query: microwaves are an example of what type of energy

pos: Microwave Microwave Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between and . Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter wave) bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm). In all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations:

pos: Wireless power transfer implantable medical devices like artificial cardiac pacemakers, or electric vehicles. In "far-field" or "radiative" techniques, also called "power beaming", power is transferred by beams of electromagnetic radiation, like microwaves or laser beams. These techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type are solar power satellites, and wireless powered drone aircraft. An important issue associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the exposure of people and other living things to potentially injurious electromagnetic fields. Wireless power transfer is a generic term for a number of different technologies for transmitting energy

pos: Non-ionizing radiation electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not. High-energy visible light is blue-violet light with a higher damaging potential. Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300 micrometers, which equates to a frequency range between approximately 1 and 430 THz. IR wavelengths are longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of terahertz radiation microwaves. Bright sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level. Of this energy, 527 watts is infrared radiation, 445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Microwaves are

pos: Radiation less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons

pos: Electromagnetic radiation above are available, allowing for both non-vacuum propagation media and sources. Many competing derivations exist, all with varying levels of approximation and intended applications. One very general example is a form of the electric field equation, which was factorized into a pair of explicitly directional wave equations, and then efficiently reduced into a single uni-directional wave equation by means of a simple slow-evolution approximation. Electromagnetic radiation In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared,

pos: Microwave oven refrigerators that year. A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency higher than ordinary radio waves but lower than infrared light. Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are reserved for this use, so they do not interfere with other vital radio services. Consumer ovens usually use 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)— It is a wavelength of —while large industrial/commercial ovens often use 915 megahertz (MHz)—. Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a

pos: Carcinogen within various organs and persistent emission of alpha particles. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and cancer. Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on the electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation and visible light are thought not to be, because they have insufficient energy to break chemical bonds. Evidence for carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing radiation is generally inconclusive, though there are some documented cases of radar technicians with prolonged high exposure experiencing significantly higher

pos: Electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic radiation In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light, which, in a vacuum, is commonly denoted "c". In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming

neg: History of the telescope the Green Bank Telescope (1962), and the Effelsberg telescope (1971). The huge Arecibo telescope (1963) is so large that it is fixed into a natural depression in the ground; the central antenna can be steered to allow the telescope to study objects up to twenty degrees from the zenith. However, not every radio telescope is of the dish type. For example, the Mills Cross Telescope (1954) was an early example of an array which used two perpendicular lines of antennae in length to survey the sky. High-energy radio waves are known as microwaves and this has been an important area

neg: Electron paramagnetic resonance a metal box with a rectangular or cylindrical shape that resonates with microwaves (like an organ pipe with sound waves). At the resonance frequency of the cavity microwaves remain inside the cavity and are not reflected back. Resonance means the cavity stores microwave energy and its ability to do this is given by the quality factor ("Q"), defined by the following equation: formula_69 The higher the value of Q the higher the sensitivity of the spectrometer. The energy dissipated is the energy lost in one microwave period. Energy may be lost to the side walls of the cavity as microwaves

neg: Level sensor sensors are ideal for use in moist, vaporous, and dusty environments as well as in applications in which temperatures and pressures vary. Microwaves (also frequently described as RADAR), will penetrate temperature and vapor layers that may cause problems for other techniques, such as ultrasonic. Microwaves are electromagnetic energy and therefore do not require air molecules to transmit the energy making them useful in vacuums. Microwaves, as electromagnetic energy, are reflected by objects with high conductive properties, like metal and conductive water. Alternately, they are absorbed in various degrees by 'low dielectric' or insulating mediums such as plastics, glass, paper, many

neg: Electron paramagnetic resonance practice, it is usually the frequency that is kept fixed. A collection of paramagnetic centers, such as free radicals, is exposed to microwaves at a fixed frequency. By increasing an external magnetic field, the gap between the formula_2 and formula_3 energy states is widened until it matches the energy of the microwaves, as represented by the double arrow in the diagram above. At this point the unpaired electrons can move between their two spin states. Since there typically are more electrons in the lower state, due to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (see below), there is a net absorption of energy, and

neg: Security alarm energy, by a phase shift, or by a sudden reduction of the level of received energy. Any of these effects may indicate motion of an intruder. Compact surveillance radar emits microwaves from a transmitter and detects any reflected microwaves. They are similar to microwave detectors but can detect the precise location of intruders in areas extending over hundreds of acres. With the capability of measuring range, angle, velocity, direction and size of the target, a CSR is able to pinpoint a precise GPS coordinate of an intruder. This target information is typically displayed on a map, user interface or situational

neg: Rectenna Rectenna A rectenna is a rectifying antenna—a special type of receiving antenna that is used for converting electromagnetic energy into direct current (DC) electricity. They are used in wireless power transmission systems that transmit power by radio waves. A simple rectenna element consists of a dipole antenna with an RF diode connected across the dipole elements. The diode rectifies the AC induced in the antenna by the microwaves, to produce DC power, which powers a load connected across the diode. Schottky diodes are usually used because they have the lowest voltage drop and highest speed and therefore have the lowest

neg: Microwave burn through skull to cochlea. Some vacuum tubes present in microwave installations tend to generate bremsstrahlung x-rays. Magnetrons and especially hydrogen thyratrons tend to be the worst offenders. As the energy of radio frequency waves and microwaves is insufficient to directly disrupt individual chemical bonds in small or stable molecules, the effects are considered limited to thermal. Energy densities that are not sufficient to overheat the tissues are not shown to cause lasting damage. To clarify, the deep-red lightbulb in a black-and-white photographic darkroom produces a higher-energy form of radiation than microwaves. Like a microwave, this lightbulb can burn, particularly if

neg: Microwave probe introduced into the line through a longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are primarily intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line. However, provided a standing wave is present, they may also be used to measure the distance between the nodes, which is equal to half the wavelength. Precision of this method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations. Microwaves do not contain sufficient energy to chemically change substances by ionization, and so are an example of non-ionizing radiation. The word "radiation"

