query: when did sociologists ( as opposed to social thinkers ) first appear

pos: History of sociology History of sociology Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged primarily out of the Enlightenment thought, shortly after the French Revolution, as a positivist "science of society". Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge. Social analysis in a broader sense, however, has origins in the common stock of philosophy and necessarily pre-dates the field. Modern academic sociology arose as a reaction to modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism. Late-19th-century sociology demonstrated a particularly strong interest in the emergence of the modern nation state; its constituent institutions, its units of

neg: Collective behavior But Blumer and Neil Smelser did agree, as did others, indicating that the formulation has satisfied some leading sociological thinkers. Although there are several other schema that may be used to classify forms of collective behavior the following four categories from Blumer (1939) are generally considered useful by most sociologists. Scholars differ about what classes of social events fall under the rubric of collective behavior. In fact, the only class of events which all authors include is crowds. Clark McPhail is one of those who treats crowds and collective behavior as synonyms. Although some consider McPhail's work overly simplistic (Locher

neg: Digital sociology augmented reality, smart objects, the Internet of Things and big data. Four aspects of digital sociology have been identified: Although they have been reluctant to use social and other digital media for professional academics purposes, sociologists are slowly beginning to adopt them for teaching and research. An increasing number of sociological blogs are beginning to appear and more sociologists are joining Twitter, for example. Some are writing about the best ways for sociologists to employ social media as part of academic practice (see the LSE Impact of the Social Sciences website) and the importance of self-archiving and making sociological research

neg: Sociology of scientific knowledge work of scholars such as Oswald Spengler ("The Decline of the West", 1918), Raymond Louis Wilder and Leslie Alvin White, as well as contemporary sociologists of knowledge and science studies scholars. David Bloor draws upon Ludwig Wittgenstein and other contemporary thinkers. They both claim that mathematical knowledge is socially constructed and has irreducible contingent and historical factors woven into it. More recently Paul Ernest has proposed a social constructivist account of mathematical knowledge, drawing on the works of both of these sociologists. SSK has received criticism from theorists of the Actor-network theory (ANT) school of science and technology studies. These

neg: Relational sociology sub-fields in sociology: cultural sociology and social network analysis. Key relational thinkers were concentrated during this time at the Paul F. Lazarsfeld Center for the Social Sciences at Columbia University, as well as the Graduate Faculty of the New School for Social Research and New York University. These sociologists included Harrison White, Charles Tilly, Mustafa Emirbayer, David Gibson, Ronald Burt, Mimi Sheller, Jeff Goodwin, Ann Mische and Melissa Fischer. During the 1990s New York was the site of many conferences and workshop discussing relational ideas: Harrison White hosted several conferences at the Lazersfeld Center discussing the themes of time, language,

neg: Social Darwinism impression that the early Irish had already evolved or developed land tenure; Despite the fact that Social Darwinism bears Charles Darwin's name, it is also linked today with others, notably Herbert Spencer, Thomas Malthus, and Francis Galton, the founder of eugenics. In fact, Spencer was not described as a social Darwinist until the 1930s, long after his death. The social Darwinism term first appeared in Europe in 1880, the journalist Emilie Gautier had coined the term with reference to a health conference in Berlin 1877. Around 1900 it was used by sociologists, some being opposed to the concept. The term

neg: Joseph de Maistre the Spanish political thinker Juan Donoso Cortés and, later, on the French anti-Semitic monarchist Charles Maurras and his counter-revolutionary political movement "Action Française". According to Carolina Armenteros, Maistre's writings influenced not only conservative political thinkers, but also the Utopian socialists. Early sociologists such as Saint-Simon and Comte explicitly acknowledged the influence of Maistre on their own thinking about the sources of social cohesion and political authority. Joseph de Maistre Joseph-Marie, Comte de Maistre (; 1 April 1753 – 26 February 1821) was a French-speaking Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat, who advocated social hierarchy and monarchy in the period immediately

neg: Moral panic or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests". Those who start the panic when they fear a threat to prevailing social or cultural values are known by researchers as 'moral entrepreneurs', while people who supposedly threaten the social order have been described as 'folk devils'. Many sociologists have pointed out the differences between definitions of a "moral panic" as described by American versus British sociologists. In addition to pointing out other sociologists who note the distinction, Kenneth Thompson has characterized the difference as American sociologists tending to emphasize psychological factors while the

