Gram-positive as well as from Gram-negative bacteria, in a Gram stain test, the L-forms always colour Gram-negative, due to the lack of a

neg: Geocentric model fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, were the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They, themselves, were also entirely composed of aether. Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to stellar parallax. In short, if the Earth was moving, the shapes of the constellations should change considerably over the course of a year. If they did not appear to move, the stars are either

neg: Ziehl–Neelsen stain counter stain is applied, non-acid-fast bacteria pick it up and become blue (methylene blue) or green (malachite green) when viewed under the microscope. Acid-fast bacteria retain carbol fuchsin so they appear red. Ziehl–Neelsen stain The Ziehl–Neelsen stain, also known as the acid-fast stain, was first described by two German doctors: the bacteriologist Franz Ziehl (1859–1926) and the pathologist Friedrich Neelsen (1854–1898). It is a special bacteriological stain used to identify acid-fast organisms, mainly Mycobacteria. "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" is the most important of this group because it is responsible for tuberculosis (TB). Other important Mycobacterium species involved in human disease are "Mycobacterium

neg: Marine microorganism viruses that live as obligate parasitic agents in marine bacteria such as cyanobacteria. Their existence was discovered through electron microscopy and epifluorescence microscopy of ecological water samples, and later through metagenomic sampling of uncultured viral samples. The tailed bacteriophages appear to dominate marine ecosystems in number and diversity of organisms. However, viruses belonging to families Corticoviridae, Inoviridae and Microviridae are also known to infect diverse marine bacteria. Metagenomic evidence suggests that microviruses (icosahedral ssDNA phages) are particularly prevalent in marine habitats. Bacteriophages, viruses that are parasitic on bacteria, were first discovered in the early twentieth century. Scientists today consider that

neg: Marine bacteriophage Marine bacteriophage Marine bacteriophages or marine phages are viruses that live as obligate parasitic agents in marine bacteria such as cyanobacteria. Their existence was discovered through electron microscopy and epifluorescence microscopy of ecological water samples, and later through metagenomic sampling of uncultured viral samples. The tailed bacteriophages appear to dominate marine ecosystems in number and diversity of organisms. However, viruses belonging to families Corticoviridae, Inoviridae and Microviridae are also known to infect diverse marine bacteria. Metagenomic evidence suggests that microviruses (icosahedral ssDNA phages) are particularly prevalent in marine habitats. Bacteriophages, viruses that are parasitic on bacteria, were first discovered in

neg: Yon-Rogg actions. Yon-Rogg was on his spaceship at the time when Mar-Vell was fighting Super-Skrull and hopes that Super-Skrull would kill Mar-Vell. After Mar-Vell breaks free from Super-Skrull's ship, Yon-Rogg refuses Mar-Vell's offer to return to Earth so that he can stop Super-Skrull. Yon-Rogg later sabotages a rocket carrying deadly bacteria that was bound for space where it crashes into the ocean. When Mar-Vell arrives at the Cape, he is ordered by Yon-Rogg to prevent the humans from stopping the rocket from releasing the bacteria where Mar-Vell has his encounter with Namor. Yon-Rogg has Mar-Vell put on trial for being "Un-Kree"

neg: Paleontology reports, often disputed, of fossil bacteria from and of geochemical evidence for the presence of life . Some scientists have proposed that life on Earth was "seeded" from elsewhere, but most research concentrates on various explanations of how life could have arisen independently on Earth. For about 2,000 million years microbial mats, multi-layered colonies of different types of bacteria, were the dominant life on Earth. The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis enabled them to play the major role in the oxygenation of the atmosphere from about . This change in the atmosphere increased their effectiveness as nurseries of evolution. While eukaryotes,

neg: Largest-scale trends in evolution not yet been empirically confirmed. Evolutionary theory might not predict largest-scale trends, but there may be such trends nonetheless. McShea (1996) looks at the empirical evidence for a trend towards increasing complexity in Metazoan fossils. He concludes that the evidence is not decisive and further investigation is required. Largest-scale trends in evolution The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend; for example, it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms. More recently evolved organisms, such as mammals, appear to be much more complex than organisms, such as bacteria, which have

