query: what is the name of the suns surface layer

pos: Sun see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H ions. The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or "limb" of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,777 K, interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere

neg: David Chapman (chemist) name of the Gouy-Chapman layer being given to the surface layer that he envisaged). David Chapman (chemist) David Leonard Chapman FRS (6 December 1869 – 17 January 1958) was an English physical chemist, whose name is associated with the Chapman-Jouguet treatment (on the theory of detonation in gases) and the Gouy-Chapman layer (the surface layer of ions distributed on a charged surface). He was a fellow of Jesus College, Oxford for 37 years, and was in charge there of the last college laboratory at the University of Oxford. Chapman was born in Wells, Norfolk but moved with his family to

neg: Nelumbo name to what is called the lotus effect. Ultrahydrophobicity involves two criteria: a very high water contact angle between the droplet of water and the leaf surface, and a very low roll-off angle. This means that the water must contact the leaf surface at exactly one, miniscule point, and any manipulation of the leaf by changing its angle will result in the water droplet rolling off of the leaf. Ultrahydrophobicity is conferred by the usually dense layer of papillae on the surface of the "Nelumbo" leaves, and the small, robust, waxy tubules that protrude off each papillae. This helps reduce

neg: Sima (geology) Sima (geology) In geology, sima is the name for the lower layer of the Earth's crust. This layer is made of rocks rich in magnesium silicate minerals. Typically when the sima comes to the surface it is basalt, so sometimes this layer is called the 'basalt layer' of the crust. The sima layer is also called the 'basal crust' or 'basal layer' because it is the lowest layer of the crust. Because the ocean floors are mainly sima, it is also sometimes called the 'oceanic crust'. The name 'sima' was taken from the first two letters of silica and of

neg: Ice segregation more slowly. Mutron confirmed that ice initially forms in pores and creates small microfractures parallel to the surface. As ice accumulates, the ice layer grows outward in what is frequently characterized as an ice-lens parallel to the surface. Ice will form in water-permeable rock in much the same way as it forms in soil. If the ice layer resulted from a cooling from a single direction (e.g., the top) the rock fracture tends to lie close to the surface(e.g., 1–2 cm in chalk). If the ice layer results from freezing from both sides (e.g., above and below) the rock fracture

neg: Ice lens forms in pores and creates small microfractures parallel to the surface. As ice accumulates, the ice layer grows outward in what is frequently characterized as an ice-lens parallel to the surface. Ice will form in water-permeable rock in much the same way as it forms in soil. If the ice layer resulted from cooling from a single direction (e.g., the top) the rock fracture tends to lie close to the surface(e.g., 1–2 cm in chalk). If the ice layer results from freezing from both sides (e.g., above and below) the rock fracture tends to lie deeper (e.g., 2-3.5 cm in

neg: Valentin Aleskovsky hypothesis, which formed the basis for experiments with Koltsov and other co-workers, leading later to a thin film deposition technique they called Molecular Layering. Internationally today this technique is called Atomic Layer Deposition. This technique, which is based on the use of complementary self-limiting surface reactions to deposit materials in a layer by layer fashion, was later independently developed by Tuomo Suntola under the name Atomic Layer Epitaxy. Valentin Aleskovsky Valentin Borisovich Aleskovsky (; 3 June 1912 - 29 January 2006) was a Soviet scientist and administrator known for his pioneering research on surface reactions underpinning the thin film deposition

neg: Surface charge is defined as the Debye length. Which leads to the simple expression: formula_13 The Otto Stern model of the double layer is essentially a combination of Helmholtz and Gouy-Chapman theories. His theory states that ions do have finite size, so cannot approach the surface closer than a few nanometers. Through a distance known as the Stern Layer, ions can be adsorbed onto the surface up to a point referred to as the slipping plane, where the ions adsorbed meet the bulk liquid. At the slipping plane the potential Ψ has decreased to what is known as the zeta potential. Although

neg: Crystalline silicon can be found in. Opto-Electrical Modeling and Characterization of HIT Cells The literature discusses several studies to interpret carrier transport bottlenecks in these cells. Traditional light and dark I-V are extensively studied and are observed to have several non-trivial features, which cannot be explained using the traditional solar cell diode theory. This is because of the presence of hetero-junction between the intrinsic a-Si layer and c-Si wafer which introduces additional complexities to current flow. In addition, there has been significant efforts to characterize this solar cell using C-V, impedance spectroscopy, surface photo-voltage, suns-Voc to produce complementary information. Further, a number

neg: Tribology ideally divide a fluid between two surfaces (formula_40, formula_41) of area A, in various layers. The layer in contact with the surface formula_41, which moves with a velocity v due to an applied force F, will have the same velocity as v of the slab, while each immediately following layer will vary this velocity of a quantity dv, up to the layer in contact with the immobile surface formula_40, which will have zero speed. From what has been said, it is possible to state that the force F, necessary to cause a rolling motion in a fluid contained between two

neg: Surface layer Surface layer The surface layer is the layer of a turbulent fluid most affected by interaction with a solid surface or the surface separating a gas and a liquid where the characteristics of the turbulence depend on distance from the interface. Surface layers are characterized by large normal gradients of tangential velocity and large concentration gradients of any substances (temperature, moisture, sediments et cetera) transported to or from the interface. The term boundary layer is used in meteorology and in physical oceanography. The atmospheric surface layer is the lowest part of the atmospheric boundary layer (typically the bottom 10% where

neg: Particle deposition much smaller coverage, since a few misaligned rods may block a large portion of the surface. Since the repulsion between particles in aqueous suspensions originates from electric double layer forces, the presence of salt has an important effect on surface blocking. For small particles and low salt, the diffuse layer will extend far beyond the particle, and thus create an exclusion zone around it. Therefore, the surface will be blocked at a much lower coverage than what would be expected based on the RSA model. At higher salt and for larger particles, this effect is less important, and the deposition

