query: who practiced indirect rule with their african colonies

pos: Indirect rule of Frederick Lugard, the High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1899 to 1906. In the lands of the Sokoto Caliphate, conquered by the British Empire at the turn of the century, Lugard instituted a system whereby external, military, and tax control was operated by the British, while most every other aspect of life was left to local pre-British aristocracies who may have sided with the British during or after their conquest. The theory behind this solution to a very practical problem (a problem referred to as 'The Native Problem' by Mahmood Mamdani in his work Citizen and

pos: Wind of Change (speech) 1960, along with the "Wind of Change" speech that Macmillan delivered in South Africa earlier in the same year, is what started the decade when the dismantling of the British Empire reached its climax, as no fewer than twenty-seven former colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean left the Empire and became independent. At the same time, the African nationalists were becoming increasingly demanding in their initiative for self-rule. The path to independence in the Southern African states proved more problematic because the White settler population became hostile towards the idea of majority rule. The British West African colony of

pos: African theatre of World War I African theatre of World War I The African Theatre of World War I describes campaigns in North Africa instigated by the German and Ottoman empires, local rebellions against European colonial rule and Allied campaigns against the German colonies of Kamerun, Togoland, German South West Africa and German East Africa which were fought by German "Schutztruppe", local resistance movements and forces of the British Empire, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal. German colonies in Africa had been acquired in the 1880s and were not well defended. They were also surrounded by territories controlled by Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal. Colonial military forces

neg: Indirect rule European "advisors" effectively overseeing the government of large numbers of people spread over extensive areas. Some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London, while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors. In 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position: The Princely States of India were ruled indirectly. So too was much of the West African holdings. The ideological underpinnings, as well as the practical application, of "indirect rule" in Kenya and Nigeria is usually traced to the work

neg: Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire desire for more efficient Indirect rule through the understanding of African cultures, and research into the resources of the French dominion in Africa. Governors General Ernest Roume (1902–1908) and William Ponty (1908–1914) oversaw a reorganization of the French higher educational system in the colonies, and placing Georges Hardy in charge, moved the colonial administration into a model which used elements from both a "Direct", Assimilationist policy and an Indirect, rule by African proxy policy. The first required educational resources be created provided for the small minority of ""assimilated"" Africans, while the later required French colonial administrators be educated in the

neg: South African Wars (1879–1915) state's internal affairs led to a Sotho rebellion. In the resulting Gun War, the Sotho sharpshooters won a series of victories, and in the final 1884 peace agreement, it was returned to indirect rule, with the British preserving indigenous rule with the intent of exploiting the state's agricultural resources. At the end of the South African Wars, still under British rule, attempts to incorporate it into the 1910 Union of South Africa failed. As a result of the disagreement, Basutoland became one of three colonies left outside of the Union – together with Bechuanaland and Swaziland. Today, Basutoland is a

neg: Northern Rhodesia in "The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa" had gained favour. Lugard suggested that, in colonies where climate and geography precluded extensive European settlement, African interests should be recognised as paramount and the development of such colonies must benefit their indigenous population as well as the economic interests of the colonial power. However, what was introduced into Northern Rhodesia in 1930 as a policy of Indirect Rule was little different in practice to the previous policy. Although some legitimate traditional chiefs and other appointed chiefs and headmen were nominated as Native Authorities, they had limited judicial powers and very limited

neg: Indirect rule colonies, the laws were typically made by a British Governor and legislative council, but in the protectorates and princely states local rulers retained their traditional administrative authority and ability to legislate, subject to British control of certain areas. Indirect rule was particularly effective in enabling the British to exploit natural resources and raw materials of vast subordinate nations. The establishment of naval and military bases in strategic points around the globe maintained the necessary power to underpin such control. Indirect rule was cheaper and easier for the European powers, and in particular it required fewer administrators, but it did have

neg: Proprietary colony ultimately responsible to English Law and the King. Charles II gave New Netherland to his younger brother The Duke of York, who named it New York. He gave an area to William Penn who named it Pennsylvania. This type of indirect rule eventually fell out of favour as the colonies became established and administrative difficulties eased. The English sovereigns sought to concentrate their power and authority and the colonies were converted to Crown colonies, i.e. governed by officials appointed by the King, replacing the people the King had previously appointed and under different terms. In medieval times, it was customary

neg: Indirect rule that French law and citizenship was based on universal values that came from the French Revolution. Mirroring French domestic citizenship law, French colonial law allowed for anyone who could prove themselves culturally French (the "Évolués") to become equal French citizens. In French West Africa, only parts of the Senegalese "Four Communes" ever extended French citizenship outside a few educated African elite. This was contrasted with British Indirect Rule, which never foresaw subject Protectorates becoming legally assimilated into "the home nations". While making more subtle distinctions, this model of direct versus indirect rule was dominant in academia from the 1930s until

neg: Native Authority Crown Land were designated to become future reserves. A Land Registration Ordinance in 1916 recognised the Native Reserves as Native Trust Land, to be held in trust for the benefit of their African communities. This legislation did not provide for the administration of Trust Land by those African communities or their leaders, as formal Indirect rule was only introduced in 1933-34, although, in practice, chiefs had day-to-day charge of land distribution. However, once the Native Authorities were instituted, they took over formal control of most of this land. Compared with Northern Nigeria, where Lugard has pioneered Indirect rule, or even

neg: Gold Coast (British colony) of what may be termed the nobility, but also because he was accepted by his people. The unseating or destooling of a chief by tribal elders was a fairly common practice if the chief failed to meet the desires or expectations of the community. Traditional chiefs figured prominently in the system of indirect rule adopted by British authorities to administer their colonies in Africa. According to Frederick Lugard, architect of the policy, indirect rule was cost effective because it reduced the number of European officials in the field. By allowing local rulers to exercise direct administrative control over their people,

neg: Western European colonialism and colonization drawn from the existing social hierarchy or were newly minted by the colonial authority. In areas under indirect rule, traditional authorities acted as intermediaries for the “despotic” colonial rule, while the colonial government acted as an advisor and only interfered in extreme circumstances. Often, with the support of the colonial authority, natives gained more power under indirect colonial rule than they had in the pre-colonial period. Mamdani points out that indirect rule was the dominant form of colonialism and therefore most who were colonized bore colonial rule that was delivered by their fellow natives. The purpose of indirect rule was