neg: Social capital are able to rest assured that their belongings and family will be safe. This understanding of solidarity may be traced to 19th century socialist thinkers. The main focus of these thinkers was the urban working class of the Industrial Revolution. They analyzed the reasons these workers supported each other for the benefit of the group and held that this support was an adaptation to the immediate social environment, as opposed to a trait that had been taught to the workers in their youth. As another example, Coleman states that possessing this type of social capital individuals to stand up for

neg: Christian left Liberation theology is a theological tradition that emerged in the developing world, especially Latin America. Since the 1960s, Catholic thinkers have integrated left-wing thought and Catholicism, giving rise to Liberation Theology. It arose at a time when Catholic thinkers who opposed the despotic leaders in South and Central America allied themselves with the communist opposition. However, it developed independently of and roughly simultaneously with Black theology in the U.S. and should not be confused with it. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith decided that while liberation theology is partially compatible with Catholic social teaching, certain Marxist elements of

neg: History of agrarianism His most recent publication called "The Agrarian Vision" focuses on sustainability and what agrarian philosophy can offer when we conceptualise what sustainability actually means. History of agrarianism Agrarianism is social philosophy or political philosophy which values rural society as superior to urban society, the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values. It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life. In Greece, Hesiod, Aristotle, and Xenophon promoted agrarian ideas. Even more influential were such Roman thinkers

neg: Thomas Humphrey Marshall LSE from 1939 to 1944, and worked for UNESCO as the head of the Social Science Department from 1956 to 1960, possibly contributing to the United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which was drafted in 1954, but not ratified until 1966. Modern political science pioneer Seymour Martin Lipset argues that Marshall proposes a model of social science based on the middle range analysis of social structures and institutions, as opposed to grand theories of the purposes of development and modernisation, which were criticised by modern sociologists such as Robert K. Merton for being too speculative to

neg: Karl Mannheim "...the embryonic planned democratic society can develop along democratic or dictatorial routes...as expressed in the totalitarian societies of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union". His work was admired more by educators, social workers, and religious thinkers than it was by the small community of British sociologists. His books on planning nevertheless played an important part in the political debates of the immediate post-war years, both in the United States and in several European countries. Shortly before his death on January 9, 1947 at the age of 53, Mannheim was invited to be the head of the European UNESCO, an offer

neg: False necessity it allows freedom from the constraints that other individuals might impose upon us. In this way, rules are always seen as a means of increasing freedom rather than rescinding it. These early Enlightenment thinkers opposed existing religious, aristocratic, and absolutist institutions and organizations as the natural state of the world. However, they did not argue for the absolute freedom of the individual outside of any constraining rules. For them, human activity was still subject to certain types of social arrangements that followed a historical necessity. Inspired by Kant's thesis of human freedom, which argued that there is no evidence to

neg: Urban sociology early methodological leanings. Symbolic interaction was forged out of the writings of early micro-sociologists George Mead and Max Weber, and sought to frame how individuals interpret symbols in everyday interactions. With early urban sociologists framing the city as a 'superorganism', the concept of symbolic interaction aided in parsing out how individual communities contribute to the seamless functioning of the city itself. Scholars of the Chicago School originally sought to answer a single question: how did an increase in urbanism during the time of the Industrial Revolution contribute to the magnification of contemporary social problems? Sociologists centered on Chicago due to

neg: Siberian jay aggressor. Although breeders show considerably more aggression toward immigrants than retained offspring, aggressive responses appear to be modified by social dominance within groups. For example, females have been found to receive notably more aggression than males because males show more resistance owing to their higher social dominance, therefore leading to higher energy cost by the aggressor. Siberian jays also appear to recognise their own young through associative learning as opposed to genetic cues, as shown by experiments in which Siberian jays did not differentiate between own and fostered offspring. Birds of prey, especially hawks such the goshawk and sparrowhawk, are

neg: Society of American Indians Native Americans and vigorously opposed theatrical portrayals of Native Americans as savages and vulgar stereotypes. From 1886 to the onset of World War I, reformist progressives fought a war of images with Wild West shows before public exhibitions at world fairs, expositions and parades portraying the model Carlisle Indian Industrial School as a new generation of Native Americans embracing civilization, education and industry. The early course of the Society was influenced by many factors. Pan-Indianism developed during the period when modern social science came of age, and sociologists and anthropologists helped define the common ground of "race." Reformers of the