neg: Sima (geology) magnesia. Comparable is the name 'sial' which is the name for the upper layer of the Earth's continental crust. The sima has a higher density (2800 to 3300 kg/m) than the sial, which is due to increased amounts of iron and magnesium, and decreased amounts of aluminium. When the denser sima comes to the surface it forms mafic rocks, or rocks with mafic minerals. The most dense sima has less silica and forms ultramafic rocks. Sima (geology) In geology, sima is the name for the lower layer of the Earth's crust. This layer is made of rocks rich in magnesium

neg: Calcite rafts the surface and carbon dioxide degasses from the surface layer to create a thin layer of water with high pH and concentrations of calcium and carbonate ions far above the saturation concentration for calcium carbonate. Calcite crystals precipitate in this highly localized environment and attach to one another to form what appear to be rafts of a white material. Scanning electron micrographs of calcite rafts show interconnected calcite crystals formed around holes on the raft surface. The holes may be caused by air bubbles or other foreign matter on the water surface. Micrographs of calcite rafts show lace-like structure. The

neg: Nepheloid layer Nepheloid layer Nepheloid layer or nepheloid zone is a layer of water in the deep ocean basin, above the ocean floor, that contains significant amounts of suspended sediment. It is from 200 to 1000 m thick. The name comes from Greek: "nephos", "cloud". The particles in the layer may come from the upper ocean layers and from stripping the sediments from the ocean floor by currents. Its thickness depends on bottom current velocity and is a result of balance between gravitational settling of particles and turbulence of the current. In a similar way, a surface nepheloid layer (SNL) may be

neg: Graphene production techniques graphene formation is possible. The second and higher layers cannot bond to the existing graphene layers as strongly as the first layer bonds to the metal surface, which results in higher 3 Å separation between the graphene layers. The second layer thus has much weaker interaction with the substrate and has very similar electronic properties as free-standing graphene. Due to the strong bonding of graphene on the ruthenium surface, only R0 orientation is observed for graphene layer. Although, different studies have shown different lengths for the moiré repeat distance, varying around Graphene(11 x 11) and Ru(10 x 10).<ref name="Growth Mechanism

neg: Animals of Devonian Michigan them safe from the suns rays, and they started releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. Stromatolites are formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by bio-films of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria (blue green algae). These are usually found as large pieces of mounds, either as layers or as bumps on the rock surface. The bumps are on the outer layer of the animal while the layers are growth lines from the inside of the animal. Fossil stromatolites are found mostly in the northern area of the Lower Peninsula in Alpena. Living stromatolites are found in Shark

neg: Surface conductivity Surface conductivity Surface conductivity is an additional conductivity of an electrolyte in the vicinity of charged surfaces. Close to charged surfaces a layer of counter ions of opposite polarity exists which is attracted by the surface charges. This layer of higher ionic concentration is a part of the interfacial double layer. The concentration of the ions in this layer is higher as compared to the volume conductivity far from the charged surface and leads to a higher conductivity of this layer. Smoluchowski was the first to recognize the importance of surface conductivity at the beginning of the 20th century. There

neg: Continuoolithus layer, which is four to eight times thicker than the mammillary layer. In elongatoolithids and in "Continuoolithus", this layer is distinctive because it is not subdivided into well-defined crystal units (hence the name continuous layer). While some division into prisms can be observed near the outer surface of the shell, this is mostly obscured by scale-like squamatic ultrastructure. Two specimens of "Continuoolithus" preserve the shell membrane, a layer of fibrous proteins found in extant archosaur (bird and crocodylian) eggs beneath the hard crystalline shell. The original protein is not preserved, but the specimens do show networks of tubular fibers anchoring

neg: Zohar (album) of harmonium and Yamantaka Eye voicing occasional hums and tones. Most of what you hear, however, is record surface static and the revolutions of the vinyl. Zohar could only be of use to completists, or as a layer for mixing". Zohar (album) Zohar is an album by the Mystic Fugu Orchestra (John Zorn (as Rav Tzizit) and Yamataka Eye (as Rav Yechida) who perform a range of music inspired by historical recordings of ancient Judaica. To simulate the "antiquity" of these recordings, a heavy layer of surface noise was overlaid on the music to represent the playing quality of a

neg: Surface layer but recent, highly sensitive measurements reveal a sublayer within the surface layer in which turbulent eddies are enhanced by the action of surface waves. It is becoming clear that the surface layer of the ocean is only poorly modeled as being up against the "wall" of the air-sea interaction. Observations of turbulence in Lake Ontario reveal under wave-breaking conditions the traditional theory significantly underestimates the production of turbulent kinetic energy within the surface layer. The depth of the surface mixed layer is affected by solar insolation and thus is related to the diurnal cycle. After nighttime convection over the ocean,

neg: Double layer (surface science) Double layer (surface science) A double layer (DL, also called an electrical double layer, EDL) is a structure that appears on the surface of an object when it is exposed to a fluid. The object might be a solid particle, a gas bubble, a liquid droplet, or a porous body. The DL refers to two parallel layers of charge surrounding the object. The first layer, the surface charge (either positive or negative), consists of ions adsorbed onto the object due to chemical interactions. The second layer is composed of ions attracted to the surface charge via the Coulomb force, electrically

neg: Galilean moons queen of Crete, though the name did not become widely used until the mid-20th century. It has a smooth and bright surface, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life. Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid

neg: Surface layer study which instead focused on the Central Equatorial Pacific Ocean found a tendency for increased depths of the mixed layer during nighttime. The extratropical or midlatitude mixed layer was shown in one study to be more affected by diurnal variability than the results of the two tropical ocean studies. Over a 15-day study period in Australia, the diurnal mixed layer cycle repeated in a consistent manner with decaying turbulence throughout the day. Surface layer The surface layer is the layer of a turbulent fluid most affected by interaction with a solid surface or the surface separating a gas and a

neg: Ancient Egyptian pottery its tributaries deposited this clay in what had previously been desert. Marl clay includes a range of kinds of clay based on their base substance. In general, they have a lower percentage of silicum and significantly higher calcium content. The most important sub-types of marl clay are: Marl clay is normally cream or white in colour when it is fired in an oxygen-rich oven. Cuts can reveal pink or orange areas. It is rich in mineral salts, so the outer surface often has a thin layer of weathered salt which forms a white surface layer when fired, which can be