neg: Indirect rule "decentralised despotism". Some political scientists have even expanded the debate on how direct versus indirect rule experiences continue to affect contemporary governance into how governments which have never experienced colonialism rule. Indirect Rule in Nigeria OldNaija Indirect rule Indirect rule is a system of governance used by the British and French to control parts of their colonial empires, particularly in Africa and Asia, through pre-existing indigenous power structures. These dependencies were often called "protectorates" or "trucial states". By this system, the day-to-day government and administration of areas both small and large was left in the hands of traditional rulers, who

neg: Tetum language at that time the most powerful kingdom in the island. The Portuguese (present in Timor from c. 1556) made most of their settlements in the west, where Dawan was spoken, and it was not until 1769, when the capital was moved from Lifau (Oecussi) to Dili that they began to promote Tetum as an inter-regional language in their colony. Timor was one of the few Portuguese colonies where a local language, and not a form of Portuguese, became the lingua franca: this is because Portuguese rule was indirect rather than direct, the Europeans governing through local kings who embraced Catholicism

neg: Dutch East Indies Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. The Governor-General led a hierarchy of Dutch officials; the Residents, the Assistant Residents, and District Officers called Controllers. Traditional rulers who survived displacement by the Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost real control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil

neg: Makololo Chiefs (Malawi) Sena immigrants as their subjects, but no changes were made. The Native Authority scheme generally worked well until the mid-1940s, but in the post-Second World War period, most chiefs lost legitimacy by enforcing unpopular government policies. By the early 1950s, Indirect rule was barely operating in many areas and the political initiative had passed to the Nyasaland African Congress. However, after the country gained independence as Malawi in 1964, the Malawian government halted the decline of Indirect rule and, under the presidency of Hastings Banda, the chiefs, including the five Makololo chiefs, regained their lost status and became an essential

neg: Indirect rule Indirect rule Indirect rule is a system of governance used by the British and French to control parts of their colonial empires, particularly in Africa and Asia, through pre-existing indigenous power structures. These dependencies were often called "protectorates" or "trucial states". By this system, the day-to-day government and administration of areas both small and large was left in the hands of traditional rulers, who gained prestige and the stability and protection afforded by the Pax Britannica, at the cost of losing control of their external affairs, and often of taxation, communications, and other matters, usually with a small number of

neg: Alec Douglas-Home to him. One was Attlee, but as their political primes did not overlap this was of minor consequence. More important was Iain Macleod's prickly relationship with Home. Macleod, Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1959–61, was, like Butler, on the liberal wing of the Conservative party; he was convinced, as Home was not, that Britain's colonies in Africa should have majority rule and independence as quickly as possible. Their spheres of influence overlapped in the Central African Federation. Macleod wished to push ahead with majority rule and independence; Home believed in a more gradual approach to independence, accommodating both

neg: Subu people new province's capital at Buea. The British practiced a policy of indirect rule, entrusting greater powers to Bakweri and Isubu chiefs in Buea and Victoria. Chief Manga Williams of Victoria became one of two representatives to the Nigerian Eastern House of Assembly. He was succeeded by another Isubu, John Manga Williams. The Isubu are primarily concentrated in the Fako division of Cameroon's Southwest Province. Their settlements lie largely along the coast or just inland, east of Limbe and west of Douala. They occupy the coast directly east of the Wovea, with their main settlement at Bimbia. The town of Limbe

neg: Neocolonialism Neocolonialism Neocolonialism, neo-colonialism, postmodern imperialism, or neo-imperialism is the practice of using capitalism, globalization and cultural imperialism to influence a developing country in lieu of direct military control (imperialism) or indirect political control (hegemony). It was coined by Kwame Nkrumah in the context of African countries undergoing decolonization in the 1960s. Neo-colonialism is also discussed in the works of Western thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre ("Colonialism and Neo-colonialism", 1964) and Noam Chomsky ("The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism", 1979). Neocolonialism labels European countries' continued economic and cultural relationships with their former colonies, African countries that had been liberated in

neg: African nationalism traditional religions and tribalism as "primitive" and embraced western ideas of Christianity, modernity, and the nation state. However, one of the challenges faced by nationalists in unifying their nation after European rule were the divisions of tribes and the formation of ethnicism. African nationalism first emerged as a mass movement in the years after World War II as a result of wartime changes in the nature of colonial rule as well as social change in Africa itself. Nationalist political parties were established in almost all African colonies during the 1950s and their rise was an important reason for the decolonisation

neg: Islam in Cameroon form of Islam. The Bamoun ethnic group of the West Province is also largely Muslim. In the rush to claim African territories Germany first entered Cameroon in 1884 and established rule in northern Cameroon by 1902. Throughout the German colonial period, the Adamawa and Lake Chad regions were governed by combining heavy military presence with indirect rule. The local Muslim rulers, called "Lamido" in Adamawa and "Sultan" in the far north, remained in power, although their influence was much more limited than during the nineteenth century, owing their legitimacy to the Germans and not to the Emir in Yola, the

neg: Gold Coast (British colony) the British was to use both force and agreements to control chiefs in Asante and the north. Once indirect rule was implemented, the chiefs became responsible to the colonial authorities who supported them. In many respects, therefore, the power of each chief was greatly enhanced. Although Lugard pointed to the civilising influence of indirect rule, critics of the policy argued that the element of popular participation was removed from the traditional political system. Despite the theoretical argument in favour of decentralisation, indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra (the capital) rather than to their people for all

neg: African Americans in the Revolutionary War the North. It was not until the final months of the war, when manpower was low, that loyalists used blacks to fight for Britain in the South. In Savannah, Augusta, and Charleston, when threatened by Patriot forces, the British filled gaps in their troops with African Americans. In October 1779, about 200 Black Loyalist soldiers assisted the British in successfully defending Savannah against a joint French and rebel American attack. Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, was determined to maintain British rule in the southern colonies and promised to free those slaves of rebel owners who fought for him.