neg: Largest-scale trends in evolution Largest-scale trends in evolution The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend; for example, it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms. More recently evolved organisms, such as mammals, appear to be much more complex than organisms, such as bacteria, which have existed for a much longer period of time. However, there are theoretical and empirical problems with this claim. From a theoretical perspective, it appears that there is no reason to expect evolution to result in any largest-scale trends, although small-scale trends, limited in time and space, are expected

neg: Transfusion (short story) if they travel far enough into the past to research hominids such as Sinanthropus, they find nothing. There is no trace of humans or any related species in the deep past. Hazard returns from a trip in which he proves that Sinanthropus did not exist in the time indicated by the age of the bones. He, Stone and their mentor, Franz Gottwald, discuss the problem. Gottwald, a by-the-book scientist, insists on facts, not speculation. They therefore decide on an exhaustive effort to discover when, and how, humans did appear on Earth. Travelling back and forth in the past, Hazard and

neg: Spiders 3D her apartment with her daughter Emily inside, saying she is "infected". They try to quarantine Jason as well, but he escapes. When tests are done on the eggs Jason brought to Rachel, it is found that they have no bacteria on them. Which is unusual because "everything on earth has bacteria." Two men, apparently also working for Darnoff, manage to grab Rachel's purse which contains the canister holding the queen egg, from her car as she leaves her underground garage. Rachel calls Jason, who tells her to leave her car, as they are now being hunted by the Russians and

neg: Clavibacter michiganensis the bacteria to healthy tomato plants is greatest during transplanting, tying, and suckering or any time when the host may be wounded. Once the bacteria enters the plant through a wound, it will move and multiply primarily in the xylem vessels. Once established, the bacteria may move into the phloem, pith, and cortex. Infection can result in either systemic or superficial disease. Systemic infections appear in 3–6 weeks and the risk of secondary infection goes up with water-splashing. The common occurrence of latent infections – presence of the pathogen within the host yet the host shows no symptoms – makes

neg: Staphylococcal infection reddened or swollen. The generic name Staphylococcus is derived from the Greek word "staphyle," meaning bunch of grapes, and "kokkos," meaning granule. The bacteria, when seen under a microscope, appear like a branch of grapes or berries. Staphylococcal infection A staphylococcus infection or staph infection is an infection caused by members of the Staphylococcus genus of bacteria. These bacteria commonly inhabit the skin and nose where they are innocuous, but may enter the body through cuts or abrasions which may be nearly invisible. Once inside the body, the bacterium may spread to a number of body systems and organs, including

neg: Microevolution contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" and the adzuki bean beetle "Callosobruchus chinensis" may also have occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains. Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes,

neg: The Turing Test (video game) regenerate DNA; this could potentially make humans immortal, but also infinitely regenerate bacteria and viruses. When ISA learned of this discovery, they ordered T.O.M. to take whatever actions needed to make sure the Europa team could never return to Earth, initially by taking actions such as trying to starve them to death or lock them outside the base, but eventually by using the hand chip implants to control them. The surface crew realized they were being controlled, and those that did not die from T.O.M.'s actions found a way to rid the chip from their body, including in one case

neg: Geosmin Geosmin Geosmin is an organic compound with a distinct earthy flavor and aroma produced by certain bacteria, and is responsible for the earthy taste of beets and a contributor to the strong scent (petrichor) that occurs in the air when rain falls after a dry spell of weather or when soil is disturbed. In chemical terms, it is a bicyclic alcohol with formula , a derivative of decalin. Its name is derived from the Greek "earth" and "smell". Geosmin is produced by the gram-positive bacteria "Streptomyces" and various cyanobacteria, and released when these microorganisms die. Communities whose water supplies depend

neg: The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher one part of a vast system. Astronauts must be decontaminated before they are allowed to interact on Earth. Thomas states that this is an act of “human chauvinism.” Most organisms on Earth are symbiotic or, if harmful, have both adapted to warn the other. All organisms on Earth are interdependent and a stray virus or bacteria from the moon will not be adapted to harm us since it is not part of this connection. Bacteria are interconnected to the point where some cannot survive without others and some even live within others. We must recognize how interconnected even the smallest

neg: Archaea groups are known from a single rRNA sequence, indicating that the diversity among these organisms remains obscure. The Bacteria also contain many uncultured microbes with similar implications for characterization. On average, archaeal DNA sequences (whole genome) show higher levels of complexity than those of Bacteria. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. Scientific evidence suggests that life began on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago. The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone

neg: Origin of water on Earth sulfide-dependent chemoautotrophic bacteria (purple sulfur bacteria) fix carbon and synthesize water as a byproduct of a photosynthetic pathway using hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide: Few modern organisms use this method of photosynthesis, making their water contribution negligible. But on the hydrogen-sulfide-rich and oxygen-poor early Earth, a small but significant portion of Earth's water may have been synthesized biochemically through this pathway. Comets, trans-Neptunian objects, or water-rich meteoroids (protoplanets) from the outer reaches of the asteroid belt colliding with Earth may have brought water to the world's oceans. Asteroids may have been primarily responsible based on several studies, including measurements of

neg: Gram-negative bacteria Gram-negative bacteria Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the gram-staining method of bacterial differentiation. They are characterized by their cell envelopes, which are composed of a thin peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between an inner cytoplasmic cell membrane and a bacterial outer membrane. Gram-negative bacteria are found everywhere, in virtually all environments on Earth that support life. The gram-negative bacteria include the model organism "Escherichia coli", as well as many pathogenic bacteria, such as "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", "Chlamydia trachomatis", and "Yersinia pestis". They are an important medical challenge, as their outer membrane

neg: Landmine (Transformers) of the Giant Planet's Cyber Key to grow to a gigantic height and trounce the Decepticon. After Galvatron was eventually defeated, Landmine and Mudflap journeyed into space to aid Wing Saber, who believed he had found the trail of the thought-dead Starscream. Landmine first appeared in Transformers: Energon #24 ""Aftershock"", where he was one of the Autobots stationed on Earth to guard against Terrorcon attacks. He also appeared in issue #27 as one of the Autobot reinforcements under Jetfire heading to Earth to battle the swarms of Terrorcon clones alongside his brother Landquake, although he did not appear in the

neg: Traci Lords was offered a guest role in an episode of the television series "Wiseguy". Shortly afterwards, she met the director Jim Wynorski, who was directing the remake of Roger Corman's 1957 sci-fi classic "Not of This Earth". He immediately cast Lords into the lead role of Nadine Story, and "Not of This Earth" (1988) became her first mainstream film debut since her departure from the adult film industry. Although the film failed at the box office, it did well in video sales, and, based on that success, Lords was offered to appear in Wynorski's next film, "The Haunting of Morella" (1989).

neg: Malolactic fermentation pioneers of modern microbiology, isolated the first bacteria from wine and determined that all bacteria in wine were a cause for wine spoilage. While Pasteur did notice an acid reduction in wine with the lactic bacteria, he did not link that process to a consumption of malic acid by the bacteria, but rather assumed it was just tartrate precipitation. In 1891, the Swiss enologist Hermann Müller theorized that bacteria may be the cause of this reduction. With the aid of peers, Müller explained his theory of "biological deacidication" in 1913 to be caused by wine bacterium "Bacterium gracile". In the

neg: Exogenous bacteria Exogenous bacteria Exogenous bacteria are microorganisms introduced to closed biological systems from the external world. They exist in aquatic and terrestrial environments, as well as the atmosphere. Microorganisms in the external environment have existed on Earth for 3.5 billion years. Exogenous bacteria can be either benign or pathogenic. Pathogenic exogenous bacteria can enter a closed biological system and cause disease such as "Cholera," which is induced by a waterborne microbe that infects the human intestine. Exogenous bacteria can be introduced into a closed ecosystem as well, and have mutualistic benefits for both the microbe and the host. A prominent example

neg: Dokdonia donghaensis are dominant genera in marine environments. Winogradsky first described "Cytophaga"-like bacteria as unicellular, gliding, nonspore-formers, and Gram-negative rods, although the shape varies. Many "Cytophaga"-like bacterial colonies have pigment due to flexirubin-type pigments that are only found in these bacteria and flavobacteria. "Cytophaga–Flavobacteria" are chemoorganotrophs and are able to degrade biopolymers like chitin and cellulose. "D. donghaensis" is a gram-negative bacterium that is rod-shaped, nonmotile, and a nonspore-former. The bacteria are able to grow on seawater media with agar, in which the colonies appear circular, slightly convex, glistening, smooth, yellow, and 1–2 mm in diameter. The DSW-1T strain of "D. donghaensis"

