query: which acid is used to write on glass

pos: Hydrofluoric acid as a pickling agent to remove oxides and other impurities from stainless and carbon steels because of its limited ability to dissolve steel. It is used in the semiconductor industry as a major component of Wright Etch and buffered oxide etch, which are used to clean silicon wafers. In a similar manner it is also used to etch glass by reacting with silicon dioxide to form gaseous or water-soluble silicon fluorides. It can also be used to polish and frost glass. A 5% to 9% hydrofluoric acid gel is also commonly used to etch all ceramic dental restorations to improve

pos: Satin glass Satin glass Satin glass is a piece of glass that has been chemically treated to give it a satin finish. The term "satin glass" is frequently used to refer to a collectible type of pressed glass. Satin glass can be used for decorative items. However, satin glass is also used to provide privacy where the full transparency of glass is undesirable. The satin finish is produced by treating the glass with hydrofluoric acid or hydrofluoric acid fumes. Satin glass was first made as decorative pressed glass in England and the United States during the 1880s. Many companies have produced this

pos: Hydrofluoric acid be immersed directly into the acid, or a cellulose nitrate film may be applied (dissolved in amyl acetate), which adheres to the organic component and allows the rock to be dissolved around it. Diluted hydrofluoric acid (1 to 3 %wt.) is used in the petroleum industry in a mixture with other acids (HCl or organic acids) in order to stimulate the production of water, oil, and gas wells specifically where sandstone is involved. Hydrofluoric acid is also used by some collectors of antique glass bottles to remove so-called 'sickness' from the glass, caused by acids (usually from the soil in

pos: Hydrofluoric acid as a pickling agent to remove oxides and other impurities from stainless and carbon steels because of its limited ability to dissolve steel. It is used in the semiconductor industry as a major component of Wright Etch and buffered oxide etch, which are used to clean silicon wafers. In a similar manner it is also used to etch glass by reacting with silicon dioxide to form gaseous or water-soluble silicon fluorides. It can also be used to polish and frost glass. A 5% to 9% hydrofluoric acid gel is also commonly used to etch all ceramic dental restorations to improve

pos: Hydrofluoric acid significant amounts of fluorosilicic acid are generated. Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of uses in industry and research. It is used as a starting material or intermediate in industrial chemistry, mining, refining, glass finishing, silicon chip manufacturing, and in cleaning. In a standard oil refinery process known as alkylation, isobutane is alkylated with low-molecular-weight alkenes (primarily a mixture of propylene and butylene) in the presence of the strong acid catalyst derived from hydrofluoric acid. The catalyst protonates the alkenes (propylene, butylene) to produce reactive carbocations, which alkylate isobutane. The reaction is carried out at mild temperatures (0 and 30 °C)

pos: Ammonium bifluoride hydrogen-fluorine hydrogen bonds present between the hydrogen atoms of the ammonium ion and the fluorine atoms. Solutions contain tetrahedral [NH] cations and linear [HF] anions. Ammonium bifluoride is a component of some etchants. It attacks silica component of glass: Potassium bifluoride is a related more commonly used etchant. Ammonium bifluoride has been considered as an intermediate in the production of hydrofluoric acid from hexafluorosilicic acid. Thus, hexafluorosilicic acid is hydrolyzed to give ammonium fluoride, which thermally decomposes to give the bifluoride: The resulting ammonium bifluoride is converted to the sodium bifluoride, which thermally decomposes to release HF. Ammonium bifluoride Ammonium

pos: Gumi, North Gyeongsang were unloading hydrofluoric acid (HF) from a tanker when an explosion occurred causing about 8 tonnes of the acid to leak into the surrounding area. The leak caused 5 deaths initially and prompted more than 3000 people to seek medical attention at local hospitals. Local rice and grape crops were ruined because the acid caused them to wither. Approximately 3,200 livestock were exposed. The acid, which can etch glass and is used in the electronics industry, caused damage to at least 1,000 vehicles. Total damage costs as of October 10, 2012 were about 16 million USD. Gumi, North Gyeongsang Gumi

pos: Fluorite fluorite (60–85% CaF), the lowest of the three grades, has traditionally been used as a flux to lower the melting point of raw materials in steel production to aid the removal of impurities, and later in the production of aluminium. Ceramic grade fluorite (85–95% CaF) is used in the manufacture of opalescent glass, enamels, and cooking utensils. The highest grade, "acid grade fluorite" (97% or more CaF), accounts for about 95% of fluorite consumption in the US where it is used to make hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid by reacting the fluorite with sulfuric acid. Internationally, acid-grade fluorite is also

pos: Fluorochemical industry (make the liquid runnier). The calcium content has a tangential benefit in removing sulfur and phosphorus, but other additives such as lime are still needed. Metspar is similarly used in cast iron production and for other iron-containing alloys. Fluorite of the acidspar grade is used directly as an additive to ceramics and enamels, glass fibers and clouded glass, and cement, as well as in the outer coating of welding rods. Acidspar is primarily used for making hydrofluoric acid, which is a chemical intermediate for most fluorine-containing compounds. Significant direct uses of HF include pickling (cleaning) of steel, cracking of alkanes

pos: Valve whilst monel valves are used in hydrofluoric acid (HF Acid) plants. Hastelloy valves are often used in high temperature applications, such as nuclear plants, whilst inconel valves are often used in hydrogen applications. Plastic bodies are used for relatively low pressures and temperatures. PVC, PP, PVDF and glass-reinforced nylon are common plastics used for valve bodies. A bonnet acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semi-permanently screwed into the valve body or bolted onto it. During manufacture of the valve, the internal parts are put into the body and then the bonnet is attached to hold

pos: Fluorine amounts of uranium. In 1529, Georgius Agricola described fluorite as an additive used to lower the melting point of metals during smelting. He penned the Latin word "fluorés" ("fluor," flow) for fluorite rocks. The name later evolved into "fluorspar" (still commonly used) and then "fluorite". The composition of fluorite was later determined to be calcium difluoride. Hydrofluoric acid was used in glass etching from 1720 onwards. Andreas Sigismund Marggraf first characterized it in 1764 when he heated fluorite with sulfuric acid, and the resulting solution corroded its glass container. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele repeated the experiment in 1771, and

pos: Fluorine necessitates conversion first to the gentler , , or , which together allow calibrated fluorination. Fluorinated pharmaceuticals use sulfur tetrafluoride instead. As with other iron alloys, around 3 kg (6.5 lb) metspar is added to each metric ton of steel; the fluoride ions lower its melting point and viscosity. Alongside its role as an additive in materials like enamels and welding rod coats, most acidspar is reacted with sulfuric acid to form hydrofluoric acid, which is used in steel pickling, glass etching and alkane cracking. One-third of HF goes into synthesizing cryolite and aluminium trifluoride, both fluxes in the Hall–Héroult

