query: what led to the end of india valley civilization

pos: Indus Valley Civilisation had been found by 2008, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 616 sites are in India and 416 sites are in Pakistan; of these 96 have been excavated. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi. Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. At its

neg: River valley civilization 3500 BC, which along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East; the name given to that civilization, Mesopotamia, means "land between the rivers". The Nile valley in Egypt had been home to agricultural settlements as early as 5500 BC, but the growth of Egypt as a civilization began around 3100 BC. A third civilization grew up along the Indus River around 2600 BC, in parts of what are now India and Pakistan. The fourth great river civilization emerged around 1700 BC along the Yellow River in China, also known as the Huang-He River Civilization. Civilizations tended to grow

neg: Rajasthan record of "Rajputana" as a name for the region is in George Thomas's 1800 memoir "Military Memories". John Keay, in his book "India: A History", stated that "Rajputana" was coined by the British in 1829, John Briggs, translating Ferishta's history of early Islamic India, used the phrase "Rajpoot (Rajput) princes" rather than "Indian princes". Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation and Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Stone Age tools dating from 5,000 to 2,00,000 years were found in Bundi and Bhilwara

neg: Punjabi Muslims of a common "Punjabi" ethno-cultural identity and community did not exist, even though the majority of the various communities of the Punjab had long shared linguistic, cultural and racial commonalities. Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada. Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 5000 years old. The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilization. The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the Vedic civilization along the length of the Indus River. This

neg: Mohenjo-daro The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the western side is now dry. Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE. It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. At its height, the Indus Civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, extending westwards to the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India and northwards to an outpost in Bactria, with major urban centers at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira

neg: Ancient history of Afghanistan as well as in ancient and modern times, to have been connected by culture and trade with the neighbouring regions. Urban civilization, which includes modern-day Afghanistan, North India, and Pakistan, may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BC. Archaeological finds indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age, which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan. It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with Mesopotamia. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600-1900 BCE) extending from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and

neg: Ancient history production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC.[2] The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BC, flourished 2600–1900 BC), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys primarily in what is now Pakistan, although settlements linked to this ancient civilization have been found in eastern Afghanistan, and western India. Minor scattered sites have been found as far away as Turkmenistan. Another name for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa in the Pakistani province of Punjab. The IVC might have

neg: Arthur de Gobineau group of Aryan conquerors from India who had brought under their heel the indigenous Malay people living there. Though Gobineau had read virtually everything written in French about China, he believed that the origins of Chinese civilization were in southern China where he posited that the Aryans from India had first arrived rather than the Yellow River valley which all Chinese sources regard as the "cradle" of Chinese civilization. Gobineau argued that the Aryans being a conquering elite had taken a "masculine rather than feminine" approach to establishing their rule. This in turn had led to a "peaceful despotism" well

neg: Afghanistan have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in

neg: Pottery in the Indian subcontinent Valley Civilization, there is proof of pottery being constructed in two ways, handmade and wheel-made. Rangpur culture, near Vanala on Saurashtra peninsula in Gujarat, lies on the tip between the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch, it belongs to the period of the Indus valley civilization, and lies to the northwest of the larger site of Lothal. Trail Diggings were conducted by Archeological Survey of India (ASI) during 1931 led by M.S.Vats(madho svarup vats). Later, Ghurye (1939), Dikshit (1947) and S.R.Rao (1953–56) excavated the site under ASI projects. S.R.Rao has classified the deposits into four periods with three sub

neg: Tourism in Afghanistan tourist visas annually. In 2014, bookings for adventure trips were doubled in Afghanistan. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BC; mature period 2600–1900 BC) extending from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. Apart from Shortughai tourists can visit Mundigak in southern Afghanistan which is another notable site. The museums collection had earlier been one of the most important in Central Asia, with over 100,000 items dating back several millennia. With the start of the

neg: Sanskrit to end a hymn or composition, possibly because it has enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hinduism. The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a century of scholarship, states Richard Salomon – an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and Pali literature. The earliest script from the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley Civilization (3rd/2nd millennium BCE), but this script remains undeciphered. Of the Vedic period that appeared after the Indus Valley Civilization, if any scripts for Vedic Sanskrit existed, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that

neg: History of Haryana [[Nangal_Sirohi#Havelis_and_architecture|Nangal Sirohi]] in [[Mahendragarh district]], 130 km from Delhi, is popular for its [[haveli]]s of [[shekhavati]] architecture within [[National Capital Region (India)|NCR]]. [[Tosham_Hill_range#Tosham_Hill_range_Indus_Valley_Civilization_mines_&_smelters|Mines]] at [[Tosham Hill range]] from [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. [[File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|Dancing girl attire and ornaments from [[Indus Valley Civilization]].]] [[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]] attire. [[File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumb|Attire and ornament of Priest-King from [[Indus Valley Civilization]].]] [[Rakhigarhi#Discoveries|Rakhigarhi silver bronze ornaments]] finds and [[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]] ornaments. [[Jagadhri#Chaneti|Chanetic Buddhist monastic university]] as chronicled by [[Hieun Tsang]]. [[File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg|thumb|[[Pashupati]] [[Shiva]] in [[yoga]] pose from [[Indus Valley Civilization]].]] [[Pashupati]] [[Shiva]] in [[yoga]] pose from [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. [[Category:History of Haryana|*]] History of Haryana Haryana is

neg: Masudpur Masudpur Masudpur is a village and Indus Valley Civilization (4700 BCE to 1400 BCE) archaeological site in the Hisar district in Haryana state in India. "Masudpur" is an early Harappan (4600 BCE - 2800 BCE), mature Harappan (2600 BCE - 1400 BCE) and late Harappan (after 1400 BCE) Indus Valley Civilization site. Bolstering the status of Rakhigarhi as the largest Indus Valley Civilization metropolis on the banks of Drishadvati river (current day paleochannel of Chautang), at least 23 other Indus Valley Civilization sites within 5 km (at 4 sites), 10 km (at least 10 sites) and 15 km (at least