neg: Nocardia biologist. Nocardia Nocardia is a genus of weakly staining Gram-positive, catalase-positive, rod-shaped bacteria. It forms partially acid-fast beaded branching filaments (acting as fungi, but being truly bacteria). It contains a total of 85 species. Some species are nonpathogenic, while others are responsible for nocardiosis. "Nocardia" species are found worldwide in soil rich in organic matter. In addition, they are oral microflora found in healthy gingiva, as well as periodontal pockets. Most "Nocardia" infections are acquired by inhalation of the bacteria or through traumatic introduction. "Nocardia" colonies have a variable appearance, but most species appear to have aerial hyphae when viewed

neg: Nocardia Nocardia Nocardia is a genus of weakly staining Gram-positive, catalase-positive, rod-shaped bacteria. It forms partially acid-fast beaded branching filaments (acting as fungi, but being truly bacteria). It contains a total of 85 species. Some species are nonpathogenic, while others are responsible for nocardiosis. "Nocardia" species are found worldwide in soil rich in organic matter. In addition, they are oral microflora found in healthy gingiva, as well as periodontal pockets. Most "Nocardia" infections are acquired by inhalation of the bacteria or through traumatic introduction. "Nocardia" colonies have a variable appearance, but most species appear to have aerial hyphae when viewed with

neg: Nightbeat (Transformers) in an attempt to stop the Swarm. Although the U.S. animated series was canceled before Nightbeat was released, he did appear in animated form in Transformers commercials. Nightbeat appeared only in the Dreamwave comics "War Within" series as one of the Autobot rebels during the age of internment. This was before he became a Headmaster or was reformatted into an Earth-style car. Muzzle didn't appear in the Dreamwave comics except in a one-page biography of Nightbeat and Muzzle. Nightbeat would receive a starring role in ": Nightbeat" one-shot. The story focuses on Nightbeat's investigation of the first Ark thousands of

neg: STS-132 its new position, the Earth-facing port of the Zarya service module. The docking occurred at 12:20 UTC when the shuttle-station stack was flying above Argentina. Following the successful docking, Sellers reported to Mission Control that, during the docking, he did not see the expected "capture 1" confirmation signal appear on his laptop, to which CAPCOM Steve Swanson replied "And station, that error's expected. The reason you didn't get 'contact 1' is because Garrett did too good of a job flying. He went right down the middle and got a hole in one." Expedition 23 Commander Oleg Kotov also monitored the

neg: Red Bacteria Vacuum Japan Nite tour once again. Red Bacteria Vacuum appear in the 2009 documentary Live House, including live performances and interview with the band and its past members. In April 2011 it was announced that Red Bacteria Vacuum would open for A Perfect Circle on all their non festival 2011 tour appearances. In early 2013 Red Bacteria Vacuum released their third full-length album, "Hey! Peeps" Red Bacteria Vacuum Red Bacteria Vacuum (レッドバクテリアバキューム) is an all-girl Japanese punk band from Osaka formed in 1998 consisting of Ikumi (guitar/vocals), Kassan (bass/vocals, also formerly known as RanRan), and Jasmine (drums/vocals). The band relocated to

neg: MXenes widely reported as an antibacterial agent, TiC MXene shows lack of antibacterial properties Investigations results revealed that TiC phase did not influenced negatively the gram-positive bacteria commonly occurring in the natural environment. Moreover, the slightly intensified growth of Bacillus sp. strain was observed in the vicinity of tested TiC. The SEM investigations of the preferential sites for bacteria adsorption indicated the presence of minor apoptosis for only Bacillus sp. strain, especially when the cells were located between individual sheets of the expanded TiC. Adsorption of bacteria cells on TiC resulted in changing of its zeta potential to that of bacteria

neg: Siboglinidae bacteria appear to colonise the host animal larvae after they have settled on a surface, entering them through their skin. When the host dies, the bacteria are released and return to the free-living population in the seawater. Discovery of the hydrothermal vents in the eastern Pacific Ocean was quickly followed by the discovery and description of new vestimentiferan tubeworm species. These tubeworms are one of the most dominant organisms associated with the hydrothermal vents in the Pacific Ocean. Tubeworms anchor themselves to the substratum of the hydrocarbon seep by roots located at the basal portion of their bodies. Intact tubeworm