pos: Stained glass this way as well. A great advantage is that the double-layered glass can be engraved or abraded to reveal the clear or tinted glass below. The method allows rich detailing and patterns to be achieved without needing to add more lead-lines, giving artists greater freedom in their designs. A number of artists have embraced the possibilities flashed glass gives them. For instance, 16th-century heraldic windows relied heavily on a variety of flashed colours for their intricate crests and creatures. In the medieval period the glass was abraded; later, hydrofluoric acid was used to remove the flash in a chemical reaction

pos: History of fluorine until about 1600. Some sources claim that the first production of hydrofluoric acid was by Heinrich Schwanhard, a German glass cutter, in 1670. A peer-reviewed study of Schwanhard's writings, though, showed no specific mention of fluorite and only discussion of an extremely strong acid. It was hypothesized that this was probably nitric acid or aqua regia, both capable of etching soft glass. Andreas Sigismund Marggraf made the first definite preparation of hydrofluoric acid in 1764 when he heated fluorite with sulfuric acid in glass, which was greatly corroded by the product. In 1771, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele repeated this

pos: Peroxide fusion the most common dissolution method used for many types of samples. Unfortunately, acid digestion involves numerous manipulations of concentrated acids. Some types of samples even require the use of perchloric acid (HClO) that is explosive when it comes into contact with any organic materials. It can be readily combined with hydrofluoric acid (HF) and brought to a fumic state to drive off this volatile acid that is extremely dangerous to human health, not to mention it will dissolve the walls of any glass container it is being processed within. Moreover, it is often difficult to get full dissolution of the

pos: Fluoride and its anhydrous form, hydrogen fluoride, is also used in the production of fluorocarbons. Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of specialized applications, including its ability to dissolve glass. Fluoride-containing compounds, such as sodium fluoride or sodium monofluorophosphate are used in topical and systemic fluoride therapy for preventing tooth decay. They are used for water fluoridation and in many products associated with oral hygiene. Originally, sodium fluoride was used to fluoridate water; hexafluorosilicic acid (HSiF) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (NaSiF) are more commonly used additives, especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay

pos: Richard Adolf Zsigmondy glass in hydrofluoric acid. During his stay in Graz, Zsigmondy accomplished his most notable research work, on the chemistry of colloids. The exact mechanism which yields the red colour of the Cranberry or Ruby glass was a result of his studies of colloids. In later years he worked on gold hydrosols and used them to characterize protein solutions. While in Jena he developed the slit ultramicroscope together with Henry Siedentopf. After moving to Göttingen, Zsigmondy improved his optical equipment for the observation of finest nanoparticles suspended in liquid solution. As a result, he introduced the immersion ultramicroscope in 1912. In

pos: Silicon dioxide attacked by hydrofluoric acid (HF) to produce hexafluorosilicic acid: HF is used to remove or pattern silicon dioxide in the semiconductor industry. Silicon dioxide acts as a Lux–Flood acid, being able to react with bases under certain conditions. As it does not contain any hydrogen, it cannot act as a Brønsted–Lowry acid. While not soluble in water, some strong bases will react with glass and have to be stored in plastic bottles as a result. Silicon dioxide dissolves in hot concentrated alkali or fused hydroxide, as described in this idealized equation: Silicon dioxide will neutralise basic metal oxides (e.g. sodium

pos: Clara Pit of fluorspar. Baryte is used "inter alia" in sound attenuation, radiation protection and the deep mining industry. Fluorspar or fluorite is used in the metal industry as a plasticiser (e.g. in welding electrodes) in the glass and ceramics industry and in the chemical industry for the production of hydrofluoric acid. The pit, which is operated by the firm of Sachtleben Bergbau is the last active mine of the many that were once worked in the Black Forest. Its most common minerals are azurite, baryte, chrysocolla, claraite, cornwallite, fluorite, goethite, clinoclase, copper, malachite, pyrite, pyromorphite, mimetite, stolzite, silver und scorodite. On

pos: Fluorine is fully miscible with water. Hydrogen fluoride readily hydrates on contact with water to form aqueous hydrogen fluoride, also known as hydrofluoric acid. Unlike the other hydrohalic acids, which are strong, hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid at low concentrations. However, it can attack glass, something the other acids cannot do. Binary fluorides of metalloids and p-block nonmetals are generally covalent and volatile, with varying reactivities. Period 3 and heavier nonmetals can form hypervalent fluorides. Boron trifluoride is planar and possesses an incomplete octet. It functions as a Lewis acid and combines with Lewis bases like ammonia to form adducts.

neg: Glass etching Glass etching Glass etching comprises the techniques of creating art on the surface of glass by applying acidic, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this is done after the glass is blown or cast, although mold-etching has replaced some forms of surface etching. The removal of minute amounts of glass causes the characteristic rough surface and translucent quality of frosted glass. Various techniques are used to achieve an etched surface in glass, whether for artistic effect, or simply to create a translucent surface. Acid etching is done using hexafluorosilicic acid (HSiF) which, when anhydrous, is colourless. The acid is prepared by

neg: Glass etching dissolving silica in a mixture of hydroelectric acid (hydrochloric acid), quartz powder, calcium fluoride, and concentrated sulfuric acid derived after heating. Glass etching cream is used by hobbyists as it is generally easier to use than acid. Available from art supply stores, it consists of fluoride compounds, such as hydrogen fluoride and sodium fluoride (which are still very dangerous). As the types of acids used in this process are extremely hazardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity. Abrasive blasting ("sandblasting") is another common technique for creating patterns in glassware, creating a "frosted" look to the glass. It is often used commercially.