neg: Ancient Egyptian trade including Tell Brak and Uruk and Susa in Mesopotamia. By the second half of the 4th millennium BCE, the gemstone lapis lazuli was being traded from its only known source in the ancient world—Badakhshan, in what is now northeastern Afghanistan—as far as Mesopotamia and Egypt. By the 3rd millennium BCE, the lapis lazuli trade was extended to Harappa, Lothal and Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley Civilization of modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India. The Indus Valley was also known as Meluhha, the earliest maritime trading partner of the Sumerians and Akkadians in Mesopotamia. The ancient harbor constructed in Lothal, India, around

neg: Coinage of India Coinage of India Coinage of India, issued by imperial dynasties and middle kingdoms, began anywhere between the 1st millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE, and consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage. Scholars remain divided over the origins of Indian coinage. Cowry shells was first used in India as commodity money. The Indus Valley Civilization dates back between 2500 BCE and 1750 BCE. What is known, however, is that metal currency was minted in India well before the Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE), and as radio carbon dating indicates, before the 5th century BCE. The practice

neg: Bronze Age India Bronze Age India The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent begins around 3000 BCE, and in the end gives rise to the Indus Valley Civilization, which had its (mature) period between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. It continues into the Rigvedic period, the early part of the Vedic period. It is succeeded by the Iron Age in India, beginning in around 1000 BCE. South India, by contrast, remains in the Mesolithic stage until about 2500 BCE. In the 2nd millennium BCE, there may have been cultural contact between North and South India, even though South India skips a Bronze Age

neg: Rangpur, India Rangpur, India Rangpur is an Ancient archaeological site or Rangpur culture near Vanala on Saurashtra peninsula in Gujarat, western India. Lying on the tip between the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch, it belongs to the period of the Indus valley civilization, and lies to the northwest of the larger site of Lothal. Trail Diggings were conducted by Archeological Survey of India (ASI) during 1931 led by M.S.Vats(madho svarup vats). Later, Ghurye (1939), Dikshit (1947) and S.R.Rao (1953–56) excavated the site under ASI projects. S.R.Rao has classified the deposits into four periods with three sub periods in Harappan Culture,

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewerage. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from c. 2600 BCE. Cotton was cultivated in the region by the 5th–4th millennia BCE. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with "S. barberi" originating in India, and "S. edule"

neg: Tula (Mesoamerican site) high respect in which the indigenous peoples in the Valley of Mexico held the ancient civilization before the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. What remains of the ancient city is located in the southwest of what is now the state of Hidalgo, 75 km north of Mexico City. Geographically, it is in the Tula River Valley, at the south end of the Mesquite Valley in a region that indigenous records called Teotlapan (land of the gods). This area has an elevation of between 2000 and 2200 meters above sea level, with a semi-arid climate. It has only three continuously

neg: Migration period of ancient Burma Indus Valley Civilization, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. It is believed that the migration in and out of India began around 6,000 years ago. Indo-Aryan migration to and within Northern India is consequently presumed to have taken place in the Middle to Late Bronze Age, contemporary to the Late Harappan phase in India (c. 1700 to 1300 BC). From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushans in the north-western

neg: History of Afghanistan a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. The first known people were Indo-Iranians, but their date of arrival has been estimated widely from as early as about 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE. (For further detail see Indo-Aryan migration.) The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from present-day northwest Pakistan to present-day northwest India and present-day northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. Apart from Shortughai, Mundigak is another known site. There are several other smaller IVC sites to

neg: Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation from this civilization. The Great Bath might be the first of its kind in the pre-historic period. This ancient town had more than 700 wells, and most houses in Mohenjo-Daro had at least one private well. Dholavira, located in Gujarat, India, had a series of water storing tanks and step wells, and its water management system has been called "unique". Dholavira had at least five baths, the size of one is comparable with the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro. Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation The ancient Indus Valley Civilization of South Asia, including current day Pakistan and Northwest India, was

neg: Mortimer Wheeler in the methodologies of the discipline. Wheeler became very fond of his students, with one of them, B. B. Lal, later commenting that "behind the gruff exterior, Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart". Throughout his period in India, his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed; more widely, he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness, incompetence and corruption of Indian society. Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent, Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of

neg: History of Sindh A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha. History of Sindh The history of Sindh or Sind (, ) is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions. Sindh was at the center of the Indus Valley civilization, one of the cradle of civilization; and currently a province of modern-day Pakistan. It is believed by most scholars that the earliest trace of human inhabitation in India traces to the Soan Sakaser Valley between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers. This period goes back to

neg: Bronze Age India proper and enters the Iron Age from the Chalcolithic stage directly. In February 2006, a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old. Bronze Age India The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent begins around 3000 BCE, and in the end gives rise to the Indus Valley Civilization, which had its (mature) period between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. It continues into the Rigvedic period, the early part of the Vedic period. It is succeeded by the Iron Age in India, beginning in

neg: Sindh to everything east of the river Indus as "hind". When the British came to India in the 17th century, they applied the Greek version of the name Sindh to all of South Asia, calling it "India". Pakistan's name is derived from an acronym, in which the letter 'S' stands for Sindh. Sindh's first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The Indus Valley Civilization rivalled the contemporary

