query: what was the american policy toward the end of the vietnam war

pos: Containment Containment Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as a Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. As a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, Vietnam, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World

pos: Vietnam War viewed it as a civil war, a defensive war against communism, or were motivated to fight to defend their homes and families. The U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam. This was part of the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. Most of the funding for the French war effort was provided by the U.S. The Việt Cộng, also known as or "FNL" (the

pos: Lyndon B. Johnson for Johnson to pass any additional Great Society legislation. However, in the end Congress passed almost 96 percent of the administration's Great Society programs, which Johnson then signed into law. At Kennedy's death, there were 16,000 American military personnel stationed in Vietnam supporting South Vietnam in the war against North Vietnam. Vietnam had been partitioned at the 1954 Geneva Conference into two countries, with North Vietnam led by a Communist government. Johnson subscribed to the Domino Theory in Vietnam and to a containment policy that required America to make a serious effort to stop all Communist expansion. On taking office,

pos: Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson Poverty" and established several programs designed to aid the impoverished. He also presided over major increases in federal funding to education and the end of a period of restrictive immigration laws. In foreign affairs, Johnson's presidency was dominated by the Cold War and the Vietnam War. He pursued conciliatory policies with the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the détente of the 1970s. He was nonetheless committed to a policy of containment, and he escalated the U.S. presence in Vietnam in order to stop the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia during the Cold War. The number of American military

pos: Gabriel Kolko in "The American Conservative", put it: Having published on the US domestic scene, Kolko next turned to matters international, beginning in 1968 with "The Politics of War", "the most thorough and extensive of the 'revisionist' views of American foreign policy during World War II." Next up was "The Roots of American Foreign Policy" (1969), a book that, according to Richard H. Immerman, "became must reading for a generation of diplomatic historians." In this work, Kolko contended that the American failure to win the Vietnam War demonstrated the inapplicability of the US policy of containment. "The Limits of Power" (1972), co-authored

neg: Hearts and Minds (film) the agonies of South Vietnamese political prisoners, seems uninterested in the American lieutenant's experience of humiliation and torture." The film also features Vietnam war veteran and anti-war activist Bobby Muller, who later founded the Vietnam Veterans of America. Daniel Ellsberg, who had released the "Pentagon Papers" in 1971, discusses his initial gung-ho attitude toward the war in Vietnam. The concluding interview features US Vietnam veteran Randy Floyd, stating "We've all tried very hard to escape what we have learned in Vietnam. I think Americans have worked extremely hard not to see the criminality that their officials and their policy makers

neg: Vietnam War POW/MIA issue hiding the facts. The report also alleged that the Soviet Union had held American prisoners after the end of World War II and more may have been transferred there during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. Helms stated that the "deeper story" was a possible "deliberate effort by certain people in the government to disregard all information or reports about living MIA-POWs." This allegation was followed in May 1991 by Helms' release of a minority report of the Foreign Relations Committee, entitled "An Examination of US Policy Toward POW/MIAs", which made similar claims and concluded that "any evidence that

neg: Ulsterisation towards the end of the Vietnam War called "Vietnamization". Vietnamization was a policy to increase the proportion of South Vietnamese forces fighting in the conflict, while reducing that of the American military. It was a response to the Vietnam Syndrome of American public opinion turning against American military involvement in Vietnam. By analogy, British policymakers perceived the death of soldiers from Mainland Britain (e.g. England, Scotland, and Wales) during The Troubles to be far more consequential in terms of British public opinion than what could be portrayed as "Irish people killing and policing Irish people". The move to locally based

neg: United States news media and the Vietnam War altered the nature of the issue. "No longer was the question "whether" the United States was going to get out, but rather "how" and "how fast"." Nixon's policy toward the media was to reduce as far as possible the American public's interest in and knowledge of the war in Vietnam. He began by sharply limiting the press's access to information within Vietnam itself. The peace talks in Paris, the viability of South Vietnam, of its military and its government, and its effect on American disengagement, became the prime stories during this period for the news media. The reportage of the

neg: Foreign policy of Japan power in the western Pacific all required a reevaluation of Japan's security position and overall role in Asia. The move toward a more autonomous foreign policy was accelerated in the 1970s by the United States decision to withdraw troops from Indochina. Japanese public opinion had earlier favored some distance between Japan and the United States involvement in war in Vietnam. The collapse of the war effort in Vietnam was seen as the end of United States military and economic dominance in Asia and brought to the fore a marked shift in Japan's attitudes about the United States. This shift, which

neg: United States news media and the Vietnam War the sentiment that the development of new journalistic media such as television supplanted governmental authority in attaining the support of the American public during the Vietnam War has been accepted and upheld by many scholars through present day. On 3 November 1969, President Richard M. Nixon made a televised speech laying out his policy toward Vietnam. He promised to continue to support the South Vietnamese government (through Vietnamization) and held out a plan for the withdrawal of American combat troops. This "silent majority" speech, not the Tet Offensive, marked the real watershed of the American involvement. In it, Nixon permanently

neg: The Committee of Correspondence Newsletter war in Vietnam with the transition from the Kennedy to the Johnson administrations. Editorially it sought to be critical of dominant foreign and defense policy in the mold of its editorial board, while the principal editor, Roger Hagan, considered independent journalist I. F. Stone his role model. In early 1960, toward the end of the Eisenhower Republican administration, some American intellectuals, mostly academics or social service professionals, alarmed by the growing danger of nuclear war, began meeting to seek a solution and promote nuclear disarmament. It had become evident that America had no monopoly on nuclear bombs. Academy-based intellectuals had

neg: Henry Kissinger Kissinger later sought, unsuccessfully, to return the prize after the ceasefire failed. A practitioner of "Realpolitik", Kissinger played a prominent role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. During this period, he pioneered the policy of "détente" with the Soviet Union, orchestrated the opening of relations with the People's Republic of China, engaged in what became known as shuttle diplomacy in the Middle East to end the Yom Kippur War, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, ending American involvement in the Vietnam War. Kissinger has also been associated with such controversial policies as U.S. involvement in a military