neg: Glass ionomer cement Glass ionomer cement A glass ionomer cement is a dental restorative material used in dentistry as a filling material and luting cement, including for orthodontic bracket attachment. Glass-ionomer cements are based on the reaction of silicate glass-powder (calciumaluminofluorosilicate glass) and polyacrylic acid, an ionomer. Occasionally water is used instead of an acid, altering the properties of the material and its uses. This reaction produces a powdered cement of glass particles surrounded by matrix of fluoride elements and is known chemically as glass polyalkenoate. There are other forms of similar reactions which can take place, for example, when using an aqueous

neg: Glass ionomer cement solution of acrylic/itaconic copolymer with tartaric acid, this results in a glass-ionomer in liquid form. An aqueous solution of maleic acid polymer or maleic/acrylic copolymer with tartaric acid can also be used to form a glass-ionomer in liquid form. Tartaric acid plays a significant part in controlling the setting characteristics of the material. Glass-ionomer based hybrids incorporate another dental material, for example resin-modified glass ionomer cements (RMGIC) and compomers (or modified composites). Glass ionomer cement is primarily used in the prevention of dental caries. This dental material has good adhesive bond properties to tooth structure, allowing it to form a

neg: Chromic acid Chromic acid The term chromic acid is usually used for a mixture made by adding concentrated sulfuric acid to a dichromate, which may contain a variety of compounds, including solid chromium trioxide. This kind of chromic acid may be used as a cleaning mixture for glass. Chromic acid may also refer to the molecular species, HCrO of which the trioxide is the anhydride. Chromic acid features chromium in an oxidation state of +6 (or VI). It is a strong and corrosive oxidising agent. Molecular chromic acid, HCrO, has much in common with sulfuric acid, HSO. Both are classified as strong

neg: Glass ionomer cement linking physically and H-bonding to the GIC salt precipitates. There is also microretention from porosities occurring in the hydroxyapatite. Glass ionomer cement A glass ionomer cement is a dental restorative material used in dentistry as a filling material and luting cement, including for orthodontic bracket attachment. Glass-ionomer cements are based on the reaction of silicate glass-powder (calciumaluminofluorosilicate glass) and polyacrylic acid, an ionomer. Occasionally water is used instead of an acid, altering the properties of the material and its uses. This reaction produces a powdered cement of glass particles surrounded by matrix of fluoride elements and is known chemically as

neg: Mirror years. This type of glass is widely used for decorative purposes (e.g., on mirrors, table tops, doors, windows, kitchen chop boards, etc.). A silver glass mirror is an ordinary mirror, coated on its back surface with silver, which produces images by reflection. This kind of glass mirror is produced by coating a silver, copper film and two or more layers of waterproof paint on the back surface of float glass, which perfectly resists acid and moisture. A silver glass mirror provides clear and actual images, is quite durable, and is widely used for furniture, bathroom and other decorative purposes. Decorative

neg: Spin column-based nucleic acid purification methods employed today it was known that in the presence of chaotropic agents, such as sodium iodide or sodium perchlorate, DNA binds to silica, glass particles or to unicellular algae called diatoms which shield their cell walls with silica. This property was used to purify nucleic acid using glass powder or silica beads under alkaline conditions. This was later improved using guanidinium thiocyanate or guanidinium hydrochloride as the chaotropic agent. The use of glass beads was later changed to silica gel. Spin column-based nucleic acid purification Spin column-based nucleic acid purification is a solid phase extraction method to quickly purify

neg: Glass ionomer cement to low viscosity, can determine whether the cement is used as luting agents, orthodontic bracket adhesives, pit and fissure sealants, liners and bases, core build-ups, or intermediate restorations. The different clinical uses of glass ionomer compounds as restorative materials include; All GICs contain a basic glass and an acidic polymer liquid, which set by an acid-base reaction. The polymer is an ionomer, containing a small proportion – some 5 to 10% – of substituted ionic groups. These allow it to be acid decomposable and clinically set readily. The glass filler is generally a calcium alumino fluorosilicate powder, which upon reaction

neg: Glass fiber major glass-fiber producer in the market today. The most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass, which is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low Dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high

neg: Frosted glass Frosted glass Frosted glass is produced by the sandblasting or acid etching of clear sheet glass. This creates a pitted surface on one side of the glass pane and has the effect of rendering the glass translucent by scattering the light which passes through, thus blurring images while still transmitting light. Applications: The frosted glass effect can also be achieved by the application of vinyl film, used as a sort of stencil on the glass surface. "Photo-resist", or photo-resistant film is also available, which can be produced to mask off the area surrounding a decorative design, or logo on the

neg: Dental material fluoride release from un-reacted glass cores. GIs are usually used as a lining material for composite resins or as luting agents for orthodontic bands. The reaction is an acid-base reaction between silicate glass powder and polyacrylic acid. They come in a powder and liquid which are mixed on a pad or in compules which are for single usage and light cured with a LED light curing unit. Setting takes place by a combination of both an acid based reaction and chemically activated polymerization, light cured versions contain a photo-initiator usually camphorquinone and an amide. Zinc oxide eugenol Zinc oxide eugenol

neg: Cranberry glass Cranberry glass Cranberry glass or Gold Ruby glass is a red glass made by adding gold salts or colloidal gold to molten glass. Tin, in the form of stannous chloride, is sometimes added in tiny amounts as a reducing agent. The glass is used primarily in expensive decorations. Cranberry glass is made in craft production rather than in large quantities, due to the high cost of the gold. The gold chloride is made by dissolving gold in a solution of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (aqua regia). The glass is typically hand blown or molded. The finished, hardened glass is

neg: Copper naphthenate methods of synthesis include reaction of copper acetate with naphthenic acid, which generates acetic acid as a byproduct, and electrochemically using copper electrodes. Pure copper naphthenate is a dark-green, amorphous glass-like solid, paste or viscous liquid that is freely soluble in various organic solvents including mineral spirits, diesel fuel and other fuel oils, and creosote-petroleum mixtures. Copper naphthenate free of any solvent has a copper content ranging from 10-13% by weight, depending on the acid number/molecular weight of the naphthenic acid used. The properties of copper naphthenate treating solutions are dependent on the type of oil used as the carrier.

neg: Citric acid limescale from boilers and evaporators. It can be used to treat water, which makes it useful in improving the effectiveness of soaps and laundry detergents. By chelating the metals in hard water, it lets these cleaners produce foam and work better without need for water softening. Citric acid is the active ingredient in some bathroom and kitchen cleaning solutions. A solution with a six percent concentration of citric acid will remove hard water stains from glass without scrubbing. Citric acid can be used in shampoo to wash out wax and coloring from the hair. In industry, it is used to

neg: Frosted glass glass surface. A similar effect may also be accomplished with the use of canned frosted glass sprays. Frosted glass Frosted glass is produced by the sandblasting or acid etching of clear sheet glass. This creates a pitted surface on one side of the glass pane and has the effect of rendering the glass translucent by scattering the light which passes through, thus blurring images while still transmitting light. Applications: The frosted glass effect can also be achieved by the application of vinyl film, used as a sort of stencil on the glass surface. "Photo-resist", or photo-resistant film is also available,

neg: Silica fiber Silica fiber Silica fibers are fibers made of sodium silicate (water glass). They are used in heat protection (including asbestos substitution) and in packings and compensators. They can be made such that they are substantially free from non-alkali metal compounds. Sodium silicate fibers may be used for subsequent production of silica fibers, which is better than producing the latter from a melt containing SiO or by acid-leaching of glass fibers. The silica fibers are useful for producing wet webs, filter linings and reinforcing material. They can also be used to produce silicic acid fibers by a dry spinning method. These