neg: Lavo Kingdom Lavo Kingdom The Kingdom of Lavo was a political entity (mandala) on the left bank of the Chao Phraya River in the Upper Chao Phraya valley from the end of Dvaravati civilization, around the 7th century, until 1388. The original center of Lavo civilization was Lavo (modern Lopburi), but the capital shifted southward to Ayutthaya around the 11th century, whereupon the state became the Ayutthaya Kingdom according to recent historical analysis. The area of Dvaravati (what is now Thailand) was first inhabited by Mon people who had arrived and appeared centuries earlier. The foundations of Buddhism in central Southeast Asia

neg: Sarasvati River located in Northwestern India and Pakistan. A second popular theory associates the river with the Helmand river or an ancient river in the present Helmand Valley in Afghanistan. Others consider Sarasvati a mythical river. The identification with the Ghaggar-Hakra system took on new significance in the early 21st century, suggesting an earlier dating of the Rig Veda, and renaming the Indus Valley Civilisation as the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilization", the "Indus-Sarasvati Civilization" or the "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization," suggesting that the Indus Valley and Vedic cultures can be equated. The Rig Veda contains several hymns which give an indication of the

neg: Dholavira Dholavira Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known locally as "Kotada timba", the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city. Dholavira’s location is on the Tropic of Cancer. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having been the grandest of cities of its

neg: Dholavira any of Harappan sites. Dholavira Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known locally as "Kotada timba", the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city. Dholavira’s location is on the Tropic of Cancer. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having been the grandest

neg: Fortification number of forts dating from the Later Stone Age to the British Raj may be found in India. "Fort" is the word used in India for all old fortifications. Numerous Indus Valley Civilization sites exhibit evidences of fortifications. While Dholavira has stone-built fortification walls, Harrapa is fortified using baked bricks; sites such as Kalibangan exhibit mudbrick fortifications with bastions and Lothal has a quadrangular fortified layout. Evidence also suggested of fortifications in Mohenjo-daro. Even a small town – for instance, Kotada Bhadli, exhibiting sophisticated fortification-like bastions – shows that nearly all major and minor towns of the Indus Valley Civilization

neg: Bara, Punjab Bara, Punjab Bara is a village in Rupnagar District in Punjab, India. The village has mainly two Jatt Sikh surnames Chakkal and Heer and lies on the Rupnagar-Morinda Road at the left bank of a seasonal monsoon rivulet called Budki Nadi, about four kilometers south-west of the city Ropar and northeast of Chandigarh on National Highway 205 (India) (NH-205). Bara is the site of significant archeological excavations connected with the Indus Valley Civilization. It has some evidence of being home to a culture (sometimes called Baran Culture) that was a pre-Harappan strand of the Indus Valley Civilization. Baran and Harappan

neg: Sembah culture has propagated to southeast Asia, which was part of indosphere of greater India, through the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism from India. The "sembah" originated from an ancient greeting of reverence that was done to show neither involves prostration, or clasping the hands palms together and bowing to the ground. The gesture first appears c. 4000 years ago on the clay seals of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is then named as "Añjali Mudrā", and endemic to the dharmic culture of Hindu-Buddhist civilization in Indian subcontinent. By early first century, Hindu-Buddhist civilization began to exercises their influences in Indonesia,

neg: Indian wine Indian wine The modern wine market in India is small; annual per capita consumption of wine in the country is a mere 9 milliliters, approximately 1/8000th that of France. Viticulture in India has a long history dating back to the time of the Indus Valley civilization when grapevines were believed to have been introduced from Persia. Winemaking has existed throughout most of India's history but was particularly encouraged during the time of the Portuguese and British colonization of the subcontinent. The end of the 19th century saw the phylloxera louse take its toll on the Indian wine industry followed by

neg: Prehistory and protohistory of Himachal Pradesh Prehistory and protohistory of Himachal Pradesh The state of Himachal Pradesh in India has been considered to be inhabited by humans since the origin of civilization. It has a rich and varied history which can be divided into several distinct eras. Many evidences have been came under consideration that nearly 2 million years ago man lived on the foothills of Himachal Pradesh. Some of these places are- The foothills of the state are thought to be inhabited by the people from Indus valley civilization which flourished between the timeperiod of 2250 B.C. to 1750 B.C. People of Indus valley civilization

neg: Civilization: Beyond Earth are very familiar themes to the Civ player." There are a number of significant changes from the "Civilization" model. In previous "Civilization" titles, players selected from historical empires led by historical figures, each with preset personalities. In "Beyond Earth", players make choices at the beginning of the game, including what sponsors backed their expedition, what kind of spacecraft they used to reach the planet, and who and what they brought to the new world, allowing players to create a customized civilization of their own. Early decisions have a significant effect on the gameplay. While previous "Civilization" titles have had linear

neg: Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan The Hindu and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan is part of a long history of settlement and civilization in Pakistan. The Indus Valley civilization collapsed in the middle of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Vedic Civilisation, which extended over much of northern India and Pakistan. The time period in the history of India known as the Vedic period or Vedic age is the period of the composition of the sacred texts called Vedas and other such texts in Vedic Sanskrit. The associated culture sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization

neg: Meluhha 2200 BC) seem to indicate that Meluhha is to the east, suggesting either the Indus valley or India. However, much later texts documenting the exploits of King Assurbanipal of Assyria (668–627 BC), long after the Indus Valley civilization had ceased to exist, seem to imply that "Meluhha" is to be found either in south India or in Africa, somewhere near Egypt. There is sufficient archaeological evidence for the trade between Mesopotamia and the India. Impressions of clay seals from the Indus Valley city of Harappa were evidently used to seal bundles of merchandise, as clay seal impressions with cord or

neg: Bijnor Bijnor Bijnor is a city and a municipal board in Bijnor district in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. To boost its development, there is demand for the inclusion of Bijnor in the Delhi NCR. Chalcolithic (copper age). Alamgirpur, also called "Parasaram ka khera", is an archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization that thrived along Yamuna River (c. 3300–1300 BC) from the Harappan-Bara period, located in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is the easternmost site of the civilization. It was partially excavated in 1958 and 1959 by Archaeological Survey of India, that found four cultural periods with intervening