neg: Dispersituberoolithus Formation, which is dated to the late Campanian. "Dispersituberoolithus" is one of the few fossil eggs of the ornithoid-prismatic morphotype. The outer surface of its eggshell exhibits what is called dispersituberculate ornamentation, i.e. the shell is covered with randomly distributed nodes. "Dispersituberoolithus" was named for this pattern. Its shell is 0.26 to 0.28 mm thick, and is made up of three structural layers. The innermost layer, called the mammillary layer, is half the thickness of the continuous layer and twice the thickness of the external zone. The boundary between the continuous and the mammillary layers exhibits a squamatic ultrastructure. It

neg: Planetary boundary layer boundary layer as there is over land. In the convective boundary layer, strong mixing diminishes vertical wind gradient. As Navier–Stokes equations suggest, the planetary boundary layer turbulence is produced in the layer with the largest velocity gradients that is at the very surface proximity. This layer – conventionally called a surface layer – constitutes about 10% of the total PBL depth. Above the surface layer the PBL turbulence gradually dissipates, losing its kinetic energy to friction as well as converting the kinetic to potential energy in a density stratified flow. The balance between the rate of the turbulent kinetic energy

neg: Ekman layer surface of the ocean extends only about 10 – 20 meters deep, and instrumentation sensitive enough to observe a velocity profile in such a shallow depth has only been available since around 1980. Also, wind waves modify the flow near the surface, and make observations close to the surface rather difficult. Observations of the Ekman layer have only been possible since the development of robust surface moorings and sensitive current meters. Ekman himself developed a current meter to observe the spiral that bears his name, but was not successful. The Vector Measuring Current Meter and the Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler

neg: Bark (botany) cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots. In stems the cortex is between the epidermis layer and the phloem, in roots the inner layer is not phloem but the pericycle. From the outside to the inside of a mature woody stem, the layers include: In young stems, which lack what is commonly called bark, the tissues are, from the outside to the inside: As the stem ages and grows, changes occur that transform the surface of the stem into the bark. The epidermis is a layer of cells that cover the plant body, including the stems, leaves, flowers

neg: Boundary layer viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The layer of air over the wing's surface that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are two different types of boundary layer flow: laminar and turbulent. Laminar Boundary Layer Flow The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or "eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As

neg: Convective Boundary Layer provided in the Wyngaard et al., 1983 planetary boundary layer Mixed layer Turbulent Convective Boundary Layer The Convective Boundary layer (CBL), also known as the daytime Planetary boundary layer, is the part of the atmosphere most directly affected by solar heating of the earth's surface. This layer extends from the earth surface to a capping inversion that typically locates at a height of 1–2 km by midafternoon over land. Below the capping inversion (10-60% of CBL depth, also called entrainment zone in the daytime), CBL is divided into two sub-layers: mixed layer (35-80% of CBL depth) and surface layer (5-10%

neg: Atmospheric optics when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed. A thermal inversion is an atmospheric condition where warmer air exists in a well-defined layer above a layer of significantly cooler air. This temperature inversion is the opposite of what is normally the case; air is usually warmer close to the surface, and cooler higher up. In calm weather, a layer of significantly warmer air can rest over colder dense air, forming an atmospheric duct which acts like a refracting lens, producing a series of both inverted and erect images.

neg: Triprismatoolithus and unlike most other non-avian dinosaur eggs. The second layer, known as the prismatic layer, is made up of closely packed calcite crystals, and exhibits irregular squamatic texture. It is five times thicker than the mammillary layer. The surface of the eggshell of "Triprismatoolithus" is covered with low, rounded tubercles, similar to "Arriagadoolithus". "Triprismatoolithus" shares many unique characteristics with "Arriagadoolithus", so they are classified together in the oofamily Arriagadoolithidae. "Triprismatoolithus" contains a single oospecies: "T. stephensi". "Triprismatoolithus" has not been found associated with embryos or adult remains, so it is unknown precisely what kind of dinosaur laid the eggs. However,

neg: Surface conductivity is a detailed description of surface conductivity by Lyklema in "Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science" The Double Layer (DL) has two regions, according to the well established Gouy-Chapman-Stern model, Ref.2. The upper level, which is in contact with the bulk fluid is the diffuse layer. The inner layer that is in contact with interface is the Stern layer. It is possible that the lateral motion of ions in both parts of the DL contributes to the surface conductivity. The contribution of the Stern layer is less well described. It is often called "additional surface conductivity". The theory of the

neg: Surface charge double layer, which has a broad range of applications in what is termed electrokinetic phenomena. The development of the theory of the electric double layer is described below. The model dubbed the 'electric double layer' was first introduced by Hermann von Helmholtz. It assumes that a solution is only composed of electrolytes, no reactions occur near the electrode which could transfer electrons, and that the only Van der Waals interactions are present between the ions in solution and the electrode. These interactions arise only due to the charge density associated with the electrode which arises from either an excess or

neg: Convective Boundary Layer Convective Boundary Layer The Convective Boundary layer (CBL), also known as the daytime Planetary boundary layer, is the part of the atmosphere most directly affected by solar heating of the earth's surface. This layer extends from the earth surface to a capping inversion that typically locates at a height of 1–2 km by midafternoon over land. Below the capping inversion (10-60% of CBL depth, also called entrainment zone in the daytime), CBL is divided into two sub-layers: mixed layer (35-80% of CBL depth) and surface layer (5-10% of CBL depth). The mixed layer, the major part of CBL, has a

neg: DLVO theory attract counterions from the surrounding solution and repel co-ions. In equilibrium, the surface charge is balanced by oppositely charged counterions in solution. The region near the surface of enhanced counterion concentration is called the electrical double layer (EDL). The EDL can be approximated by a sub-division into two regions. Ions in the region closest to the charged wall surface are strongly bound to the surface. This immobile layer is called the Stern or Helmholtz layer. The region adjacent to the Stern layer is called the diffuse layer and contains loosely associated ions that are comparatively mobile. The total electrical double