neg: Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson Nixon, and Nixon selected Governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate. Nixon attacked the Great Society and the Supreme Court, and indicated that he had a "secret plan" to end the Vietnam War. Humphrey's polling numbers improved after a September 30 speech in which he broke with Johnson's war policy, calling for an end to the bombing of North Vietnam. In what was termed the October surprise, Johnson announced to the nation on October 31, 1968, that he had ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam", effective November 1, should the North Vietnamese

neg: George McTurnan Kahin American policy was based on a distorted view of Vietnam. "Vietnam is a single nation, not two," Kahin and Lewis argued, and "South Vietnam constitutes an artificial creation whose existence depends on the sustained application of American power." When U.S. Senator George McGovern campaigned in the 1972 presidential election on a platform to end the war, Kahin became his foreign policy adviser. Kahin, along with his graduate student Gareth Porter, was optimistic about the prospect of a takeover of Cambodia by the communist Khmer Rouge. In early 1975, Kahin predicted of a Khmer Rouge victory: "I know of no basis

neg: John F. Kennedy the conflict. At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam, leading historians, cabinet members, and writers to continue to disagree on whether the Vietnam conflict would have escalated to the point it did had he survived. His agreement to the NSAM 263 action of withdrawing 1,000 troops by the end of 1963, and his earlier 1963 speech at American University, suggest that he was ready to end the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War contributed greatly to a decade of national difficulties, amid violent disappointment on the political landscape. Many of Kennedy's speeches

neg: United States news media and the Vietnam War U.S. was obliged to defend independent nations from communist aggression. At this early stage of the war (and continuing to its end) the South Vietnamese people themselves were viewed by the media with the condescension, contempt, and disdain that characterized the American attitude toward them. The media exhibited the "Cold War myopia, ethnocentrism, cultural bias, and racism embedded in American ideology." American journalists arrived in Vietnam with almost no knowledge of its culture, history, society, or language, nor did they attempt to learn. This was due in part to the short 6-12 month period most newspeople spent on rotation in

neg: Vietnam War power credible and Vietnam looks like the place." Kennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diệm and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences." The quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the South

neg: Reunification Day Reunification Day Reunification Day (), Victory Day () or Liberation Day ( or ) or the official name of Day of liberating the South for national reunification () is a public holiday in Vietnam that marks the event when Việt Cộng and North Vietnamese troops captured Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) on April 30, 1975. This signalled the end of the Vietnam War, known in Vietnamese as (Vietnam War) or ("Resistance War Against American invasion"). It was the start of the transition period toward reunification, which occurred in the national election for national reunification on July 2, 1976, when

neg: National Security Action Memorandum 273 and Defense and within the Department of Defense. A series of decisions on Mar. 8, 1965 to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam was the end result. National Security Action Memorandum 273 National Security Action Memorandum 273 (NSAM-273) was approved by new United States President Lyndon Johnson on November 26, 1963, one day after former President John F. Kennedy's funeral. NSAM-273 resulted from the need to reassess U.S. policy toward the Vietnam War following the overthrow and assassination of President Ngo Dinh Diem. The first draft of NSAM-273, completed before Kennedy's death, was approved with minor changes by President Johnson. As

neg: Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration to withdraw all American instructors and advisors [from Vietnam]. But... I do not believe he knew in his last weeks what he was going to do." Sorensen added that, in his opinion, Vietnam "was the only foreign policy problem handed off by JFK to his successor in no better, and possibly worse, shape than it was when he inherited it." U.S. involvement in the region escalated until his successor Lyndon Johnson directly deployed regular U.S. military forces for fighting the Vietnam War. After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson signed NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963. It reversed Kennedy's decision to withdraw

neg: The Quiet American (2002 film) is set in 1952 in Saigon, Vietnam (French Indochina at that time), toward the end of the First Indochina War (1946-1954) in which French forces fought the Communist-led Viet Minh rebels. On one level, "The Quiet American" is a love story about the triangle that develops between Thomas Fowler, a British journalist in his fifties; a young American idealist, supposedly an aid worker, named Alden Pyle; and Phuong, a Vietnamese woman. On another level it is also about the growing American involvement that led to the full-scale American war in Vietnam. Thomas Fowler (Michael Caine), who narrates the story, is

neg: United States news media and the Vietnam War instead highlighted his anticommunism. The death of civilians in a coup against President Diem at the end of 1960 started to change how Vietnam was viewed by the media. As a result, the New York Times sent the first reporter to Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam. This was followed by other journalists arriving from Reuters, AFP, Time and Newsweek. The basic policy governing how the US mission in Saigon handled these reporters reflected the way the administration of President John F. Kennedy conceived of the American role in the war. Under that framework, the Americans' role in South Vietnam

neg: Betty Nguyen seen in Spike Lee's "When the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts". Nguyen became the new co-anchor of the "PIX11 Morning News" at WPIX-TV on June 19, 2017, succeeding Sukanya Krishnan, who left the station after 17 years. Nguyen was born in Saigon, Vietnam. She is of Vietnamese and Scottish American descent. Nguyen and her family left Vietnam for the United States in April 1975 during the Fall of Saigon. Nguyen was "not even a year old" toward the end of the Vietnam War when her family fled South Vietnam. From a CNN videotape, she speaks about her father.

neg: The March of Folly early sixteenth century, England's policies relating to American colonies under King George III, and the United States' mishandling of the conflict in Vietnam. More than half of the book deals with US intervention in the Vietnam War, while the other three case studies are shorter. "Kirkus Reviews" wrote in a Feb 15, 1984 review, "An exercise in historical interpretation such as this, tracing a single idea through a set of examples, is structured toward [Tuchman's] weaknesses; and they are only too apparent. Tuchman applies the concept of folly to 'historical mistakes' with certain features in common: the policy taken was

neg: National Security Action Memorandum 273 National Security Action Memorandum 273 National Security Action Memorandum 273 (NSAM-273) was approved by new United States President Lyndon Johnson on November 26, 1963, one day after former President John F. Kennedy's funeral. NSAM-273 resulted from the need to reassess U.S. policy toward the Vietnam War following the overthrow and assassination of President Ngo Dinh Diem. The first draft of NSAM-273, completed before Kennedy's death, was approved with minor changes by President Johnson. As the initial statement – top secret at the time – of U.S. policy in the Vietnam War of the Johnson presidency, NSAM-273 has been studied carefully

