query: who formulated the principles of stratigraphy and faunal succession

pos: Principle of faunal succession principle, which received its name from the English geologist William Smith, is of great importance in determining the relative age of rocks and strata. The fossil content of rocks together with the law of superposition helps to determine the time sequence in which sedimentary rocks were laid down. Evolution explains the observed faunal and floral succession preserved in rocks. Faunal succession was documented by Smith in England during the first decade of the 19th century, and concurrently in France by Cuvier (with the assistance of the mineralogist Alexandre Brongniart). Archaic biological features and organisms are succeeded in the fossil record

neg: Principle of faunal succession often used to determine faunal succession on a refined scale, each biostratigraphic unit (biozone) being a geological stratum that is defined on the basis of its characteristic fossil taxa. An outline microfaunal zonal scheme based on both foraminifera and ostracoda was compiled by M. B. Hart (1972). Simply, the earlier fossil life forms are simpler than more recent forms, and more recent forms are most similar to existing forms (principle of faunal succession). = Extra Information = It was developed by "Nicholas Steno" in "Dissertationis Prodromus" in 1669, formulated by "James Hutton" in "Theory of the Earth" in 1795, and

neg: Stratigraphy occurred in the paleoenvironment. This has led to the specialized field of isotopic stratigraphy. Cyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions of minerals (particularly carbonates), grain size, thickness of sediment layers (varves) and fossil diversity with time, related to seasonal or longer term changes in palaeoclimates. Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the rock layers. Strata from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are said to be correlatable in time. Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal succession, which predated, and was one of the first and

neg: Stratigraphy most powerful lines of evidence for, biological evolution. It provides strong evidence for the formation (speciation) and extinction of species. The geologic time scale was developed during the 19th century, based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the development of radiometric dating, which gave it and the stratigraphy it was based on an absolute time framework, leading to the development of chronostratigraphy. One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global historical sea-level curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphic patterns. Stratigraphy is also commonly used

neg: Georges Cuvier of the Paris basin. They concluded that the layers had been laid down over an extended period during which there clearly had been faunal succession and that the area had been submerged under sea water at times and at other times under fresh water. Along with William Smith's work during the same period on a geological map of England, which also used characteristic fossils and the principle of faunal succession to correlate layers of sedimentary rock, the monograph helped establish the scientific discipline of stratigraphy. It was a major development in the history of paleontology and the history of geology.

neg: Stage (stratigraphy) Stage (stratigraphy) In chronostratigraphy, a stage is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries. Rock series are divided into stages, just as geological epochs are divided into ages. Stages can be divided into smaller stratigraphic units called chronozones. (See chart at right for full terminology hierarchy.) Stages may also be divided into substages or indeed grouped as superstages. The term faunal stage

neg: Principle of faunal succession embellished upon by "Charles Lyell" in "Principles of Geology" in 1830. "Nicholas Steno" developed four main geological principles that are very useful for geologists today. These four main principles were: The principle of "Superposition", the principle of "Horizontality", and the principle of "Lateral Continuity". The principle of "Superposition" states that younger rocks are deposited on top of older rocks. The principle of "Horizontality" states that sedimentary rocks are deposited in approximately horizontal layers. The principle of original "Lateral Continuity" states that sediments spread out in all directions until they either thin out or run into a barrier. Principle of faunal

neg: Geology principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed. The principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist during the same period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence provides a relative age of the formations where they appear. Based on principles that William Smith laid out almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the principles of succession

neg: Raymond Thorsteinsson geologists at the GSC led to extensive land acquisitions during the late 1950s and early 1960s by oil and mining companies. Dr. Thorsteinsson made significant contributions in the fields of structural geology and biochronology, as well as in regional stratigraphy. In 1973, the Royal Society of Canada noted Thorsteinsson published more than fifty maps and articles. His geological maps had scales varying from 1/125,000 to 1/500,000. Thorsteinsson also performed paleontological studies. He made fundamental advances in the knowledge of graptolites and of the extinct ostracoderm fish. He established the most complete succession of faunal zones in Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks

neg: Stage (stratigraphy) More recently, the adjective "faunal" has been dropped as regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to define the age of formations. A tendency developed to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian, stage names for the same time period worldwide, even though the faunas in other regions often had little in common with the stage as originally defined. Boundaries and names are established by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of the International Union of Geological Sciences. As of 2008, the ICS is nearly finished a

neg: Principle of faunal succession Principle of faunal succession The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal succession, is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide horizontal distances. A fossilized Neanderthal bone will never be found in the same stratum as a fossilized Megalosaurus, for example, because neanderthals and megalosaurs lived during different geological periods, separated by many millions of years. This allows for strata to be identified and dated by the fossils found within. This

neg: Norwich Crag Formation the Mammaliferous Stone-Bed; the Fluvio-marine Crag; the Chillesford Crag; the Chillesford Clay; the Bure Valley Crag, including the Westleton Beds. Additional units were identified in the Norwich Crag Series, the Weybourne Crag and the Bure Valley Beds. This stratigraphy was later formalised by FW Harmer, who grouped them all into an Icenian faunal zone of the Pliocene. Research into sediments from the Ludham research borehole (1959) allowed a sequence of vegetational and faunal episodes to be recognised in the Norwich Crag, based on fossil foraminifera, pollen and mollusca. A revised lithostratigraphical and biostratigraphical framework was published by Funnell and West

neg: Stratigraphy (archaeology) Harris matrix, a two-dimensional representation of a site's formation in space and time. Archaeological stratigraphy is based on a series of axiomatic principles or "laws". They are derived from the principles of stratigraphy in geology but have been adapted to reflect the different nature of archaeological deposits. Harris notes two principles that were widely recognised by archaeologists by the 1970s: He also proposed three additional principles: Understanding a site in modern archaeology is a process of grouping single contexts together in ever larger groups by virtue of their relationships. The terminology of these larger clusters varies depending on the practitioner,

neg: Geological history of Mars lava flow that spreads out and fills a large impact crater is likely to be younger than the crater. On the other hand, a small crater on top of the same lava flow is likely to be younger than both the lava and the larger crater since it can be surmised to have been the product of a later, unobserved, geological event. This principle, called the law of superposition, and other principles of stratigraphy, first formulated by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century, allowed geologists of the 19th century to divide the history of the Earth into the familiar eras