neg: Wetting layer Wetting layer In experimental physics, a wetting layer is an initial layer of atoms that is epitaxially grown on a surface upon which self-assembled quantum dots or thin films are created. The atoms composing a wetting layer can be semimetallic elements/compounds (usually InAs in the case of self-assembled quantum dots) or metallic alloys (for thin films). This article refers to the wetting layer used for quantum dot applications. By spraying a surface with layers of these atoms under high temperature, this wetting layer residue is produced on the surface. Wetting layers control the artificial atomic states of the quantum dot

neg: Fata Morgana (mirage) they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed. (A thermal inversion is an atmospheric condition where warmer air exists in a well-defined layer above a layer of significantly cooler air. This temperature inversion is the opposite of what is normally the case; air is usually warmer close to the surface, and cooler higher up.) In calm weather, a layer of significantly warmer air may rest over colder dense air, forming an atmospheric duct that acts like a refracting lens, producing a series of both inverted and erect images. A

neg: Curiosity: What's Inside the Cube? messages. Players tapped the cubelets to dig through the surface of each layer and reveal the next layer below. The goal was to reach the center and to discover what was inside the cube. Each layer, which had a distinct look or design, contained a clue as to what was in the centre of the cube. Each cubelet destroyed by a player awarded them coins. Coins could be spent on tools that temporarily enhanced the player's abilities, such as picks ranging from iron to steel to diamond that increased the number of cubelets destroyed with each tap, or firecrackers that

neg: Cueva Fell hard clay. Remnants of sandstone still clinging to the conglomerate roof eventually fell to the floor, forming an archaeologically sterile layer that separated later human occupation periods. Junius Bird labelled the occupational sediment layers of the site from top to bottom, the top layer directly under the surface is I and the oldest, lowest layer is V. The surface material of the site is composed of dirt, rocks, and hard-packed sheep manure. The surface layer ranges from in thickness. The youngest stratigraphic layer of Fell’s Cave is a dark earth layer, reaching approximately in thickness. This component dates from around

neg: Ekman layer bottom Ekman layer can readily be observed in a rotating cylindrical tank of water by dropping in dye and changing the rotation rate slightly. Surface Ekman layers can also be observed in rotating tanks. In the atmosphere, the Ekman solution generally overstates the magnitude of the horizontal wind field because it does not account for the velocity shear in the surface layer. Splitting the boundary layer into the surface layer and the Ekman layer generally yields more accurate results. The Ekman layer, with its distinguishing feature the Ekman spiral, is rarely observed in the ocean. The Ekman layer near the

neg: Boundary layer to and from a body also takes place within the boundary layer, again allowing the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains constant throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the surface itself. The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement

neg: Mixed layer clouds. Such a layer may have gradients in the humidity, though. As is the case with the ocean mixed layer, velocities will not be constant throughout the atmospheric mixed layer. Mixed layer The oceanic or limnological mixed layer is a layer in which active turbulence has homogenized some range of depths. The surface mixed layer is a layer where this turbulence is generated by winds, surface heat fluxes, or processes such as evaporation or sea ice formation which result in an increase in salinity. The atmospheric mixed layer is a zone having nearly constant potential temperature and specific humidity with

neg: Marine layer Marine layer A marine layer is an air mass which develops over the surface of a large body of water such as the ocean or large lake in the presence of a temperature inversion. The inversion itself is usually initiated by the cooling effect of the water on the surface layer of an otherwise warm air mass. As it cools, the surface air becomes denser than the warmer air above it, and thus becomes trapped below it. The layer may thicken through turbulence generated within the developing marine layer itself. It may also thicken if the warmer air above it

neg: Glutinoglossum this analysis. Although the "Glutinoglossum" species are not distinguishable by gross morphological features alone, they can be distinguished by their microscopic characteristics, and have an 8–10% DNA sequence dissimilarity in their internal transcribed spacer regions. The generic name "Glutinoglossum" (derived from the Latin "glutinosus", meaning "glutinous") refers to the sticky fruit bodies. "G. glutinosum" is commonly known as the "viscid black earth tongue". The club-shaped fruit bodies of "Glutinoglossum" species are sticky or gelatinous and black. The fertile hymenium (spore-bearing surface) is at the upper portion, or "head". The gelatinous layer on the surface comprises a distinct layer of mostly

neg: Art of ancient Egypt palaces were merely painted on a flat surface. Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, with a smoother "gesso" layer above; some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand strong sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear: egg tempera and various gums and resins have been suggested. It is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called "fresco a secco" in Italian. After

neg: Wind gradient directly towards the low pressure, when compared to the winds in the nearly frictionless flow well above the Earth's surface. This layer, where surface friction slows the wind and changes the wind direction, is known as the planetary boundary layer. Daytime solar heating due to insolation thickens the boundary layer as winds at the surface become increasingly mixed with winds aloft. Radiative cooling overnight decouples the winds at the surface from the winds above the boundary layer, increasing vertical wind shear near the surface, also known as wind gradient. Typically, due to aerodynamic drag, there is a wind gradient in

neg: History of Earth layer near the upper part of the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere. It allowed cells to colonize the surface of the ocean and eventually the land: without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation bombarding land and sea would have caused unsustainable levels of mutation in exposed cells. Photosynthesis had another major impact. Oxygen was toxic; much life on Earth probably died out as its levels rose in what is known as the "oxygen catastrophe". Resistant forms survived and thrived, and some developed the ability

neg: Convective Boundary Layer turbulence is stronger than those generated by buoyancy, the flow is in forced convection. In the surface layer, shear production always exceeds buoyancy production because of strong shear generated by surface drag. In the mixed layer, buoyancy generated by heating from the ground surface is the major driver of convective turbulence. Radiative cooling from the cloud tops is also an effective driver of convection. The buoyancy generated turbulence peaks in the afternoon, hence the boundary layer flow is in free convection during most of the afternoon. The up and downdrafts of boundary layer convection is the primary way in which