neg: The Quiet American (2002 film) involved in the war only as a reporter, an unengaged observer, apart from one crucial event. Pyle (Brendan Fraser), who represents America and its policies in Vietnam, is a CIA operative sent to steer the war according to America’s interests, and is passionately devoted to the ideas of York Harding, an American foreign policy theorist who said that what Vietnam needed was a "third force" to take the place of both the colonialists and the Vietnamese rebels and restore order. Pyle sets about creating a "Third Force" against the French and the Viet Minh by using a Vietnamese splinter group

neg: Albert Shanker to an opinion piece in the "New York Times" explaining Shanker's views. Opponents of the Vietnam war have criticized Shanker and other AFL-CIO leaders for supporting the war in Vietnam and other anti-Communist aspects of U.S. foreign policy. Shanker was a visiting professor at Hunter College and Harvard University during the 1980s. He continued to work toward organizing teachers throughout his life and attempted to bridge the AFT with the National Education Association, which he never saw happen. In 1991, U.S. President George H. W. Bush appointed him as a member of the original Competitiveness Policy Council. Shanker died of

neg: History of the United States in Korea and Vietnam. Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers, the USSR being the other. The U.S. Senate on a bipartisan vote approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward increased international involvement. The primary American goal of 1945–48 was to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and to contain the expansion of Communism, represented by the Soviet Union. U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe

neg: Norman Podhoretz would "prefer just such an American defeat to a 'Vietnamization' of the war." A larger quote from "Why We Were in Vietnam" which was included in the review is as follows: In the early 1980s, Podhoretz was extremely sceptical that fundamental reform was possible in the USSR, and sharply criticized those who argued that U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union should be one of détente. In his 1980 book "The Present Danger", Podhoretz predicted that the United States was in danger of losing the Cold War and falling behind the Soviet Union as a global power. Later he would express

neg: Vietnam War The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters. The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes. President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963. Vice President, Lyndon B. Johnson had not been heavily involved with policy toward Vietnam. Upon becoming president, however, Johnson immediately focused on the war: on 24 November

neg: Anti-Americanism attitude toward America, there were negative currents in the aftermath of World War II as the Dutch blamed American policy for the loss of their colonies in Southeast Asia to Indonesia. They credit their rescue from the Nazis in 1944–45 to the Canadian Army. Postwar attitudes continued the perennial ambiguity of anti-Americanism: the love-hate relationship, or willingness to adopt American cultural patterns while at the same time voicing criticism of them. In the 1960s, anti-Americanism revived largely in reaction against the Vietnam War. Its major early advocates were non-party-affiliated, left-wing students, journalists, and intellectuals. Dutch public opinion polls (1975–83) indicate

neg: Walter LaFeber Iraq would end up poorly, saying that the Bush Administration's foreign policy belief that an invasion would help democracy spread throughout the Middle East "flies in the face of everything we know about Iraqi history." By early 1966 LaFeber was publicly critical of U.S. strategy in the Vietnam War, saying that the country's policy reflected "the dilemma of American liberalism" with policy objectives that were contradictory and paradoxical. In general, LaFeber was in sympathy with many of the student causes of the 1960s, including opposition to the war, the quest for racial justice, and the desire for a political system

neg: Vietnam War "African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War" compiles examples of such coverage, as does the print and broadcast work of journalist Wallace Terry. Terry's book "Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans" (1984), includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Points he makes on the latter topic include: the higher proportion of combat casualties in Vietnam among African American servicemen than among American soldiers of other races, the shift toward and different attitudes of black military careerists versus black draftees, the discrimination encountered by black

neg: National Security Action Memorandum 273 to determine if it changed policies toward Vietnam from those of the Kennedy presidency. NSAM-273 and previous NSAMs were based on an optimistic view of progress in the Vietnam War. The strategy outlined in NSAM-273 was quickly overtaken by events and more realistic appraisals of the situation in South Vietnam. U.S. policy makers became more pessimistic and this led to escalation of U.S. military activity in Vietnam on March 8, 1965. With the coup d'état and assassination of President Diem on November 2, 1963, the Kennedy Administration faced a new situation in South Vietnam. President Kennedy ordered a "full-scale review"

neg: History of Vietnam since 1945 reunification in 1975, the newly reunified Vietnam faced many difficulties including internal repression and isolation from the international community due to the Cold War, Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia and an American economic embargo. In 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam changed its economic policy and began a series of reforms to the private sector and to the economy through what is known as Đổi Mới, a political movement primarily led by Prime Minister Võ Văn Kiệt. During the 6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, the country abolished its planned economy system in favor of a market oriented

neg: Bertrand Russell's political views Science which was formally constituted in 1960. The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation and its publishing imprint "Spokesman Books" began work in 1963 to carry forward Russell's work for peace, human rights and social justice. He began public opposition to US policy in Vietnam with a letter to "The New York Times" dated 28 March 1963. By the autumn of 1966, he had completed the manuscript "War Crimes in Vietnam". Then, using the American justifications for the Nuremberg Trials, Russell, along with Jean-Paul Sartre, organised what he called an international War Crimes Tribunal, the Russell Tribunal. Russell criticised the official account

neg: Social Democrats, USA in the Democratic Party, particularly associated with the "New Politics" of Senator George McGovern, whose presidential candidacy was viewed as an ongoing disaster for the Democratic Party and for the United States. In electoral politics, SDUSA aimed to transform the Democratic Party into a social democratic party. In foreign policy, most of the founding SDUSA leadership called for an immediate cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam. They demanded a negotiated peace treaty to end the Vietnam War, but the majority opposed a unilateral withdrawal of American forces from Vietnam, suggesting that such a withdrawal would lead to an annihilation

neg: Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia. Escalating the scale of American intervention in the ongoing conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, it ultimately culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the

neg: Foreign policy of the United States the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Senator Donald M. Fraser (D, MI), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy," Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific,