neg: Thermal desorption have been demonstrated. This type of system has been most successful treating refinery wastes. In the early days, there was a continuous infrared system that is no longer in common use. In theory, microwaves would be an excellent technical choice since uniform and accurately controlled heating can be achieved with no heat transfer surface fouling problems. One can only guess that capital and/or energy costs have prevented the development of a microwave thermal desorber at the commercial scale. There are only three basic options for offgas treatment available. The volatilized contaminants in the offgas can either be discharged to atmosphere,

neg: Electron cyclotron resonance applied to a region inside the volume. The volume contains a low pressure gas. The alternating electric field of the microwaves is set to be synchronous with the gyration period of the free electrons of the gas, and increases their perpendicular kinetic energy. Subsequently, when the energized free electrons collide with the gas in the volume they can cause ionization if their kinetic energy is larger than the ionization energy of the atoms or molecules. The ions produced correspond to the gas type used, which may be pure, a compound, or vapor of a solid or liquid material. ECR ion

neg: Microwave oven which are designed to absorb microwaves and heat up, which aids in baking or crust preparation by depositing more energy shallowly in these areas. Such ceramic patches affixed to cardboard are positioned next to the food, and are typically smokey blue or gray in colour, usually making them easily identifiable; the cardboard sleeves included with Hot Pockets, which have a silver surface on the inside, are a good example of such packaging. Microwavable cardboard packaging may also contain overhead ceramic patches which function in the same way. The technical term for such a microwave-absorbing patch is a susceptor. Any form

neg: Ando Shoeki believed that each type of organism had a different vector of energy: human energy went up because humans walked upright; animal energy went side-to-side because they crawled and because they ate each other in what Shoeki described as a sideways line; plant energy went down because they always were on the ground. These energies could be transferred across organisms to create new life as well. Humans, for example, are made from the excess energy in wheat, and mice are born from the smoke of a human's fire. To show some of the ways to achieve the Right Cultivation, Shoeki made

neg: Infrared non-destructive testing of materials heating, ultrasonic excitation, eddy currents, microwaves, and others. The measured object can be heated by an external source directly, e.g. by halogen lamps or hot air. The material inhomogeneities or defects cause then a distortion of temperature field. This distortion is detected as temperature differences on the material surface. Another possibility is to use thermophysical processes in the material, when mechanical or electrical energy is transformed into thermal energy due to defects and inhomogeneities. It creates local temperature sources, which cause temperature differences detected on the object surface by infrared techniques. It is the case of ultrasound excitation for example.

neg: Net metering in New Mexico solar facility has what is known as a power purchase agreement with the utility. The agreement guarantees a market for the utility-scale solar facility’s energy for a fixed term of time. (Residential solar systems are not considered utility-scale). The size of a utility-scale facility can vary. For example, some utility-scale facilities provide only enough power per megawatt to power a few hundred average homes. Others offer a lot more energy. Factors that play into this are location, the type of technology used, and the availability of sunlight. For example, although not located in New Mexico, Recurrent Energies’ “Sunset Reservoir” project

neg: Electromagnetic radiation "E" = "hν", where "E" is the energy per photon, "ν" is the frequency of the photon, and "h" is Planck's constant. A single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light. The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation's power and its frequency. EMR of visible or lower frequencies (i.e., visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is called "non-ionizing radiation", because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules or break chemical bonds. The effects of

neg: Microwave burn Microwave burn Microwave burns are burn injuries caused by thermal effects of microwave radiation absorbed in a living organism. In comparison with radiation burns caused by ionizing radiation, where the dominant mechanism of tissue damage is internal cell damage caused by free radicals, the primary damage mechanism of microwave radiation is by heat. Microwave damage can manifest with a delay; pain or signs of skin damage can show some time after microwave exposure. The depth of penetration depends on the frequency of the microwaves and the tissue type. The Active Denial System ("pain ray") is a less-lethal directed energy weapon

neg: Energy planning the provision of energy supplies and the role of energy efficiency in reducing demands (Integrated Resource Planning). Energy planning should always reflect the outcomes of population growth and economic development. Energy planning has traditionally played a strong role in setting the framework for regulations in the energy sector (for example, influencing what type of power plants might be built or what prices were charged for fuels). But in the past two decades many countries have deregulated their energy systems so that the role of energy planning has been reduced, and decisions have increasingly been left to the market. This has

neg: Microwave volumetric heating heating of micro-organisms, electroporation, cell membrane rupture, and cell lysis due to electromagnetic energy coupling. Because microwaves transfer electromagnetic energy at a molecular level, and the vibration of the molecules creates heat through friction, it is difficult to properly check for this highly localized 'micro'-thermal effect or create conditions where study of the putative 'athermal' effect is possible. Microwave volumetric heating Microwave Volumetric Heating (MVH) is a method of using microwaves to evenly heat the entire volume of a flowing liquid, suspension or semi-solid. The process is known as MVH because the microwaves penetrate uniformly throughout the volume of the

neg: Microwave burn Exposure of skin to microwaves can be perceived as a sensation of heat or pain. Due to lower penetration of higher frequencies, perception threshold is lower for higher frequencies as more energy is dissipated closer to the body surface. When the entire face is exposed to 10 GHz microwaves, the feeling of heat is evoked at energy densities of 4–6 mW/cm for 5 or more seconds, or about 10 mW/cm for a half second. Experiments on six volunteers exposed to 2.45 GHz microwaves shown perception thresholds on forearm skin to be at the average of 25–29 mW/cm, ranging from 15.40

neg: Energy distance strong negative type. In this situation, the energy distance is zero if and only if X and Y are identically distributed. An example of a metric of negative type but not of strong negative type is the plane with the taxicab metric. All Euclidean spaces and even separable Hilbert spaces have strong negative type. In the literature on kernel methods for machine learning, these generalized notions of energy distance are studied under the name of maximum mean discrepancy. Equivalence of distance based and kernel methods for hypothesesis testing is covered by several authors. A related statistical concept, the notion of