neg: Mixed layer Mixed layer The oceanic or limnological mixed layer is a layer in which active turbulence has homogenized some range of depths. The surface mixed layer is a layer where this turbulence is generated by winds, surface heat fluxes, or processes such as evaporation or sea ice formation which result in an increase in salinity. The atmospheric mixed layer is a zone having nearly constant potential temperature and specific humidity with height. The depth of the atmospheric mixed layer is known as the mixing height. Turbulence typically plays a role in the formation of fluid mixed layers. The mixed layer plays

neg: Microolithus This would be only the second oogenus of Paleogene bird egg to be named in North America (the first being "Incognitoolithus"). The known specimens of "Microolithus" were found in the Eocene Willwood Formation in Park County, Wyoming. "Microolithus" is, as its name suggests, a small egg; the smallest specimen is by . Like all medioolithids, it is roughly spherical. The eggshell is 600 μm thick, and its outer surface is smooth and glossy, but this may be due to erosion. Its eggshell is composed of three structural layers. The outermost layer (the external layer) contacts the middle layer (the continuous

neg: Surface integrity machining (EDM). There are two aspects to surface integrity: "topography characteristics" and "surface layer characteristics". The topography is made up of surface roughness, waviness, errors of form, and flaws. The surface layer characteristics that can change through processing are: plastic deformation, residual stresses, cracks, hardness, overaging, phase changes, recrystallization, intergranular attack, and hydrogen embrittlement. When a traditional manufacturing process is used, such as machining, the surface layer sustains local plastic deformation. The processes that affect surface integrity can be conveniently broken up into three classes: "traditional processes", "non-traditional processes", and "finishing treatments". Traditional processes are defined as processes where the

neg: Mixed layer of salty water subducted in the subtropics (found in all subtropical ocean gyres). Barrier layer formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front. In particular, the barrier layer is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima. During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer. At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.

neg: Opportunity mission timeline the upper wall of the trench and the brightness of soil on the trench floor. By inspecting the sides and floor of a hole it dug, "Opportunity" found some things it had not imaged beforehand, including shiny round pebbles and soil so fine-grained that the rover's microscope could not make out individual particles. What is underneath is different from what is at the immediate surface. The soils consist of fine-grained basaltic sand and a surface lag of hematite-rich spherules, spherule fragments, and other granules. Underlying the thin soil layer, are flat-lying sedimentary rocks. These rocks are finely laminated, are rich

neg: Wind shear all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air and kills the thunderstorm. The atmospheric effect of surface friction with winds aloft force surface winds to slow and back counterclockwise near the surface of the Earth blowing inward across isobars (lines of equal pressure), when compared to the winds in frictionless flow well above the Earth's surface. This layer where friction slows and changes the wind is known as the planetary boundary layer, sometimes the Ekman layer, and it is thickest during the day and thinnest at night. Daytime heating thickens the boundary layer as

neg: David Chapman (chemist) David Chapman (chemist) David Leonard Chapman FRS (6 December 1869 – 17 January 1958) was an English physical chemist, whose name is associated with the Chapman-Jouguet treatment (on the theory of detonation in gases) and the Gouy-Chapman layer (the surface layer of ions distributed on a charged surface). He was a fellow of Jesus College, Oxford for 37 years, and was in charge there of the last college laboratory at the University of Oxford. Chapman was born in Wells, Norfolk but moved with his family to Manchester and attended Manchester Grammar School. He then went to Christ Church, Oxford, obtaining

neg: Surface plasmon resonance microscopy metal layer, it evanescently penetrates through the metal layer exciting a Surface Plasmon Wave (SPW). In waveguide coupling configuration, the waveguide is created when the refraction index of the grating is greater than that of substrate. Incident radiation propagates along the waveguide layer with high refractive index. In Figure 8, electromagnetic waves are guided through a wave-guiding layer, once the optical waves reached the interface wave-guiding layer- metal an evanescent wave is created. The evanescent wave excites the Surface Plasmon at the metal-dielectric interface. Due to the periodic grating, the phase matching between the incident light and the guide mode

neg: Steve Albini of Volcano Suns) and Todd Trainer (of Rifle Sport, Breaking Circus and Brick Layer Cake). They initially released three EPs: "" (1993), "Uranus" (1993) and "The Bird Is the Most Popular Finger" (1994). The first two EP releases were on Touch and Go, while the third EP was a Drag City label release. Two years after formation, the Japanese label NUX Organization released a Japan-exclusive live album in CD format titled "ライヴイン東京"—an English-language reference to the name Shellac cannot be found anywhere on the CD product, which was not available outside Japan. The live album was followed by five studio

neg: Capillary electrochromatography a solution. Under alkaline conditions, the surface silanol groups of the fused silica will become ionised leading to a negatively charged surface. This surface will have a layer of positively charged ions in close proximity which are relatively immobilised. This layer of ions is called the Stern layer. The thickness of the double layer is given by the formula: where ε is the relative permittivity of the medium, ε is the permittivity of vacuum, R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, c is the molar concentration, and F is the Faraday constant When an electric field

neg: Deep scattering layer layer of the world's oceans. Sonar reflects off the millions of lanternfish swim bladders, giving the appearance of a false bottom. The phantom bottom is caused by the sonar misinterpreting as the ocean floor a layer of small seagoing creatures that congregate between below the surface. The name is derived from the fact that the first people to see these measurements erroneously reported that they had discovered sunken islands. Most mesopelagic fishes are small filter feeders which ascend at night to feed in the nutrient rich waters of the epipelagic zone. During the day, they return to the dark, cold,

neg: Surface chemistry of cooking the thin layer of chromium oxide that is formed on the surface. This thin layer protects the metal from rusting or corroding. While it is protective, the oxide layer is not very conductive, which makes cooking food less efficient than it could be. For most cooking applications, high thermal conductivity is desirable to create an evenly heated surface on which to cook. In this way, stainless steel is usually not considered high-grade cookware. In terms of surface interactions, chromium oxide is polar. The oxygen atoms on the surface have a permanent dipole moment, and are therefore hydrophilic. This means that