neg: Sandia Cave Faunal remains included extinct, Pleistocene mammals. Later study of stratigraphy and radiometric dates corrected serious earlier misinterpretations, leaving "Sandia Man" as definitely younger than earlier claimed. Faunal remains recovered by Hibben and others include such extinct forms as mammoth, mastodon, sloth, horses, and camels, as well as many mammal and bird species that survived the end of the Pleistocene, making this one of the most important Pleistocene paleontological sites in northern New Mexico. Sandia Cave Sandia Cave, also called the Sandia Man Cave, is an archaeological site near Bernalillo, New Mexico, within Cibola National Forest. First discovered and excavated in

neg: Faunal assemblage Faunal assemblage In archaeology and paleontology a faunal assemblage is a group of associated animal fossils found together in a given stratum. The principle of faunal succession is used in biostratigraphy to determine each biostratigraphic unit, or biozone. The biostratigraphic unit being a section of geological strata that is defined on the basis of its characteristic fossil taxa or faunal assemblage. For example, in East Africa, a distinctive group of animal species, mostly pigs, is characteristic of the fossils preserved from a particular period of time. This faunal assemblage has been used effectively to chronologically correlate the East African early

neg: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, abbreviated GSSP, is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundary of a stage on the geologic time scale. The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, a part of the International Union of Geological Sciences. Most, but not all, GSSPs are based on paleontological changes. Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different faunal stages, though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs. The GSSP definition effort commenced in

neg: Domebo Canyon, Oklahoma which offset costs of the additional paleo-botanical and ecological studies. In addition to finding the incomplete and partially articulated skeletal remains from "Mammuthus imperator", and several Clovis-style projectile points (discussed below), other notable discoveries are addressed in the stratigraphy or geological formation. Ecological evidence such as fresh water mollusks and faunal remains are also discussed in the three following sections. The sequences of stratigraphy found in the Domebo Formation include what is referred to as both an upper and a lower member. The lower member, at the base of the Domebo Formation was not exposed during the excavation. The upper

neg: Geologic time scale scale that included absolute dates was published in 1913 by the British geologist Arthur Holmes. He greatly furthered the newly created discipline of geochronology and published the world-renowned book "The Age of the Earth" in which he estimated Earth's age to be at least 1.6 billion years. In 1977, the "Global Commission on Stratigraphy" (now the International Commission on Stratigraphy) began to define global references known as GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points) for geologic periods and faunal stages. The commission's most recent work is described in the 2004 geologic time scale of Gradstein et al. A UML model

neg: Stratigraphy (archaeology) Stratigraphy (archaeology) Stratigraphy is a key concept to modern archaeological theory and practice. Modern excavation techniques are based on stratigraphic principles. The concept derives from the geological use of the idea that sedimentation takes place according to uniform principles. When archaeological finds are below the surface of the ground (as is most commonly the case), the identification of the context of each find is vital in enabling the archaeologist to draw conclusions about the site and about the nature and date of its occupation. It is the archaeologist's role to attempt to discover what contexts exist and how they came

neg: William Dickson Lang "Distinguished for his knowledge of palaeontology; has applied evolutionary principles to the systematic arrangement of fossil polyzoa and corals, studying the recapitulation of ancestral characters in the post-embryonic growth-stages of compound as well as simple organisms, e.g., 'Brit Mus Catalogue Fossil Bryozoa' (1921, 1922), 'The Pelmatoporinae'. Lang elucidated in detail the faunal and stratigraphical succession of the Lias along the Dorset coast, with special relation to ammonites. He was a proponent of the theory of orthogenesis, believing that several lineages of cribrimorph cheilostome bryozoans evolved progressively thicker and more elaborate skeletal structures which eventually became maladaptive, driving the lineage to

neg: Knossos (modern history) was assigned the classification of pottery. The stratigraphy therefore is most likely mainly his; however, that circumstance does not necessarily validate his memory of the layers in which the tablets were found over Evans'. After a week Evans returned to his home in Youlbury. The second season began in February 1901. The three archaeologists were eager to make more progress. By then Duncan had formulated the basic stratigraphy. Earliest was a "Kamarais Palace" phase, beginning at about 1800 BC, in parallel with the Kamarais Palace uncovered by Halbherr at Phaistos. Halbherr had dated it to the time of the Egyptian

neg: Nicolas Steno da Vinci a century earlier also argued that fossils were the remains of once-living organisms. Steno, in his "Dissertationis prodromus" of 1669 is credited with four of the defining principles of the science of stratigraphy. His words were: These principles were applied and extended in 1772 by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle. Steno's ideas still form the basis of stratigraphy and were key in the development of James Hutton's theory of infinitely repeating cycles of seabed deposition, uplifting, erosion, and submersion. Steno gave the first accurate observations on a type of crystal in his 1669 book ""De solido intra solidum

neg: Geologic time scale strata) were laid down in succession, and that each represents a "slice" of time. He also formulated the law of superposition, which states that any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. While Steno's principles were simple, applying them proved challenging. Steno's ideas also lead to other important concepts geologists use today, such as relative dating. Over the course of the 18th century geologists realized that: The Neptunist theories popular at this time (expounded by Abraham Werner (1749–1817) in the late 18th century) proposed that all rocks had precipitated out of a

neg: Marker horizon Marker horizon Marker horizons or chronohorizons or marker beds are stratigraphic units of the same age and of such distinctive composition and appearance, that, despite their presence in separate geographic locations, there is no doubt about their being of equivalent age (isochronous) and of common origin. Such clear markers facilitate the correlation of strata, and used in conjunction with fossil floral and faunal assemblages and paleomagnetism, permit the mapping of land masses and bodies of water throughout the history of the earth. Palynology, the study of fossil pollens and spores, routinely works out the stratigraphy of rocks by comparing pollen

neg: Stage (stratigraphy) of a later trilobite such as "Elrathia" would identify the stage as Albertan. Stages were important in the 19th and early 20th centuries as they were the major tool available for dating and correlating rock units prior to the development of seismology and radioactive dating in the second half of the 20th Century. Microscopic analysis of the rock (petrology) is also sometimes useful in confirming that a given segment of rock is from a particular age. Originally, faunal stages were only defined regionally; however as additional stratigraphic and geochonologic tools, were developed, stages were defined over broader and broader areas.