neg: Colonial Nigeria in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. Lugard's immediate successor, Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast. The approaches of the two Governors to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the

neg: Indigénat Indigénat The Code de l'indigénat (, "Code of the indiginate") was a set of laws creating, in practice, an inferior legal status for natives of French Colonies from 1887 until 1944–1947. Implemented first in Algeria, it was applied across the French Colonial Empire during 1887–1889. French colonial policy is often contrasted with the British concept of indirect rule pioneered by Frederick Lugard of the British East Africa Company in Uganda and later the Royal Niger Company in what is now Nigeria. Lugard devised a method of colonial administration which relied upon maintenance of pre-colonial chiefs and other political institutions, who

neg: May 1958 crisis in France new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies (Algeria was officially three departments of France, not a colony) were given the choice between immediate independence and the new constitution. All colonies voted for the new constitution and the replacement of the French Union by the French Community, except Guinea, which thus became the first French African colony to gain independence, at the cost of the immediate cessation of all French assistance. De Gaulle was elected President of the French Republic and of the African and Malagasy Community on 21 December 1958 by indirect suffrage. He was invested

neg: Multiracial Americans the racial classification of the maternal parent. This advocacy countered what had been practiced in the United States since the 1500s where a newborn's racial classification defaulted to that of their mother which was determined by the One Drop Rule as well as misogyny-driven white supremacist hegemony. Practiced during chattel slavery the rule delegated the racial classification of offspring produced by White male slave masters and African or Negro female slaves through coercion or rape. In 2009, Keith Bardwell, a justice of the peace in Robert, Louisiana, refused to officiate a wedding for an interracial couple and was summarily sued

neg: History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan district commissioners. The number of Sudanese recognizing these leaders and the degree of authority they wielded varied considerably. The mainstream of political development, represented by other local leaders and Khartoum's educated elite, disapproved of indirect rule. In their view, it prevented the country's unification, exacerbated tribalism in the north, and in the south served to buttress a less-advanced society against Arab influence. Indirect rule also implied government decentralization, which alarmed the educated elite who had careers in the central administration and envisioned an eventual transfer of power from British colonial authorities to their class. Nationalists and the Khatmiyyah opposed indirect

neg: Nyasaland many parts of the protectorate, there were few strong chiefs and, at first the powers of existing chiefs who were powerful was minimised in favour of direct rule by the Collectors. From 1912, Collectors were able to nominate Principal headmen and village headmen as local intermediaries between the protectorate administration and local people, in an early form of Indirect rule. Each Collector could determine what powers to delegate to headmen in his district, and some appointed traditional chiefs as Principal headmen with significant authority locally. Another version of Indirect rule was instituted in 1933, but the chiefs and their councils

neg: Colonial troops could lead to the intensification of rivalry between ethnic groups within the colonies. This can be seen in the British theory of Martial Races and the use of a conscious policy of divide and rule in several of the colonial empires. By the 20th Century, colonial troops were often being used outside the boundaries of their territories of origin. Troops from France's North African colonies served in the Crimean War, the Franco-Prussian War and most notably in the trenches of World War I in France itself. France also made extensive use of African troops in World War II and during

neg: William H. J. Rangeley Rhodesia. Rangeley was not from the usual background of district officers and was described as “rough-hewn”, but his Rhodes Scholarship made him a suitable candidate. In 1933, Indirect rule was introduced into Nyasaland, and customary law needed to be understood by what were now District Commissioners, who had to ensure that local customary law was being correctly applied by each Native Authority in their districts. Up to this point, the customary law of African societies had been evolving in response to rapid changes in them, but the colonial administration wanted laws that were codified and consistent with English law, as

neg: Charles Calvert Bowring use to unpaid work on road building projects, often taking workers far from their homes. This was similar to the proposed use of forced labour in Kenya where the governor Sir Edward Northey had caused a scandal with his 1919 instruction to government officials to coerce African labour to work on European-owned farms and estates, despite earlier Colonial Office objections. The Colonial Secretary, Leo Amery, who wanted to avoid a repeat of the Northey scandal, vetoed the proposal and, in 1928, instructed Bowring to consider the introduction of a form of Indirect rule in Nyasaland, appointing chiefs as Native Authorities.

neg: Joost van Vollenhoven as soften it. Under his rule the French demanded less, and did so through appointed African "chiefs". This was a model of how the French would operate after the war. Philosophically, van Vollenhoven was a proponent of the "Association": a variant of indirect rule, as opposed to the Assimilationist policy of his predecessors. This change had both positive and negative aspects for Africans living under French rule, but it was to become the empire's guiding principle until decolonisation. Van Vollenhoven's assistant, Maurice Delafosse and Robert Delavignette, (who was to later become High Commissioner of French Cameroon) inspired some of the

neg: Native Authority Native Authority Since 1933, various traditional chiefs in Nyasaland were designated as Native Authorities, and these numbered 105 in 1949. The Native Authorities were expected to act as the local government in areas of Native Trust Land administered for the benefit of their African populations, and work in cooperation with the district officers as the local representatives of the colonial government. They represented a form of the Indirect rule which had become popular in British African dependencies in the second quarter of the 20th century, although Nyasaland's Native Authorities had fewer powers and smaller incomes than similar institutions in other

neg: Western European colonialism and colonization assimilation. Requiring natives to assimilate in these and other ways, created an ubiquitous, European-style identity that made no attempt to protect native identities. Indigenous people living in colonized societies were obliged to obey European laws and customs or be deemed “uncivilized” and denied access to any European rights. Both direct and indirect rule have persistent, long term effects on the success of former colonies. Lakshmi Iyer, of Harvard Business School, conducted research to determine the impact type of rule can have on a region, looking at postcolonial India, where both systems were present under British rule. Iyer’s findings suggests that

neg: Autocracy an extractive and indirect rule, whereas other colonies saw European settlement. Because of this settlement, these countries possibly experienced setting up of new institutions. Colonization also depended on factor endowments and settler mortality. Mancur Olson theorizes the development of autocracies as the first transition from anarchy to state. Anarchy for Olson is characterized by a number of "roving bandits" who travel around many different geographic areas extorting wealth from local populations leaving little incentive for populations to invest, and produce. As local populations lose the incentive to produce, there is little wealth for either the bandits to steal or the

neg: Cape to Cairo Road Cape to Cairo Road The Cape to Cairo Road or Pan-African Highway, sometimes called the Great North Road in sub-Saharan Africa, was a proposed road that would stretch the length of Africa, from Cape Town to Cairo, through the Cape to Cairo Red Line of British colonies. The proposal was similar to the Cape to Cairo Railway, another proposed infrastructure project through the same colonies. Neither were completed before British colonial rule ended in the colonies. In the 1980s the plan was revived with modifications as the Cairo–Cape Town Highway, known as Trans-African Highway 4, in the transcontinental road network