neg: Security alarm detector. Such an event initiates an alarm signal. This technology is considered obsolete by many alarm professionals, and is not actively installed. This device emits microwaves from a transmitter and detects any reflected microwaves or reduction in beam intensity using a receiver. The transmitter and receiver are usually combined inside a single housing (monostatic) for indoor applications, and separate housings (bistatic) for outdoor applications. To reduce false alarms this type of detector is usually combined with a passive infrared detector, or Dual Tec brand or similar alarm. Microwave detectors respond to a Doppler shift in the frequency of the reflected

neg: Wave a standing wave (for example, a wave on a string), where energy is moving in both directions equally, or for electromagnetic (e.g., light) waves in a vacuum, where the concept of medium does not apply and interaction with a target is the key to wave detection and practical applications. There are water waves on the ocean surface; gamma waves and light waves emitted by the Sun; microwaves used in microwave ovens and in radar equipment; radio waves broadcast by radio stations; and sound waves generated by radio receivers, telephone handsets and living creatures (as voices), to mention only a few

neg: Electromagnetic spectrum with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes. Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating. Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface. This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy. Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as

neg: Arthur Leonard Schawlow groups performing this type of music. Schawlow died of leukemia in Palo Alto, California. Arthur Leonard Schawlow Arthur Leonard Schawlow (May 5, 1921 – April 28, 1999) was an American physicist and co-inventor of the laser with Charles Townes. His central insight, which Townes overlooked, was the use of two mirrors as the resonant cavity to take maser action from microwaves to visible wavelengths. He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Kai Siegbahn for his work using lasers to determine atomic energy levels with great precision. Schawlow was born in Mount Vernon, New York. His

neg: Monica Rambeau form of energy within the electromagnetic spectrum. Among the many energy forms she has assumed and is able to control are cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, electricity, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves, and neutrinos. By assuming an energy-form, she gains all of that energy's properties. She is invisible and intangible in many of her energy forms (the most frequent exception being visible light), and is capable of flight in all her energy forms (reaching velocities up to and including light speed). She also has the ability to project these energies from her body while she is

neg: Direct energy conversion energy to work is 62%. In 1992, a Japan–U.S. joint-team proposed a novel direct energy conversion system for 14.7 MeV protons produced by D-He fusion reactions, whose energy is too high for electrostatic converters. The conversion is based on a Traveling-Wave Direct Energy Converter (TWDEC). A gyrotron converter first guides fusion product ions as a beam into a 10-meter long microwave cavity filled with a 10-tesla magnetic field, where 155 MHz microwaves are generated and converted to a high voltage DC output through rectennas. The Field-Reversed Configuration reactor ARTEMIS in this study was designed with an efficiency of 75%. The

neg: OverPower often defend against an attack. In some cases, specials that set up a lasting effect (for example "Hulk cannot attack or be attacked for remainder of battle") can be played as a defense. If a numerical attack isn't defended, it becomes a hit and immediately counts as damage. Most numerical attacks are energy, fighting, strength, or intellect attacks, but some are multiple types, and some have no type. Characters are KO'd in one of two ways. "Cumulative KO" occurs when a character has taken 20 total damage, regardless of how many attacks or what types they are. "Spectrum KO" occurs

neg: Microwave Active Composition does not revert to the original color. The microwave active compositions are used for validating the microwave energy distribution in the microwave heat processing chambers. Microwave Active Composition Microwave Active Composition is a brand of microwave-sensitive liquid chemicals sold by Atlanta Chemical Engineering LLC. The chemical undergoes color change if it interacts with intensive microwaves. There are two major types of microwave active compositions - reversible and irreversible. The reversible composition is colored liquid and when irradiated with microwaves losses its color. However it has the ability to revert to the original one in a short time after discontinuing the

neg: Nuclear technology be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers. This is what allows nuclear reactors to be built. Fast neutrons are not easily captured by nuclei; they must be slowed (slow neutrons), generally by collision with the nuclei of a neutron moderator, before they can be easily captured. Today, this type of fission is commonly used to generate electricity. If nuclei are forced to collide, they can undergo nuclear fusion. This process may release or absorb energy. When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than

neg: Free-electron laser Office of Naval Research announced it had awarded Raytheon a contract to develop a 100 kW experimental FEL. On March 18, 2010 Boeing Directed Energy Systems announced the completion of an initial design for U.S. Naval use. A prototype FEL system was demonstrated, with a full-power prototype scheduled by 2018. Free-electron laser A free-electron laser (FEL) is a kind of laser whose lasing medium consists of very-high-speed electrons moving freely through a magnetic structure, hence the term "free electron". The free-electron laser is tunable and has the widest frequency range of any laser type, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves,

neg: Susceptor Susceptor A susceptor is a material used for its ability to absorb electromagnetic energy and convert it to heat (which is sometimes designed to be re-emitted as infrared thermal radiation). This energy is typically radiofrequency or microwave radiation used in industrial heating processes, and also occasionally in microwave cooking. The name is derived from "susceptance", an electrical property of materials that measures their tendency to convert electromagnetic energy to heat. In microwave cooking, susceptors are built into paper packaging of certain foods, where they absorb microwaves which penetrate the packaging. This process raises the susceptor patch temperature to levels where

neg: Moscow Signal used to interfere with the health, minds or behaviour of the American embassy staff. There is a report of preliminary studies done on the embassy staff that found disturbing results. For example, the report states that one-third of the embassy employees had developed lymphocytosis, an abnormality of the blood-forming system leading to a high count of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. In addition, there is believed to have been an excessively high rate of cancer among Moscow embassy personnel who were operational in the Moscow Embassy from January 1, 1953 to June 30, 1976. Shielding to the microwaves