neg: Double layer (surface science) typically on the scale of a few nanometers and the thickness decreases with increasing concentration of the electrolyte. The electric field strength inside the DL can be anywhere from zero to over 10 V/m. These steep electric potential gradients are the reason for the importance of the DLs. The theory for a flat surface and a symmetrical electrolyte is usually referred to as the Gouy-Chapman theory. It yields a simple relationship between electric charge in the diffuse layer σ and the Stern potential Ψ: Double layer (surface science) A double layer (DL, also called an electrical double layer, EDL) is

neg: Mixed layer measurements of water properties. Two criteria often used to determine the mixed layer depth are temperature and sigma-"t" (density) change from a reference value (usually the surface measurement). The temperature criterion used in Levitus (1982) defines the mixed layer as the depth at which the temperature change from the surface temperature is 0.5 °C. The sigma-"t" (density) criterion used in Levitus (1982) uses the depth at which a change from the surface sigma-"t" of 0.125 has occurred. Neither criterion implies that active mixing is occurring to the mixed layer depth at all times. Rather, the mixed layer depth estimated from

neg: Boundary layer Boundary layer In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is an important concept and refers to the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classified according to their structure

neg: Halley's Comet model was broadly correct, though with modifications. Halley's albedo, for instance, is about 4%, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it; about what one would expect for coal. Thus, despite appearing brilliant white to observers on Earth, Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The surface temperature of evaporating "dirty ice" ranges from at higher albedo to at low albedo; Vega 1 found Halley's surface temperature to be in the range . This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust

neg: Characterization of nanoparticles ions and is accessible only from the outside. Electrical mobility analyzers calculate the spherical equivalent diameter, which can be converted using geometric relationships. These methods cannot discriminate a nanoparticle of interest from incidental nanoparticles that may occur in complex environments such as workplace atmospheres. Nanoparticles can be collected onto a substrate and their external dimensions can be measured using electron microscopy, then converted to surface area using geometric relations. Surface chemistry refers to the elemental or molecular chemistry of particle surfaces. No formal definition exists for what constitutes a surface layer, which is usually defined by the measurement technique employed.

neg: Supersonic flow over a flat plate shock layer is the region between the plate surface and the boundary layer. This shock layer be further subdivided into layer of viscid and inviscid flow, according to the values of Mach number, Reynolds Number and Surface Temperature. However, if the entire layer is viscous, it is called as merged shock layer. This Fluid dynamics problem can be solved by different Numerical Methods. However, to solve it with Numerical Methods several assumptions have to be considered. And as a result shock layer properties and shock location is determined. Results vary with one or more than one of viscosity of the

neg: Meteorology atmospheric models are run by national meteorological agencies. Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and friction – cause turbulent mixing within the air layer. Significant movement of heat, matter, or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions. Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology. Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the

neg: Memnonia quadrangle (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. Sometimes craters will display layers. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed unto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface. At times, bright rays surround craters because the impact has gone down to a bright layer of rocks, then thrown out the bright rocks on the darker surface. An image below from Mars Global Surveyor shows this.

neg: Convective Boundary Layer with formula_31 Where formula_32 is a correction to the local gradient to represent the counter gradient flux transport of large-scale eddies. This term is small in stable conditions, and is therefore, neglected in these conditions. For unstable conditions, however, most transport is done by turbulent eddies with sizes on the order of the depth of the boundary layer. In such cases, formula_33 where formula_34 is the corresponding surface flux for a scalar formula_3, and formula_36 is a coefficient of proportionality. formula_37 is the mixed layer velocity scale defined from surface friction velocity and wind profile function at the surface layer

neg: Liquid metal this observation of "wetting by rubbing into glass surface" has created a widely spread misconception that the gallium-based liquid metals wet glass surfaces, as if the liquid breaks free of the oxide skin and wets the surface. The reality is the opposite: the oxide makes the liquid wet the glass. In more details: as the liquid is rubbed into and spread onto the glass surface, the liquid oxidizes and coats the glass with a thin layer of oxide (solid) residues, on which the liquid metal wets. In other words, what is seen is a gallium-based liquid metal wetting its solid

neg: Cylinder head porting the surface is usually deliberately textured to a degree of uniform roughness to encourage fuel deposited on the port walls to evaporate quickly. A rough surface on selected areas of the port may also alter flow by energizing the boundary layer, which can alter the flow path noticeably, possibly increasing flow. This is similar to what the dimples on a golf ball do. Flow bench testing shows that the difference between a mirror-finished intake port and a rough-textured port is typically less than 1%. The difference between a smooth-to-the-touch port and an optically mirrored surface is not measurable by ordinary

neg: Gas changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. The satellite view of weather around Robinson Crusoe Islands illustrates one example. Particles will, in effect, "stick" to the surface of an object moving through it. This layer of particles is called the boundary layer. At the surface of the object, it is essentially static due to the friction of the surface. The object, with its boundary layer is effectively the new shape of the object that the rest of the molecules "see" as the object approaches. This boundary layer

neg: Dismal Key base level of the shell fields consists of a mixture of broken and unbroken oyster shell, with no artifacts and very little soil. On top of the base is a very thin layer of crushed oyster shell, interpreted as an old ground surface. Possible post holes, now filled with soil, extend from this layer into the base layer. Above the old ground surface is a midden layer, consisting of oyster shells with about 20% soil mixed in, and ceramics and shell tools. The modern surface is a sandy loam. The ceramics are classified as late Glades I period, from 500

neg: Induction hardening flow in the material thereby creating heat due to the IR losses in the material. In magnetic materials, further heat is generated below the curie point due to hysteresis losses. The current generated flows predominantly in the surface layer, the depth of this layer being dictated by the frequency of the alternating field, the surface power density, the permeability of the material, the heat time and the diameter of the bar or material thickness. By quenching this heated layer in water, oil, or a polymer based quench, the surface layer is altered to form a martensitic structure which is harder

neg: Ekman layer Ekman layer The Ekman layer is the layer in a fluid where there is a force balance between pressure gradient force, Coriolis force and turbulent drag. It was first described by Vagn Walfrid Ekman. Ekman layers occur both in the atmosphere and in the ocean. There are two types of Ekman layers. The first type occurs at the surface of the ocean and is forced by surface winds, which act as a drag on the surface of the ocean. The second type occurs at the bottom of the atmosphere and ocean, where frictional forces are associated with flow over rough

neg: Ferritic nitrocarburizing The process uses a salt bath of alkali cyanate. This is contained in a steel pot that has an aeration system. The cyanate thermally reacts with the surface of the workpiece to form alkali carbonate. The bath is then treated to convert the carbonate back to a cyanate. The surface formed from the reaction has a compound layer and a diffusion layer. The compound layer consists of iron, nitrogen, and oxygen, is abrasion resistant, and stable at elevated temperatures. The diffusion layer contains nitrides and carbides. The surface hardness ranges from 800 to 1500 HV depending on the steel grade.