neg: History of Ghana theoretically decentralizing, indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra (the capital) rather than to their people for decisions. Many chiefs, who were rewarded with honors, decorations, and knighthood by government commissioners, came to regard themselves as a ruling aristocracy. In its preservation of traditional forms of power, indirect rule failed to provide opportunities for the country's growing population of educated young men. Other groups were dissatisfied because there was insufficient cooperation between the councils and the central government and because some felt that the local authorities were too dominated by the British district commissioners. In 1925 provincial

neg: Processo Revolucionário Em Curso Two indirect consequences of the Carnation Revolution were a collapse of the economy and dislocation of hundreds of thousands of people who returned from the colonies to Portugal as refugees. The "retornados" (from the Portuguese verb "retornar", to return) are a Portuguese population who fled their overseas colonies during the decolonization process which was managed by the revolutionary National Salvation Junta, in the following months after the Carnation Revolution. After the military coup of 25 April 1974 Portugal faced political turmoil and the colonial army, often highly politicised by the Salazar Regime and the Independence Wars returned home, taking with

neg: Indirect rule elders, and thus indirect rule fostered a conservative outlook among the indigenous population and marginalised the young intelligentsia. Written laws, which replaced oral laws, were less flexible to the changing social nature, old customs of retribution and justice were removed or banned, and the removal of more violent punishments in some areas led to an increase in crime. Furthermore, leaders empowered by the governments of European powers were often not familiar with their new tasks, such as recruitment and tax. From the early 20th century, French and British writers helped establish a dichotomy between British Indirect rule, exemplified by the

neg: Calvinism Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political absolutism and furthered the cause of democracy. The Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. Enjoying self-rule they practiced separation of powers. Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, founded by Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn, respectively, combined democratic government with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious

neg: Wind of Change (speech) the time of this speech, felt that European settlers in Kenya, alongside the African populace, would prefer to be under imperial rule regardless. Prior to the speech, Federation government had dismissed suggestions that African majority rule would be the best action in the colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Because the copperbelt ran through Northern Rhodesia, British interests would not as easily give up certain colonies. This example can help to illustrate some of the feelings of resentment and betrayal felt by British Conservatives following Macmillan's speech. Additionally, the fear that Britain would appear weak or unstable following a mass

neg: Reparations for slavery isn't one particular group that benefited from slavery, there isn't one group that is solely responsible for slavery, only a small percentage of whites ever owned slaves and many gave their lives fighting to free slaves, and most Americans don't have a direct or indirect connection to slavery because of the United States' multi-ethnic background. Political commentator Dinesh D'Souza argues that African Americans are "vastly better off than they would have been had their ancestors not endured captivity and European rule". He bases this assertion on the better economic conditions for African Americans than Africans, on average. In addition, columnist

neg: Decolonization the anti-colonial wars of the 1900s (decade) barely over, new modernising forms of African Nationalism began to gain strength in the early 20th-century with the emergence of Pan-Africanism, as advocated by the Jamaican journalist Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) whose widely distributed newspapers demanded swift abolition of European imperialism, as well as republicanism in Egypt. Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972) who was inspired by the works of Garvey led Ghana to independence from colonial rule. Independence for the colonies in Africa began with the independence of Sudan in 1956, and Ghana in 1957. All of the British colonies on mainland Africa became independent by

neg: Cirta it an important business hub of Rome's African holdings, even while it remained technically outside the lands of the Roman Republic. Cirta fell under direct Roman rule in 46, following Julius Caesar's conquest of North Africa. P. Sittius Nucerinus was chosen by Caesar to romanize the locals. His men, the "Sittians" (""), were Campanian legionaries who controlled Cirta's lands on Rome's behalf. Together with the colonies at Rusicade, Milevum, and Chullu, their Cirta formed an autonomous territory within "New Africa". Its magistrates and municipal assembly were those of the confederation. Cirta administered fortifications ("") in the High Plains and at

neg: Indirect rule the 1970s. Academics since the 1970s have problematised the Direct versus Indirect Rule dichotomy, arguing the systems were in practice intermingled in both British and French colonial governance, and that the perception of indirect rule was sometimes promoted to justify quite direct rule structures. Mahmood Mamdani and other academics have discussed extensively how both Direct and Indirect rule were attempts to implement identical goals of foreign rule, but how the "Indirect" strategy helped to create ethnic and racial cleavages within ruled societies which persist in hostile communal relations and dysfunctional strategies of government. Mamdani himself famously described indirect rule as

neg: LGBTQ migration of 1542, punished gay sex with death by hanging in England and Wales. Under the rule of Joseph Stalin, Russia outlawed male homosexuality in 1933 and made the offense punishable by 5 years of hard labor in prison. This was not repealed until 1993. More than half of the 80 countries that continue to outlaw homosexuality were once British colonies. It is theorized that, during 19th century colonial rule, many of the British anti-gay policies that were enacted still retain influence in these former colonies. Some African countries punish homosexuality with the death sentence, like Mauritania, Sudan, and northern Nigeria,

neg: Mormon colonies in Mexico John Taylor purchased 100,000 acres of land in Mexico. This act allowed over 350 Latter-day Saint families who practiced polygamy from Utah and Arizona to settle land in Mexico. This was a very strenuous task, but it allowed the men the opportunity to keep their multiple wives without being fined and jailed. These people started their own farming colonies and established their settlements in Chihuahua and Sonora, where they focused their labors on sheep, cattle, wheat, row crops, and fruit orchards. The anti-foreign sentiment of the Mexican Revolution in 1910 made life there for the Latter-day Saint colonists difficult, with

neg: Dominican Republic–Haiti relations Republic, became independent from Spain on December 1, 1821, after more than 300 years of Spanish rule. By the end of the eighteenth century, the French colony was populated primarily by black African slaves who spoke Kreyòl, a language derived from West African languages, and practiced voodoo, a religion influenced by West African spirituality. The people living in the Spanish colony, however, who represented less than one-fifth of the French colony's population, were primarily white and mulatto Spanish-speaking Roman Catholics. In the midst of the Haitian Revolution, Spain ceded the Spanish part of Hispaniola to France in return for lands