neg: Leslie Rowsell Moore (1948). He was taught by Professor Arthur Elijah Trueman. His PhD was on the structure, stratigraphy and economic geology of the Bristol and Somerset Coalfields. He realised early on the value of the fossil floral and faunal evidence and using these made significant proposals relating to the regional correlation of the Coal Measures. His first job was in teaching in Suffolk, but he was soon appointed as an Assistant Lecturer in Geology at University of Wales, where he expanded his research to cover the South Wales coalfield. He developed research interests in areas of palaeobotany that were subsequently to provide

neg: Chaluka Site of study. One of the most important excavations took place in 1962 under the leadership of William S. Laughlin, in which two wide trenches were dug, and the stratigraphy of the midden carefully documented. The Chaluka site is unique because it supported a continuous population for nearly 3500 years and reveals a very precise food sourcing system that sustains the fostering of faunal life. Mathematical figures were used to manage natural stocks. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. Chaluka Site The Chaluka Site is a

neg: Miocene were recognizably modern. Mammals and birds were well-established. Whales, pinnipeds, and kelp spread. The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the geology of the Himalaya occurred during the Miocene, affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia, which were interlinked with glacial periods in the northern hemisphere. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy: Regionally, other systems are used, based on characteristic land mammals; some of them overlap with the preceding Oligocene and following Pliocene epochs: European Land Mammal Ages North American Land Mammal Ages

neg: Jurassic epochs: Early, Middle, and Late. Similarly, in stratigraphy, the Jurassic is divided into the Lower Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Upper Jurassic series of rock formations, also known as "Lias", "Dogger" and "Malm" in Europe. The separation of the term Jurassic into three sections originated with Leopold von Buch. The faunal stages from youngest to oldest are: During the early Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean

neg: Swartkrans artifacts and faunal remains were uncovered, 415 of which are considered to be hominin. Brain expanded upon the site's stratigraphy, which was more complex than previously thought. Some of the earliest evidence of controlled use of fire by humans can be found at Swartkrans, up to 1.5 million years ago. In addition, some of the earliest evidence of modified bone tools has also been found at Swartkrans and Sterkfontein, with the oldest at Swartkrans dating to about 1.8 million years ago. These tools may have been made by "Australopithecus robustus" or an early species of "Homo", which both inhabited the

neg: Kirtlandian exposed in Alberta and Montana, Utah, New Mexico, New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Sonora, Baja California, Baja California, and possibly Coahuila, and Texas, respectively. The stratigraphy of the Kirtlandian was studied by Robert M. Sullivan and Spencer G. Lucas in 2003, Sullivan in 2006a, Lucas and Sullivan in 2006b, and Nicholas R. Longrich in 2010. Two local faunas are known from the Kirtlandian faunal age. They include the Hunter Wash local fauna and the Willow Wash local fauna. The Hunter Wash local fauna was defined as the vertebrates "obtained from the upper 40 feet of the Fruitland Formation and

neg: Holocene climates of more recent prehistory. Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world. Climatically, the Holocene may be divided evenly into the Hypsithermal and Neoglacial periods; the boundary coincides with the start of the Bronze Age in Europe. According to some scholars, a third division, the Anthropocene, has now begun. The International Commission on Stratigraphy Subcommission on

neg: Kačák Event was the Ammonoidea, although there were also faunal turnovers amongst conodonts and dacryoconarids. Organic-rich black shales that formed during this anoxic event occur in several countries. In the eastern United States the Marcellus shale is in the early stages of being exploited for shale gas, with large recoverable reserves predicted. An initial USGS assessment from 2002 suggested about 2 TCF of recoverable gas, while in 2009, a study by the United States Department of Energy gave an estimate of 262 TCF. 9. ^HORODYSKI, R.S.; HOLZ, M.; GRAHN, C.Y.; BOSETTI, E.P. 2014. Remarks on the sequence stratigraphy and taphonomy of the

neg: Famennian Hangenberg Event. North American subdivisions of the Famennian include the Chautauquan, Canadaway, Conneaut, Conneautan, Conewango and Conewangan. The Famennian stage was proposed in 1855 by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont and was accepted for the upper stage of the Upper Devonian by the Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy in 1981. It is named after Famenne, a natural region in southern Belgium. Famennian The Famennian is the latter of two faunal stages in the Late Devonian epoch. It lasted from million years ago to million years ago. It was preceded by the Frasnian stage and followed by the Tournaisian stage. It was

neg: Ngamuriak the 1984 excavation, similar forms of stratigraphy was used and resulted in more faunal remains and artifacts being discovered along with both charcoal and bone fragments. Excavation in 1985 yielded similar findings, along with dung deposits being found around the south-western region of Ngamuriak. When the south-western area of Ngamuriak was excavated in 1981 a hardened clay surface was uncovered, which was used as a floor for a structure. Evidence for this is supported by the post holes that are found along the floor, which indicates that a hut was constructed at this location. Numerous animal dung deposits were also

neg: Elands Bay Cave resembles xeric thicket and states that vegetation was more diverse. There is a drainage system that has gone through Elands Bay Cave, the Velorenvlei. It is speculated that the connection from that drainage system to Elands Bay Cave has a significant impact on the collection of pollen that is found in Elands Bay Cave. It is revealed that the moisture in the soil has been deteriorating from at least 4,000 years ago; other observations conclude similar findings because of evidence from pollen and faunal remains from the same epochs. The stratigraphy of Elands Bay Cave is dominated by shell midden

neg: John Marwick productive period. Apart from his work with oil companies, he took to completion research on turritellid gastropods and New Zealand faunal studies. He made significant contributions to geomorphology and Mesozoic palaeontology, as well as volcanology and stratigraphy. His bibliography contains 124 publications. John Marwick died at Hastings on 17 August 1978. John Marwick John Marwick (3 February 1891 – 17 August 1978) was a New Zealand palaeontologist and geologist. Marwick was born near Oamaru, New Zealand, on 3 February 1891, the son of Hugh Marwick, and his wife, Jane née Cuthbert. While at Waitaki Boys' High School he helped to

neg: Carboniferous Pennant Sandstone. The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) faunal stages (in bold) from youngest to oldest, together with some of their regional subdivisions, are: Late Pennsylvanian: Gzhelian (most recent) Late Pennsylvanian: Kasimovian Middle Pennsylvanian: Moscovian Early Pennsylvanian: Bashkirian / Morrowan Late Mississippian: Serpukhovian Middle Mississippian: Visean Early Mississippian: Tournaisian (oldest) A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the Carboniferous; this created the widespread inland seas and the carbonate deposition of the Mississippian. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwanaland was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain

neg: Emily Dix the South Wales Coalfield. This remained an interest throughout her working life. Dix's major contribution was to apply Trueman's approach to biostratigraphy to plant fossils. She presented her work at international conferences including the Second International Carboniferous Congress in Heerlen (the Netherlands) in 1935. In 1936 she was awarded the Murchison Fund by the Geological Society of London for her work on palaeontology and stratigraphy in the Coal Measures that combined flora and faunal evidence, thus improving information about the Upper Carboniferous successions. This information was useful to the coal industry as well as fundamental science. World War II came

neg: Hirnantian expanded the stage to include all of the Foel-y-Ddinas Mudstones, of which the Hirnant Limestone is a part. This expansion brought the Hirnantian stage to its current scope. The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) originally divided the Upper Ordovician into two stages. After considerable research, however, it was determined that no single faunal zone existed that could accommodate the upper stage of this division. Therefore, in 2003, the ICS voted to add an additional stage to its official international time scale. This was named the Hirnantian after Bancroft's stage. In 2006 the ICS ratified the Wangjiawan section as the official

neg: Lukas Hottinger foraminiferes de I'Eocene moyen du Nord-Est de I'Espagne. Geobios, 12, 29–45. Schaub H.P. 1981. Nummulites et Assilines de la Téthys Paléogène: taxonomie, phylogénèse et biostratigraphie. Schweiz Palaeontol Abhand 104–106: 1–236. Rahaghi A. 1983. Stratigraphy and faunal assemblage of Paleocene-Lower Eocene in Iran. Ministry of Oil, National Iranian Oil Companies, Geological Laboratoires, 10, 1–73. Langer M.R. 1992. New Recent foraminiferal genera and species from the lagoon at Madang, Papua New Guinea. Journal of Micropalaeontology, 11(1): 85–93. Johnson E. 1993. Some imperforate larger foraminifera from the Paleogene of Jamaica and the Nicaragua rise. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, 23, 47–65. Sirel E. 1997.

neg: Mumba Cave today, specifically in the unreliable collection of C-14 data and confusing stratigraphy. In 1938 Margit Kohl-Larsen returned to Mumba Cave in an effort to obtain a more complete understanding of the site. Although her work was considered a great triumph in African archaeology at the time, more recent work at the site has illuminated issues from the excavation. Most of the problems lie with the lack of study of the site’s uncovered artifacts, soil samples, and faunal remains. Additional problems lie in that very little information from the site, most of which is now considered unclear, ended up being published

neg: Frasnian atmospheric oxygen levels were below 13%, the minimum necessary to sustain wildfires. North American subdivisions of the Frasnian include The Frasnian stage was proposed in 1879 by French geologist Jules Gosselet and was accepted for the lower stage of the Upper Devonian by the Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy in 1981. It is named after the village of Frasnes-lez-Couvin in Belgium. Frasnian The Frasnian is one of two faunal stages in the Late Devonian period. It lasted from million years ago to million years ago. It was preceded by the Givetian stage and followed by the Famennian stage. Major reef-building was

neg: Pilot Knob (Austin, Texas) on the stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Austin area. The volcanism occurred during the deposition of the upper part of the Dessau and the Burditt formations of the Austin Chalk. These strata are only about one-third as thick near Pilot Knob as they are in other localities around Austin. The faunal zones of the two formations, that is zones within the formations where certain fossils are particularly abundant, are also telescoped in the vicinity of Pilot Knob. Two beds of altered ash occur within the Dessau Formation on Rinard Creek near Pilot Knob. The exact relationship

neg: Quaternary extinction event Quaternary extinction event The Quaternary period (from 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present) saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly megafaunal species, which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity and the extinction of key ecological strata across the globe. The most prominent event in the Late Pleistocene is differentiated from previous Quaternary pulse extinctions by the widespread absence of ecological succession to replace these extinct species, and the regime shift of previously established faunal relationships and habitats as a consequence. The earliest casualties were incurred at 130,000 BCE (the start of the Late Pleistocene). However,

neg: Dorothea Bate numerous human occupations her study of the Carmel Caves was pioneering. She described several new species, and identified several species that had previously not been known to have existed in this area in the Pleistocene. She constructed one of the first quantitative curves of faunal succession, and in reference to ancient climate she identified a faunal break between primitive and modern mammal communities during the Middle of the Ice Age. Bate identified the shifts from deer to gazelle dominance as rooted in changes of regional vegetation and paleoclimates. She was also the first to identify a Canis familiaris to have

neg: Chazy Formation reef systems ever since. One dominant reef-building organism took the place of another, in a slowly evolving faunal succession. The Chazy Reef Formation has given its name to the contemporaneous mid-Ordovician faunal stage, the Chazyan. Chazy Formation The Chazy Reef Formation is a mid-Ordovician limestone deposit in northeastern North America. It consists of some of the oldest reef systems built by a community of organisms rather than the deposit of a limited range of similar organisms, such as Stromatolite mounds deposited by ancient cyanobacteria. The reef structure was formed largely by cryptostome and trepostome bryozoa, some of the oldest known

neg: Stage (stratigraphy) coordinated uniform system, but once the research establishes a more complete international system, it is expected that local systems will be abandoned. Stages can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.) of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of stages or parts of them. Stage (stratigraphy) In chronostratigraphy, a stage is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage

neg: Stratigraphy of New Zealand Austral Superprovince (Cambrian-Cretaceous) includes all basement rocks and the Zealandia Megasequence (Cretaceous-Holocene) refers to those, younger rocks, that cover them. The Austral Superprovince is divided into the Eastern and Western Province, which have seven and two terranes respectively. The Zealandia Megasequence is divided into five supergroups, from oldest to youngest they are the Momotu, Haerenga, Waka, Māui and Pākihi supergroups. Stratigraphy of New Zealand This is a list of the units into which the rock succession of New Zealand is formally divided. As new geological relationships have been discovered new names have been proposed and others are made obsolete. Not

neg: Stratigraphy of New Zealand Stratigraphy of New Zealand This is a list of the units into which the rock succession of New Zealand is formally divided. As new geological relationships have been discovered new names have been proposed and others are made obsolete. Not all these changes have been universally adopted. This table is based on the 2014 New Zealand Stratigraphic Lexicon (Litho2014). However, obsolete names that are still in use and names postdating the lexicon are included if it aids in understanding. Names for particular rock units have two parts, a proper name which is almost always a geographic location where the rock