neg: Fluorosulfuric acid The combination of HSOF and the Lewis acid antimony pentafluoride produces "Magic acid", which is a far stronger protonating agent. These acids all fall into the category of "superacids", acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. HSOF is useful for regenerating mixtures of HF and HSO for etching lead glass. HSOF isomerizes alkanes and the alkylation of hydrocarbons with alkenes, although it is unclear if such applications are of commercial importance. It can also be used as a laboratory fluorinating agent. Fluorosulfuric acid is considered to be highly toxic and corrosive. It hydrolyzes to release HF. Addition of water to HSOF

neg: Chromic acid used in ceramic glazes, and colored glass. Because a solution of chromic acid in sulfuric acid (also known as a sulfochromic mixture or chromosulfuric acid) is a powerful oxidizing agent, it can be used to clean laboratory glassware, particularly of otherwise insoluble organic residues. This application has declined due to environmental concerns. Furthermore, the acid leaves trace amounts of paramagnetic chromic ions — Cr(III) — that can interfere with certain applications, such as NMR spectroscopy. This is especially the case for NMR tubes. Chromic acid was widely used in the instrument repair industry, due to its ability to "brighten" raw

neg: Acrylic resin Acrylic resin Acrylic resins are a group of related thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic substances derived from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid or other related compounds. Polymethyl acrylate is an acrylic resin used in an emulsified form for lacquer, textile finishes, adhesives and, when mixed with clay, to gloss paper. Another acrylic resin is polymethyl methacrylate, which is used to make hard plastics with various light transmitting properties. It is used for the materials which need some light transmitting properties, because it is transparent as glass, some amount of titanium dioxide can be added for a translucent effect. The chemical name for

neg: Vycor acid. The other phase is mostly silica, which is insoluble. The glass object is then soaked in a hot acid solution, which leaches away the soluble glass phase, leaving an object which is mostly silica. At this stage, the glass is porous. Finally, the object is heated to more than 1200 °C, which consolidates the porous structure, making the object shrink slightly and become non-porous. The finished material is classified as a "reconstructed glass". For some applications the final step is skipped, leaving the glass porous. Such glass has a high affinity for water and makes an excellent getter for

neg: Propionic acid enhances microorganisms’ stress tolerance. In 2018, 3D printing technology was used for the first time to create a matrix for cell immobilization in fermentation. Propionic acid production by "Propionibacterium acidipropionici" immobilized on 3D-printed nylon beads was chosen as a model study. It was shown that those 3D-printed beads were capable to promote high density cell attachment and propionic acid production, which could be adapted to other fermentation bioprocesses. Other cell immobilization matrices have been tested, such as recycled-glass Poraver and fibrous-bed bioreactor. It is also biosynthesized in the large intestine of humans by bacterial fermentation of dietary fibre. Propionic acid

neg: Glass blank Glass blank A glass blank is a piece of glass that requires additional decoration before it is considered finished. Types of decoration include cutting, engraving, acid-etching, gilding, and enameling. Often the term blank is used in reference to an uncut piece of glass that will be cut or engraved. "Blank" is used in the same way of pottery, especially porcelain, that was often decorated elsewhere, for example by hausmalers. The glassmaking process can be divided into several stages, including: melting ingredients to make raw glass, remelting raw glass to make objects (sometimes adding decorations while the glass is still hot),

neg: Nitrogen give concentrated nitric acid. In the United States of America, over seven million tonnes of nitric acid are produced every year, most of which is used for nitrate production for fertilisers and explosives, among other uses. Anhydrous nitric acid may be made by distilling concentrated nitric acid with phosphorus pentoxide at low pressure in glass apparatus in the dark. It can only be made in the solid state, because upon melting it spontaneously decomposes to nitrogen dioxide, and liquid nitric acid undergoes self-ionisation to a larger extent than any other covalent liquid as follows: Two hydrates, HNO·HO and HNO·3HO, are

neg: Winemaking done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine. Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production of their wine; these vessels (sometimes called "demijohns") have a capacity of . The kind of vessel used depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the winemaker. Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This is carried out either as an

neg: Sodium bifluoride with strong acids, strong bases, metal, water, or glass. Sodium bifluoride also engages in violent reactions with chromyl chloride, nitric acid, red phosphorus, sodium peroxide, diethyl sulfoxide, and diethylzinc. The main role of sodium bifluoride is as a precursor to sodium fluoride, millions of tons of which are produced annually. The compound also has applications in cleaning, capitalizing on the affinity of fluoride for iron and silicon oxides. For example, formulations of sodium bifluoride are used for cleaning brick, stone, ceramics, and masonry. It is also used to etch glass. Another application of sodium bifluoride is in the chemical industry.

neg: Photocatalyst activity indicator ink of the film's activity. For example, it has been established that the rate of change in colour of an "Paii" on commercial self-cleaning glass is directly related to the rate at which the glass is also able to photo-oxidatively mineralise, via reaction (1), the wax-like, natural fatty acid, stearic acid, found in finger prints. By making the dyes in the ink increasing difficult to reduce chemically, for example by using: basic blue 66, resazurin, and acid violet 7, respectively, it is possible to make "Paii's" which are effective on photocatalyst coatings which exhibit, respectively: low (most self-cleaning tiles), moderate (self-cleaning

neg: Hexafluorosilicic acid HF. It reacts faster with "t"-butyldimethysilyl (TBDMS) ethers than triisopropylsilyl (TIPS) ethers. Hexafluorosilicic acid and the salts are used as wood preservation agents. Hexafluorosilicic acid can release hydrogen fluoride when evaporated, so it has similar risks. Inhalation of the vapors may cause lung edema. Like hydrogen fluoride, it attacks glass and stoneware. The LD value of hexafluorosilicic acid is 430 mg/kg. Hexafluorosilicic acid Hexafluorosilicic acid is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula (also written as ). It is a colorless liquid rarely encountered undiluted. Hexafluorosilicic acid has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. It is produced naturally on

neg: Vanadium as a catalyst in manufacturing sulfuric acid by the contact process and as an oxidizer in maleic anhydride production. Vanadium pentoxide is used in ceramics. Vanadium is an important component of mixed metal oxide catalysts used in the oxidation of propane and propylene to acrolein, acrylic acid or the ammoxidation of propylene to acrylonitrile. In service, the oxidation state of vanadium changes dynamically and reversibly with the oxygen and the steam content of the reacting feed mixture. Another oxide of vanadium, vanadium dioxide VO, is used in the production of glass coatings, which blocks infrared radiation (and not visible light)