neg: French colonial empire Algerian War; almost all of the other African colonies were granted independence in 1960, following local referendums. Some few colonies chose instead to remain part of France, under the status of overseas "départements" (territories). Critics of neocolonialism claimed that the "Françafrique" had replaced formal direct rule. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence on one hand, he was creating new ties with the help of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. Foccart supported in particular the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s. Robert Aldrich argues that with Algerian independence in 1962, it appeared that the Empire

neg: Indentured servitude in the Americas Georgia and South Carolina), cotton and rice plantations dominated.) In the lower Atlantic colonies where tobacco was the main cash crop, the majority of labour that indentured servants performed was related to field work. In this situation, social isolation could increase the possibilities for both direct and indirect abuse, as could lengthy, demanding labour in the tobacco fields. The system was still widely practiced in the 1780s, picking up immediately after a hiatus during the American Revolution. Fernand Braudel ("The Perspective of the World" 1984, pp 405f) instances a 1783 report on "the import trade from Ireland" and its large

neg: Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle colonial rule. He granted independence to Algeria in 1962 and progressively to other French colonies. French conservatives were disillusioned with the colonial experience after the disasters in Indochina and Algeria. They wanted to cut all ties to the numerous colonies in French Sub-Saharan Africa. During the war, de Gaulle had successfully based his Free France movement and the African colonies. After a visit in 1958, he made a commitment to make sub-Saharan French Africa a major component of his foreign-policy. All the colonies in 1958, except Guinea, voted to remain in the French Community, with representation in Parliament and a

neg: Civil law notary the Spanish Americas operate in a very similar manner to Spanish notaries. As a general rule, countries who formerly were colonies or viceroyalties of Spain, France or Portugal, have retained a civil law tradition and, accordingly, a civil-law notarial profession. This is the case with most Latin American and French-speaking African countries, but not so of Asian countries. Most of the countries which have civil-law notaries are members of the International Union of Notaries (UINL). Members include: The members of the union are represented by their respective national councils or by similar national organisations and by notarial districts and regional

neg: Assimilado colonial Africa. The direct consequences of this myth of lusotropicalism and Portugal's supposed civilizing mission, present themselves in the form of direct and irrefutable contradictions of the ideals preached by the Portuguese colonizing government; despite the "white man's burden" of Portugal to civilizing and educating the Africans under its colonial rule, over the span of its five centuries of presence and influence in its African colonies, the Portuguese colonial government and educational system of Mozambique failed to train even one African doctor, and its other two colonies fared equally as poorly, with lowering life-expectancies as proof. It became clear that,

neg: Political warfare in British colonial India required replacing of pre-existing political institutions and replacing them with centralised, territory-wide, and bureaucratic legal-administrative institutions that were controlled by colonial officials. Indirect rule was a form of colonial domination via collaboration with indigenous intermediaries who controlled regional political institutions. Colonial India was a mix of the two types of rule. While the Civil Service ran a large portion of the country, "in peripheral regions, chiefs, princes, sultans, and other indigenous leaders controlled "customary" legal-administrative institutions that were organised along patrimonial lines." Leading colonial officials believed indirect rule was more adaptive and culturally sensitive, far superior to direct rule, in

neg: Native Trust Land 1916 recognised the Native Reserves as Native Trust Land, to be held in trust for the benefit of African communities. The 1916 Ordinance did not provide for the administration of Trust Land by African communities or their leaders, as formal indirect rule was only introduced in 1933-34, although, in practice, chiefs had day-to-day charge of land distribution. It was not until the Nyasaland Protectorate (Native Trust Lands) Order, 1936 that any conversion of Trust Land to freehold was prohibited. The 1936 Order declared that all Crown Land except game or forest reserves or that used for public purposes would become

neg: Historical inheritance systems (tanistry), and the land, among common families, was divided between all sons. Among many ancient Germanic tribes, on the other hand, male primogeniture determined succession to political office, the eldest son of a chief customarily succeeding his father. The common rule of land inheritance was partible inheritance, as in the Celtic world. The British custom of male primogeniture became also prevalent in some British colonies, most strongly in Australia. The contrary development occurred in South Africa, where the Afrikaner colonizers, who practiced partible inheritance, were always opposed to the custom of male primogeniture prevalent among indigenous black peoples. In New

neg: Native Authority to avoid a repeat of the Northey scandal, vetoed his proposal and, in 1928, instructed Bowring to consider the introduction of a form of Indirect rule in Nyasaland, appointing chiefs as Native Authorities. Bowring resisted on the basis that he thought Nyasaland’s tribal organisation was disintegrating, and his tour of duty was cut short in May 1929. His successor, Thomas Shenton Thomas, who was governor from 1929 to 1932, enthusiastically promoted Indirect rule, instructing administrative officers that chiefly authority must be strengthened where it existed and restored where it no longer existed. Although Thomas’s intention was to introduce Indirect rule

neg: Ormsby-Gore Commission 1923 that the Africans in Kenya and Uganda were as much under British government "Trusteeship" as those in Tanganyika were under its League of Nations mandate, and that African interests must be paramount in Kenya. It considered the Devonshire Declaration should apply to all British dependencies in East and Central Africa, defining "Trusteeship" as including both the social and educational development of African people and development of the economic resources of those dependencies. The commissioners accepted Indirect rule where it existed, particularly in Uganda, but considered it was in decline elsewhere and that, where direct rule by British administrators had

neg: Independence movements in Mozambique Independence movements in Mozambique Groups interested in freeing Mozambique from Portuguese colonial rule and making it an independent nation emerged in the early 1900s, shortly after Portugal had defeated the last of the native chieftaincies and established effective control over the territory. In 1920 or 1923, a government sponsored organisation, the Liga Africana was established in Lisbon for ""assimilados"" -- members of the tiny minority of Africans in the colonies who had been given citizenship status. Gibson states that "although it gathered together only some twenty African and mulatto intellectuals, [it] had significant repercussions in the colonies." Later, in Mozambique,

neg: Bandele Omoniyi Bandele Omoniyi Bandele Omoniyi (6 November 1884 – 1913) was a Nigerian nationalist who is best known for his book "A Defence of the Ethiopian Movement" (1908), which urged for political reforms in the colonies, warning that otherwise a revolution in Africa might end British rule. According to Hakim Adi, he is one of the earliest examples of the politically active West African student in Britain. Bandele Omoniyi was born in Lagos, in present-day Nigeria, and his parents sold their land to finance his studies in Britain, where Omoniyi first went in 1905. Enrolling at Edinburgh University in 1906 to