neg: Paleolightning been a matter of speculation for quite some time. Living things did not spontaneously appear, so some sort of biological or even non-biological process must have been responsible for the generation of life. Lightning is a non-biological process, and many have speculated that lightning was present on early Earth. One of the most famous studies that investigated lightning on the early Earth was the Miller–Urey experiment. The Miller–Urey experiment sought to recreate the early Earth atmosphere within a laboratory setting to determine the chemical processes that ultimately led to life on Earth. The basis of this experiment was leveraged on

neg: Wen Wang Gua corresponding to the yang sequence of branches beginning with Rat. According to the celestial stems, each line of the hexagram also corresponds to metal. The line elements of yin trigrams are determined in the same way, except that the sequence is inverted (backward). Thus, for example, the lines of hexagram number 2, made by doubling the ☷ trigram, are earth, fire, wood, earth, water, and metal. In the case of trigrams ☰ and ☷, because they appear twice in the celestial stems, they have the value of their first appearance when on the bottom, or their next appearance when on

neg: Bacteria bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology. There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×10 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies; bacteria are responsible for the

neg: Exogenous bacteria water. Botulism spores can survive in unproperly canned or ill-prepared foods. Even ingesting trace amounts of the spores can lead to severe poisoning that causes symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, and even paralysis. Exogenous bacteria Exogenous bacteria are microorganisms introduced to closed biological systems from the external world. They exist in aquatic and terrestrial environments, as well as the atmosphere. Microorganisms in the external environment have existed on Earth for 3.5 billion years. Exogenous bacteria can be either benign or pathogenic. Pathogenic exogenous bacteria can enter a closed biological system and cause disease such as "Cholera," which is induced by

neg: Phage ecology Phage ecology Bacteriophages (phages), potentially the most numerous "organisms" on Earth, are the viruses of bacteria (more generally, of prokaryotes). Phage ecology is the study of the interaction of bacteriophages with their environments. Phages are obligate intracellular parasites meaning that they are able to reproduce only while infecting bacteria. Phages therefore are found only within environments that contain bacteria. Most environments contain bacteria, including our own bodies (called normal flora). Often these bacteria are found in large numbers. As a consequence, phages are found almost everywhere. As a rule of thumb, many phage biologists expect that phage population densities will

neg: Drakh world, with the Centauri and the Alliance in hot pursuit. The Drakh appear to be more interested in interfering in the affairs of other civilizations covertly rather than overtly; Drakh warships were seen shadowing and monitoring the Interstellar Alliance warship IAS Excalibur, in "Crusade", as it searched for a cure for Earth's Drakh plague. Though they did use considerable force on occasion (such as infecting the Earth), in actual practice they came across more like a paper tiger than a legitimate arch-foe in "Crusade". The only widely known time when the Drakh used brute force was when they launched their

neg: Nightbeat (Transformers) arrived on Earth, wiping out a small city; Nightbeat was able to work out the truth behind the being, and that the Creation Matrix was involved in creating it. (Although a UK only story, it was shown in flashback in a US issue.) There was no Nightbeat toy in the Generation Two toyline, however he did appear in the comics. Nightbeat appears twice in the Transformers: Generation 2 comic series. In issue 10, he is seated at a computer console when an explosion rocks him out of his seat. In issue 12, he is killed when he and Dirge self-destruct

neg: Apparent retrograde motion that the planets revolve around the sun, the same terms continue to be used in order to describe the movement of the planets in relation to the stars as they are observed from Earth. Like the sun, the planets appear to rise in the East and set in the West. When a planet travels eastward in relation to the stars, it is called "prograde". When the planet travels westward in relation to the stars (opposite path) it is called "retrograde". When standing on the Earth looking up at the sky, it would appear that the Moon travels from east to

neg: The Peoples of Middle-earth The Peoples of Middle-earth The Peoples of Middle-earth (1996) is the 12th and final volume of "The History of Middle-earth", edited by Christopher Tolkien from the unpublished manuscripts of his father J. R. R. Tolkien. Some characters (including Anairë, the wife of Fingolfin) only appear here, as do a few other works that did not fit anywhere else. Each volume of "The History of Middle-earth" bears on the title page spread an inscription by Christopher Tolkien in Fëanorian letters (in Tengwar, an alphabet J. R. R. Tolkien devised for the High-Elves), that describes the contents of the book. The inscription