neg: Microwave spectroscopy penetration depth (governed by the superconducting condensate), energy gap (single-particle excitation of Cooper pairs), and quasiparticle dynamics. Another material class that has been studied using microwave spectroscopy at low temperatures are heavy fermion metals with Drude relaxation rates at GHz frequencies. Microwaves impinging on matter usually interact with charges as well as with spins (via electric and magnetic field components, respectively), with the charge response typically much stronger than the spin response. But in the case of magnetic resonance, spins can be directly probed using microwaves. For paramagnetic materials, this technique is called electron spin resonance (ESR) and for ferromagnetic

neg: Radiation 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level. Of this energy, 53% is infrared radiation, 44% is visible light, and 3% is ultraviolet radiation. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as short as one millimeter to as long as one meter, which equates to a frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), but various sources use different other limits. In all cases, microwaves include the entire super high frequency band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often putting the

neg: Non-thermal microwave effect Non-thermal microwave effect Non-thermal microwave effects or specific microwave effects have been posited in order to explain unusual observations in microwave chemistry. The main effect of the absorption of microwaves by most materials is heating; the random motion of the constituent molecules is increased. Non-thermal effects are effects that are not due to the increase of thermal energy of the material. Instead, the microwave energy itself directly couples to energy modes within the molecule or lattice. Non-thermal effects in liquids are almost certainly non-existent, as the time for energy redistribution between molecules in a liquid is much less than the

neg: Directed-energy weapon Directed-energy weapon A directed-energy weapon (DEW) is a ranged weapon that damages its target with highly focused energy, including laser, microwaves and particle beams. Potential applications of this technology include weapons that target personnel, missiles, vehicles, and optical devices. In the United States, the Pentagon, DARPA, the Air Force Research Laboratory, United States Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center, and the Naval Research Laboratory are researching directed-energy weapons and railguns to counter ballistic missiles, hypersonic cruise missiles, and hypersonic glide vehicles. These systems of missile defense are expected to come online no sooner than the mid to late-2020s. Russia,

neg: Microwave the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km). At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer. Microwaves are widely used in modern technology, for example in point-to-point communication links, wireless networks, microwave radio relay networks, radar, satellite and spacecraft communication, medical diathermy and cancer treatment, remote sensing, radio astronomy, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, industrial heating, collision avoidance systems, garage door openers and keyless entry systems, and for cooking food in microwave ovens. Microwaves occupy a

neg: Microwave chemistry using nanoparticle-sized metal catalysts. Microwave chemistry Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions. Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges, such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid. Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions. Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material. Microwave heating in the laboratory

neg: Microwave chemistry Microwave chemistry Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions. Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges, such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid. Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions. Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material. Microwave heating in the laboratory began to gain wide

neg: Diathermy to the conversion of energy into heat and its distribution throughout the body tissues. This mode of diathermy is considered to be the easiest to use, but the microwaves have a relatively poor depth of penetration. Microwaves cannot be used in high dosage on edematous tissue, over wet dressings, or near metallic implants in the body because of the danger of local burns. Microwaves and short waves cannot be used on or near persons with implanted electronic cardiac pacemakers. Hyperthermia induced by microwave diathermy raises the temperature of deep tissues from 41 °C to 45 °C using electromagnetic power. The

neg: GW approximation yields nothing other than the Hartree–Fock exchange potential (self-energy). Therefore, loosely speaking, the GWA represents a type of dynamically screened Hartree–Fock self-energy. In a solid state system, the series for the self-energy in terms of "W" should converge much faster than the traditional series in the bare Coulomb interaction. This is because the screening of the medium reduces the effective strength of the Coulomb interaction: for example, if one places an electron at some position in a material and asks what the potential is at some other position in the material, the value is smaller than given by the bare

neg: Cataract also been shown to cause cataracts, and some evidence indicates sunglasses worn at an early age can slow its development in later life. Microwaves , a type of nonionizing radiation, may cause harm by denaturing protective enzymes (e.g., glutathione peroxidase), by oxidizing protein thiol groups (causing protein aggregation), or by damaging lens cells via thermoelastic expansion. The protein coagulation caused by electric and heat injuries whitens the lens. This same process is what makes the clear albumen of an egg become white and opaque during cooking. The genetic component is strong in the development of cataracts, most commonly through mechanisms

neg: Modular Man Modular Man The Modular Man is a fictional character, a Marvel Comics supervillain. He first appeared in "Rampaging Hulk" #2 (April 1977) and was created by John Warner and Val Mayerik. Stephen Weems was a physicist employed by the Brand Corporation (a subsidiary of Roxxon Energy Corporation) to perform experiments using microwaves to induce molecular dissolution. There was an accident during one of the experiments, and Weems was gravely injured by a burst of microwaves, which caused his molecules to start drifting apart. He quickly designed an exoskeleton for himself that would hold him together, keeping his atoms from drifting

neg: Primeval Structure Telescope radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum, and it is observed frequently in radio astronomy, since those radio waves can penetrate the large clouds of interstellar cosmic dust that are opaque to visible light. The microwaves of the hydrogen line come from the atomic transition between the two hyperfine levels of the hydrogen 1s ground state with an energy difference of 5.87433 µeV.[1] The frequency of the quanta that are emitted by this transition between two different energy levels is given by Planck's equation. Primeval Structure Telescope The Primeval Structure Telescope (PaST), also called 21 Centimetre Array (21CMA), is a Chinese

neg: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents at Yanango where a radiography source was lost, also at Samut Prakarn a phosphorus teletherapy source was lost and at Gilan in Iran a radiography source harmed a welder. The best known example of this type of event is the Goiânia accident in Brazil. The International Atomic Energy Agency has provided guides for scrap metal collectors on what a sealed source might look like. The scrap metal industry is the one where lost sources are most likely to be found. Comparing the historical safety record of civilian nuclear energy with other forms of electrical generation, Ball, Roberts, and Simpson, the