neg: Ivey Foreman Lewis eugenicists, or advocate environmental solutions to social problems, or even critically examine southern traditions, as well as criticized Jewish sociologists. Lewis had unsuccessfully opposed admission of Gregory Swanson, who matriculated at the University's Law School in the fall of 1950 pursuant to a federal court order after the NAACP victories in "Sweatt v. Painter" and "McLaurin v. Oklahoma", but Swanson left about a year later after encountering the "overwhelming climate of racial hostility and harassment" he had experienced. Thus Walter N. Ridley, a professor at Virginia State College who arrived a semester after Swanson actually became the first recipient of

neg: George Ritzer metatheory but social theory in general. The first category of metatheory (M), aims at being a means of attaining a deeper understanding of theory. Within the greater category of M, Ritzer establishes four other subsets: internal-intellectual, internal-social, external-intellectual, and external-social. The internal-intellectual sector of M identifies the "schools of thought" and the structure of current sociologists and social theories. The internal-social subtype identifies connections between sociologists and connections between sociologists and society. The last two subsets of M are looking more at the macrolevel of sociology than the other two subsets. The third subtype of M is the external-intellectual view

neg: Pyrrhus The First origins of the winner's name, inspired a poem published in Bentley's Miscellany, ending with the stanza: Pyrrhus The First was withdrawn from the Welcome Stakes at Ascot and did not appear in another competitive race as a three-year-old. He walked over in the Foal Stakes at Winchester Racecourse when no other horses opposed him and in October, his owners paid a forfeit of £100 when he failed to appear for a scheduled match race at level weights against a Grimston, a four-year-old colt who had won the Gold Vase. Pyrrhus The First was beaten in his only race as a

neg: Technological determinism a viewpoint opposed to media determinism. This is described as instead of media being presented as doing things to people; the stress is on the way people do things with media. Individuals need to be aware that the term "deterministic" is a negative one for many social scientists and modern sociologists; in particular they often use the word as a term of abuse. Technological determinism Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that assumes that a society's technology determines the development of its social structure and cultural values. Technological determinism tries to understand how technology has had an impact on human

neg: Sociology in Japan characterised by its various emphasis of studies. Both empirical orientation as well as philosophical and theoretical orientation were popular among the Japanese Sociologists. Changes in social structures were witnessed by the senior sociologists during the post-war stage. Yet these senior sociologists mainly belonged to a pre-war academic circle. Younger Japanese sociologists during this period tend to focus more on theoretical micro-sociological analysis than the macro analysis. Multi-dimensional paradigm started to grain attention within the Japanese Sociology, including those of Alfred Schutz, Anthony Giddens, Jürgen Habermas, Pierre Bourdieu, etc."Thus many talented younger sociologists turned from Marxism to structuralism or structuralist social

neg: Émile Durkheim deviance contributed to Robert Merton's Strain Theory Durkheim had an important impact on the development of Anthropology and Sociology, influencing thinkers from his school of sociology, such as Marcel Mauss, but also later thinkers, such as Maurice Halbwachs, Talcott Parsons, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. More recently, Durkheim has influenced sociologists such as Steven Lukes, Robert N. Bellah, and Pierre Bourdieu. His description of collective consciousness also deeply influenced the Turkish nationalism of Ziya Gökalp, the founding father of Turkish sociology. Randall Collins has developed a theory of what he calls interaction ritual chains, which is a synthesis of Durkheim's

neg: Republicanism heavily influenced the American colonists. In general, the English ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, typified by the attacks on John Wilkes, and especially on the American Revolution and the French Revolution. French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers, such as Baron Charles de Montesquieu and later Jean-Jacques Rousseau, expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic should be: some of their new ideas were scarcely traceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Concepts they contributed, or heavily elaborated, were social contract, positive law, and mixed government. They also borrowed from, and distinguished republicanism from, the

neg: Baal teshuva movement Orthodoxy. Rabbi Yosef Blau the mashgiach ruchani of Yeshiva University has noted: The Baal teshuva movement has not just been about Orthodox Jewish outreach alone as it is a far wider phenomenon that has been noted, researched and written about by sociologists, historians and Jewish thinkers since the 1960s when it came into the fore. The Baal teshuva movement, in its origins, was as much inspired by the sixties and seventies counterculture, especially the counterculture of the 1960s and the Hippie movement (Rabbi Shlomo Carlebach tried to channel the counterculture and its music into a Jewish direction through his music