neg: Diphenolic acid Diphenolate esters have been used to synthesize epoxy resins as a replacement for the digylcidyl ether of bisphenol A.The digylcidyl ethers of n-alkyl diphenolate esters have similar thermomechanical properties to the digylcidyl ether of bisphenol A when cured, but the viscosity and glass transition temperature vary as a function of the ester length. Diphenolate esters have also been used to synthesize polycarbonates with a potential for water solubility. Diphenolic acid Diphenolic acid is a carboxylic acid with molecular formula CHO. Its IUPAC name is 4,4-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)pentanoic acid, and it can be prepared by the condensation reaction of phenol with levulinic acid

neg: Oleic acid underdeveloped lungs (and associated complications) is often a matter of life and death. Oleic acid is used as a soldering flux in stained glass work for joining lead came. Oleic acid is also widely used in the solution phase synthesis of nanoparticles, functioning as a kinetic knob to control the size and morphology of nanoparticles. Oleic acid is a common monounsaturated fat in human diet. Monounsaturated fat consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. However, its ability to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the

neg: Amherstburg and fluorocarbons. Because of its highly corrosive nature, HF is also used to dissolve glass, in glass etching and frosting, and is used in quartz purification, chemical milling, steel pickling and cleaning silicon wafers. It is produced by treating the mineral fluorite with sulfuric acid, which produces hydrogen fluoride and calcium sulfate. The plant, which is located at 395 Front Rd, North, had previously suspended its operations between 1992 and 1996. There is hope locally that production will resume at some future time. The plant's gypsum pond had been identified in 2008 as the source of high levels of arsenic

neg: Studio glass several pieces of glass together without a glue. The traditional technique of stained glass is still employed for the creation of studio glass. The artist cuts the glass into shapes and sets the pieces into lead cames which are soldered together. They artist can also use hot techniques in a kiln to create texture, patterns, or change the overall shape of the glass. Etched glass is created by dipping glass that has an acid resistant pattern applied to its surface into an acid solution. Also an artist can engrave it by hand using wheels. Sandblasting can create a similar effect.

neg: Boric acid glass in LCD flat panel displays. In electroplating, boric acid is used as part of some proprietary formulas. One such known formula calls for about a 1 to 10 ratio of to , a very small portion of sodium lauryl sulfate and a small portion of . Boric acid, mixed with borax (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) at the weight ratio of 4:5, is highly soluble in water, though they are not so soluble separately. The solution is used for fire retarding agent of wood by impregnation. It is also used in the manufacturing of ramming mass, a fine silica-containing powder used

neg: Picric acid on the Western Front during World War I. Picric acid has been used for many years by fly tyers to dye mole skins and feathers a dark olive green. Its popularity has been tempered by its toxic nature. Modern safety precautions recommend storing picric acid wet. Dry picric acid is relatively sensitive to shock and friction, so laboratories that use it store it in bottles under a layer of water, rendering it safe. Glass or plastic bottles are required, as picric acid can easily form metal picrate salts that are even more sensitive and hazardous than the acid itself. Industrially,

neg: Silica fiber fibers have properties which make them useful in friction-lining materials. Silica fiber Silica fibers are fibers made of sodium silicate (water glass). They are used in heat protection (including asbestos substitution) and in packings and compensators. They can be made such that they are substantially free from non-alkali metal compounds. Sodium silicate fibers may be used for subsequent production of silica fibers, which is better than producing the latter from a melt containing SiO or by acid-leaching of glass fibers. The silica fibers are useful for producing wet webs, filter linings and reinforcing material. They can also be used to

neg: Fluoroantimonic acid as a solvent include SOClF, and sulfur dioxide; some chlorofluorocarbons have also been used. Containers for HF-SbF are made of PTFE. HF-SbF is extremely corrosive, toxic, and moisture sensitive. Like most strong acids, fluoroantimonic acid can react violently with water, owing to the exothermic hydration. Consequently, it cannot be used in aqueous solution, only in hydrogen fluoride as solvent. Fluoroantimonic acid cannot be stored in glass, as it will dissolve it. It must be stored in a PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) container. Fluoroantimonic acid Fluoroantimonic acid is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula (also written , 2HF·SbF, or simply HF-SbF). It

neg: Lead chamber process Lead chamber process The lead chamber process was an industrial method used to produce sulfuric acid in large quantities. It has been largely supplanted by the contact process. In 1746 in Birmingham, England, John Roebuck began producing sulfuric acid in lead-lined chambers, which were stronger and less expensive, and could be made much larger, than the glass containers which had been used previously. This allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production and, with several refinements, this process remained the standard method of production for almost two centuries. So robust was the process that as late as 1946, the chamber

neg: Sulfuric acid large-scale production of sulfuric acid. In 1746 in Birmingham, John Roebuck adapted this method to produce sulfuric acid in lead-lined chambers, which were stronger, less expensive, and could be made larger than the previously used glass containers. This process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production. After several refinements, this method, called the lead chamber process or "chamber process", remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries. Sulfuric acid created by John Roebuck's process approached a 65% concentration. Later refinements to the lead chamber process by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and British chemist John Glover

neg: Glass blank by cutting or engraving) the lower layers of one or more different colors are revealed. A popular example of pieces made using cased glass blanks are cameo glass objects. Figured blanks are made when hot glass is blown into a mold. While the molded shape is considered part of the decoration, additional details are often added after the glass is cooled. Glass blank A glass blank is a piece of glass that requires additional decoration before it is considered finished. Types of decoration include cutting, engraving, acid-etching, gilding, and enameling. Often the term blank is used in reference to an

neg: Carborane acid superacids that can also be stored in a glass bottle, as various fluoride-donating species (which attack glass) are not present or generated. Carborane acid was first discovered and synthesized by Professor Christopher Reed and his colleagues in 2004 at the University of California, Riverside. Prior to carborane acid's discovery, the long-standing record of “strongest acids as single isolable compounds” was held by the two superacids, fluorosulfonic acid and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, with p"K"s of −14 and −16 respectively. The parent molecule from which carborane acid is derived, an icosahedral carboranate anion, , was first synthesized at DuPont in 1967 by Walter

neg: Sea glass all of their edges are rounded off, and the slickness of the glass has been worn to a frosted appearance. Artificially produced sea glass (sometimes called "beach glass"), although superficially similar to sea glass, nevertheless has clear differences in appearance. Having not actually originated from the sea, most connoisseurs will not consider artificial "sea" glass to actually be genuine sea glass, but rather simply tumbled glass, where pieces of modern-day glass are tossed into a rock tumbler or dipped in acid to produce the desired finish. Artificially-produced, the glass is much less expensive and is used for making jewelry, but