neg: Stratigraphy of New Zealand is found and a hierarchical rank (e.g. Waitematā Group). This ranking system starts with individual 'beds' of rock which can be grouped into 'members', members are grouped into 'formations', formations into 'subgroups' then 'groups'. In New Zealand, groups are further combined into 'supergroups' or for basement rocks into terranes. Not all of these hierarchical layers are necessarily present within a particular rock succession. Many New Zealand rocks can also have names based on their major rock types, such as the Wooded Peak Limestone or the Hawks Crag Breccia. New Zealand stratigraphy has also informally been divided into two 'megasequences'. The

neg: Harris matrix results of Harris's work, however, was the realisation that sites had to be excavated stratigraphically, in the reverse order to that in which they were created, without the use of arbitrary measures of stratification such as spits or planums. In his "Principles of archaeological stratigraphy" Harris first proposed the need for each unit of stratification to have its own graphic representation, usually in the form of a measured plan. In articulating the laws of archaeological stratigraphy and developing a system in which to demonstrate simply and graphically the sequence of deposition or truncation on a site, Harris, it has been

neg: Ecological succession development on dunes (an approach to the study of vegetation change later termed space-for-time substitution, or chronosequence studies). He first published this work as a paper in the "Botanical Gazette" in 1899 ("The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan"). In this classic publication and subsequent papers, he formulated the idea of primary succession and the notion of a sere—a repeatable sequence of community changes specific to particular environmental circumstances. From about 1900 to 1960, however, understanding of succession was dominated by the theories of Frederic Clements, a contemporary of Cowles, who held that seres

neg: Edward Harris (archaeologist) Edward Harris (archaeologist) Dr. Edward C. Harris, MBE, JP, FSA is a prominent Bermudian archaeologist. He is best known for the "Harris matrix", developed in February 1973 and considered by some to be the "industry standard" for stratigraphic archaeology. This was followed by a five-year investigation into archaeological practices. He determined that the methods did not properly account for stratigraphy, and published his findings in 1979 as the "Principles of Archaeological Stratigraphy". While attending Columbia University School of General Studies in the United States, Harris spent the summers assisting on archaeological digs in Winchester, England. After graduating, he continued his

neg: Minangkabau people Limapuluh Koto. The "tambo" claims the ship was sailed by a descendant of Alexander the Great ("Iskandar Zulkarnain"). A division in Minangkabau "adat" into two systems is said to be the result of conflict between two half-brothers Datuak Katumangguangan and Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang, who were the leaders who formulated the foundations of Minangkabau "adat". The former accepted Adityawarman, a prince from Majapahit, as a king while the latter considered him a minister, and a civil war ensued. The Bodi Caniago/Adat perpatih system formulated by Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang is based upon egalitarian principles with all "panghulu" (clan chiefs) being

neg: Somerset Coalfield observed the rock strata at the pit, he realised that they were arranged in a predictable pattern that the various strata could always be found in the same relative positions and each particular stratum could be identified by the fossils it contained and the same succession of fossil groups from older to younger rocks could be found in other parts of England. Smith noticed an easterly dip in the beds of rock- small near the surface (about three degrees) then greater after the Triassic rocks which led to him a testable hypothesis, which he termed the principle of faunal succession,

neg: Kutai Basin occurs while delta progradation is active, re-activation along these faults produces detached, uplifted anticlines Three suites of intrusive and volcanic rocks are found in the Kutai Basin, and have been used to constrain the Tertiary stratigraphy . The felsic Nyaan volcanics, dated to 48-50 Ma may be related to the extensional tectonics that initiated basin formation. In some locations, the Nyaan volcanics and equivalents are at the base of the Tertiary sedimentary succession, while at other locations bedded tuffs, agglomerates and reworked pyroclastics are part of the late Eocene succession. The Sintang Intrusive suite are mafic to felsic and have

neg: Parasequence parasequence. This is not necessarily the case for transitions from one parasequence to another. They are also typically of the size of one up to tens of meters. Parasequence A parasequence is a fundamental concept of sequence stratigraphy. Parasequences are not directly related to sequences. A parasequence is defined as an genetically related succession of bedsets that is bounded by marine flooding surfaces (or their correlative surfaces) on top and at the bottom. The succession is supposed to be relatively conformable in the sense that breaks in deposition within the parasequence are much shorter than the time of deposition of

neg: Parasequence Parasequence A parasequence is a fundamental concept of sequence stratigraphy. Parasequences are not directly related to sequences. A parasequence is defined as an genetically related succession of bedsets that is bounded by marine flooding surfaces (or their correlative surfaces) on top and at the bottom. The succession is supposed to be relatively conformable in the sense that breaks in deposition within the parasequence are much shorter than the time of deposition of the parasequence itself. Most parasequences show a shallowing upward, which is sometimes also included into the definition. Since parasequences are relatively conformable, so Walther's law applies within a

neg: Aenigmastropheus of the Songea Series. This outcrop is currently assigned to the upper part of the Usili Formation, formerly known as the Kawinga Formation, of the Songea Group of the Ruhuhu Basin. Recent studies have described this formation as a 260 meters thick fluviolacustrine succession made up of a lowermost conglomeratic interval that is approximately 5 meters thick, grading up into a trough cross-bedded, coarse-grained, sandstone-dominated interval that is 25–40 meters thick, overlain by massive nodular siltstone and laminated mudstone beds with minor ribbon sandstones forming the bulk of the succession. Sidor "et al." (2010) recognized only one tetrapod faunal assemblage

neg: Imre Festetics inheritance, and many of the principles had already been sketched out by Festetics Imre Festetics Count Imre Festetics de Tolna (Simaság, 1764 – Kőszeg, 1847) was a noble landowner and geneticist. Many of the central principles the discipline of genetics were formulated by Imre Festetics through the study of sheep. Festetics formulated a number of rules of heredity and was the first to refer to these as "genetic laws of nature" ("Die genetischen Gesatze der Natur"). In so doing he used the term "genetic" for the first time, 80 years before William Bateson did so in his personal letter to

neg: Sturtian glaciation Sturtian glaciation The Sturtian glaciation was a glaciation, or perhaps multiple glaciations, during the Cryogenian Period, when the Earth experienced repeated large-scale glaciations. The duration of the Sturtian glaciation has been variously defined, with dates ranging from 717 to 643 Ma. Stern "et al." place the period at 715 to 680 Ma. According to Eyles and Young, "Glaciogenic rocks figure prominently in the Neoproterozoic stratigraphy of southeastern Australia and the northern Canadian Cordillera. The Sturtian glaciogenic succession (c. 740 Ma) unconformably overlies rocks of the Burra Group." The Sturtian succession includes two major diamictite-mudstone sequences, which represent glacial advance and