neg: South African constitutional litigation indirect application. For example, in Shabalala v Attorney-General, Transvaal, the Constitutional Court was careful, after striking down a common-law rule, to balance the need to provide guidance with the danger of being prescriptive. Such care must also be taken when the Bill of Rights is indirectly applied. “Some guidance on the new approach has to be provided,” write Currie and De Waal, “while room must be left for the courts to develop the principle on a case by case basis.” “One of the most important” limitations on the power to develop the common law via the indirect application of the

neg: Klang War by the Earl of Kimberley, Secretary of State for the Colonies, and set into motion the beginning of British administration in the Malay States. In 1875, Sultan Abdul Samad accepted James Guthrie Davidson, a lawyer from Singapore, as the first British Resident of Selangor. In October, Sultan Abdul Samad sent a letter to Andrew Clarke requesting that Selangor become a British protectorate. This came after the signing of the 1874 Pangkor Agreement with the Sultan of Perak that marked the beginning of a period of indirect rule of the Malay states by the British Residents serving as advisers to the

neg: Rule against foreign revenue enforcement It is plain that the present case is not concerned with the direct enforcement of the revenue laws of the State of Norway. Is it concerned with their indirect enforcement? I do not think so." In "QRS 1 Aps v Frandsen" [1999] 1 WLR 2169 it was held that to uphold a contractual provision between two private contracting parties for an indemnity against the payment of foreign taxes would not constitute an indirect enforcement of a foreign tax claim, and so was enforceable. The revenue rule has been repeatedly applied by courts in the United States. The rule was first

neg: APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control represented them in the case, for malpractice. APA Division 36 (then "Psychologists Interested in Religious Issues" (PIRI), subsequently "Psychology of Religion") in its 1990 annual convention approved a resolution stating that insufficient consensually accepted research then scientifically supported the assertion that equated the use of "techniques of influence as typically practiced" by religious groups with "coercive persuasion", "mind control", or "brainwashing". The Executive Committee invited researchers to submit proposals to present their work on the topic. APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control The APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and

neg: Mary Kingsley and still widely debated by scholars today. Though, on the one hand, she regarded African people and cultures as those who needed protection and preservation, she also believed in the necessity of British economic and technological influence and indirect rule, insisting that there was some work in West Africa that had to be completed by white men. Yet, in Studies in West Africa she writes: "Although a Darwinian to the core, I doubt if evolution in a neat and tidy perpendicular line, with Fetish at the bottom and Christianity at the top, represents the true state of affairs." Other, more

neg: Slavery for their masters. After 1873, most freedmen largely abandoned the plantations where they had worked for several generations in favor of the capital city, Paramaribo. Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries after it gained independence and before the end of the American Civil War. Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By

neg: Francis Nicholson without some opposition from some of the larger merchants in the province, who saw the additional ports as a competitive threat. During this time Nicholson was one of the only high-level representatives of Crown Rule in the colonies: most Crown Rule had been eliminated in the northern colonies, and the other southern colonies were governed by proprietary governors. Nicholson recommended to the King that, in order to better establish a common social order and a coordinated defense, Crown Rule should be established over all of the colonies as quickly as possible, including the conversion of the proprietary colonies to crown

neg: Religion in Black America The numbers grew rapidly after 1789. The Anglican Church had made a systematic effort to proselytize, especially in Virginia, and to spread information about Christianity, and the ability to read the Bible, without making many converts. Some slaves brought traditional beliefs and practices, especially related to Islam and in some instances magic, with them from Africa. No organized African religious practices are known to have taken place in the Thirteen Colonies, but Muslims practiced Islam surreptitiously or underground throughout the era of the enslavement of African people in America. The story of Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori, a Muslim prince from

neg: Wind of Change (speech) dominated the colonies politically and economically . They asserted this dominance by denying universal suffrage to Africans and through efforts to persuade the British government to consolidate colonial territories into federations. However, this minority of white settlers could not contain the sense of African nationalism. There were warnings that without a quick transfer of power that African nationalism would undermine British rule. In order to obtain cooperation from the new African governments, the British government would need to decolonise and leave them to self-rule, which was thought to be a good substitute for direct and total control of the area.

neg: Environmental determinism other areas, no centralized political organizations existed above the village level. African states did not develop more responsive institutions under colonial rule or post-independence. Colonial powers had little incentive to develop state institutions to protect their colonies against invasion, having divided up Africa at the Berlin Conference. The colonizers instead focused on exploting natural resources and exploitation colonialism. Dr. Marcella Alsan argues the prevalence of the tsetse fly hampered early state formation in Africa. Because the tsetse virus was lethal to cows and horses, communities afflicted by the insect could not rely on the agricultural benefits provided by livestock. African

neg: Midwives in the United States the United States has traditionally been attended by midwives. During the seventeenth century, the English colonies strictly had women midwives to attend childbirths. Town records indicate some well-known midwives including Bridget Fuller (d. 1664) who practiced in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Mrs. Wiat of Dorchester (d. 1705) who attended over 1,000 births. Others such as Ruth Barnaby (1664–1765) and Elizabeth Phillips (1685–1761) practiced for over forty years. While Elizabeth Phillips was trained in London before continuing her practice in Boston, other midwives such as Ann Eliot may have acquired medical skills through their husbands. Similarly, in the Dutch colony

neg: Indigénat demands of those seeking French citizenship from the outside, would be able to exercise French rights. Even then, "originaires" were subject to customary and arbitrary law if they stepped outside the Four Communes. It was only through a protracted battle by Senegalese Deputy Blaise Diagne, and his help recruiting thousands of Africans to fight in World War I, that legal and voting rights were restored to even the "originaires" with the Loi Blaise Diagne of 29 September 1916. see "Évolué" and Assimilation (French colonial) Resistance, while common, was usually indirect. Huge population shifts occurred in France's African colonies, especially when

neg: Leroy Vail His experience in Malawi suggested to him that, in the late 1960s shortly after the independence of several former colonies, there was a revival of the ethnic and regional consciousness that had been established earlier in the 20th century. This revival reflected the artificial origin of most post-colonial African states and their rapid adoption of one-party rule: the development of regionalism and tribalism was a reaction to the dominant party trying to impose a false unity on ethnic diversity. Vail did not accept, as other authors had claimed, that ethnicity resulted from the colonial powers’ divide-and-rule tactics, from the rigid