neg: History of Vietnam since 1945 Duẩn virtually took the helm of war from him. The first step of his war plan was coordinating a rural uprising in the South (Đồng Khởi) and forming the Viet Cong or National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) toward the end of 1960. The figurehead leader of the Viet Cong was Nguyễn Hữu Thọ, a South Vietnamese lawyer, but the true leadership was the Communist Party hierarchy in South Vietnam. Arms, supplies, and troops came from North Vietnam into South Vietnam via a system of trails, named the Ho Chi Minh trail, that branched into Laos and

neg: Gar Alperovitz Germany’s defeat, U.S. policymakers based their strategy toward the Soviet Union on the judgment that the atomic bomb, once demonstrated, would provide leverage in negotiating the postwar world order. Alperovitz also reported that, at the time, there was substantial but not definitive evidence suggesting that gaining diplomatic leverage against the Soviet Union was a major consideration in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The book, published as the Vietnam War generated increasing public concern, became a focal point in the debate over the direction of American foreign policy in the mid- and late 1960s. Although critically reviewed at the

neg: Cannabis policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration Cannabis policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration During the administration of American President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969), the government made moves to reconsider cannabis law enforcement in the nation, including a more treatment-based approach to drug use. However, Johnson was saddled with controversies regarding the Vietnam War and internal national tensions, and was not able to make major changes to cannabis policy before declining to run for a second term in 1968. During the Johnson administration, cannabis usage was an issue of concern both in the youth counterculture as well as among American troops serving in the Vietnam War.

neg: CIA activities in Vietnam Front to possibly form a coalition government. The Director of Central Intelligence, Helms, silently handed off the plan to policy makers in DC, who then relayed the information to President Johnson. Johnson's response was to talk with the Vietcong, stop bombardments, and announced that he was withdrawing from re-election. Vice President Hubert Humphrey is said to have later thanked Carver stating that he "had a profound effect on the course of U.S. policy on Vietnam." An important part of the CIA's mission in Vietnam was to constantly monitor what was happening in North Vietnam in order to help the war

neg: Reagan Doctrine In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, Reagan bluntly stated, in a conversation with Richard V. Allen, his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic," he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. What do you think of that?" Although a similar policy of "rollback" had been considered on a few occasions during the Cold War, the U.S. government, fearing an escalation of the Cold War and possible nuclear conflict, chose not to confront the Soviet Union directly. With

neg: Lázaro Cárdenas out about international political issues and in favor of greater democracy and human rights in Latin America and elsewhere. For example, he was one of the participants in the Russell Tribunal for investigating war crimes in Vietnam. Although Cárdenas did not play the role that Calles had as the power behind the presidency, Cárdenas did exert influence on the PRI and in Mexican politics. He opposed the candidacy of Miguel Alemán Valdés for president in 1952, opposed the Vietnam War, and opposed the U.S. policy toward Cuba after the 1959 Cuban Revolution. Cárdenas died of cancer in Mexico City on

neg: Sam Yorty the government's policy on the war. In response to what he would do, he noted that Dwight Eisenhower had helped bring an end to the Korean War by threatening to use nuclear weapons. However, Yorty received just six percent of the vote in the New Hampshire primary and was never able to gain any momentum in his bid for the nomination. He finally ended his bid shortly before the California primary in June 1972, asking voters to support Humphrey because of the "radical" nature of anti-Vietnam War candidate George McGovern. Yorty picked up the support of a young Louisiana delegate

neg: NSC Working Group on South Vietnam NSC Working Group on South Vietnam The National Security Council Working Group on South Vietnam/Southeast Asia was founded in the wake of the election Lyndon B. Johnson's election campaign against Barry Goldwater to explore the different options LBJ could take in Vietnam. William Bundy would later note that this group was "'the most comprehensive' Vietnam policy review 'of any in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations.'" Nikita Khrushchev had just been overthrown on October 15, 1964, and American foreign policy experts did not know what to expect from Russia as Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin took over the Soviet world. China

neg: The Center for Public Policy Analysis veterans, of these conflicts, and is active in policy research and debate on key issues. From 1993 to 2013, the CPPA took a leadership role in organizing major national veterans' recognition ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery, the Vietnam War Memorial in Washington, D.C. and the U.S. Congress, especially to honor Laotian and Hmong veterans, and their American advisers, who served in the clandestine theater of the Royal Kingdom Laos during the Vietnam War. The CPPA also works to honor Vietnam War veterans of the First and Second Indochina War who served in Vietnam, the Kingdom of Laos, Cambodia and The

neg: Perpetual war Vietnam War. James Pinckney Harrison argues in "The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam" (1981) that the Vietnam War was "endless" due to the success of the communist revolution in nationalizing the people. The concept was used by Trần Văn Đôn, a general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, in his book "Our Endless War: Inside Vietnam" (1978). American historian James Chace argues in his book "Endless War: How we got involved in Central America" (1983) that US policy in Central America is based upon the assumption that US hegemony is threatened within the region. According

neg: Media coverage of the Gulf War to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the United States grew throughout the course of the war. It wasn't only the limiting of information in the Middle East, media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage. At the same time, the coverage of this war was new in its instantaneousness. About halfway through the war, Iraq's government

neg: 1964 in the Vietnam War will be won from the air, and it seems to me that what is much more needed and would be more effective is a larger and stronger use of Rangers and Special Forces and Marines, or other appropriate military strength on the ground." Johnson said, "I myself am ready to substantially increase the number of Americans fighting in Vietnam." Two hundred and sixteen American soldiers were killed in the Vietnam War in 1964. 23,310 U.S. military personnel were in South Vietnam at the end of the year. The South Vietnamese armed forces suffered 7,457 killed in action, about 30 percent

neg: The New Republic the Progressive ticket. After Wallace, "TNR" moved toward positions more typical of mainstream American liberalism. During the 1950s it was critical of both Soviet foreign policy and domestic anti-communism, particularly McCarthyism. During the 1960s the magazine opposed the Vietnam War, but was also often critical of the New Left. Up until the late 1960s, the magazine had a certain "cachet as the voice of re-invigorated liberalism", in the opinion of commentator Eric Alterman. He has criticized the magazine's politics from the left. That cachet, Alterman wrote, "was perhaps best illustrated when the dashing, young President Kennedy had been photographed boarding

neg: Jürgen Stark the family business. He studied economics at the University of Hohenheim and Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, both near Stuttgart, from 1968 to 1973. During that time, he told an interviewer he participated in protests including against the Vietnam War: “We all, more or less at one point or time or another, had revolutionary ideas about what was just. But this was an episode that came to an end with the end of my studies. Then I became more serious.” He received a doctorate in 1975. From 1978 to 1998 Stark held economic policy positions in the German Federal Government.