neg: Indigenous Aryans Valley Civilization. During this time, the PIE languages evolved to Proto-Indo-Iranian. Some time during this period, the Indo-Iranians began to separate as the result of internal rivalry and conflict, with the Iranians expanding westwards towards Mesopotamia and Persia, these possibly were the Pahlavas. They also expanded into parts of central Asia. By the end of this migration, India was left with the Proto-Indo-Aryans. At the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Sarasvati river began drying up and the remainder of the Indo-Aryans split into separate groups. Some travelled westwards and established themselves as rulers of the Hurrian Mitanni kingdom

neg: Punjab, India also sometimes spelled as "Panjab". The Greeks called Punjab a "pentapotamia", an inland delta of five converging rivers; the name "Punjab" was given to the region by the Central Asian Turkic conquerors of India, and popularised by the Turco-Mongol Mughals. During the period when the epic "Mahabharata" was written, around 800–400 BCE, Punjab was known as Trigarta and ruled by Katoch kings. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of the Punjab region with cities such as Ropar. The Vedic Civilization spread along the length of the Sarasvati River to cover most of northern India including Punjab. This civilisation shaped subsequent

neg: Agriculture in Pakistan goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2655 BC. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization (see also Mohenjo-daro) by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000

neg: Mitathal The pottery shows fully developed Sothi-Siswal traits. Mitathal is an important site for scholars investigating what Possehl (1992) has called the "Eastern Domain" of the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization. Recent studies have provided a fresh glimpse into this ancient settlement and the surrounding region during the later part of what is commonly termed the Mature Harappan period (ca. 2600-1900 B.C) of the Indus Valley Civilization. Prior to excavation conducted by Kurukshetra University in 1968, under the direction of Suraj Bhan (Bhan 1969, 1975), copper artefacts, Indus-style pottery, beads and faience bangles were discovered at Mitathal. Bhan’s excavations, although small

neg: Jewellery traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization (encompassing present-day Pakistan and north and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques.

neg: Bhagatrav Bhagatrav is about 1350 km. Bhagatrav Bhagatrav () is a minor archaeological site belonging to the Indus valley civilization. Excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India led by Dr. S. R. Rao, Bhagatrav is located in Hansot (51 km away from Surat) taluka of Bharuch district in south Gujarat, near the coastline with the Arabian Sea, and gives access to the agate-bearing mines and forested hills of the valleys of the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Bhagatrav seems to have been an important port, as Lothal. However, backwaters of sea and floods from Kim river has washed out the site to

neg: Bhagatrav Bhagatrav Bhagatrav () is a minor archaeological site belonging to the Indus valley civilization. Excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India led by Dr. S. R. Rao, Bhagatrav is located in Hansot (51 km away from Surat) taluka of Bharuch district in south Gujarat, near the coastline with the Arabian Sea, and gives access to the agate-bearing mines and forested hills of the valleys of the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Bhagatrav seems to have been an important port, as Lothal. However, backwaters of sea and floods from Kim river has washed out the site to a large extent and only

neg: Thor Heyerdahl great diversity in race, nationality, religion and political viewpoint in order to demonstrate that at least on their own little floating island, people could cooperate and live peacefully. Additionally, the expedition took samples of marine pollution and presented their report to the United Nations. Heyerdahl built yet another reed boat, "Tigris", which was intended to demonstrate that trade and migration could have linked Mesopotamia with the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now Pakistan and western India. Tigris was built in Iraq and sailed with its international crew through the Persian Gulf to Pakistan and made its way into the

neg: Cotton green, fears of contaminating the genetics of white cotton have led many cotton-growing locations to ban the growing of colored cotton varieties. The earliest evidence of cotton use in the Indian subcontinent has been found at the site of Mehrgarh and Rakhigarhi where cotton threads have been found preserved in copper beads; these finds have been dated to the Neolithic (5th millennium BC). Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, which covered parts of modern eastern Pakistan and northwestern India between 3300 and 1300 BC. The Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used

neg: Canal loss of water due to a canal breach. The transport capacity of pack animals and carts is limited. A mule can carry an eighth-ton [] maximum load over a journey measured in days and weeks, though much more for shorter distances and periods with appropriate rest. Besides, carts need roads. Transport over water is much more efficient and cost-effective for large cargoes. It goes back to the earliest days of recorded history. The oldest known canals were irrigation canals, built in Mesopotamia circa 4000 BC, in what is now Iraq and Iran. The Indus Valley Civilization, Ancient India, (circa 2600

neg: Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend also contains two maps of the Indian subcontinent, almost similar in geographical layout of undivided India. The first map indicates archeological sites; and the current national and state capitals, including and major towns. The second map indicates places of pilgrimage, and mountains. This section covers major events associated with India, Vedic mythology and Vedic civilization, and Hinduism, spanning a period of 5000 years. The chronology recounts the major events, beginning from 3000 BCE-1700 BCE (the period of the Indus Valley Civilization) until 2001 CE, when the celebration of Mahakumbha Mela took place in Allahabad, India, are briefly indicated in the

neg: Asrani (surname) / "Asra" - Means "Hope" in Sindhi Language) The original inhabitants of ancient Sindh were believed to be aboriginal tribes speaking languages of the Indus Valley Civilization around 3300 BC. Moen-jo-Daro is the symbol of Indus Valley Civilization in World. Asrani is the name of: Asrani (surname) Asrani is a common surname among Hindu Sindhis Like Other Hindu Sindhis, Asrani's migrated to India, when Sindh was given to Pakistan in Partition. Many of them migrated to other countries like U.S., U.K., etc., Majority of Asranis are in Mumbai, Maharashtra and CA, US. Asranis are Hindus. Most of the Sindhi Surnames

neg: Jewellery development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s. It is based on the basic shapes. In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization, in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan and part of northern and western India. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago. The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more than gold.