neg: Microwave volumetric heating Microwave volumetric heating Microwave Volumetric Heating (MVH) is a method of using microwaves to evenly heat the entire volume of a flowing liquid, suspension or semi-solid. The process is known as MVH because the microwaves penetrate uniformly throughout the volume of the product being heated, thus delivering energy evenly into the body of the material. This is in contrast to traditional thermal processing, which relies on conduction and convection from hot surfaces to deliver energy into the product. Liquids, suspensions, or semi-solids heated by MVH do not come into contact with hot surfaces; this minimizes thermal damage to functional components,

neg: Cherenkov radiation for ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), one of the six experiments at the LHC (Large Hadron Collider) at CERN. The Cherenkov effect can occur in vacuum. In a slow-wave structure, the phase velocity decreases and the velocity of charged particles can exceed the phase velocity while remaining lower than formula_3. In such a system, this effect can be derived from conservation of the energy and momentum where the momentum of a photon should be formula_23 (formula_24 is phase constant) rather than the de Broglie relation formula_25. This type of radiation (VCR) is used to generate high power microwaves. Cherenkov

neg: Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics computed by summing up all of the products of some group of terms A by some related group of terms B. There will potentially be an infinite series of A terms and their matching B terms. Each of these multiplications has as its factors two measurements that pertain to sequential downward transitions between energy states of an electron. This type of rule differentiates matrix mechanics from the kind of physics familiar in everyday life because the important values are where (in what energy state or "orbital") the electron begins and in what energy state it ends, not what the electron

neg: Waveguide conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency radio waves, particularly microwaves. The geometry of a waveguide reflects its function. Slab waveguides confine energy in one dimension, fiber or channel waveguides in two dimensions. The frequency of the transmitted wave also dictates the shape of a waveguide: an optical fiber guiding high-frequency light will not guide microwaves of a much lower frequency. Some naturally occurring structures can also act as waveguides. The SOFAR channel layer in the ocean can guide the sound of whale song across enormous distances. Waves propagate in all directions in open space as spherical waves. The

neg: Standing wave frequency. For waves of equal amplitude traveling in opposing directions, there is on average no net propagation of energy. As an example of the first type, under certain meteorological conditions standing waves form in the atmosphere in the lee of mountain ranges. Such waves are often exploited by glider pilots. Standing waves and hydraulic jumps also form on fast flowing river rapids and tidal currents such as the Saltstraumen maelstrom. Many standing river waves are popular river surfing breaks. As an example of the second type, a "standing wave" in a transmission line is a wave in which the distribution

neg: Potential energy that moves from a start to an end position is determined only by these two positions, and does not depend on the trajectory of the body, there is a function known as "potential" or "potential energy" that can be evaluated at the two positions to determine this work. There are various types of potential energy, each associated with a particular type of force. For example, the work of an elastic force is called elastic potential energy; work of the gravitational force is called gravitational potential energy; work of the Coulomb force is called electric potential energy; work of the strong

neg: Wetting etc.) where the molecules are held together essentially by physical forces (e.g., van der Waals and hydrogen bonds). Since these solids are held together by weak forces, a very low input of energy is required to break them, thus they are termed “low energy”. Depending on the type of liquid chosen, low-energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting. Dynamic surfaces have been reported that undergo changes in surface energy upon the application of an appropriate stimuli. For example, a surface presenting photon-driven molecular motors was shown to undergo changes in water contact angle when switched between bistable conformations

neg: Wireless power transfer by means of electromagnetic fields. The technologies, listed in the table below, differ in the distance over which they can transfer power efficiently, whether the transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of electromagnetic energy they use: time varying electric fields, magnetic fields, radio waves, microwaves, infrared or visible light waves. In general a wireless power system consists of a "transmitter" device connected to a source of power such as a mains power line, which converts the power to a time-varying electromagnetic field, and one or more "receiver" devices which receive the power and convert

neg: Microwave transmission Microwave transmission Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by microwave radio waves. Although an experimental microwave telecommunication link across the English Channel was demonstrated in 1931, the development of radar in World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation of microwave communication. In the 1950s, large transcontinental "microwave relay" networks, consisting of chains of repeater stations linked by line-of-sight beams of microwaves were built in Europe and America to relay long distance telephone traffic and television programs between cities. Communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in

neg: Primary energy typical value is three units of source energy for one unit of site energy. However, this can vary considerably depending on factors such as the primary energy source or fuel type, the type of power plant, and the transmission infrastructure. One full set of conversion factors is available as technical reference from Energy STAR. Either site or source energy can be an appropriate metric when comparing or analyzing energy use of different facilities. The U.S Energy Information Administration, for example, uses primary (source) energy for its energy overviews but site energy for its Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey and Residential

neg: Microwave heat distribution for efficient uniform heating using a circular cylindrical geometry,” J. Microwave Power & Electromagnetic Energy, vol. 28, pp. 32–40, March 1993 Microwave heat distribution The microwave heat distribution is the distribution (allocation) of the heat release inside the microwave absorptive material irradiated with high intensive microwaves. The pattern of microwave heat distribution depends on many physical parameters, which may include the electromagnetic field, the specific absorption rate and structure of the processed material, the geometrical dimensions of the processing cavity, etc. Most of the industrial microwave heating applications need a uniform heat distribution. For example, the uniformity of microwave heat

neg: Radio wave the depth within which 63% of the energy is deposited. For example, the 2.45 GHz radio waves (microwaves) in a microwave oven penetrate most foods approximately 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 inches). Radio waves have been applied to the body for 100 years in the medical therapy of diathermy for deep heating of body tissue, to promote increased blood flow and healing. More recently they have been used to create higher temperatures in hyperthermia treatment, to kill cancer cells. Looking into a source of radio waves at close range, such as the waveguide of a working radio transmitter,

neg: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio kilowatt-hour (kWh) is: Example 1: Example 2. A residence near Chicago has an air conditioner with a cooling capacity of 4 tons and an SEER rating of 10. The unit is operated 120 days each year for 8 hours per day (960 hours per year), and the electric energy cost is $0.10 per kilowatt-hour. What is the annual cost of the electric energy required to operate the air conditioner? First, we convert tons of cooling to BTU/h: The annual cost of the electric energy is: Today there are mini-split (ductless) air conditioner units available with SEER ratings up to 33.