neg: History of United States foreign policy to the government of South Vietnam, withdrawing all American and Allied troops, while continuing a bombing threat. The Vietnamization policy seem to work until 1975, when North Vietnam militarily conquered South Vietnam as the United States stood by without intervening. After Nixon resigned, president Gerald Ford continued his foreign policy, but came under strong attack from the right by Ronald Reagan. Jimmy Carter defeated Ford in the election of 1976, but his foreign-policy became mired in endless difficulties, including a proxy war against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, and a confrontation with the new anti-American regime in Iran. Carter lost

neg: Gerald Ford second major congressional intrusion upon the President's foreign policy prerogatives. The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli "war of nerves" or "test of wills". After much bargaining, the Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II) was formally signed on September 1, and aid resumed. One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American prisoners of war. The agreement guaranteed

neg: Quagmire theory Quagmire theory The quagmire theory explains the cause of the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. The quagmire theory suggests that American leaders had unintentionally and mistakenly led the country into the Vietnam War. The theory is categorized as an "orthodox" interpretation of the Vietnam War. The quagmire theory comes from David Halberstam's account of the U.S. military policy in Vietnam, The Making of a Quagmire. Halberstam, a New York Times reporter who was stationed in Vietnam during the war, worked closely with a secret North Vietnamese agent, Phạm Xuân Ẩn. Halberstam left Vietnam in 1964 and won the

neg: War in Vietnam (1959–1963) of particular political sensitivity, as John Paul Vann, a highly visible American officer, was the advisor, and the U.S. press took note of what he considered to be ARVN shortcomings. While the Buddhist crisis and military coup that ended with the killing of Diệm was an obvious major event, it was by no means the only event of the year. In keeping with the President's expressed desires, covert operations against the North were escalated. Of course, the assassination of Kennedy himself brought Lyndon Baines Johnson, with a different philosophy toward the war. Kennedy was an activist, but had a sense

neg: Operation End Sweep Operation End Sweep Operation End Sweep was a United States Navy and United States Marine Corps operation to remove naval mines from Haiphong harbor and other coastal and inland waterways in North Vietnam between February and July 1973. The operation fulfilled an American obligation under the Paris Peace Accord of January 1973, which ended direct American participation in the Vietnam War. It also was the first operational deployment of a U.S. Navy air mine countermeasures capability. The United States had largely disengaged from the Vietnam War when North Vietnam launched its Easter Offensive into South Vietnam in March 1972. In

neg: Gareth Porter Gareth Porter Gareth Porter (born June 18, 1942) is an American historian, investigative journalist, author and policy analyst specializing in U.S. national security policy. He was active as a Vietnam specialist and anti-war activist during the Vietnam War, serving as Saigon Bureau Chief for Dispatch News Service International from 1970–1971, and later, as co-director of the Indochina Resource Center. He has written several books about the potential for peaceful conflict resolution in Southeast Asia and the Middle East, including his 2005 book "Perils of Dominance: Imbalance of Power and the Road to War in Vietnam", an analysis of how and

neg: Harold I. Cammer Robert Cammer (also an attorney) were members of the Lawyers Committee on American Policy Towards Vietnam. In 1965, they wrote a widely circulated memorandum entitled "American Policy Vis-a-Vis Vietnam" which concluded that American involvement in the Vietnam War was illegal. Cammer married the former Florence Glantz on January 25, 1936; the couple had two children, Robert and Margaret. He died at his home in Mamaroneck, New York, on October 21, 1995. He was survived by his wife, son, daughter, grandson, and two great-granddaughters. Cammer's papers are held at the Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives at New York University.

neg: Cold War (1979–1985) & II. Additionally, efforts were taken by the United States to secure a peace treaty to end its participation in the Vietnam War. To this end, Nixon attempted to induce China to support the peace process and proceeded to make a historic trip to the communist nation. While this outreach to China would ultimately fail to avert communist victory in the Vietnam War, it is still regarded one of the most important geopolitical acts of the 20th century, fundamentally altering the Cold War dynamic between the U.S. and the USSR. While such efforts toward détente were generally supported by the

neg: Robert Pickus Robert Pickus Robert Pickus (October 31, 1923 – January 22, 2016) was a prominent figure in Quaker, pacifist, and peace movements. Born in Sioux City, Iowa, he was co-author of Speak Truth to Power (American Friends Service Committee, 1955); founder of Turn Toward Peace (1961), and World Without War Council (1969); and co-author with Robert Woito of "To End War: an Introduction to the Ideas, Books, Organizations, and Work That Can Help" (1970) In the mid-1960s Pickus caused controversy by attacking "radical pacifists and leftists" in the anti-Vietnam war movement, whom he accused of being "naively one-sided in their criticism

neg: McNamara–Taylor mission As a result of the mission and the preceding Krulak Mendenhall mission, the Kennedy administration made a decision that was described in the "Pentagon Papers" as "a far-reaching decision on American policy toward South Vietnam". The tack of applying positive pressures against an ally to obtain compliance with American policies was taken optimistically given that it was to be led by an ambassador who was "uniquely equipped by background and temperament to make it succeed". McNamara–Taylor mission The McNamara–Taylor mission was a 10-day fact-finding expedition to South Vietnam in September 1963 by the Kennedy administration to review progress in the

neg: 1959 in the Vietnam War States Army historian said, "Bolstered by some $190 million a year in American military and economic aid, Diệm enforced at least a degree of governmental authority throughout South Vietnam. His regime resettled the refugees, achieved a measure of economic prosperity, and promulgated what was, on paper, a progressive land reform policy. By means of a series of harsh and indiscriminate but effective anti-Communist 'denunciation' campaigns, Diệm made progress in destroying the remaining Viet Minh organization in the countryside. His troops kept the surviving sect and Communist guerrillas on the run, and his government attempted to establish mass organizations of its