neg: Kumari Kandam century. M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, writing in 1927, stated that Indus Valley Civilization was established by the Tamil survivors from the flood-hit Kumari Nadu. In the 1940s, N. S. Kandiah Pillai published maps showing migration of the Kumari Kandam residents to other parts of the world. In 1953, R. Nedunceliyan, who later became the education minister of Tamil Nadu, insisted that the civilization spread from South India to the Indus Valley and Sumer, and subsequently, to "Arabia, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Spain and other places". They presented modern Tamil as a pale remnant of the glorious ancient Tamil language spoken in

neg: Lothal Lothal Lothal () is one of the southernmost cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, located in the Bhāl region (Ahammedabad District, Dholka Taluk)of the modern state of Gujarāt and first inhabited 3700 BCE. .The meaning of the word Lothal is "the mount of the dead" exactly same as that of Mohenjodaro another famous site of Indus Valley civilization. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from 13 February 1955 to 19 May 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the official Indian government agency for the preservation of ancient monuments. According to the ASI, Lothal had the world's earliest

neg: History of Sindh History of Sindh The history of Sindh or Sind (, ) is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions. Sindh was at the center of the Indus Valley civilization, one of the cradle of civilization; and currently a province of modern-day Pakistan. It is believed by most scholars that the earliest trace of human inhabitation in India traces to the Soan Sakaser Valley between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers. This period goes back to the first inter-glacial period in the Second Ice Age, and remnants of stone and flint tools have been found. Sindh

neg: Lothal (published in "Uttar Pradesh" in November 1961). Lothal Lothal () is one of the southernmost cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, located in the Bhāl region (Ahammedabad District, Dholka Taluk)of the modern state of Gujarāt and first inhabited 3700 BCE. .The meaning of the word Lothal is "the mount of the dead" exactly same as that of Mohenjodaro another famous site of Indus Valley civilization. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from 13 February 1955 to 19 May 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the official Indian government agency for the preservation of ancient monuments. According to

neg: Rakhigarhi of them were occupied at the same time. Depending on which mounds to include, the estimates of the size of Rakhigarhi have been given variously as between 80 and 550 hectares. In January 2014, the discovery of additional mounds resulted it in becoming the largest Indus Valley Civilization site, overtaking Mohenjodaro (300 Hectares) by almost 50 hectares, resulting in almost 350 hectares. The size and uniqueness of Rakhigarhi has drawn much attention of archaeologists all over the world. It is nearer to Delhi than other major sites, indicating the spread of the Indus Valley Civilization east across North India. Much

neg: Bara culture Bara culture Bara Culture was a culture that emerged in the eastern region of the Indus Valley Civilization around 2000 BCE. It developed in the doab between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers, hemmed on its eastern periphery by the Shivalik ranges of the lower Himalayas. This territory corresponds to modern-day Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh in North India. Baran culture is believed to have initially developed independently of the Harappan culture branch of the Indus Valley Civilization from a pre-Harappan tradition, although the two cultures later intermingled in locations such as Kotla Nihang Khan & Bara, Punjab. In the

neg: Zayandeh River Culture Zayandeh River Culture Zayandeh River Culture (تمدن زاینده رود, literally ""Zāyandé-Rūd Civilization"") is a hypothetical pre-historic culture that is theorized to have flourished around the Zayandeh River in Iran in the 6th millennium BC. Archaeologists speculate that a possible early civilization existed along the banks of the Zayandeh River, developing at the same time as other ancient civilizations appeared alongside rivers in the region, such as the Sumerian civilization in Iraq and the Indus Valley civilization in ancient India. The Zayandeh River Culture is considered as a very important Neolithic Iranian settlement, along with Ganj Dareh. During the 2006 excavations,

neg: California textbook controversy over South Asian topics (2016-2017) agreed to retain language naming Saund's Sikh identity. The California Department of Education's Instructional Quality Commission eventually decided to use the word "India" in every instance within the curriculum framework. The Instructional Quality Commission rejected the edits, retaining the phrase "Indus Valley Civilization." Subsequently, the textbook review panel flagged publisher Pearson's references to the "Sarasvati River," responding with comments like "This is a subject of controversy, not settled fact…Remove mention of ‘Sarasvati’ and refer to it as ‘Indus Valley Civilization'". In response, a Pearson, employee defended the usage, citing that the change were requested by the Hindu American Foundation, the

neg: History of Asia cultures. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BCE is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding). This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly

neg: History of the world food production. The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first cities. These were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power. Cities established a symbiosis with their surrounding countrysides, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varying degrees of military control and protection. The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of civilization. Early civilizations arose first in Lower Mesopotamia (3000 BCE), followed by Egyptian civilization along the Nile River (3000 BCE), the Harappan civilization in the Indus River Valley (in present-day India and Pakistan; 2500 BCE), and Chinese civilization along the Yellow and Yangtze

neg: Measuring rod standard. This irregularly formed and irregularly marked "graduated rule" supposedly defined the Sumerian cubit as about 518.5 mm or 20.4 inches, although this does not agree with other evidence from the statues of Gudea from the same region, five centuries later. Rulers made from ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan, and in some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE. Excavations at Lothal dating to 2400 BCE have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2 millimeters. Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent The history of science and technology in the Indian Subcontinent begins with prehistoric human activity in the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires. Following independence, science and technology in the Republic of India has included automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences. By 5500 BCE a number of sites similar to Mehrgarh had appeared, forming the basis of later chalcolithic cultures. The inhabitants of these sites maintained trading relations with Near East and Central Asia. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization

neg: Ancient technology In Nubia and ancient Kush, glazed quartzite and building in brick was developed to a greater extent than in Egypt. Parts of the East African Swahili Coast saw the creation of the world's oldest carbon steel creation with high-temperature blast furnaces created by the Haya people of Tanzania. The history of science and technology in India dates back to the earliest civilizations of the world. The Indus Valley civilization yields evidence of mathematics, hydrography, metrology, and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants. The Indus Valley Civilization, situated in a resource-rich area, is notable for its early application

neg: Bara culture lemons more specifically in the first millennium CE. Bara culture Bara Culture was a culture that emerged in the eastern region of the Indus Valley Civilization around 2000 BCE. It developed in the doab between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers, hemmed on its eastern periphery by the Shivalik ranges of the lower Himalayas. This territory corresponds to modern-day Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh in North India. Baran culture is believed to have initially developed independently of the Harappan culture branch of the Indus Valley Civilization from a pre-Harappan tradition, although the two cultures later intermingled in locations such as

neg: History of water supply and sanitation covered drains, which lined the major streets. Devices such as shadoofs and sakias were used to lift water to ground level. Ruins from the Indus Valley Civilization like Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan and Dholavira in Gujarat in India had settlements with some of the ancient world's most sophisticated sewage systems. They included drainage channels, rainwater harvesting, and street ducts. Stepwells have mainly been used in the Indian subcontinent. The earliest covered sewers uncovered by archaeologists are in the regularly planned cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Wastewater reuse is an ancient practice, which has been applied since the dawn of human

neg: History of Pakistan It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, in what is today the Pakistani provinces of Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan, and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River in parts of northwest India. At its peak, the civilization hosted a population of approximately 5 million spread across hundreds of settlements extending as far as the Arabian Sea to present-day southern and eastern Afghanistan, and the Himalayas. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and

neg: Bathtub acrylic thermoformed baths, more shapes are becoming available. Bathtubs are commonly white in colour, although many other colours can be found. The process for enamelling cast iron bathtubs was invented by the Scottish-born American David Dunbar Buick. Two main styles of bathtub are common: Documented early plumbing systems for bathing go back as far as around 3300 BC with the discovery of copper water pipes beneath a palace in the Indus Valley Civilization of ancient India; see sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilization. Evidence of the earliest surviving personal sized bath tub was found on the Isle of Crete where

neg: Meluhha debated. There are scholars today who confidently identify Meluhha with the Indus Valley Civilization (modern South Asia) on the basis of the extensive evidence of trading contacts between Sumer and this region. Sesame oil was probably imported from the Indus River region into Sumer: the Sumerian word for this oil is "illu" (Akkadian: "ellu"). One theory is that the word is of proto-Dravidian origin: in Dravidian languages of South India, "el" or "ellu" stands for sesame. An alternative, proposed by Michael Witzel, is that it derived from a "para-Munda" language spoken in the Indus Valley Civilization. There is extensive presence

neg: India tribal belt Ancestral South Indians. these people are thought to stem back to the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley, the oldest traceable civilization of the Indian subcontinent which flourished between 3500BC and 2500BC. The tribes of north-west India were once strongly matrilineal societies. The changing fates and fortunes of these people has caused a gradual evolution to a more patriarchal code of living. These days the tribal societies generally follow the rule of patriliny, but there remain many examples of organised matriarchy in existence in the tribal zones to this day. It is the women who organise matters such as relationships

neg: Mohenjo Daro (film) Indus Valley Civilization. After much reading of published archaeological reports on his own, he brought in the American archaeologist Jonathan Mark Kenoyer of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, considered one of the world's leading experts on the ancient Indus Valley civilization, who has worked at the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro over 35 years. He brought together Kenoyer to round-table with five other expert archaeologists who have also been working on this topic since many years — P. Ajit Prasad, V. N. Prabakhar, K. Krishnan, Vasant Shinde, and R. S. Bisht, who are all from the Archaeological Survey of India, Maharaja Sayajirao University

neg: History of clothing in India the hair woven into a bun, hair coiled in a ring on the top of the head, beards were usually trimmed. Indus valley civilization men are frequently depicted wearing head bands especially to contain hair bun at the back. People have been shown wearing elaborate headdresses like turban, conical hats, pakol hats etc.. Dressing of indus valley civilization people show presence of multi ethnic people of diverse backgrounds for instance people have been depicted wearing pashtun style pakol hat with a chocker like neck ornament as well as Punjabi style pagri and rajasthani style bangles and necklaces and many other

neg: Proto-writing during about the 14th to 11th centuries BCE (Oracle bone script), while symbol systems native to Europe and India are extinct and replaced by descendants of the Semitic abjad during the Iron Age. The so-called Indus script is a symbol system that emerged during the end of the 4th millennium BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization. With the exception of the Aegean and mainland Greece (Linear A, Linear B, Cretan hieroglyphs), the early writing systems of the Near East did not reach Bronze Age Europe. The earliest writing systems of Europe arise in the Iron Age, derived from the Phoenician

neg: Alamgirpur Alamgirpur Alamgirpur is an archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization that thrived along Yamuna River (c. 3300–1300 BC) from the Harappan-Bara period, located in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is the easternmost site of the civilization. This site was also called Parasaram-ka-khera.This site was discovered by Punjab University in 1974. The site was partially excavated in 1958 and 1959 by Archaeological Survey of India. On excavation, the site showed four cultural periods with intervening breaks; the earliest of them represented by a thickness of 6 feet, belonged to Harappan Culture. Although kiln burnt bricks were in evidence, no