neg: History of Ghana of government. Village councils of chiefs and elders were responsible for the immediate needs of individual localities, including traditional law and order and the general welfare. The councils ruled by consent rather than by right: though chosen by the ruling class, a chief continued to rule because he was accepted by his people. British authorities adopted a system of indirect rule for colonial administration, wherein traditional chiefs maintained power but took instructions from their European supervisors. Indirect rule was cost-effective (by reducing the number of European officials needed), minimized local opposition to European rule, and guaranteed law and order. Though

neg: Gold Coast (British colony) opposition to European rule from the local population would be minimised. The chiefs, however, were to take instructions from their European supervisors. The plan, according to Lugard, had the further advantage of civilising the natives, because it exposed traditional rulers to the benefits of European political organisation and values. This "civilizing" process notwithstanding, indirect rule had the ultimate advantage of guaranteeing the maintenance of law and order. The application of indirect rule in the Gold Coast became essential, especially after Asante and the Northern Territories were brought under British rule. Before the effective colonisation of these territories, the intention of

neg: Congolese Independence Speech country was split into nesting, hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" ("politique indigène")—in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favoured the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. There was also a high degree of racial segregation. Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum, but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks. An African nationalist movement developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s,

neg: Mahmud Barzanji which was how Mahmud became governor of southern Kurdistan. Mahmud was a very ambitious Kurdish national leader and promoted the idea of Kurds to control their own state and gain independence from the British. As Charles Tripp relates, the British appointed him governor of Sulaimaniah in southern Kurdistan as a way of gaining an indirect rule in this region. The British wanted this indirect rule with the popular Mahmud at the helm, which they believed would give them a face and a leader to control and calm the region. However, with a little taste of power, Mahmud had ambitions for

neg: Goalkeeper (association football) results in an indirect free kick to the opposition. Furthermore any player negating the spirit of the new rule would be likely to be cautioned for unsporting behaviour and punished by an indirect free-kick. On 1 July 1997, FIFA decided to extend the back-pass rule by applying it also to throw-ins from defenders to their own goalkeeper; in order to prevent further time-wasting, FIFA also established that if a goalkeeper holds the ball for more than five or six seconds the referee must adjudge this as time-wasting and award an indirect free-kick to the opposing team. The position of goalkeeper

neg: Wilhelm Hammann Hesse in 1927. In 1930 he was banned from teaching and imprisoned for one month after opposing police suppression of a strike at Opel plant in Rüsselsheim. In 1932 he was convicted for a second time, but the sentence was suspended, perhaps as a precaution against the buildup of Nazi influence. He spent most of 1933 behind bars, and in 1935 was sentenced to three years. On 27 August 1938 he was "released" to Buchenwald concentration camp. Buchenwald of 1938 contained around 8,000 inmates, including 2,000 political prisoners. It was a prime example of the "indirect rule system" practiced by

neg: Wind of Change (speech) the Gold Coast was, upon independence, renamed Ghana after the ancient African Empire in the area. This had become a place of great promise for the African independence movement in the 1950s. The education levels were highest in all of Sub-Saharan Africa there and the individuals were putting their weight behind the independence movement. The Gold Coast nationalists had campaigned for home rule even before the Second World War, and before the majority of the decolonization of the British Colonies had begun. Under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah the colony became the first to achieve independence in 1957. The United

neg: Indigénat were in turn subject to the authority of British representatives. The French government, in contrast, published much about the assimilation of colonial subjects, with the goal of making their colonies integral parts of France, filled with African, Arab, or Asian "Frenchmen". This combined with a Jacobin tradition of centralizing government, has given weight to the argument that French colonial rule stood in stark contrast to other models. But only small areas of France's colonial possessions were ever afforded full rights as overseas departments of the French state. Between 1865 and 1962, only 7,000 Algerians became French citizens, in a global

neg: First wave of European colonization air. Slaves were often branded with a mark upon their skin to identify either the ship they arrived on or the company that purchased them. In addition, the slaves were seen as a "potentially economic utility"; therefore they were often equated to cattle when moved about. Many African people died in large numbers in order to meet the demand for Spanish and Portuguese labor requirements. Both Spain and Portugal share a similar history in regards to the treatment of slaves in their colonies. As time progressed and new generations of slaves lived under imperial rule, Spanish and Portuguese internal reforms

neg: History of Florida produce rum. Settled at New Smyrna, within months the colony suffered major losses primarily due to insect-borne diseases and Native American raids. Most crops did not do well in the sandy Florida soil. Those that survived rarely equaled the quality produced in other colonies. The colonists tired of their servitude and Turnbull's rule. On several occasions, he used African slaves to whip his unruly settlers. The settlement collapsed and the survivors fled to safety with the British authorities in St. Augustine. Their descendants survive to this day, as does the name New Smyrna. In 1767, the British moved the northern

neg: British Emperor equally sovereign and independent within these his dominions, as any emperor is in his empire." The British government led by the Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, conferred the additional title "Empress of India" on Queen Victoria by an Act of Parliament, reputedly to assuage the monarch's irritation at being, as a mere Queen, notionally inferior to the German emperor; the Indian Imperial designation was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding the former Mughal as paramount ruler of the subcontinent, using indirect rule through hundreds of princely states formally under protection, not colonies, but accepting the British Sovereign as

neg: German colonial empire policy toward the German colonies was not motivated by aggrandizement" since the Empire was seen by America as a "land devouring octopus" with a "voracious territorial appetite". President Wilson saw the League of Nations as "'residuary trustee' for the [German] colonies" captured and occupied by "rapacious conquerors". The victors retained the German overseas possessions and did so with the belief that Australian, Belgian, British, French, Japanese, New Zealand, Portuguese and South African rule was superior to Germany’s. Several decades later during the collapse of the then existing colonial empires, Africans and Asians cited the same arguments that had been used

neg: Decolonization territories of Syria and Lebanon, and the former German colonies of Togoland and Cameroon, as League of Nations mandates. Lebanon declared its independence in 1943, and Syria in 1945. Although France was ultimately a victor of World War II, Nazi Germany's occupation of France and its North African colonies during the war had disrupted colonial rule. On October 27, 1946 France adopted a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic, and substituted the French Union for the colonial empire. However power over the colonies remained concentrated in France, and the power of local assemblies outside France was extremely limited. On the