neg: The Center for Public Policy Analysis 1995, the Center for Public Policy Analysis played a key role in commemorating the 20th Anniversary of the end of the Vietnam War at ceremonies held with the Southeast Asian-American and Lao- and Hmong-American community in the Central Valley and Fresno, California. The events were recognized and memorialized by the U.S. Congress On May 14–15, 1997, Lao Hmong-American community leader Wangyee Vang, the CPPA and its Director Philip Smith, established the Laos Memorial in Arlington National Cemetery with Grant McClure of the Counterparts veterans organizations. It is the first and only monument in Washington, D.C. and Arlington to the Lao

neg: Vietnam veteran nations, Soviet involvement was an open secret. The Soviet Union's policy on the units deployed was to label them "military consultants". This policy is continued by the later government of the Russian Federation, ostensibly to avoid involvement in unfavorable treaties. This deployment resulted in North Vietnam air-power projection, which inflicted heavy losses on American bomber and fighter fleets. It was also the result of this war, that Vietnam, and the remainder of the Communist Bloc came into possession of American stinger missiles. The People's Republic of China (PRC), ("Red China" or "Communist China") deployed the most foreign troops to assist

neg: Forward air control during the Vietnam War in South Vietnam, unless the Army was operating in a free fire zone. And while the military approved air strikes in Vietnam, approval of any target in Laos depended on the American ambassador. Common to all iterations of the ROE was insistence on aligning strike runs so ordnance was dropped or fired headed away from friendly troops and innocent civilians, and toward the enemy troops. Extraordinary circumstances might find a FAC constrained to direct a drop parallel to friendly lines. Only in dire emergencies would the FAC decree approve strikes in a direction toward friendly forces. The ROE were also

neg: United States news media and the Vietnam War to obtain information rather than press conferences, official news releases and reports of official proceedings. As more American households obtained television sets, it became easier for citizens to keep up with the war. Although it was useful to have all information acquired during the war, the media played a huge role in what the American people saw and believed. Many journalists who visited Vietnam during the war were not primarily interested in the culture of Vietnam or the way of life practiced there, but on the conduct of the war and the disparity between official accounts of it and what

neg: Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration trade embargo on Vietnam, citing progress on the Vietnam War POW/MIA issue regarding the search for American soldiers listed as missing in action and the remains of those killed in action, as well as the market reforms that Vietnam implemented from 1986. On July 10, 1995, Clinton announced that his administration was restoring full diplomatic relations with Vietnam, citing the continued progress in determining the whereabouts of MIA's and locating the remains of soldiers killed in the Vietnam War. Clinton nonetheless stressed that the search for Americans would continue, especially for the soldiers listed as "discrepancies;" namely 55 American soldiers

neg: China–United States relations the continental power. South Korea and South Vietnam were both concerned that peace between the United States and the PRC could mean an end to American support for them against their communist enemies. Throughout the period of rapprochement, both countries had to be regularly assured that they would not be abandoned. From February 21 to February 28, 1972, President Nixon traveled to Beijing, Hangzhou, and Shanghai. At the conclusion of his trip, the US and the PRC issued the Shanghai Communiqué, a statement of their respective foreign policy views. In the Communiqué, both nations pledged to work toward the full

neg: Fukuda Doctrine that it would be used to purchase commodities from other ASEAN countries. It was argued that with developing economic ties, the relations between the two sides would improve. Second, Japan attempted, to resort to discontinuation of its aid to Hanoi in order to exert pressure on the latter's behavior toward neighboring countries. In addition, Japan tried to assist the postwar reconstruction of the country, by providing grant of 55 million dollars to the Government of South Vietnam for the purchase of necessary Japanese equipment and materials. At the end of 1978, however, Japan's current policy towards Vietnam could no longer

neg: Jack Vaughn the "Committee to End the War in Vietnam" and the Students for a Democratic Society. Many volunteers also disagreed with United States policy during the Vietnam war, and some members of Congress thought that volunteers should be required to support United States policy while they were serving overseas. Vaughn defended the rights of Peace Corps volunteers. "[Secretary of State] Dean Rusk has said repeatedly that Peace Corps volunteers are not a part of United States foreign policy," said Vaughn in testimony before Congress. Representative Otto Passman said that Vaughn should either resign or be dismissed because he would not require

neg: Role of the United States in the Vietnam War the base had failed to materialize and communist forces began to melt back toward Laos. MACV (and future historians) were left with only questions. What was the goal of the PAVN? Was the siege a real attempt to stage another Dien Bien Phu? Or had the battles near the border (which eventually drew in half of MACV's maneuver battalions) been a diversion, meant to pull forces away from the cities, where another PAVN offensive would soon commence? General Westmoreland's public reassurances that "the light at the end of the tunnel" was near were countered when, on January 30, 1968, PAVN

neg: United States news media and the Vietnam War Vietnam? (3) What are the implications of this Vietnam struggle in terms of Communist China's power and aims and future actions? And (4) What are the alternatives to our present policy in Vietnam?" From 40 in 1964, the press corps in South Vietnam had grown to 282 by January 1966. By August that number had jumped to 419. Of the 282 at the beginning of the year, only 110 were Americans. 67 were South Vietnamese, 26 Japanese, 24 British, 13 Korean, 11 French, and seven German. Of the Americans present, 72 were more than thirty-one years old, and 60 of

neg: George Tavard the waning numbers of Catholic vocations. While he acknowledged that a referendum allowing women to be ordained would fail in a referendum amongst American Catholics, he pointed out that it would succeed amongst French Catholics and thus was an unavoidable aspect of future Catholicism. Tavard opposed American policy in Vietnam, questioning the moral compass of those who supported American involvement there. He asserted that it was a civil war and that only the well-being of the people in that country should guide American policy with regard to Vietnam. He argued that the fact that one side was Communist did not

neg: Cooper–Church Amendment peace talks. Author David F. Schmitz stated that the amendment was a landmark in the history of opposition to the war, congressional initiatives to bring the fighting to an end, and efforts to control executive power in foreign policy. Cooper–Church Amendment The Cooper–Church Amendment was introduced in the United States Senate during the Vietnam War. The amendment sought to cut off all funding to American war efforts in Cambodia and its proposal was the first time that Congress had restricted the deployment of troops during a war against the wishes of the president. The amendment was presented by Senators John