neg: Sociology in Turkey Much of his work is based on that of Durkheim and he translated into Turkish the work of mostly French thinkers, which included, in addition to Durkheim, Lucien Levy-Bruhl, Paul Fauconnet, and Marcel Mauss. The first chair of sociology in Turkey was established at the University of Istanbul (known as "Darulfunun" until 1933) specifically for Gökalp, where he first began teaching sociology in 1912. In 1915, he established a sociological research institute ("Içtimaiyyat Darul-Mesaisi") and Turkey's first "Journal of Sociology" ("Iimaiyat Mecmuasi"). As Niyazi Berkes argues, "In reality, all Turkish sociologists of recent times [1936] are direct or indirect disciples

neg: Framing (social sciences) guiding actions. Goffman's framing concept evolved out of his 1959 work, "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life", a commentary on the management of impressions. These works arguably depend on Kenneth Boulding's concept of image. Sociologists have utilized framing to explain the process of social movements. Movements act as carriers of beliefs and ideologies (compare memes). In addition, they operate as part of the process of constructing meaning for participants and opposers (Snow & Benford, 1988). Sociologists deem the mobilization of mass-movements "successful" when the frames projected align with the frames of participants to produce resonance between the two parties.

neg: France thought was targeted at responding to the social malaise following the French Revolution. Rationalist philosophers such as Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte, who called for a new social doctrine, were opposed by reactionary thinkers such as Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald and Félicité Robert de Lamennais, who blamed the rationalist rejection of traditional order. De Maistre is considered, together with the Englishman Edmund Burke, one of the founders of European conservatism, while Comte is regarded as the founder of positivism, which Émile Durkheim reformulated as a basis for social research. In the 20th century, partly as a reaction to

neg: Sociology in Japan with foreign research institutions have made the Japanese Sociologists Society lack a reputation in other parts of the world, globalisation have created an increasing amount of opportunities for Japanese Sociologists to study abroad as well as welcoming foreign corporations and coordination. Sociology in Japan is becoming more internationalised during this stage of development In a perfectly harmonious society, sociologists research the patterns and rules of social interactions and relations. However, such studies are not enough in contemporary societies as social problems exists. Research findings are necessarily used to further aid the investigations of existing and emerging social problems. In 1985,

neg: Middle range theory (sociology) Parsons that a narrow empiricism consisting entirely of simple statistical or observational regularities cannot arrive at successful theory. However, he found that Parsons' "formulations were remote from providing a problematics and a direction for theory-oriented empirical inquiry into the observable worlds of culture and society". He was thus directly opposed to the abstract theorizing of scholars who are engaged in the attempt to construct a total theoretical system covering all aspects of social life. With the introduction of the middle range theory program, he advocated that sociologists should concentrate on measurable aspects of social reality that can be studied as

neg: Helmut Schelsky but fell out of grace with younger sociologists. Moreover, his fascinating analyses, being of highest practical value, went out of date for the same reason; only by 2000 did new sociologists start to read him again. Helmut Schelsky Helmut Schelsky (14 October 1912 – 24 February 1984), was a German sociologist, the most influential in post-World War II Germany, well into the 1970s. Schelsky was born in Chemnitz, Saxony. He turned to social philosophy and even more to sociology, as elaborated at the University of Leipzig by Hans Freyer (the "Leipzig School"). Having earned his doctorate in 1935 (thesis [tr.]:

neg: Historical race concepts for racism but did not consider other factors contributing to racism. For this reason, in 1967 a new committee was assembled, including representatives of the social sciences (sociologists, lawyers, ethnographers and geneticists), to draft a statement "covering the social, ethical and philosophical aspects of the problem". This statement was the first to provide a definition of racism: "antisocial beliefs and acts which are based upon the fallacy that discriminatory intergroup relations are justifiable on biological grounds". The statement continued to denounce the many negative social affects of racism. In 1978 the general assembly of the UNESCO considered the four previous