neg: Electromagnetic radiation it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a higher energy level (one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Immediate photon emission is called fluorescence, a type of photoluminescence. An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet (blacklight). Many other fluorescent emissions

neg: Shockley–Queisser limit photons of red, yellow and blue light and some near-infrared will contribute to power production, whereas radio waves, microwaves, and most infrared photons will not. This places an immediate limit on the amount of energy that can be extracted from the sun. Of the 1,000 W/m² in AM1.5 sunlight, about 19% of that has less than 1.1 eV of energy, and will not produce power in a silicon cell. Another important contributor to losses is that any energy above and beyond the bandgap energy is lost. While blue light has roughly twice the energy of red light, that energy is

neg: Directed-energy weapon potentially lethal results. Light and repetitive visual signals can induce epileptic seizures. Vection and motion sickness can also occur. Cruise ships are known to use sonic weapons (such as LRAD) to drive off pirates. Russia has been reportedly using blinding laser weapons during its military intervention in Donbass. Directed-energy weapon A directed-energy weapon (DEW) is a ranged weapon that damages its target with highly focused energy, including laser, microwaves and particle beams. Potential applications of this technology include weapons that target personnel, missiles, vehicles, and optical devices. In the United States, the Pentagon, DARPA, the Air Force Research Laboratory, United

neg: Elastic recoil detection sample ions are recoiled toward the detector. The beam ions are scattered at an angle that does not permit them to reach the detector. The sample ions pass through an entrance window of the detector, and depending on the type of detector used, the signal is converted into a spectrum. In elastic recoil detection analysis, a silicon diode is the most common detector. This type of detector is commonly used, however, there are some major disadvantages when using this type of detector. For example, the energy resolution decreases significantly with a Si detector when detecting heavy recoiled ions. There is

neg: Energy neutral design are converted to electricity. Energy neutral design An Energy Neutral Design is a Design of any type (Website, Multi-media, Architecture, Art, Music, Entertainment, etc.) that has the environment and low energy consumption practices in mind during all stages of planning and production. Energy neutral design can also refer to environmentally powered electronics, where devices absorb or harvest energy from the immediate surroundings and transform it to the electricity they require for their operation. One example of this is the Batteryless_radio. More recently wireless sensor networks and internet of things devices have featured energy neutral designs where light, heat, motion or

neg: Chemical potential function, Fermi energy, and Fermi level. For example, n-type silicon has a higher internal chemical potential of electrons than p-type silicon. In a p–n junction diode at equilibrium the chemical potential ("internal" chemical potential) varies from the p-type to the n-type side, while the total chemical potential (electrochemical potential, or, Fermi level) is constant throughout the diode. As described above, when describing chemical potential, one has to say "relative to what". In the case of electrons in semiconductors, internal chemical potential is often specified relative to some convenient point in the band structure, e.g., to the bottom of the conduction

neg: MOSFET of n-type (p-type). Therefore, when the gate voltage is increased in a positive sense (for the given example), this will "bend" the intrinsic energy level band so that it will curve downwards towards the valence band. If the Fermi level lies closer to the valence band (for p-type), there will be a point when the Intrinsic level will start to cross the Fermi level and when the voltage reaches the threshold voltage, the intrinsic level does cross the Fermi level, and that is what is known as inversion. At that point, the surface of the semiconductor is inverted from p-type

neg: Core–shell semiconductor nanocrystal a wider bandgap than the shell, and the conduction and valence band edges of the shell lie within those of the core. The lowest available exciton energy separation occurs when the charge carriers are localized in the shell. Changing the shell thickness tunes the emission wavelength. CdS/HgS, CdS/CdSe, ZnSe/CdSe and MgO/ZnO In the type II configuration, the valence and conduction band edge of the core are both lower or higher than the band edges of the shell. An example of a type II is shown in figure X, ZnTe(bandgap:2.26)/CdSe(bandgap:1.74). The lowest energy separation of the electron and the hole will

neg: Renewable portfolio standard (United States) meet current year commitments). There is a great deal of variety among the states in the handling and functioning of RECs and this will be a major issue in integrating state and federal programs. RPS multipliers are powerful tools for regulators to direct revenue, investment, and job creation to particular types of renewable energy vs a free market of renewable energy. Since the definition of what is renewable energy isn't clear cut, for example, nuclear power, and whether an RPS program should consider environmental damage of a renewable energy source (for example, hydroelectric dams, bird strikes of wind turbines, geothermal

neg: Alkene reactive oxygen species generated by the photosensitiser, such as hydroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen or superoxide ion. These reactive photochemical intermediates are generated in what are known as Type I, Type II, and Type III processes, respectively. These various alternative processes and reactions can be controlled by choice of specific reaction conditions, leading to a wide range of different products. A common example is the [4+2]-cycloaddition of singlet oxygen with a diene such as cyclopentadiene to yield an endoperoxide: Another example is the Schenck ene reaction, in which singlet oxygen reacts with an allylic structure to give a transposed allyl peroxide:

neg: Thermal runaway various industrial processes. The rate of heating of the material depends on the energy absorption, which depends on the dielectric constant of the material. The dependence of dielectric constant on temperature varies for different materials; some materials display significant increase with increasing temperature. This behavior, when the material gets exposed to microwaves, leads to selective local overheating, as the warmer areas are better able to accept further energy than the colder areas—potentially dangerous especially for thermal insulators, where the heat exchange between the hot spots and the rest of the material is slow. These materials are called "thermal runaway materials".