neg: Rain an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas. What separates rainfall from other precipitation types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will result. Hail becomes an increasingly infrequent

neg: Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer adjust to surface forcings within a timescale of 1 hour. The planetary boundary layer is characterized by turbulence during the daytime and by stability during the night. At the top of the planetary boundary layer, there is a stable layer that is frequently termed the inversion layer as temperature tends to increase with height in contrast to much of the troposphere. The planetary boundary layer can have lower level clouds located around the capping inversion top. The two main types of clouds within the planetary boundary layer are fair-weather cumulus clouds and stratocumulus clouds. The underlying surface primarily determines the

neg: Guadalajara milk, sugar, vanilla, and cinnamon, and baked in the oven where it is broiled to the point that a burnt layer is produced. The burnt layer at the surface is what makes this dessert special and delicious. One of the drinks that is popular in Guadalajara is Tejuino, a refreshing drink that contains a corn fermented base with sugarcane, lime, salt, and chili powder. The city hosts the Feria Internacional Gastronomía (International Gastronomy Fair) each year in September showcasing Mexican and international cuisines. A large number of restaurants, bars, bakeries and cafés participate as well as producers of beer, wine

neg: Urnula craterium leathery and compact, and covered with a fine layer of brownish-black hairs (a tomentum); the second layer consists of loosely interlaced brown hyphae suspended in a gelatinous matrix. The third layer is the fertile, spore-bearing surface, the brownish-black hymenium. The life cycle of "Urnula craterium" allows for both an imperfect (making asexual spores, or conidia) or perfect (making sexual spores) form; as has often happened in fungal taxonomy, the imperfect form was given a different name, because the relationship between the perfect and imperfect forms of the same species was not then known. The imperfect stage of "Urnula craterium" is

neg: Barrier layer (oceanography) the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front. In particular, BLT is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima. During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer. At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics. The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for BLT formation. For the western Pacific, the mechanism for BLT formation is

neg: Encrypt (film) and discovers that it actually protects a device that can restore the ozone layer. With the help of Diana, Garth triggers it, but presumably dies soon afterwards. Encrypt (film) Encrypt is a television movie that premiered June 14, 2003 on the Sci-Fi Channel. Set in the year 2068, the Earth's surface is in a cataclysmic upheaval, much of it transformed into wasteland by unstoppable storms (the byproduct of the destruction of the ozone layer). It was directed by Oscar Luis Costo. A few survivors have dedicated themselves to preserving and protecting what is left of mankind; among these is former

neg: Adsorption living cells do not interact directly with the biomaterial surface, but with the adsorbed proteins layer. This protein layer mediates the interaction between biomaterials and cells, translating biomaterial physical and chemical properties into a "biological language". In fact, cell membrane receptors bind to protein layer bioactive sites and these receptor-protein binding events are transduced, through the cell membrane, in a manner that stimulates specific intracellular processes that then determine cell adhesion, shape, growth and differentiation. Protein adsorption is influenced by many surface properties such as surface wettability, surface chemical composition and surface nanometre-scale morphology. Surfactant adsorption is a similar phenomenon,

neg: Gravimetric analysis is called Ostwald ripening. An important advantage of digestion is observed for colloidal precipitates where large amounts of adsorbed ions cover the huge area of the precipitate. Digestion forces the small colloidal particles to agglomerate which decreases their surface area and thus adsorption. You should know that adsorption is a major problem in gravimetry in case of colloidal precipitate since a precipitate tends to adsorb its own ions present in excess, Therefore, forming what is called a primary ion layer which attracts ions from solution forming a secondary or counter ion layer. Individual particles repel each other keeping the colloidal

neg: Animal locomotion on the water surface creature’s complex surface layer". "Velella", the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than sailing. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. "Velella" sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an aerofoil, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind. Animal locomotion on the water surface Animal locomotion on the surface layer of water is the study of animal locomotion in the case of small animals that live on the surface layer of water, relying on

neg: Double layer (surface science) leads to the buildup of an electric surface charge, expressed usually in C/m. This surface charge creates an electrostatic field that then affects the ions in the bulk of the liquid. This electrostatic field, in combination with the thermal motion of the ions, creates a counter charge, and thus screens the electric surface charge. The net electric charge in this screening diffuse layer is equal in magnitude to the net surface charge, but has the opposite polarity. As a result, the complete structure is electrically neutral. The diffuse layer, or at least part of it, can move under the influence

neg: Graphene production techniques ruthenium(0001) surface with CVD, temperature programmed growth (TPG) or segregation. In CVD, a hot ruthenium surface is exposed for some carbon containing molecule like methane or ethene. This results in graphene formation. It has been observed that the graphene can grow only “downhill” of the ruthenium surface steps, not uphill. Graphene bonds strongly with covalent bonds to the surface and has only 1.45 Å separation to the surface. This affects the electronic structure of the graphene layer, and the layer behaves differently than a free-standing graphene layer. However, the CVD graphene growth on ruthenium is not totally self-terminating and multilayer