neg: Ramkrishna Mukherjee Professor at Binghamton University in the United States from 1977 to 1989. He spent most of his professional life with the Indian Statistical Institute from 1944 until his retirement in 1979. Along with D. P. Mukherjee, he established the All India Sociological Conference (AISC). He worked as adviser for social science institutions and journals in India and abroad. With his work the theme of agrarian social structure and change was to re-appear in Indian Sociology only after a gap of nearly two decades in the late 1960s and 1970s. Among Indian sociologists, he stressed the importance of a dialectic model

neg: Culture tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. "Culture" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science. The sociology of culture

neg: Otis Dudley Duncan Occupational Structure". Based on quantitative analyses of the first large national survey of social mobility in the United States, the book elegantly depicts the process by which parents transmit their social standing to their children, particularly through affecting the children’s education. The book’s impact went far beyond its analyses of occupational mobility. Using survey data and statistical techniques, it showed how an important sociological topic could be analyzed effectively and rigorously with appropriate quantitative methods. The work helped inspire a new generation of sociologists to pursue quantitative sociology. Today a worldwide community of sociologists specializing in social stratification and social

neg: History of anarchism "possession", or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use. Later, Proudhon also added that "Property is Liberty" and argued that it was a bulwark against state power. His opposition to the state, organized religion and certain capitalist practices inspired subsequent anarchists and made him one of the leading social thinkers of his time. While he opposed communism and favoured remuneration for labor, he also opposed capitalist wage labour (i.e. profiting from someone else's labor). He also opposed rent, interest and profit. Proudhon supported an economic system called mutualism and urged workers "to form

neg: Consumption (sociology) Consumption (sociology) Theories of consumption have been a part of the field of sociology since its earliest days, dating back, at least implicitly, to the work of Karl Marx in the mid-to-late nineteenth century. Sociologists view consumption as central to everyday life, identity and social order. Many sociologists associate it with social class, identity, group membership, age and stratification as it plays a huge part in modernity. Thorstein Veblen's (1899) The Theory of the Leisure Class is generally seen as the first major theoretical work to take consumption as its primary focus. Despite these early roots, research on consumption began

neg: Constantin Schifirneț in the socialist society. His scientific studies on subculture and counterculture (1981, 1985) were the first in the Romanian sociology to approach these two notions. During those years, these concepts were rejected by the Romanian sociologists because of their bourgeois belongings and were considered to be irrelevant in the analysis of the communist society. Through the analysis of the works of major Romanian thinkers, he succeeds in updating relevant concepts related to the term of nation such as: ethnic identity and agents of modernization in the Romanian society. He elaborated a monograph of the “forms without substance” theory in his

neg: W. I. Thomas superior cunning" and "superior endurance". In 1927, Thomas was elected president of the American Sociological Society. He belonged to a group often referred to as the earlier psychological school of sociologists along with Franklin Henry Giddings, E.A. Ross, Charles Cooley, and Ellsworth Faris. Thomas never published any material on the subject, but did use it as lecture material. When discussing his interests, Thomas writes "The sociopsychological aspects of culture history, or otherwise stated, social psychology as examined in relation to races, nationalities, classes, interest groups, etc., in different cultural situations and historical epochs; and second, personality development in normal, criminal

neg: Social theory or the creation of wealth." Other theories include: Some known French social thinkers are Claude Henri Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, and Émile Durkheim. British social thought, with thinkers such as Herbert Spencer, addressed questions and ideas relating to political economy and social evolution. The political ideals of John Ruskin were a precursor of social economy ("Unto This Last" had a very important impact on Gandhi's philosophy). Important German philosophers and social thinkers included Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Georg Simmel and Niklas Luhmann. Important Chinese philosophers and social thinkers included Shang Yang, Lao Zi, Confucius, Mencius,

neg: Sociology understanding. In observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term. Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's "Division of Labour in Society"

neg: Race (human categorization) studied and wrote about race and racism throughout his career. In his work, he contended that social class, colonialism, and capitalism shaped ideas about race and racial categories. Social scientists largely abandoned scientific racism and biological reasons for racial categorization schemes by the 1930s. Sociologists associated with the Chicago School theorized that notions about race were socially constructed, and were not biological. In 1978, William Julius Wilson (1935–) argued that race and racial classification systems were declining in significance, and that instead, social class more accurately described what sociologists had earlier understood as race. By 1986, sociologists Michael Omi and