neg: Orthalicoidea Orthalicoidea The Orthalicoidea are a superfamily of air-breathing land snails, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the informal group Sigmurethra. The Orthalicoidea is a dominant faunal element in the Neotropics, but also has a number of genera with a Gondwanan distribution. This taxonomy, as accepted by Bouchet & Rocroi, was based on the study by Nordsieck, published in 1986, and the classification as formulated by Schileyko in 1999. However Bouchet & Rocroi diverged from this classification in uniting the families Bulimulidae and Orthalacidae. They also considered the family Placostylidae as a distinct family from Orthalicidae, and the family Coelociontidae a distinct family

neg: Wales first identified Cambrian remnants. In evolutionary studies the Cambrian is the period when most major groups of complex animals appeared (the Cambrian explosion). The older rocks underlying the Cambrian rocks in Wales lacked fossils which could be used to differentiate their various groups and were referred to as Pre-cambrian. In the mid-19th century, two prominent geologists, Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick (who first proposed the name of the Cambrian period), independently used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology. The next two periods of the Paleozoic era, the Ordovician and Silurian, were

neg: Palynology of pollen under a microscope are likely to have been in the 1640s by the English botanist Nehemiah Grew, who described pollen and the stamen, and concluded that pollen is required for sexual reproduction in flowering plants. By the late 1870s, as optical microscopes improved and the principles of stratigraphy were worked out, Robert Kidston and P. Reinsch were able to examine the presence of fossil spores in the Devonian and Carboniferous coal seams and make comparisons between the living spores and the ancient fossil spores. Early investigators include Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (radiolarians, diatoms and dinoflagellate cysts), Gideon Mantell (desmids)

neg: Johannes Walther Johannes Walther Johannes Walther (July 20, 1860 in Neustadt an der Orla, Germany – May 4, 1937 in Bad Hofgastein, Germany) was a German geologist who discovered important principles of stratigraphy, including Walther's Law. Walther came from a religious home and studied botany, zoology, and philosophy at the University of Jena. In 1882 he successfully completed this course with a doctorate. Then he studied geology and palaeontology in Leipzig and later Munich. The following year he worked at the Stazione Zoologica in Naples as a lecturer, staying for two years. Among other things, he ran extensive sedimentological and biological studies.

neg: Johannes Walther In 1885 he returned to Jena and habilitated there in 1886 with a thesis on crinoids. After travelling, he was appointed as a professor at Jena in 1890. Walther moved to the University of Halle in 1906, staying until 1929. Whilst there, he was in 1924 elected president of the prestigious German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, an office he held until 1931. Johannes Walther Johannes Walther (July 20, 1860 in Neustadt an der Orla, Germany – May 4, 1937 in Bad Hofgastein, Germany) was a German geologist who discovered important principles of stratigraphy, including Walther's Law. Walther came from a

neg: Bed (geology) geotechnical engineering a bedding plane often forms a discontinuity that may have a large influence on the mechanical behaviour (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction. There are geologic principles that the beds normally follow. Even though there can be cases where the principles do not apply mostly due to faults, they are true for most cases. Bed (geology) Beds are the layers of sedimentary rocks that are distinctly different from overlying and underlying subsequent beds of different sedimentary rocks. Layers of beds are called stratigraphy or strata. They are formed

neg: Emperor of Japan valid for legitimizing his succession, not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses. Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture, which was adopted from Prussia, by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s. The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been: Historically, the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in

neg: Danzan-ryū who began his martial arts studies in 1950, studying Boxing, Judo, Savate, Aikido, Lama Pai, and Jujitsu. Dan Zan Ryu Zenyo Bujutsu was formulated from these systems and uses a framework of Danzan Ryu Jujitsu to teach the principles of Zenyo throughout the system. While upholding certain principles common to many dojos, each dojo in the Bushidokan Federation retains its own autonomy and recognizes the sensei of each dojo as the head instructor. Member dojos are currently in Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, Israel, Italy, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Serbia/Yugoslavia, and the United States (Alaska, California, Florida, Hawaii, Maine, and Nevada). Quantum

neg: Turnover-pulse hypothesis the seafloor), but peaks of adaptation among different species in East Africa have been noted at different times, meaning that though "large-mammal evidence is consistent with the idea of a faunal change in the late Pliocene, [...] there is currently no agreement about its extent and precise date." While there is a consensus that major climatic events cause widespread extinction, other studies of East Africa and other regions have failed to identify any pulse-like events resulting in synchronous evolution or speciation, and this likely relies on local conditions. Turnover-pulse hypothesis The turnover-pulse hypothesis, formulated by paleoanthropologist Elisabeth Vrba, suggests that

neg: Geology of Wales shales near Newport. George Owen in 1603 correctly identified the stratigraphic relationship between the Carboniferous Limestone and the Coal Measures. Some of the first published representations of fossils were those of fossil plants taken from coal measures near Neath (Gibson late 17th century). In the mid-19th century, two prominent geologists, Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology. They did fundamental work on the Old Red Sandstone but are remembered more for their work on the lower Palaeozoic sequence. It was Sedgwick who established the Cambrian system

neg: Geology Steno (1638–1686) is credited with the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, and the principle of lateral continuity: three defining principles of stratigraphy. The word "geology" was first used by Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1603, then by Jean-André Deluc in 1778 and introduced as a fixed term by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in 1779. The word is derived from the Greek γῆ, "gê", meaning "earth" and λόγος, "logos", meaning "speech". But according to another source, the word "geology" comes from a Norwegian, Mikkel Pedersøn Escholt (1600–1699), who was a priest and scholar. Escholt first used the definition in his book

neg: Principles of war separated into renewable and non-renewable resources, and relationships are separated from unity of command. In 1913 Harrington Emerson proposed 12 principles of efficiency, the first three of which could be related to principles of war: Clearly defined ideals — Objective, Common sense — Simplicity, Competent counsel — Unity of Command. The some of the twelve non-military principles of efficiency have been formulated by Henry Ford at the turn of the 20th century, and are suggested to be: objective, coordination, action, reality, knowledge, locations (space and time),things, obtaining, using, protecting, and losing. Nine, ten, or twelve principles all provide a framework