neg: Surface layer the log wind profile is valid). The ocean has two surface layers: the benthic, found immediately above the sea floor and the marine surface layer, at the air-sea interface. A simple model of the surface layer can be derived by first examining the turbulent momentum flux through a surface. Using Reynolds Decomposition to express the horizontal flow in the formula_1 direction as the sum of a slowly varying component,formula_2, and a turbulent component,formula_3,: formula_4 and the vertical flow, formula_5, in an analogous fashion: formula_6 we can express the flux of turbulent momentum through a surface, formula_7 as the time averaged

neg: Jellyfish Lake because the tidal water enters at the surface, the lower anoxic layer is largely unaffected by tidal flows. The anoxic layer extends from about below the surface to the bottom of the lake. The oxygen concentration in this layer is zero. The hydrogen sulfide concentration rises from about zero at the top of this layer to over 80 mg/liter at the bottom of the lake. The top three meters of this layer contains a dense population of bacteria, at least one species of which is a purple photosynthetic sulfur bacterium. This bacterial layer absorbs all sunlight so that the anoxic

neg: Surface freezing (Bar-Ilan University, Israel) discovered independently the same effect, using x-ray surface diffraction which allowed them to show that the frozen layer is a crystalline monolayer, with molecules oriented roughly along the surface normal, and ordered in an hexagonal lattice. A related effect, the existence of a smectic phase at the surface of a nematic liquid bulk was observed in liquid crystals by Jens Als-Nielsen (Risø National Laboratory, Denmark) and Peter Pershan (Harvard University) in the early 1980s. However, the surface layer there was neither ordered, nor confined to a single layer. Surface freezing has since been found in a wide

neg: Electrostatic precipitator to the collection plate. At the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection plate, the voltage is zero, whereas at the outer surface of the dust layer, where new particles and ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can be quite high. The strength of this electric field depends on the resistance and thickness of the dust layer. In high-resistance dust layers, the dust is not sufficiently conductive, so electrical charges have difficulty moving through the dust layer. Consequently, electrical charges accumulate on and beneath the dust layer surface, creating a strong electric field. Voltages can

neg: BET theory an upper layer formation starts. Furthermore, the authors made five assumptions: Let us consider a given amount of solid sample in a controlled atmosphere. Let "θ" be the fractional coverage of the sample surface covered by a number "i" of successive molecule layers. Let us assume that the adsorption rate "R" for molecules on a layer ("i"-1) (i.e. formation of a layer "i") is proportional to both its fractional surface "θ" and to the pressure "P", and that the desorption rate "R" on a layer "i" is also proportional to its fractional surface "θ": where "k" and "k" are the

neg: Mollusc shell often in order to help bind the calcium carbonate crystals together. Conchiolin is composed largely of quinone-tanned proteins. The periostracum and prismatic layer are secreted by a marginal band of cells, so that the shell grows at its outer edge. Conversely, the nacreous layer is derived from the main surface of the mantle. Some shells contain pigments which are incorporated into the structure. This is what accounts for the striking colors and patterns that can be seen in some species of seashells, and the shells of some tropical land snails. These shell pigments sometimes include compounds such as pyrroles and

neg: Nanoelectromechanical relay between the pull in voltage, and the pull out voltage that will not change the state of the relay, no matter what its initial state is. This property is very useful in applications where information needs to be stored in the circuit, such as in static random-access memory. NEM relays are usually fabricated using surface micromachining techniques typical of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Laterally actuated relays are constructed by first depositing two or more layers of material on a silicon wafer. The upper structural layer is photolithographically patterned in order to form isolated blocks of the uppermost material. The layer below

neg: S-layer novel affinity matrices, mucosal vaccines, biocompatible surfaces, micro carriers and encapsulation systems, or in the material sciences as templates for biomineralization. S-layer An S-layer (surface layer) is a part of the cell envelope found in almost all archaea, as well as in many types of bacteria. It consists of a monomolecular layer composed of identical proteins or glycoproteins. This structure is built via self-assembly and encloses the whole cell surface. Thus, the S-layer protein can represent up to 15% of the whole protein content of a cell. S-layer proteins are poorly conserved or not conserved at all, and can differ

neg: S-layer S-layer An S-layer (surface layer) is a part of the cell envelope found in almost all archaea, as well as in many types of bacteria. It consists of a monomolecular layer composed of identical proteins or glycoproteins. This structure is built via self-assembly and encloses the whole cell surface. Thus, the S-layer protein can represent up to 15% of the whole protein content of a cell. S-layer proteins are poorly conserved or not conserved at all, and can differ markedly even between related species. Depending on species, the S-layers have a thickness between 5 and 25 nm and possess identical

neg: Poisson–Boltzmann equation respectively. In the Gouy-Chapman model, a charged solid comes into contact with an ionic solution, creating a layer of surface charges and counter-ions or double layer. Due to thermal motion of ions, the layer of counter-ions is a diffuse layer and is more extended than a single molecular layer, as previously proposed by Hermann Helmholtz in the Helmholtz model. The Stern Layer model goes a step further and takes into account the finite ion size. The Gouy–Chapman model explains the capacitance-like qualities of the electric double layer. A simple planar case with a negatively charged surface can be seen in

neg: Ultrahydrophobicity by making the vapour layer stable. Once the vapour layer is established, cooling never collapses the layer, and no nucleate boiling occurs; the layer instead slowly relaxes until the surface is cooled. Fabricating superhydrophobic polymer surfaces with controlled geometry can be expensive and time consuming, but a small number of commercial sources provide specimens for research labs. Active recent research on superhydrophobic materials might eventually lead to industrial applications. Some attempts at fabricating a superhydrophobic surface include mimicking a lotus leaf surface, namely the two-tiered characteristic. This requires micro-scale surfaces with typically nanoscale features on top of them. For example,

neg: Wetting layer quantum dots in order to control their state for quantum computation and other applications of quantum dots. Wetting layer In experimental physics, a wetting layer is an initial layer of atoms that is epitaxially grown on a surface upon which self-assembled quantum dots or thin films are created. The atoms composing a wetting layer can be semimetallic elements/compounds (usually InAs in the case of self-assembled quantum dots) or metallic alloys (for thin films). This article refers to the wetting layer used for quantum dot applications. By spraying a surface with layers of these atoms under high temperature, this wetting layer