neg: Selenium been used in shampoo as an antidandruff agent, an inhibitor in polymer chemistry, a glass dye, and a reducing agent in fireworks. Selenium trioxide may be synthesized by dehydrating selenic acid, HSeO, which is itself produced by the oxidation of selenium dioxide with hydrogen peroxide: Hot, concentrated selenic acid can react with gold to form gold(III) selenate. Iodides of selenium are not well known. The only stable chloride is selenium monochloride (SeCl), which might be better known as selenium(I) chloride; the corresponding bromide is also known. These species are structurally analogous to the corresponding disulfur dichloride. Selenium dichloride is an

neg: Holmium yttrium-lanthanum-fluoride (YLF) solid-state lasers found in microwave equipment (which are in turn found in a variety of medical and dental settings). Holmium lasers emit at 2.1 micrometres. They are used in medical, dental, and fiber-optical applications. Holmium is one of the colorants used for cubic zirconia and glass, providing yellow or red coloring. Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200–900 nm. They are therefore used as a calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers and are available commercially. The radioactive but long-lived Ho (see "Isotopes" above) is

neg: Immunosignature Immunosignature Immunosignaturing is a medical diagnostic test which uses arrays of random-sequence peptides to associate antibodies in a blood sample with a disease. Early immunosignature tests used glass microscope slides, with spots of 10,000 random peptides. Newer immunosignature work is run on wafers made of silicon dioxide, with each wafer cut into standard slide size and spotted with 330,034 peptides; however, further description will focus on the glass slide experiments. These random-sequence peptides, 20 amino acids long, are chemically attached to the slides. Of the 20 amino acid length, 3 amino acids (at the C-terminus side of the peptide) are

neg: Phosphorus pentoxide glass or amorphous form; it can be made by fusing any of the others. PO is prepared by burning tetraphosphorus with sufficient supply of oxygen: For most of the 20th century, phosphorus pentoxide was used to provide a supply of concentrated pure phosphoric acid. In the thermal process, the phosphorus pentoxide obtained by burning white phosphorus was dissolved in dilute phosphoric acid to produce concentrated acid. Improvements in filter technology is leading to the "wet phosphoric acid process" taking over from the thermal process, obviating the need to produce white phosphorus as a starting material. The dehydration of phosphoric acid

neg: Soldering the heavy copper and lead came used in stained glass work. Oleic acid is the classic flux material that has been used to improve solderability. Tiffany-type stained glass is made by gluing copper foil around the edges of the pieces of glass and then soldering them together. This method makes it possible to create three-dimensional stained glass pieces. Flux-less soldering with aid of conventional soldering iron, ultrasonic soldering iron or specialized solder pot and active solder that contains an active element, most often titanium, zirconium or chromium. The active elements, owing to mechanical activation, react with the surface of the

neg: Velvet Acid Christ on Metropolis Records. Erickson then began to write more music for future VAC LPs. In October 2012, Velvet Acid Christ released their latest LP entitled "Maldire". Moving back to Renoise for the album which was also used on "Toxic Coma". Due to a lack of funding for the album it features the "most software vsts to date". The release marked a return to the darker electronic sound with aggressive vocals that VAC is renown for. Erickson formed a live band and toured extensively (2012-2014) to support the album. On October 28, 2014 the "Subconscious Landscapes" LP was released, containing all

neg: Marvin Pipkin frosted on the inside with sufficient strength for ordinary handling that could be sold to the public was invented by Pipkin in 1925. Previous inventors who had made a frosted bulb with an acid solution on the inside had always assumed that a second acid treatment to the glass globe interior would deteriorate the glass of the bulb even further. Pipkin devised of a way to reinforce the glass bulb instead with another acid solution. His second mixture of chemicals would be of the same formula, but of a weaker solution. The second application of acid mixture to the glass

neg: Fiberglass than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low Dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as Reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength). Naming and use: pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass, but has the drawback that it must be

neg: Sodium carbonate the clay. In casting, it is referred to as "bonding agent" and is used to allow wet alginate to adhere to gelled alginate. Sodium carbonate is used in toothpastes, where it acts as a foaming agent and an abrasive, and to temporarily increase mouth pH. Sodium carbonate is used by the cotton industry to neutralize the sulfuric acid needed for acid delinting of fuzzy cottonseed. Sodium carbonate, in a solution with common salt, may be used for cleaning silver. In a nonreactive container (glass, plastic, or ceramic), aluminium foil and the silver object are immersed in the hot salt solution.

neg: Sodium silicate by Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs, by treating silicic acid with an alkali; the result being soluble in water, "but not affected by atmospheric changes". The terms "water glass" and "soluble glass" were used by Leopold Wolff in 1846, by Émile Kopp in 1857, and by Hermann Krätzer in 1887. In 1892, Rudolf Von Wagner distinguished soda, potash, double (soda and potash), and fixing (i.e., stabilizing) as types of water glass. The fixing type was "a mixture of silica well saturated with potash water glass and a sodium silicate" used to stabilize inorganic water color pigments on cement work for outdoor

neg: Millipede memory bit, the tip of the probe is heated to a temperature above the "glass transition temperature" of the polymer used to manufacture the data sled, which is generally acrylic glass. In this case the transition temperature is around 400 °C. To write a "1", the polymer in proximity to the tip is softened, and then the tip is gently touched to it, causing a dent. To erase the bit and return it to the zero state, the tip is instead pulled up from the surface, allowing surface tension to pull the surface flat again. Older experimental systems used a variety

neg: Glass animal collectibles Glass animal collectibles Glass animal collectibles are tiny blown glass animal figurines that serve as collectibles. It takes skill to make each individual one and each figurine has a different and unique color. To make glass animals requires a torch kit, a kiln, glass, and rods. Back in the 1860s carousel figurines spread to the United States. Dustav Dentzel started a company that made the parts. Art Nouveau is known for his cameo glass. He used the acid-cutting method to create his pieces. Ancient glassworkers would make vessels, vases, and eating utensils. The glass was decorated by adding molten colored

neg: Photoengraving Photoengraving Photoengraving is a process that uses a light-sensitive photoresist applied to the surface to be engraved to create a mask that shields some areas during a subsequent operation which etches, dissolves, or otherwise removes some or all of the material from the unshielded areas. Normally applied to metal, it can also be used on glass, plastic and other materials. A photoresist is selected which is resistant to the particular acid or other etching compound to be used. It may be a liquid applied by brushing, spraying, pouring or other means and then allowed to set, or it may come

neg: Wasli Vasl which means Union, of coming together, oneness, etc. Wasli is an Acid-free paper and it has archival qualities. Paper eating insects can not eat it because of a poison copper sulphate/Neela Thootha used in the making of this paper. The glue to paste sheets together is also acid free made out of cooking flour. To use it for miniature paintings this layered paper is burnished with either smooth glass or a sea shell. This way the paper is shiny, smooth and have minimal perceptible grain. A sheet of wasli is created by gluing together several layers of paper, then