neg: Frank C. Whitmore Jr. Geological Institute's Glossary of Geology. He also served as security officer for the Geologic Division between 1948 and 1956. In recognition of the International Geophysical Year in 1958, the Lake Peters Research Station (renamed the G. William Holmes Research Station in 1970) was established in the northeastern part of the Brooks Range of Alaska. Whitmore was on the team that conducted the initial reconnaissance at this offshoot of the Arctic Research Laboratory at Point Barrow and formulated plans for continuing research in the area. After 15 years of administration, Whitmore joined the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch of the U.S. Geological

neg: Scottish Enlightenment who would be a major influence on later philosophers including John Stuart Mill. In contrast to Hume, Thomas Reid (1710–96), a student of Turnbull's, along with minister George Campbell (1719–96) and writer and moralist James Beattie (1735–1803), formulated Common Sense Realism. Reid set out his theories in "An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense" (1764). This approach argued that there are certain concepts, such as human existence, the existence of solid objects and some basic moral "first principles", that are intrinsic to the make up of man and from which all subsequent arguments and systems

neg: Mendelian inheritance inheritance were named for and first derived by Gregor Johann Mendel, a nineteenth-century Moravian monk who formulated his ideas after conducting simple hybridisation experiments with pea plants ("Pisum sativum") he had planted in the garden of his monastery. Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 5,000 pea plants. From these experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as "Mendel's Principles of Heredity" or "Mendelian inheritance". He described these principles in a two-part paper, "Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), that he read to the Natural History Society of Brno on 8 February and 8 March

neg: Naked objects Naked objects Naked objects is an architectural pattern used in software engineering. The naked objects pattern is defined by three principles: The naked object pattern's innovative feature arises by combining the and principles into a principle: The naked objects pattern was first described formally in Richard Pawson's PhD thesis which includes a thorough investigation of various antecedents and inspirations for the pattern including, for example, the Morphic user interface. Naked Objects is commonly contrasted with the model–view–controller pattern. However, the published version of Pawson's thesis (see References) contains a foreword by Trygve Reenskaug, who first formulated the model–view–controller pattern, suggesting

neg: Declaration of Principles on Equality an earlier document. They subsequently contributed comments. A number of further experts participated in various stages of drafting and deliberation. ERT launched the Declaration of Principles on Equality on 21 October 2008, in London. The document was signed initially by 128 experts from 44 countries, and subsequently by hundreds of others. It establishes, for the first time, general legal principles on equality as a basic human right. The Declaration contains 27 principles on which national equality legislation and policies should be based. The principles formulated and agreed by the experts through a two-year-long consultative process are based on concepts and

neg: Principles and parameters Principles and parameters Principles and parameters is a framework within generative linguistics in which the syntax of a natural language is described in accordance with general "principles" (i.e. abstract rules or grammars) and specific "parameters" (i.e. markers, switches) that for particular languages are either turned "on" or "off". For example, the position of heads in phrases is determined by a parameter. Whether a language is "head-initial or head-final" is regarded as a parameter which is either on or off for particular languages (i.e. English is "head-initial", whereas Japanese is "head-final"). Principles and parameters was largely formulated by the linguists Noam

neg: Eleven Naqshbandi principles Eleven Naqshbandi principles The Eleven Naqshbandi principles or the "rules or secrets of the Naqshbandi", known in Persian as the kalimat-i qudsiya ("sacred words" or "virtuous words"), are a system of principles and guidelines used as spiritual exercises, or to encourage certain preferred states of being, in Naqshbandi Sufi schools of mysticism. There were originally eight principles formulated by the Central Asian Sufi teacher Abdul Khaliq Gajadwani (died 1179), the last three of the eleven being added later by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari (1318–1389), founder of the Naqshbandi Order. Both were Khwajagan (Masters) of the Sufi tariqah (path, way or method).

neg: Succession to the French throne refused to submit were banished from the capital. Paris' capitulation encouraged the same of many other towns, while others returned to support the crown after Pope Clement VIII absolved Henry, revoking his excommunication in return for the publishing of the Tridentine Decrees, the restoration of Catholicism in Béarn, and appointing only Catholics to high office. With the success of Henry IV, the principles of the French succession were kept inviolable. The kingship of Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, as Charles X, was delegitimized, having been contrary to these principles. A new requirement to the French succession was recognized: the King of

neg: Smith's laws Smith's laws In geology, Smith's laws are two rules, formulated by William Smith (1769–1839), which aid in the determination of geological succession. They are fundamental to the production of geological maps. Both laws were first published by Smith in "Strata Identified by Fossils", 1816–1819. Smith's first law is the Principle of Superposition. This states that newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned. Overturning of the beds causes the succession order to be reversed. This can be caused by folding that is so severe that the beds are moved past the

neg: Stratigraphy Stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two related subfields: lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy) and biostratigraphy (biologic stratigraphy). Catholic priest Nicholas Steno established the theoretical basis for stratigraphy when he introduced the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality and the principle of lateral continuity in a 1669 work on the fossilization of organic remains in layers of sediment. The first practical large-scale application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and

neg: Lex mercatoria implied) to apply "lex mercatoria" principles. Therefore, some legal practitioners assume that there is a whole set of legal principles named ""lex mercatoria"" in international or transnational commercial law. The most recent and constantly updated set of rules are the "TransLex Principles" collected and formulated by Klaus Peter Berger (University of Cologne) and his Center for Transnational Law. What remains of "lex mercatoria" precepts today is a qualified faith in self-regulation by merchants, and a reluctance to surrender the efficiencies of merchant practice to state confinement. Lex mercatoria Lex mercatoria (from the Latin for "merchant law"), often referred to as

neg: Health realization aware that they are creating their own experience as they respond to their thoughts, and by connecting to their "innate health" and "inner wisdom." HR also goes under the earlier name of "Psychology of Mind" and most recently "Three Principles" understanding. In the health realization ("HR") model, all psychological phenomena, from severe disorder to glowing health, are presented as manifestations of three operative "principles" first formulated as principles of human experience by Sydney Banks: "Mind" has been likened to the electricity running a movie projector, and "Thought" to the images on the film. "Consciousness" is likened to the light from

neg: Sukarno BPUPK and was tasked to lead discussions to prepare the basis of a future Indonesian state. To provide a common and acceptable platform to unite the various squabbling factions in the BPUPK, Sukarno formulated his ideological thinking developed for the past twenty years into five principles. On 1 June 1945, he introduced these five principles, known as "pancasila", during the joint session of the BPUPK held in the former Volksraad Building (now called "Gedung Pancasila"). "Pancasila" as presented by Sukarno during the BPUPK speech, consisted of five common principles which Sukarno saw as commonly shared by all Indonesians: On 22