neg: Laurence Waddell origin of the alphabet and the appearance of Indo-European myth figures in ancient Near Eastern mythologies (e.g., Hittite, Sumerian, Babylonian). The foundation of his argument is what he saw as a persistence of cult practices, religious symbols, mythological stories and figures, and god and hero names throughout Western and Near Eastern civilizations, but also based his arguments on his deciphered Sumerian and Indus-Valley seals, and other archaeological findings. Waddell died in 1938. That same year, he had completed writing "Trojan Origin of World Civilization". The book was never published. Waddell had actively travelled around British controlled India in search for

neg: Cradle of civilization then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. However trade with the old cities did not flourish. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. The Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into the Indus River Valley during this period and began the Vedic age of India. The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilization continued in later Indian subcontinent and Vedic cultures. Drawing on archaeology, geology and anthropology, modern scholars do not see the origins of

neg: Binjor Binjor Binjor - 4MSR (Thed of the local villagers) is an archaeological site in India, near the international border between Punjab and Rajasthan. It is situated a couple of kilometers from Binjor village, Anupgarh tehsil, Sri Ganganagar district. 4MSR, in the Ghaggar river (Ghaggar-Hakra River) valley and excavated by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), is widely considered as an Early Harappan and Mature Harappan site (Indus Valley Civilization). There are no indications that a Late Harappan phase existed. In the Ghaggar river valley, explorations and excavations had been done in several sites. These sites included Kalibangan, 46 GB and Binjor

neg: Fort Owen State Park school in Montana as well. For these reasons, St. Mary's and Fort Owen is known as the "cradle of Montana civilization". By 1850, hostility to the Catholic missionaries led to the closure of the original St. Mary's mission. (Another church, also called St. Mary's Mission, was constructed in 1866 about to the south. This structure still stands, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.) John Owen, a civilian sutler at Fort Hall in what is now southeastern Idaho, moved to the Bitterroot Valley and purchased the site of St. Mary's Mission for $250 ($ in dollars). This

neg: History of Kutch human settlements can be traced back to the Early Harappan Period of Indus valley civilization, c. 3300–2600 BCE. Several sites belonging to this civilization are discovered in Kutch. Dholavira, locally known as Kotada Timba, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the civilization. It is located on the Khadir island in the northern part of the Kutch. The island is surrounded by water in the monsoon season. The Dholavira site is believed to have been inhabited between 2900 BCE and 1900 BCE, declining slowly after about 2100 BCE, briefly abandoned and then reoccupied,

neg: Punjabis what used to be a homeland nation for the Punjabi people in the Indian subcontinent and its diaspora. Since the mid 1980s, there has been a drive for Punjabi cultural revival, consolidation of Punjabi ethnicity and a virtual Punjabi nation. According to Giorgio Shani, this is predominantly a Sikh ethno-nationalism movement led by some Sikh organizations, and a view that is not shared by Punjabi people organizations belonging to other religions. Indigenous population flourished in this region, leading to a developed civilisation in 5th to 4th millennium BC, the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. Also Buddhism remnants have been found like

neg: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer speaker of Urdu, Hindi, and Bengali. Books and Edited Volumes: <BR> Articles: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (born May 28, 1952, in Shillong, India) is an American archaeologist and George F. Dales Jr. and Barbara A. Dales Professor of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He earned his Bachelor of Arts, Master's, and Doctorate degrees at the University of California, Berkeley, finishing in 1983. Considered one of the world's leading experts on the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization, Kenoyer is involved in ongoing research on the Indus Civilization in Pakistan and India as well as in adjacent regions such as

neg: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (born May 28, 1952, in Shillong, India) is an American archaeologist and George F. Dales Jr. and Barbara A. Dales Professor of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He earned his Bachelor of Arts, Master's, and Doctorate degrees at the University of California, Berkeley, finishing in 1983. Considered one of the world's leading experts on the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization, Kenoyer is involved in ongoing research on the Indus Civilization in Pakistan and India as well as in adjacent regions such as Oman and Afghanistan. He has also expanded his areas of study into

neg: History of astronomy of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe. Astronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley Civilization during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars. As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period. Vedanga Jyotisha describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual.

neg: In Search of the Cradle of Civilization civilization", or "Indus Valley civilization". The authors enumerate fifteen arguments for their revisionist views. Several of these arguments emphasize linguistic, architectural, cultural, agricultural, and technological continuity between Harappan culture, the Vedas, and post-Vedic Hinduism. They also argue that it is improbable that the Vedas were the product of a nomadic or semi-nomadic group. Early opinion considered the Rigveda as containing memories of an earlier nomadic period, whilst the later Vedas were the product of a society native to India. The authors argue that this early viewpoint of the Rigveda is based on mistaken and speculative interpretations, and that in actuality

neg: Zapotec civilization south and Mitla in the east—that join at an altitude of about 4500 feet above sea level in the center of what today is the state of Oaxaca. They are located about 200 km south of Mexico City. Mountains surround the valley with The Sierra Norte in the north and the mountains of Tlacolula in the southeast. The environment is well suited for agriculture and is considered one of the cradles of maize. It is estimated that at the time of the emergence of Zapotec civilization, the valley soil were unaffected by the erosion seen today, as the oak and

neg: Western India states according to Hwen Thsang, namely Sindh (which comprised the whole valley of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea, including the Delta and the island of Kutch), Gurjara (which comprised Western Rajputana and the Indian Desert), and Balabhi (which comprised the peninsula of Gujarat, with a small portion of the adjacent coast). Before the partition of India, the now-Pakistani territories of Sindh and Balochistan were also included in this region. Parts of Gujarat were the site of Indus Valley Civilization. Places have been uncovered in Gujarat at Lothal, Surkotada, and around Ghaggar river in Rajasthan. The Western Indian