neg: Glass art abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facets; the technique used in creating Waterford crystal. Fine paperweights were originally made by skilled workers in the glass factories in Europe and the United States during the classic period (1845-1870.) Since the late 1930s a small number of very skilled artists have used this art form to express themselves, using mostly the classic techniques of millefiori and lampwork. Art is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this was done after the glass was blown or cast. In the 1920s a new mould-etch process was invented,

neg: Philip Glass State Opera. While planning a third part of his "Portrait Trilogy", Glass turned to smaller music theatre projects such as the non-narrative "Madrigal Opera" (for six voices and violin and viola, 1980), and "The Photographer", a biographic study on the photographer Eadweard Muybridge (1982). Glass also continued to write for the orchestra with the score of "Koyaanisqatsi" (Godfrey Reggio, 1981–1982). Some pieces which were not used in the film (such as "Façades") eventually appeared on the album "Glassworks" (1982, CBS Records), which brought Glass's music to a wider public. The "Portrait Trilogy" was completed with "Akhnaten" (1982–1983, premiered in 1984),

neg: Luting agent zinc phosphate, zinc polycarboxylate has been found to be distinctly superior in its adhesion to enamel and dentin under tensile loading. Glass Ionomer This is the first of the GI luting cements to appear in 1978. It consists of fluoroaluminosilicate glass and a liquid containing polyacrylic acid, itaconic acid and water. Alternatively, the acid may be freeze dried and added to powder with distilled water. When in position it will release fluoride ions which could have a potential anti caries effect. It also binds physicochemically to tooth structure and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, both of which are

neg: PLGA ester linkages, thus yielding a linear, aliphatic polyester as a product. Depending on the ratio of lactide to glycolide used for the polymerization, different forms of PLGA can be obtained: these are usually identified in regard to the molar ratio of the monomers used (e.g. PLGA 75:25 identifies a copolymer whose composition is 75% lactic acid and 25% glycolic acid). The crystallinity of PLGAs will vary from fully amorphous to fully crystalline depending on block structure and molar ratio. PLGAs typically show a glass transition temperature in the range of 40-60 °C. PLGA can be dissolved by a wide range

neg: Cloisonné clear enamels and no metal backplate, producing an object that has the appearance of a miniature stained glass object - in effect "cloisonné" with no backing. Plique-a'-jour is usually created on a base of mica or thin copper which is subsequently peeled off (mica) or etched away with acid (copper). Other ways of using the technique have been developed, but are of minor importance. In 19th century Japan it was used on pottery vessels with ceramic glazes, and it has been used with lacquer and modern acrylic fillings for the cloisons. A version of "cloisonné" technique is often used for

neg: Fibre-reinforced plastic glass fibres with diameters ranging from 4 to 17 µm. These fibres wound into larger threads for transportation and further production processes. Further production processes include weaving or braiding into carbon fabrics, cloths and mats analogous to those described for glass that can then be used in actual reinforcements. Aramid fibres are most commonly known as Kevlar, Nomex and Technora. Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group (aramid);. Commonly, this occurs when an aromatic polyamide is spun from a liquid concentration of sulphuric acid into a crystallized fibre. Fibres are

neg: Hybridization probe as coated glass slides or gene chips, to which a mobile cDNA target is hybridized. Depending on the method, the probe may be synthesized using the phosphoramidite method, or it can be generated and labeled by PCR amplification or cloning (both are older methods). In order to increase the "in vivo" stability of the probe RNA is not used, instead RNA analogues may be used, in particular morpholino- derivatives. Molecular DNA- or RNA-based probes are now routinely used in screening gene libraries, detecting nucleotide sequences with blotting methods, and in other gene technologies, such as nucleic acid and tissue microarrays.

neg: Photoengraving inventors in the field of halftone reproduction—not infrequently biased by nationalistic sentiments—can be very problematic. Photoengraving Photoengraving is a process that uses a light-sensitive photoresist applied to the surface to be engraved to create a mask that shields some areas during a subsequent operation which etches, dissolves, or otherwise removes some or all of the material from the unshielded areas. Normally applied to metal, it can also be used on glass, plastic and other materials. A photoresist is selected which is resistant to the particular acid or other etching compound to be used. It may be a liquid applied by

neg: Katharine Burr Blodgett were used for projectors and cameras by the post-war movie industry. Blodgett's glass was also used for submarine periscopes and airplane spy cameras during World War II. Blodgett also invented the color gauge, a method to measure the molecular coatings on the glass to one millionth of an inch. The gauge employs the concept that different thicknesses of coatings are different colors. While examining the layering of stearic acid on a glass plate, she realized that the addition of each layer, about 2/10,000,000 inch thick, reliably changed the color of the plate. Before her invention, the best measurement instruments were

neg: Dental material it sets. Commonly used as luting agents or as cavity base materials, however they tend to be rubbery during its setting reaction and adhere to stainless steel instruments thus most operators would prefer not to use them in deep cavities. It is usually supplied as a power containing Zinc Oxide and a liquid containing aqueous Polyacrylic acid. The reaction consists of an acid base reaction with Zinc oxide reacting with the acid groups in polyacid to form a reaction product of unreacted zinc oxide cores bound by a salt matrix with polyacrylic acid chains cross linking with zinc ions. Glass

neg: Hydroxide reacts rapidly with atmospheric carbon dioxide, acting as an acid, to form, initially, the bicarbonate ion. The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be specified either as a reaction with dissolved carbon dioxide or as a reaction with carbon dioxide gas (see Carbonic acid for values and details). At neutral or acid pH, the reaction is slow, but is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which effectively creates hydroxide ions at the active site. Solutions containing the hydroxide ion attack glass. In this case, the silicates in glass are acting as acids. Basic hydroxides, whether solids or in solution, are

neg: VRLA battery glass jars used special valves to allow tilt from vertical to one horizontal direction in 1927 to 1931 or 1932. The gel cells were less likely to leak when the portable set was handled roughly. A modern gel battery (also known as a "gel cell") is a VRLA battery with a gelified electrolyte; the sulfuric acid is mixed with fumed silica, which makes the resulting mass gel-like and immobile. Unlike a flooded wet-cell lead-acid battery, these batteries do not need to be kept upright. Gel batteries reduce the electrolyte evaporation, spillage (and subsequent corrosion problems) common to the wet-cell battery,