neg: History of sociology be forced out of Germany by the Nazis and arrive in America, influencing social research there. This forced relocation of sociologists enabled sociology in America to bring up to the standards of European studies of sociology by planting some of Europe’s greatest sociologists in America. Felix Weil was one of the students who received their doctorate on the concept of socialization from the University of Frankfurt. He, along with Max Horkheimer and Kurt Albert Gerlach, developed the Institute of Social Research and it was established in 1923. Kurt Albert Gerlach would serve as the institute’s first director. Their goal in

neg: Selfishness called the sordidness of selfishness. Adam Smith with the concept of the invisible hand saw the economic system as usefully channelling selfish self-interest to wider ends; while John Locke based society upon the solitary individual, arguably opening the door for later thinkers like Ayn Rand to argue for selfishness as a social virtue and the root of social progress. Roman Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain opposed the latter view by way of the Aristotelian argument that framing the fundamental question of politics as a choice between altruism and selfishness is a basic and harmful mistake of modern states. Rather, cooperation ought

neg: Symbolic interactionism to interpret social interactions. Symbolic interaction was conceived by George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Mead argued that people's selves are social products, but that these selves are also purposive and creative, and believed that the true test of any theory was that it was "useful OSU Mafaranga theory of 2013/875554087|title=A first look at communication theory|last=Griffin|first=Emory A.|last2=Ledbetter|first2=Andrew|last3=Sparks|first3=Glenn Grayson|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|others=|year=2015|isbn=9780073523927|edition= 9th|location=New York|pages=|oclc=875554087}}</ref> Mead's influence was said to be so powerful that sociologists regard him as the one "true founder" of the symbolic interactionism tradition. Although Mead taught in a philosophy department, he is best known by sociologists as the teacher

neg: Digital sociology is to use a querying language, such as Hive, in conjunction with Hadoop to analyze large data sets. The internet and social media have allowed sociologists to study how controversial topics are discussed over time—otherwise known as Issue Mapping. Sociologists can search social networking sites (i.e. Facebook or Twitter) for posts related to a hotly-debated topic, then parse through and analyze the text. Sociologists can then use a number of easily accessible tools to visualize this data, such as MentionMapp or Twitter Streamgraph. MentionMapp shows how popular a hashtag is and Twitter Streamgraph depicts how often certain words are paired

neg: Sociology prominent social fact in rural regions, rural sociologists often overlap with environmental sociologists. Often grouped with urban and rural sociology is that of community sociology or the sociology of community. Taking various communities—including online communities—as the unit of analysis, community sociologists study the origin and effects of different associations of people. For instance, German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished between two types of human association: "Gemeinschaft" (usually translated as "community") and "Gesellschaft" ("society" or "association"). In his 1887 work, "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft", Tönnies argued that "Gemeinschaft" is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social entity, due to the presence

neg: History of agrarianism History of agrarianism Agrarianism is social philosophy or political philosophy which values rural society as superior to urban society, the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values. It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life. In Greece, Hesiod, Aristotle, and Xenophon promoted agrarian ideas. Even more influential were such Roman thinkers as Cato, Cicero, Horace, and Virgil. They all praised the virtues of a life devoted to the tilling of the soil. Agriculturalism (農家/农家; "Nongjia")

neg: Social movement theory Social movement theory Social movement theory is an interdisciplinary study within the social sciences that generally seeks to explain why social mobilization occurs, the forms under which it manifests, as well as potential social, cultural, and political consequences. Sociologists during the early and middle-1900s thought that movements were random occurrences of individuals who were trying to emotionally react to situations outside their control. Or, as the "mass society" hypothesis suggested, movement participants were those who were not fully integrated into society. These psychologically-based theories have largely been rejected by present-day sociologists and political scientists, although many still make a case

neg: Identity (social science) unique. Sociologists, however, often use the term to describe "social identity", or the collection of group memberships that define the individual. However, these uses are not proprietary, and each discipline may use either concept and each discipline may combine both concepts when considering a person's identity. The description or representation of individual and group identity is a central task for psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists and those of other disciplines where "identity" needs to be mapped and defined. How should one describe the identity of another, in ways which encompass both their idiosyncratic qualities and their group memberships or identifications, both