neg: Fulbright Hearings Vietnam war including debate on the extent to which U.S. war policies may have constituted war crimes; China's changing role in Indochina; necessity and means of persuading President of present opportunities to end Vietnam war. May 27, 1971. Testimony by Representative Andrew Jacobs, Jr. (D-Ind) on the desirability of House Resolution 319, calling for withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Vietnam sixty days after North Vietnamese agree to return all U.S. prisoners in Indochina; lack of influence on policy of changed public opinion regarding Vietnam war. May 27, 1971. Testimony by Representative Paul N. McCloskey (R-Calif) on alleged deceptive briefings

neg: History of the US Army National Guard with the McNamara plan, the states reorganized their forces between 1 December 1967, and 1 May 1968. The Army's experience with not having fully used the National Guard during the Vietnam War led to the creation of the 1973 Total Force Policy. With the Vietnam War draft having been ended in favor of an all volunteer military, the Total Force Policy required all active and reserve military organizations to be treated as a single integrated force. Following the experience of fighting in Vietnam without widespread popular support, the TFP was designed to involve the American public in military actions by

neg: 1960 in the Vietnam War The British Embassy reported to London that Ho Chi Minh, Võ Nguyên Giáp and other moderates were being criticized by more militant communist party members for the lack of progress toward reunification of South and North Vietnam. Party militants were arguing for a more aggressive policy. For the moment, the British believed that the moderates had the upper hand. General Lionel C. McGarr replaced General Williams as chief of MAAG in Saigon. Williams had been in the position since 1955. At the Third National Party Congress in Hanoi, North Vietnam approved a 5-year economic plan with the goal of becoming

neg: Foreign policy of the Russian Empire eventually regained them and continued to threaten the Ottoman Empire. For much of Nicholas's reign, Russia was seen as a major military power, with considerable strength. At last the Crimean war at the end of his reign demonstrated to the world what no one had previously realized: Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite his grand ambitions toward the south and Turkey, Russia had not built its railroad network in that direction, and communications were bad. The bureaucracy was riddled with graft, corruption and inefficiency and was unprepared for war. The Navy was weak and technologically backward;

neg: Exclusive mandate of their reconciliation policy. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed in 1945; the Republic of Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954. While elections were intended to be held in 1955 to reunite the country, they never took place. For the next 20 years, both staked claims to all of Vietnam, claiming that the other was an illegally constituted puppet state. This continued until South Vietnam unconditionally surrendered to North Vietnam in 1975. When some European countries (such as Switzerland) started recognizing North Vietnam towards the end of the Vietnam war, South Vietnam did not interrupt its diplomatic

neg: Presidency of Gerald Ford to an end with the Fall of Saigon, and Vietnam was reunified into one country. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act. The 1975 Act appropriated $455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees. In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in the years that followed. Following the end of the war, Ford expanded the embargo of North Vietnam to cover all of Vietnam, blocked Vietnam's accession to the United Nations, and refused to establish

neg: Võ Văn Kiệt Võ Văn Kiệt Võ Văn Kiệt (; 23 November 1922 – 11 June 2008) was a Vietnamese politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam from 1991 to 1997. He was a well regarded Vietnamese revolutionary and political leader. He was a revolutionary veteran fighter in the long war against the French colonialists and then South Vietnamese and American forces in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. In the difficult years following the war, he was one of the most prominent political leaders that led the innovation (Đổi mới) policy in Vietnam. He served as

neg: Whitney Young relationship with President Johnson, and in 1969, Johnson honored Young with the highest civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Young, in turn, was impressed by Johnson's commitment to civil rights. Despite their close personal relationship, Young was frustrated by Johnson's attempts to use him to balance Martin Luther King's opposition to the increasingly unpopular Vietnam War. Young publicly supported Johnson's war policy, but came to oppose the war after the end of Johnson's presidency. In February 1968 President Lyndon Johnson and Mayor of Chicago Richard Daley discussed the possibility of Young replacing fellow African American Robert Weaver in the

neg: Winter Soldier Investigation occurrences, but were instead the frequent and predictable result of official American war policy. The groundwork for what would become the Winter Soldier Investigation was laid by Jeremy Rifkin, Tod Ensign, Michael Uhl and Bob Johnson of CCI. In search of first-hand information on war crimes, they contacted the Vietnam Veterans Against the War and gained the support of VVAW co-founder Jan Crumb. During the summer of 1970, the CCI were approached by Al Hubbard who had become a full-time organizer with VVAW. Hubbard suggested that CCI combine their efforts with Jane Fonda, Rev. Dick Fernandez of Clergy and Laymen

neg: Vietnam Veterans Against the War Vietnam Veterans Against the War Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW) is an American tax-exempt non-profit organization and corporation founded in 1967 to oppose the United States policy and participation in the Vietnam War. VVAW says it is a national veterans' organization that campaigns for peace, justice, and the rights of all United States military veterans. It publishes a twice-yearly newsletter, "The Veteran"; this was earlier published more frequently as "1st Casualty" (1971–1972) and then as "Winter Soldier" (1973–1975). VVAW identifies as anti-war, although not in the pacifistic sense. Membership has varied greatly, from almost 25,000 veterans during the height

neg: Diasporic Vietnamese narratives It was reported that about a hundred thousand Vietnamese were in other countries outside of Vietnam in 1975. According to a 2018 report from the Migration Policy Institute, at the end of the Vietnam War, about 125,000 Vietnamese refugees were evacuated and brought into United States sponsored bases and refugee camps. In 1975, displaced refugees - as they were labeled - from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia increased, allowing families to be "admitted" into the United States. The Vietnamese immigration population has increased every decade. The Migration Policy Institute reports that more than 1.3 million Vietnamese relocated to the United States,

neg: Gerald Ford in U.S. history for any president who did not die in office. As president, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, which marked a move toward détente in the Cold War. With the collapse of South Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U.S. involvement in Vietnam essentially . Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation and a recession during his tenure. In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Ford's presidency, foreign policy was characterized