neg: Nile Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend. The Nile ("iteru" in Ancient Egyptian) has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in Libya and flow into the Gulf of Sidra. As sea level rose at the end of the

neg: Shereen Ratnagar Shereen Ratnagar Shereen F. Ratnagar is an Indian archaeologist whose work has focused on the Indus Valley Civilization. She is the author of several texts. Ratnagar was educated at Deccan College, Pune, University of Pune. She studied Mesopotamian archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London. She was a professor of archaeology and ancient history at the Centre for Historical Studies at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. She retired in 2000, and is currently an independent researcher living in Mumbai. She is noted for work on investigating the factors contributing to the end of the Indus Valley Civilization. Shereen

neg: Agriculture in India Agriculture in India The history of Agriculture in India dates back to Indus Valley Civilization Era and even before that in some parts of Southern India. India ranks second worldwide in farm outputs. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and fisheries accounted for 15.4% of the GDP (gross domestic product) in 2016 with about 31% of the workforce in 2014. India ranks first globally with highest net cropped area followed by US and China. The economic contribution of agriculture to India's GDP is steadily declining with the country's broad-based economic growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and

neg: Agriculture in India problems in Indian agriculture and its marketing. Kandawale is one of such e-commerce website which sells Indian Red Onions to bulk users direct from farmers, reducing unnecessary cost escalations. Agriculture in India The history of Agriculture in India dates back to Indus Valley Civilization Era and even before that in some parts of Southern India. India ranks second worldwide in farm outputs. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and fisheries accounted for 15.4% of the GDP (gross domestic product) in 2016 with about 31% of the workforce in 2014. India ranks first globally with highest net cropped area followed by

neg: Mississippian culture Mississippian culture The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American civilization archeologists date from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was composed of a series of urban settlements and satellite villages (suburbs) linked together by a loose trading network, the largest city being Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center. The civilization flourished from the southern shores of the Great Lakes at Western New York and Western Pennsylvania in what is now the Eastern Midwest, extending south-southwest into the lower Mississippi Valley and wrapping easterly around the southern foot of the Appalachians barrier range into what

neg: River valley civilization which was distinguished by its heavy load of yellow silt and its periodic devastating floods. A major impetus for the tribes to unite into a single kingdom by around 1500 BCE was the desire to find a solution to the frequent deadly floods. The Yellow River is often called "The Cradle of Chinese Civilization". River valley civilization A river valley civilization or river culture is an agricultural nation or civilization situated beside and drawing sustenance from a river. A "civilization" means a society with large permanent settlements featuring urban development, social stratification, specialization of labour, centralized organization, and written or

neg: Cartography of India (973–1048) who visited India and studied the country's geography extensively. European maps become more accurate with the Age of Exploration and Portuguese India from the 16th century. The first modern maps were produced by Survey of India, established in 1767 by the British East India Company. Survey of India remains in continued existence as the official mapping authority of the Republic of India. Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008) proposes that the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500–1900 BCE) may have known "cartographic activity" based on a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods and that the use of large

neg: Etruscan civilization the 5th century BC, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse, Sicily. A few years later, in 474 BC, Syracuse's tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and the area was taken over by Romans and Samnites. In the 4th century BC, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion end its influence over the Po Valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome

neg: Indian art the bronze "Dancing Girl" of Mohenjo-Daro, which shows remarkably advanced modelling of the human figure for this early date. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose. This figure, sometimes known as a "Pashupati", has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva. After the end of the Indus Valley Civilization, there is a surprising absence of art of any great degree of sophistication until the Buddhist era. It is thought that this partly reflects the use of

neg: Civilization Fund Act Civilization Fund Act The Civilization Fund Act was an Act passed by the United States Congress on March 3, 1819. The Act encouraged activities of benevolent societies in providing education for Native Americans and authorized an annuity to stimulate the "civilization process". Thomas L. McKenney lobbied the Congress in support of the legislation. The Civilization Fund Act led to the formation of numerous Native American boarding schools towards the end of the 19th century. The benevolent societies were a combination of Christian missions and the federal government. Federal funds were allocated to schools designed to educate Native Americans in the

neg: River valley civilization River valley civilization A river valley civilization or river culture is an agricultural nation or civilization situated beside and drawing sustenance from a river. A "civilization" means a society with large permanent settlements featuring urban development, social stratification, specialization of labour, centralized organization, and written or other formal means of communication. A river gives the inhabitants a reliable source of water for drinking and agriculture. Additional benefits include fishing, fertile soil due to annual flooding, and ease of transportation. The first great civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia and Egypt, all grew up in river valleys. Civilization first began in

neg: B. B. Lal papers and articles in national and international scientific journals. In his 2002 book, "The Saraswati Flows On", Lal criticised the earlier Aryan invasion/migration theory, arguing that the Rig Vedic description of the Sarasvati River (which dried up by 2000 BCE) as "overflowing" contradicts the claim made by certain previous historians that the Indo-Aryan migration occurred 300 years after they contend the Sarasvati River dried up (in 1500 BCE) and which they also contended had led to the end of the Indus Valley Civilization. In Lal's 2008 book, "Rāma, His Historicity, Mandir and Setu: Evidence of Literature, Archaeology and Other Sciences",

neg: History of Himachal Pradesh of the Indian Union. In earlier times, the area was variously divided among smaller kingdoms, such as those of Chamba, Bilaspur, Bhagal and Dhami. After the Gurkha War of 1815–1816, it became part of the British India. Some evidences have been found that nearly 2 million years ago man lived in the foothills of Himachal Pradesh. Bangana valley of Kangra, "Sirsa" valley of Nalagarh and "Markanda" valley of Sirmour are found to be the places where prehistoric man used to live. The foothills of the state were inhabited by people from Indus valley civilization which flourished between the time period