neg: Scenic bios and formulated in empirical studies by Eugenio Barba, may be learned or they may be inherent. Such principles as equivalence, , rhythm and timing, all seem like second nature, and the performer may not know that she is applying them in any strict sense. But, Barba has demonstrated that through physical training and exercises of his devising these principles can become fruitfully exploited by the actor in her endeavours. All these principles are believed by Barba to exist in the actors pre-expressive being. This pre-expressivity is otherwise known as scenic bios, or stage 'presence'. Scenic bios Scenic bios is the

neg: Geology of Somerset study and mapping by John Strachey and William Smith in the 18th century. They observed the rock layers, or strata, which led Smith to the creation of a testable hypothesis, which he termed the Principle of Faunal Succession. The Mendips were mined for lead, silver, coal, ochre, fuller's earth and zinc but this has finished. They were also quarried for stone, notably at Bath and Doulting. Today the Mendips are a major source of aggregates. To the south of Somerset there is an upland with a series of rolling valleys and scarps, from Penselwood in the east to the Blackdown

neg: William Buckland a detailed compendium of his theories of day-age, gap theory and a form of progressive creationism where faunal succession revealed by the fossil record was explained by a series of successive divine creations that prepared the earth for humans. In the introduction he expressed the argument from design by asserting that the families and phyla of biology were "clusters of contrivance": The myriads of petrified Remains which are disclosed by the researches of Geology all tend to prove that our Planet has been occupied in times preceding the Creation of the Human Race, by extinct species of Animals and Vegetables,

neg: Paleontology in California of modern tree are known from near Tomales. Other Pleistocene plants include the southernmost examples known of coast redwoods and a spectacular Douglas fir specimens from a tree with a trunk six feet in diameter and complete with its seeds and needles. Other Pleistocene invertebrates of California included hardshell cockles, spiny cockles, and oysters. Late Pleistocene fossils are widespread in California. Scientific concepts such as deep time and faunal succession have precursors in the creation mythology of California's Achomawi or Pit River people. They believe humanity to be the descendants of creatures neither human nor animal that lived during the

neg: Astaracian Astaracian The Astaracian age is a period of geologic time (), equivalent with the Middle Miocene and used more specifically with European Land Mammal Ages. It precedes the Vallesian age and follows the Orleanian age. The Astaracian overlaps the Langhian and Serravallian ages. During the Late Orleanian and Astaracian (), oscillating sea levels resulted in a succession of palaeogeographic changes in the Eastern Mediterranean; the opening and closing of the Tethys seaway resulted in temporary land-bridges between Africa and Eurasia. Three short periods of faunal migrations between the continents can be distinguished: During the Late Orleanian, MN 5 (), a

neg: Fossil faunal succession form the basis of the science of biostratigraphy or determining the age of rocks based on embedded fossils. For the first 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks. The geologic time scale was developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by the early paleontologists and stratigraphers. Since the early years of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such as radiometric dating (including potassium/argon, argon/argon, uranium series, and, for very recent fossils, radiocarbon dating) have been used to verify the relative ages obtained by

neg: History of paleontology 1790s and early 19th century. He established the principle of faunal succession, the idea that each strata of sedimentary rock would contain particular types of fossils, and that these would succeed one another in a predictable way even in widely separated geologic formations. At the same time, Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, an instructor at the Paris school of mine engineering, used similar methods in an influential study of the geology of the region around Paris. In 1808, Cuvier identified a fossil found in Maastricht as a giant marine reptile that would later be named "Mosasaurus". He also identified, from a

neg: Robert Masterman Stainforth University of London. He spent several years, 1948 to 1954, in Peru and from 1958 to 1969 he worked in Venezuela. He was in other places for periods as brief as a few months, but the effect of the rapid succession was to enable him to publish on faunal sequences encountered around the world. His major accomplishment was his pioneering work on the potential of planktonic foraminifera as ideal tools for worldwide correlation of Mesozoic and Tertiary strata. His many important papers and talks related to this subject and his anticipation of future developments had a lasting impact on much

neg: Forensic entomological decomposition decomposition will not necessarily coincide with a major change in the faunal community. Therefore, the stages of decomposition are defined by the observable physical changes to the state of the carcass. A pattern of insect succession results as different carrion insects are attracted to the varying biological, chemical and physical changes a carcass undergoes throughout the process of decay. A decaying carcass provides "a temporarily, rapidly changing resource which supports a large, dynamic arthropod community." --M. Grassberger and C. Frank The fresh stage of decomposition is generally described as the period between the moment of death and when the first

neg: Creophilus maxillosus due to their transient nature and widespread distribution. "Croephilus maxillosus" frequency at crime scene investigations conducted in their natural habitat often disqualifies them from being an indicator of body relocation. "Creophilus maxillosus" forensic relevance, however, is proportionally associated with predation of Diptera larvae, which is one of the most important secondary predations encountered at crime scenes. Both larvae and adults of the predatory "Creophilus maxillosus" feed on the organic remains of carrion as well as nutrient-packed diptera larvae. Their appearance in the 'common' faunal succession usually follows the first Diptera larvae colonization and continues throughout the later stages of decomposition.

neg: Edmund Johnston Garwood Mag, 1891); 'The Geology of Northumberland – County History of Northumberland' (vols i-vi); 'Contributions to the Glacial Geology of Spitzbergen' (with Dr J W Gregory, Quart Journ Geol Soc, vol liv); 'Addition Notes on the Glacial Phenomena of Spitzbergen' (ibid, vol lv); 'Notes on a Map of the Glacier of Kargchenjunga' (Geogr Journ, 1902); 'Hanging Valleys in the Alps and Himalayas' (Quart Journ Geol Soc, vol lviii); 'The Geological Structure and Physical Features of Sikkim' (Appendix to 'Round Kangchenjunga', by D W Freshfield, 1903); 'The Tarns of the Canton Ticino' (Quart Journ Geol Soc, vol lxii); 'The Faunal Succession in

neg: Catastrophism The leading scientific proponent of catastrophism in the early nineteenth century was the French anatomist and paleontologist Georges Cuvier. His motivation was to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession that he and others were observing in the fossil record. While he did speculate that the catastrophe responsible for the most recent extinctions in Eurasia might have been the result of the inundation of low-lying areas by the sea, he did not make any reference to Noah's flood. Nor did he ever make any reference to divine creation as the mechanism by which repopulation occurred following the extinction event.