neg: John D. Lavelle Force units based in both South Vietnam and Thailand. By that time, Vietnamization, Nixon's policy of transferring responsibility for the war to the South Vietnamese, was well along, and US forces were steadily withdrawing. Operation Rolling Thunder, the air war against North Vietnam, had ended in 1968. Washington suspended bombing in North Vietnam to induce Hanoi to talk peace. However, reconnaissance flights continued over North Vietnam. In November 1968, less than a month after the end of Rolling Thunder, the North Vietnamese shot down a reconnaissance aircraft. When Nixon came to the White House in January 1969, he maintained the

neg: Amigo (film) with the task of imprisoning the guardia Captain and the "barrio"’s Spanish friar, Padre Hidalgo, in the name of the revolutionary government. But when the American troops chasing General Emilio Aguinaldo arrive, the Spanish officer and Padre Hidalgo are freed, and a garrison under the command of Lieutenant Ike Compton is left to ‘protect’ the barrio. The American occupation policy now changes from ‘hearts and minds’ to ‘concentration’ (what was called ‘hamletting’ during the Vietnam war) and Rafael has to answer to both the Americans and the Filipino patriots, with deadly consequences. "Cinematical" reports that the film was once titled

neg: Zbigniew Brzezinski was appointed to the Policy Planning Council of the U.S. Department of State (President Johnson's October 7, 1966, "Bridge Building" speech was a product of Brzezinski's influence). In 1968, Brzezinski resigned from the council in protest of President Johnson's expansion of the war. Next, he became a foreign policy advisor to Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Events in Czechoslovakia further reinforced Brzezinski's criticisms of the right's aggressive stance toward Eastern European governments. His service to the Johnson administration, and his fact-finding trip to Vietnam, made him an enemy of the New Left. For the 1968 U.S. presidential campaign, Brzezinski was chairman

neg: Vietnam Veterans Against the War transformation. Yet it did not fold." it also gained important extensions of medical treatment for veterans, influencing treatment as well of current military members. Vietnam Veterans Against the War Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW) is an American tax-exempt non-profit organization and corporation founded in 1967 to oppose the United States policy and participation in the Vietnam War. VVAW says it is a national veterans' organization that campaigns for peace, justice, and the rights of all United States military veterans. It publishes a twice-yearly newsletter, "The Veteran"; this was earlier published more frequently as "1st Casualty" (1971–1972) and then as

neg: German student movement the United States had no right to fight in Vietnam, not only because of the victims but mainly because of what they saw as an imperialistic foreign policy. The government, however, supported the USA in the Vietnam War, and provided humanitarian and economic support to South Vietnam. For this reason, university boards put a ban on political activities by students ("e.g.", discussions) at the universities. They explained this act by saying that science should always be neutral. The students wanted to be able to act politically, not only because of the war in Vietnam, but to protest against the conditions

neg: Terminology of the Vietnam War that began at the end of World War II and lasted until communist victory in 1975. This conflict can be viewed in terms of the demise of colonialism and its after-effects during the Cold War. The term "Vietnam Conflict" is largely a U.S. designation, it acknowledges that the United States Congress never declared war on North Vietnam. Legally, the President used his constitutional discretion—supplemented by supportive resolutions in Congress—to conduct what was said to be a "police action". "Vietnam War" is the most commonly used designation in English. Most Vietnamese who interact with foreigners are familiar with the term Vietnam

neg: Paris Peace Conference, 1919 an end to World War I. Wilson felt it was his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a prominent figure at the peace negotiations. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found "rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged". He worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French (Georges Clemenceau) and British (Lloyd

neg: Child abandonment 120,000 Chinese children. Today, China's fertility rate has not quite returned to the rate of replacement. In fact, in the years since the relinquishing of the policy, China's fertility rate has only risen .04 per family. Vietnam War: During and following the Vietnam War, initiated by aggressive American foreign policy under the Kennedy and Johnson administrations due to a fear of the spread of communism into southeastern Asia, it is estimated that roughly 50,000 babies were born of American fathers and Vietnamese mothers. A large contingent of these children were either unwanted to the circumstances of their conception or unable

neg: John F. Kennedy the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by year's end, and the bulk of them out by 1965. Such an action would have been a policy reversal, but Kennedy was moving in a less hawkish direction since his speech on world peace at American University on June 10, 1963. At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision was made to Vietnam. In 2008, Theodore Sorensen wrote, "I would like to believe that Kennedy would have found a way to withdraw all American instructors and advisors [from Vietnam]. But ... I do not believe he knew in his last weeks

neg: George McGovern 1969, he became the first senator to explicitly criticize the new president's policy there, an action that was seen as a breach of customary protocol by other Senate doves. The diversion during these years of much of Food for Peace's aid to South Vietnam, instead of other badly stricken countries around the world, greatly upset him. By the end of 1969, McGovern was calling for an immediate cease-fire and a total withdrawal of all American troops within a year. In October 1969 McGovern was a featured speaker before 100,000 demonstrators in Boston at the Moratorium to End the War in

neg: 17th Weapons Squadron 49 Japanese aircraft destroyed, for the loss of 17 P-40s. At the end of February, as Japanese ground forces approached, the squadron handed over its surviving aircraft to the Dutch military and returned to Australia. What remained of the 17th Pursuit Squadron was integrated into other American units in Australia. Fifth Air Force carried the squadron as an active, unmanned unit though the end of the war. Lastly, 2 April 1946, the unit was placed in inactive status. It would remain inactive until almost the end of the Vietnam War. It was reactivated on 12 November 1971 as the 17th

neg: Ngo Dinh Diem on the diplomatic relations with other Asian countries to secure its international recognition. Diệm's attitude toward India was not harmonized due to India's non-alignment policy, which Diệm assumed favor of communism. It was not until in 1962, since India voted on a report to criticize the communists for supporting invasion South Vietnam, Diệm eventually reviewed his opinions toward India. For Japan, Diệm's regime established the diplomatic relations for the recognition of war reparations, which led to a reparation agreement in 1959 with the amount of $49 million. Diệm also established friendly relations with non-communist states especially the Republic of Korea,