neg: Plurale tantum ""mayim"". In English, such words are almost always mass nouns. Some uncountable nouns can be alternatively used as count nouns when meaning "a type of", and the plural means "more than one type of". For example, "strength" is uncountable in "Strength is power," but it can be used as a countable noun to mean "type of strength" as in "My strengths are in physics and chemistry." Some words, especially proper nouns such as the name of an individual, are nearly always in the singular form because there is only one example of what that noun means. "Pluralia tantum" vary arbitrarily

neg: Primitive recursive functional Primitive recursive functional In mathematical logic, the primitive recursive functionals are a generalization of primitive recursive functions into higher type theory. They consist of a collection of functions in all pure finite types. The primitive recursive functionals are important in proof theory and constructive mathematics They are a central part of the Dialectica interpretation of intuitionistic arithmetic developed by Kurt Gödel. In recursion theory, the primitive recursive functionals are an example of higher-type computability, as primitive recursive functions are examples of Turing computability. Every primitive recursive functional has a type, which tells what kind of inputs it takes and what

neg: Madison Symmetric Torus the plasma long enough for them to deposit their energy. Magnetic fluctuations bedevil plasma confinement in this type of device by scrambling what we hoped were well behaved magnetic fields. If the fast ions are susceptible to this type of behavior, they can escape very quickly. However, there is evidence to suggest that they aren't. EBW is an acronym for Electron Bernstein Wave and is named after the plasma physicist, Ira Bernstein. Bernstein Wave Mode relates to a method of injecting ion or electron energy (IBW or EBW) into a plasma to increase its temperature in an attempt to reach

neg: Magic: The Gathering rules in the type line. Creature types are simply markers and have no inherent abilities; for example, having the Bird type does not automatically give a creature the "flying" ability. Some non-creature cards have the "Tribal" type, which allows them to have creature types without being creatures themselves. Enchantments represent persistent magical effects; they are spells that remain on the battlefield and alter some aspect of the game. Some enchantments are attached to other cards on the battlefield (often creatures); these are known as Auras. They describe what they can be attached to in their "Enchant <something>" ability. For example, an

neg: Electric power system the wind is blowing)? To the more technical: How should the generator start (some turbines act like a motor to bring themselves up to speed in which case they need an appropriate starting circuit)? What is the mechanical speed of operation for the turbine and consequently what are the number of poles required? What type of generator is suitable (synchronous or asynchronous) and what type of rotor (squirrel-cage rotor, wound rotor, salient pole rotor or cylindrical rotor)? Power systems deliver energy to loads that perform a function. These loads range from household appliances to industrial machinery. Most loads expect a

neg: AMES Type 80 the waveguide, but this was difficult and time-consuming and normally done only on the initial installation. In the Mark III models, an identification friend or foe (IFF) antenna was mounted in front and below the waveguide, about the main waveguide's length. The technique of feeding high-power microwaves through slip rings was not fully developed when the Type 80 was being designed, so the radio frequency portions of the system are located in the "cabin" below the reflector, rotating with it. Entering the cabin to service the components required the operators to wait for the appropriate time and then jump onto

neg: Desalination are driven by either thermal (e.g., distillation) or electrical (e.g., RO) as the primary energy types. Energy cost in desalination processes varies considerably depending on water salinity, plant size and process type. At present the cost of seawater desalination, for example, is higher than traditional water sources, but it is expected that costs will continue to decrease with technology improvements that include, but are not limited to, improved efficiency, reduction in plants footprint, improvements to plant operation and optimization, more effective feed pretreatment, and lower cost energy sources. Reverse osmosis uses a thin-film composite membrane, which comprises an ultra-thin, aromatic

neg: Potential energy surface a reaction such as F + H → HF + H in which atom A is heavier than B and C, there is "mixed" energy release, both vibrational and translational, even though the PES is repulsive. For endothermic reactions, the type of surface determines the type of energy which is most effective in bringing about reaction. Translational energy of the reactants is most effective at inducing reactions with an attractive surface, while vibrational excitation is more effective for reactions with a repulsive surface. As an example of the latter case, the reaction F + HCl(v=1) → Cl + HF is

neg: Electron paramagnetic resonance of Q will be reduced due to the extra energy loss. This results in a change of impedance which serves to stop the cavity from being critically coupled. This means microwaves will now be reflected back to the detector (in the microwave bridge) where an EPR signal is detected. The dynamics of electron spins are best studied with pulsed measurements. Microwave pulses typically 10–100 ns long are used to control the spins in the Bloch sphere. The spin–lattice relaxation time can be measured with an inversion recovery experiment. As with pulsed NMR, the Hahn echo is central to many pulsed

neg: SystemC SystemC activities and to allow Synopsys' largest competitors, Cadence and Mentor Graphics, democratic representation in SystemC development. Example code of an adder: The Power/Energy estimation can be accomplished in SystemC by means of simulations. Powersim is a SystemC class library aimed to the calculation of power and energy consumption of hardware described at system level. To this end, C++ operators are monitored and different energy models can be used for each SystemC data type. Simulations with Powersim do not require any change in the application source code. SystemC SystemC is a set of C++ classes and macros which provide an

neg: Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products standard that is technologically feasible and economically justified. Based on outside feedback and internal analyses, DOE sets the final efficiency rules of testing standards, which are published in the Federal Register. As currently implemented the Energy Conservation Program affects over 50 appliances, including residential, commercial and industrial, lighting , and plumbing products. Regulated residential products are clothes dryers, clothes washers, central air conditioners and heat pumps, ceiling fans, battery chargers and external power supplies, dehumidifiers, heating equipment, dishwashers, kitchen ranges and ovens, microwaves, pool heaters, refrigerators and freezers, furnace fans, furnaces and boilers, room air conditioners, set-top boxes, televisions, and

neg: Isodesmic reaction carbon to hydrogen bonds. Isodesmic reaction An isodesmic reaction is a chemical reaction in which the type of chemical bonds broken in the reactant are the same as the type of bonds formed in the reaction product. This type of reaction is often used as a hypothetical reaction in thermochemistry. An example of an isodesmic reaction is Equation 1 describes the deprotonation of a methyl halide by a methyl anion. The energy change associated with this exothermic reaction which can be calculated "in silico" increases going from fluorine to chlorine to bromine and iodine making the CHI anion the most