neg: Dalek The Nation estate however demanded levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC. Eventually the Daleks were cleared to appear in the first series. Dalek in-universe history has seen many retroactive changes, which have caused continuity problems. When the Daleks first appeared, they were presented as the descendants of the Dals, mutated after a brief nuclear war between the Dal and Thal races 500 years ago. This race of Daleks is destroyed when their power supply is wrecked. However, when they reappear in "The Dalek Invasion of Earth", they have conquered Earth

neg: Horizontal gene transfer also simultaneously solving the riddle of diphtheria (that patients could be infected with the bacteria but not have any symptoms, and then suddenly convert later or never), and giving the first example for the relevance of the lysogenic cycle. Inter-bacterial gene transfer was first described in Japan in a 1959 publication that demonstrated the transfer of antibiotic resistance between different species of bacteria. In the mid-1980s, Syvanen predicted that lateral gene transfer existed, had biological significance, and was involved in shaping evolutionary history from the beginning of life on Earth. As Jian, Rivera and Lake (1999) put it: "Increasingly, studies

neg: Microorganism of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living

neg: Bacterial blight of soybean overwinters in crop residue and in seeds. Infection usually begins when the infected plant material is carried by a rainstorm with high winds to healthy soybean plants. Bacteria can enter through natural openings (stomata) or through wounds. In order to enter through natural openings, however, water must be present on the leaf surface. Bacterial Blight may appear after infected seedlings are planted and begin to emerge. In addition to being spread via wind and rain, transmission may occur when leaves of infected soybean rub against leaves of healthy soybean. Symptoms begin to appear 5–7 days after infection. Bacterial blight of

neg: Winogradsky column as an energy source. Once this commences they create CO that is used by other bacteria and thus the cycle begins. Eventually colour layers of different bacteria will appear in the column. At the bottom of the column will be black anaerobic HS dominated zone with sulfur reducing bacteria, the layer above will be green sulfur photosynthetic anaerobic bacteria, then the layer will be purple which is sulphur anaerobic bacteria, followed by another column of purple anaerobic non-sulfur bacteria and at the top will be a layer of Cyanobacteria which is sulphur oxidising bacteria. This top layer of aerobic bacteria,

neg: Last universal common ancestor Heavy Bombardment. The identification of these genes as being present in LUCA has also been criticized, as they may simply represent later genes which migrated via horizontal gene transfers between archaea and bacteria. Last universal common ancestor The last universal common ancestor (LUCA), also called the last universal ancestor (LUA), cenancestor, or (incorrectly) progenote, is the most recent population of organisms from which all organisms now living on Earth have a common descent. LUCA is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. LUCA is not thought to be the first living organism on Earth, but only

neg: Reporter gene fluorescent protein (GFP), which causes cells that express it to glow green under blue light, the enzyme luciferase, which catalyzes a reaction with luciferin to produce light, and the red fluorescent protein from the gene . The GUS gene has been commonly used in plants but luciferase and GFP are becoming more common. A common reporter in bacteria is the "E. coli" "lacZ" gene, which encodes the protein beta-galactosidase. This enzyme causes bacteria expressing the gene to appear blue when grown on a medium that contains the substrate analog X-gal. An example of a selectable-marker which is also a reporter

neg: Martian (The War of the Worlds) that the Martians may have accelerated their evolution using selective breeding and eugenics, and that their original body type may have resembled the form of the tripods. It is also made clear that the aliens are not Martians, but originate from a more distant planet flooded with water, which puts the long legs of the Tripods into motion. In "Rainbow Mars" they also appear as one of the many races from inhabiting Mars; killed not by bacteria but by the higher gravity of Earth, which caused organ ruptures and internal bleeding. They are mentioned as having launched two invasions of

neg: Antimicrobial resistance through one of three mechanisms: natural resistance in certain types of bacteria, genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. All classes of microbes can develop resistance. Fungi develop antifungal resistance. Viruses develop antiviral resistance. Protozoa develop antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria develop antibiotic resistance. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of random mutations. However, extended use of antimicrobials appears to encourage selection for mutations which can render antimicrobials ineffective. Preventive measures include only using antibiotics when needed, thereby stopping misuse of antibiotics or antimicrobials. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific

neg: 4179 Toutatis The initial observations that showed its chaotic behavior were made by Wiśniewski. The low inclination (0.47°) of the orbit allows frequent transits, where the inner planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars can appear to cross the Sun as seen from the perspective of Toutatis. Earth did this in January 2009, July 2012 and July 2016, and will also do so in 2020. Toutatis makes frequent close approaches to Earth, with a currently minimum possible distance (Earth MOID) of just 0.006 AU (2.3 times as far as the Moon). The approach on September 29, 2004, was particularly close, at 0.0104 AU

neg: Daytime creates seasonal variations in the length of the daytime period at most points on the planet's surface. The period of daytime from the standpoint of a surface observer is roughly defined as the period between sunrise, when the Earth's rotation towards the east first causes the Sun's disc to appear above the horizon, to sunset, when the continuing rotation of the Earth causes the Sun's disc to disappear below the horizon to the west. Because the Sun is a luminous disc as seen from the Earth, rather than a point source of light, sunrise and sunset are not instantaneous and

neg: Reports of Streptococcus mitis on the Moon be expected"; instead, only a few individual bacteria were sampled, and only from a single species. This subject was covered in the 2008 Discovery Channel documentary series, "When We Left Earth" and on episode of the Science Channel series "Nasa's Unexplained Files" entitled "Return of the Moon Bugs". Reports of Streptococcus mitis on the Moon As part of the Apollo 12 mission, the camera from the Surveyor 3 probe was brought back from the Moon to Earth. On analyzing the camera it was found that the common bacterium "Streptococcus mitis" was alive on the camera. This was attributed by NASA

neg: Ground-coupled heat exchanger bacteria and fungi thus making the air safer for humans to inhale. It is therefore clear that the use of EAT [Earth Air Tunnel] not only helps save the energy but also helps reduce the air pollution by reducing bacteria and fungi.” Likewise, Flueckiger (1999) in a study of twelve earth-air heat exchangers varying in design, pipe material, size and age, stated, “This study was performed because of concerns of potential microbial growth in the buried pipes of ground-coupled air systems. The results however demonstrate, that no harmful growth occurs and that the airborne concentrations of viable spores and bacteria,

neg: Hugh Ross (astrophysicist) that while the earth is billions of years old, life did not appear by natural forces alone but that a supernatural agent formed different lifeforms in incremental (progressive) stages, and day-age creationism which is an effort to reconcile a literal Genesis account of Creation with modern scientific theories on the age of the Universe, the Earth, life, and humans. He rejects the young Earth creationist (YEC) position that the earth is younger than 10,000 years, or that the creation "days" of Genesis 1 represent literal 24-hour periods. Ross instead asserts that these days (translated from the Hebrew word "yom") are

neg: Nanotechnology in fiction the micrometre scale – although not strictly nanoscale (billionth of a meter), they are the first fictional example of the concepts now associated with nanotechnology. Stanislaw Lem's 1964 novel "The Invincible" involves the discovery of an artificial ecosystem of minuscule robots, although like in Clarke's story they are larger than what is strictly meant by the term 'nanotechnology'. Robert Silverberg's 1969 short story "How It Was when the Past Went Away" describes nanotechnology being used in the construction of stereo loudspeakers, with a thousand speakers per inch. The 1984 novel "Peace on Earth" by Stanislaw Lem tells about small bacteria-sized

neg: Tersicoccus phoenicis from species discovered in 2013, due to the unusual location of its discovery and resistance to sterilization. Tersicoccus phoenicis Tersicoccus phoenicis is a member of the bacterial family Micrococcaceae. It has only been found in two spacecraft assembly clean room facilities and is resistant to the methods normally used to clean such facilities. The species name is derived from "tersi", Latin for clean; "coccus", Greek for berry; and "phoenicis", from NASA's "Phoenix" lander, the spacecraft being prepared when these bacteria were first discovered. "T. phoenicis" are only known to exist at two locations on Earth, and were independently found in

neg: Tersicoccus phoenicis Tersicoccus phoenicis Tersicoccus phoenicis is a member of the bacterial family Micrococcaceae. It has only been found in two spacecraft assembly clean room facilities and is resistant to the methods normally used to clean such facilities. The species name is derived from "tersi", Latin for clean; "coccus", Greek for berry; and "phoenicis", from NASA's "Phoenix" lander, the spacecraft being prepared when these bacteria were first discovered. "T. phoenicis" are only known to exist at two locations on Earth, and were independently found in geographically separated clean room facilities nearly apart. One example was located during a 2007 microbial test swabbing