neg: Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands have also been more complex indirect interactions describing how introduced mammals can indirectly affect seabird breeding populations. On the Aleutian Island chain in Alaska, over 10 million seabirds form dense colonies and many are greatly affected by the direct predation of introduced Arctic foxes. However, recent research has shown that seabirds drastically alter the flora of their breeding islands by subsidizing nutrients for plants with their excrement. Once these colonies are decimated by introduced predators, the nutrient cycling is interrupted and the plant communities on the islands change drastically. Some of the remaining seabirds have trouble adapting to this rapid

neg: Austrian colonial policy permanent colonies or treaty ports, it did acquire some indirect benefits. Emerich Széchényi von Sárvári Felsö-Vidék, serving as one of the head members of the Conference, was able to procure the privilege of free docking rights in all European African ports, excluding British South Africa, Italian Somalia, and the French Madagascar. Austria-Hungary was also able to sign trade agreements consisting of colonial goods from Africa, with several of the other powers present. In 1878, German-Austrian dignitary Baron Gustav von Overbeck purchased land from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu; and acquired additional land from the American Trading Company of Borneo,

neg: Evolutionary psychology indirect if information about previous interactions is shared. Reputation allows evolution of cooperation by indirect reciprocity. Natural selection favors strategies that base the decision to help on the reputation of the recipient: studies show that people who are more helpful are more likely to receive help. The calculations of indirect reciprocity are complicated and only a tiny fraction of this universe has been uncovered, but again a simple rule has emerged. Indirect reciprocity can only promote cooperation if the probability, q, of knowing someone’s reputation exceeds the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act: One important problem with this explanation is

neg: Historiography of the British Empire local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors, with different economic results as shown by Lakshmi Iyer (2010). In much of the Empire, large local populations were ruled in close cooperation with the local hierarchy. Historians have developed categories of control, such as "subsidiary alliances", "paramountcy", "protectorates", "indirect rule", "clientelism", or "collaboration". Local elites were co-opted into leadership positions, and often had the role of minimizing opposition from local independence movements. Fisher has explored the origins and development of the system of indirect rule. The British East India Company starting in the mid-18th century stationed its staff

neg: Weaver ant time cheaper, leaving farmers with increased net incomes and more sustainable pest control. Weaver ant husbandry is often practiced in Southeast Asia, where farmers provide shelter, food and construct ropes between trees populated with weaver ants in order to protect their colonies from potential competitors. "Oecophylla" colonies may not be entirely beneficial to the host plants. Studies indicate that the presence of "Oecophylla" colonies may also have negative effects on the performance of host plants by reducing fruit removal by mammals and birds and therefore reducing seed dispersal and by lowering the flower-visiting rate of flying insects including pollinators. Weaver

neg: Society of the Friends of the Blacks sympathy for conditions of slaves. The members of the committee included colonial landowners (who were usually slaveholders), other slave owners, lawyers and merchants, and all were advocates of French commercial interests. The final report of the Committee did not alleviate any of the problems relating to slavery. It stressed that it did not wish to interfere in the commercial interests of the colonies: "The National Assembly declares that it had not intended to innovate in any branch of commerce direct or indirect of France with its colonies..." A group of National Assembly deputies who were either colonists or slave trade

neg: Kwame Nkrumah not compromise on his insistence on a unitary state, the nation was divided into five regions, with power devolved from Accra, and the chiefs having a role in their governments. On 21 February 1957, the British prime minister, Harold Macmillan, announced that Ghana would be a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations with effect from 6 March. Ghana became independent on 6 March 1957. As the first of Britain's African colonies to gain majority-rule independence, the celebrations in Accra were the focus of world attention; over 100 reporters and photographers covered the events. United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower

neg: African-American history was a crime to kill a slave, and a few whites were hanged for it.) Generally the slaves developed their own family system, religion and customs in the slave quarters with little interference from owners, who were only interested in work outputs. Before the 1660s, the North American mainland colonies were expanding, but still fairly small in size and did not have a great demand for labour, so the colonists did not import large numbers of African slaves at this point. By 1700 there were 25,000 black slaves in the North American mainland colonies, about 10% of the population. Some

neg: History of Tanzania constituted the core of the nationalist movement. Under the Native Authority Ordinances of 1923, limited powers were granted to certain recognized chiefs who could also exercise powers granted by local customary law. Sir Donald Cameron became the governor of Tanganyika in 1925. "His work ... was of great significance in the development of colonial administrative policy, being associated especially with the vigorous attempt to establish a system of 'Indirect Rule' through the traditional indigenous authorities." He was a major critic of Governor Byatt's policies about indirect rule, as evidenced by his "Native Administration Memorandum No. 1, Principles of Native Administration

neg: History of Maharashtra their main trading post. The Company slowly expanded areas under its rule during the 18th century. Their conquest of Maharashtra was completed in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The British ruled for more than a century and brought huge changes, in every aspect of life, for the people who resided in the Maharashtra region. Areas that correspond to present day Maharashtra were under direct or indirect British rule, first under the East India Company and then under the British crown from 1858. The Maharashtra region during this era was divided in to

neg: Chilembwe uprising revolt compelled the local authorities to introduce some reform. The colonial government proposed to undermine the power of independent churches like Chilembwe's, by promoting secular education but lack of funding made this impossible. The government began to promote tribal loyalties in the colony, through the system of indirect rule, which was expanded after the revolt. In particular, the Muslim Yao people, who attempted to distance themselves from Chilembwe, were given more power and autonomy. Although delayed by the war, the Nyasaland Police, which had been primarily composed of African "askaris" levied by local white officials, was restructured as a professional

neg: George W. Romney of Chihuahua (one of the Mormon colonies in Mexico), where George was born on July 8, 1907. They practiced monogamy (polygamy having been abolished by the 1890 Manifesto, although it persisted in places, especially Mexico). George had three older brothers, two younger brothers, and a younger sister. Gaskell Romney was a successful carpenter, house builder, and farmer who headed the most prosperous family in the colony, which was situated in an agricultural valley below the Sierra Madre Occidental. The family chose U.S. citizenship for their children, including George. The Mexican Revolution broke out in 1910 and the Mormon colonies were