neg: Isodesmic reaction Isodesmic reaction An isodesmic reaction is a chemical reaction in which the type of chemical bonds broken in the reactant are the same as the type of bonds formed in the reaction product. This type of reaction is often used as a hypothetical reaction in thermochemistry. An example of an isodesmic reaction is Equation 1 describes the deprotonation of a methyl halide by a methyl anion. The energy change associated with this exothermic reaction which can be calculated "in silico" increases going from fluorine to chlorine to bromine and iodine making the CHI anion the most stable and least basic

neg: KALI (electron accelerator) Initially starting with 0.4GW power, present accelerators are able to reach 40GW. Pulse time is about 60 ns. The Microwave radiations emitted by the KALI-5000 are in the 3–5 GHz Range KALI – 5000: This system is designed to produce electron pulses of about 100 ns with an energy of about 1 MeV, current 40 kA and a power of 40 GW. This Relativistic Electron Beams (REB) thus generated will be used for the generation of High Power Microwaves (HPM) & Flash X Rays (FXR). The KALI has been put to various uses by the DRDO. The DRDO was involved

neg: Zero-point energy example, it has been estimated that human body is 10,000 times more effective at dissipating energy per unit of mass than the sun. One may query what this has to do with zero-point energy. Given the complex and adaptive behaviour that arises from nonlinear systems considerable attention in recent years has gone into studying a new class of phase transitions which occur at absolute zero temperature. These are quantum phase transitions which are driven by EM field fluctuations as a consequence of zero-point energy. A good example of a spontaneous phase transition that are attributed to zero-point fluctuations can be

neg: Space colonization elimination of greenhouse gases and nuclear waste from electricity generation. Transmitting solar energy wirelessly from the Earth to the Moon and back is also an idea proposed for the benefit of space colonization and energy resources. Physicist Dr. David Criswell, who worked for NASA during the Apollo missions, came up with the idea of using power beams to transfer energy from space. These beams, microwaves with a wavelength of about 12 cm, will be almost untouched as they travel through the atmosphere. They can also be aimed at more industrial areas to keep away from humans or animal activities. This

neg: Basal metabolic rate release of energy—is catabolism. The building up process is termed anabolism. The breakdown of proteins into amino acids is an example of catabolism, while the formation of proteins from amino acids is an anabolic process. Exergonic reactions are energy-releasing reactions and are generally catabolic. Endergonic reactions require energy and include anabolic reactions and the contraction of muscle. Metabolism is the total of all catabolic, exergonic, anabolic, endergonic reactions. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the intermediate molecule that drives the exergonic transfer of energy to switch to endergonic anabolic reactions used in muscle contraction. This is what causes muscles to work which

neg: Cluster chemistry in hydrogenation reactions where one adsorbate (hydrogen) is relatively small. In some cases, a metal cluster must be "activated" for catalysis by substitution of one or more ligands, such as acetonitrile. For example, Os(CO) will have one active site after thermolysis and the dissociation of a single carbonyl group. Os(CO)(CHCN) will have two active sites. Computational studies have progressed from sum-of-energies calculations (incorporating Hückel theory-type approximations) to density functional theory (DFT). An example of the former is empirical packing energy calculations, where only interactions between adjacent atoms are considered. The packing potential energy can be expressed as follows: formula_1 where

neg: Magnesium in biology leads to an acidification of the stroma that inactivates key enzymes in carbon fixation, which all leads to the production of oxygen free radicals in the chloroplast that then cause oxidative damage. Magnesium in biology Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg ion. It is an essential mineral nutrient (i.e., element) for life and is present in every cell type in every organism. For example, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy in cells, must bind to a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. What is called ATP is often

neg: Le Sage's theory of gravitation by Poincaré), its mass would be doubling in each fraction of a second. Based on observational evidence, it is now known that gravity interacts with all forms of energy, and not just with mass. The electrostatic binding energy of the nucleus, the energy of weak interactions in the nucleus, and the kinetic energy of electrons in atoms, all contribute to the gravitational mass of an atom, as has been confirmed to high precision in Eötvös type experiments. This means, for example, that when the atoms of a quantity of gas are moving more rapidly, the gravitation of that gas increases.

neg: Transformity measurable property of a form of energy, its ability to amplify as feedback, relative to the source energy consumed in its formation, under maximum power conditions. As a quantitative variable analogous to thermodynamic temperature, transformity requires specification of units." (1987, p. 261. My emphasis). In 1996 H.T.Odum defined transformity as, "the emergy of one type required to make a unit of energy of another type. For example, since 3 coal emjoules (cej) of coal and 1 cej of services are required to generate 1 J of electricity, the coal transformity of electricity is 4 cej/J" G.P.Genoni expanded on this definition

neg: Electrical energy Electrical energy Electrical energy is energy derived from electric potential energy or kinetic energy. When loosely used to describe energy absorbed or maybe delivered by an electrical circuit (for example, one provided by an electric power utility) "electrical energy" talks about energy which has been converted "from" electric potential energy. This energy is supplied by the combination of electric current and electric potential that is delivered by the circuit. At the point that this electric potential energy has been converted to another type of energy, it ceases to be electric potential energy. Thus, all electrical energy is potential energy before

neg: Oxocarbenium stereoelectronic effects in oxocarbenium rings). Once this conformation is established, one can consider the nucleophilic addition. The addition will proceed through the low energy chair transition state, rather than the relatively high energy twist-boat. An example of this type of reaction can be seen below. The example also highlights how the stereoelectronic effect exerted by an electronegative substituent flips the lowest energy conformation and leads to opposite selectivity. In an alkene ring that does not contain an oxygen atom, any large substituent prefers to be in an equatorial position, in order to minimize steric effects. It has been observed in

neg: Type system with both types. Intersection types are useful for describing overloaded function types: For example, if " → " is the type of functions taking an integer argument and returning an integer, and " → " is the type of functions taking a float argument and returning a float, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given. Such a function could be passed into another function expecting an " → " function safely; it simply would not use the " →