neg: Glass art is often part of the artwork. Techniques used include stained glass, carving (wheel carving, engraving, or acid etching), frosting, enameling, and gilding (including Angel gilding). An artist may combine techniques through masking or silkscreening. Glass panels or walls may also be complemented by running water or dynamic lights. Several of the most common techniques for producing glass art include: blowing, kiln-casting, fusing, slumping, pate-de-verre, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working. Cold work includes traditional stained glass work as well as other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Glass can also be cut with a diamond saw, or copper wheels embedded with

neg: Vitrimers also other polymer networks have been used for vitrimer technology, such as polylactic acid (polylactide), polyhydroxyurethanes, epoxidized soybean oil with citric acid and polybutadiene. Thermoplastics are easy to process, but also easy to corrode by chemicals and mechanical stress. The reverse is true of thermosets. Thermoplastics are made of covalent bond molecule chains, which are connected by weak interactions (e.g., van der Waals forces). Thus they can be easily processed by melting (or in some cases also from solution), but are also susceptible against appropriate solvents creep under constant load. Thermoplastics can be deformed reversibly above their glass-transition temperature or

neg: Sodium selenate Sodium selenate Sodium selenate is the inorganic compound with the formula , not to be confused with sodium selenite. It exists as the anhydrous salt, the heptahydrate, and the decahydrate. These are white, water-soluble solids. The decahydrate is a common ingredient in multivitamins and livestock feed as a source of selenium. The anhydrous salt is used in the production of some glass. Although the selenates are much more toxic, many physical properties of sodium selenate and sodium sulfate are similar. Sodium selenate is produced by oxidation of selenium, first with nitric acid, producing selenous acid. The selenous acid is neutralized

neg: Max Joseph von Pettenkofer including: the formation of aventurine glass, the manufacture of illuminating gas from wood, the preservation of oil paintings, and an improved process for cement production among other things. The color-forming reaction known by his name for the detection of bile acids was published in 1844. In his widely used method for the quantitative determination of carbonic acid the gaseous mixture is shaken up with baryta or limewater of known strength and the change in alkalinity ascertained by means of oxalic acid. He further provided the experimental proof that the mysterious "haematinum" of ancient times was in fact a copper-colored glass.

neg: Glass ionomer cement with a polyalkenoic acid gives a glass polyalkenoate-glass residue set in an ionised, polycarboxylate matrix. The acid base setting reaction begins with the mixing of the components. The first phase of the reaction involves dissolution. The acid begins to attach the surface of the glass particles, as well as the adjacent tooth substrate, thus precipitating their outer layers but also neutralising itself. As the pH of the aqueous solution rises, the polyacrylic acid begins to ionise, and becoming negatively charged it sets up a diffusion gradient and helps draw cations out of the glass and dentine. The alkalinity also induces

neg: Oligomer putty. Greek prefixes are often used to designate the number of monomer units in the oligomer, for example a tetramer being composed of four units and a hexamer of six. In biochemistry, the term oligonucleotide – or, informally, "oligo" – is used for short, single-stranded nucleic acid fragments, such as DNA or RNA, or similar fragments of analogs of nucleic acids such as peptide nucleic acid or Morpholinos. Such oligos are used in hybridization experiments (bound to glass slides or nylon membranes), as probes for in situ hybridization or in antisense experiments such as gene knockdowns. It can also refer

neg: Nitric acid containing 32% water. In the laboratory, further concentration involves distillation with either sulfuric acid or magnesium nitrate which act as dehydrating agents. Such distillations must be done with all-glass apparatus at reduced pressure, to prevent decomposition of the acid. Industrially, highly concentrated nitric acid is produced by dissolving additional nitrogen dioxide in 68% nitric acid in an absorption tower. Dissolved nitrogen oxides are either stripped in the case of white fuming nitric acid, or remain in solution to form red fuming nitric acid. More recently, electrochemical means have been developed to produce anhydrous acid from concentrated nitric acid feedstock. The

neg: Silicone rubber curing process leaves behind byproducts, which can be an issue in food contact and medical applications. However, these products are usually treated in a postcure oven which greatly reduces the peroxide breakdown product content. One of the two main organic peroxides used, dicumyl peroxide (c.f. cumene hydroperoxide), has principal breakdown products of acetophenone and phenyl-2-propanol. The other is dichlorobenzoyl peroxide, whose principal breakdown products are dichlorobenzoic acid and dichlorobenzene. The first silicone elastomers were developed in the search for better insulating materials for electric motors and generators. Resin-impregnated glass fibers were the state-of-the-art materials at the time. The glass was

neg: Battery recycling (Ni-Zn), can also be recycled. There is currently no cost-neutral recycling option available for disposable alkaline batteries, though consumer disposal guidelines vary by region. These batteries include but are not limited to: car batteries, golf cart batteries, UPS batteries, industrial fork-lift batteries, motorcycle batteries, and commercial batteries. These can be regular lead–acid, sealed lead–acid, gel type, or absorbent glass mat batteries. These are recycled by grinding them, neutralizing the acid, and separating the polymers from the lead. The recovered materials are used in a variety of applications, including new batteries. The lead in a lead–acid battery can be recycled. Elemental

neg: Piranha solution glassware will leave it as clean as possible without damaging the glassware it is not recommend due to the risk of explosion. Piranha solution is used to make glass hydrophilic by hydroxylating the surface, thus increasing the number of silanol groups on the surface. The effectiveness of piranha solution in removing organic residues is due to two distinct processes that operate at noticeably different rates. The first and faster process is removal of hydrogen and oxygen as units of water by the concentrated sulfuric acid. This occurs because hydration of concentrated sulfuric acid is thermodynamically strongly favorable, with a ΔH

neg: Selenic acid Selenic acid Selenic acid is the inorganic compound with the formula . It is an oxoacid of selenium, and its structure is more accurately described as . It is a colorless compound. Although it has few uses, its derivative sodium selenate is used in the production of glass and animal feeds. The molecule is tetrahedral, as predicted by VSEPR theory. The a Se–O bond length is 161 pm. In the solid state, it crystallizes in an orthorhombic structure. It is prepared by oxidising selenium compounds in lower oxidation states. One method involves the oxidation of selenium dioxide with hydrogen peroxide:

neg: Lead–acid battery provide higher energy densities. In 1999 lead–acid battery sales accounted for 40–45% of the value from batteries sold worldwide excluding China and Russia, and a manufacturing market value of about $15 billion. Large-format lead–acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems. For these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and reduce maintenance requirements. "Gel-cells" and "absorbed glass-mat" batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-regulated lead–acid) batteries. The electrical energy produced by a discharging

neg: Dental material of using "smart" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass-ionomer (GI) cements have a large number of applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body. These fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid. Although they are tooth-colored, glass ionomers vary in translucency. Although glass ionomers can be used to achieve an aesthetic result, their aesthetic potential does not measure up to that provided by composite resins.