neg: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions the philosopher Michel Foucault. The first field to claim descent from Kuhn’s ideas was the sociology of scientific knowledge. Sociologists working within this new field, including Harry Collins and Steven Shapin, used Kuhn’s emphasis on the role of non-evidential community factors in scientific development to argue against logical empiricism, which discouraged inquiry into the social aspects of scientific communities. These sociologists expanded upon Kuhn’s ideas, arguing that scientific judgment is determined by social factors, such as professional interests and political ideologies. Barry Barnes detailed the connection between the sociology of scientific knowledge and Kuhn in his book "T. S. Kuhn

neg: Medicalization in works such as Conrad's "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 (hyperkinesis was the term then used to describe what we might now call ADHD). Nevertheless, opium was used to pacify children in ancient Egypt before 2000 BC. These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz,1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that increasingly sophisticated technology had extended the potential reach of medicalization as a form of social

neg: John/Eleanor Rykener offered a personal opinion on what he did was when he opined to preferring priests: but this was "only because they paid more". Carolyn Dinshaw suggests that Rykener's living and working in Oxford as a women for a time indicates that Rykener enjoyed doing so. Likewise, Cordelia Beattie considers that his ability to pass as a woman "in everyday life would have involved other gendered behaviour". She considers that to modern historians and sociologists, the Rykener case is part of a "long-standing tradition" within the study of gender. In her view, the case reveals the social presumptions held by the

neg: Social science social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology. In the early 1970s, women sociologists began to question sociological paradigms and the invisibility of women in sociological studies, analysis, and courses. In 1969, feminist sociologists challenged the discipline's androcentrism at the American Sociological Association's annual conference. This led to the founding of the organization Sociologists for Women in Society, and, eventually, a new sociology journal, Gender & Society. Today, the sociology of gender is considered to be one of the most prominent sub-fields in the discipline. New sociological sub-fields continue to

neg: Leonard M. Henny implies that there is ‘verbal’ sociology and ‘visual’ sociology. Obviously, however, we never speak of ‘verbal sociologists’ because we all know that a sociologist is, by definition, virtually caught in a Gutenberg Syndrome. Sociologists usually argue with words and figures. Yet this has not always been the case..." And furthermore about the origin of visualisation in the emerging field of sociology in the late 19th century: ...the first issues of the "American Journal of Sociology" [established in 1895] published many photographs taken by sociologists and social photographers... In many of the issues of the AJS in the first fifteen years

neg: Sociology of immigration sociologists closely analyzed the symbolism of increased anti-immigration rhetoric, directed at Middle Eastern immigrants, stemming from Americans. Structural functionalists theorists have also studied the effects of mass migration—resulting from wars, economic insecurity, and terrorism—on the social institutions of host nations, international law, and assimilation rates. Additionally, sociologists exercising social conflict theory have analyzed, in particular, labor market conflicts resulting from increased marketplace competition due to the rise in competition between immigrants and native workers for jobs and social mobility. Because rates of global immigration are continuing to increase, the field of sociology has a particular interest in monitoring twenty-first century

neg: Sociologists for Women in Society being women. Later that year, some 20 founding women met to build an organization and network. Although SWS was created to redress the plight of women sociologists, SWS has become an organization that also focuses on improving the social position of women in society through feminist sociological research and writing. SWS holds annual meetings and publishes the academic journal "Gender & Society". Sociologists for Women in Society Sociologists for Women in Society (SWS) is an international organization of social scientists--students, faculty, practitioners, and researchers--working together to improve the position of women within sociology and society in general. In 1969, several

neg: Good and evil human value, sanctity, divinity). A variety of Enlightenment thinkers have alleged the opposite, by suggesting that evil is learned as a consequence of tyrannical social structures. In Confucianism and Taoism, there is no direct analogue to the way good and evil are opposed, although references to demonic influence is common in Chinese folk religion. Confucianism's primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man. Evil would thus correspond to wrong behavior. Still less does it map into Taoism, in spite of the centrality of dualism in that system, but the opposite of

neg: Temple Grandin but had learned with great effort to adapt to the social norms of the people around her." When her book "Thinking in Pictures" was written in 1995, Grandin thought that all individuals with autism thought in photographic specific images the way she did. When the expanded edition was published in 2006, she now realized that it had been wrong to assume that every person with autism processed information the same way she did. In this edition, she wrote that there were three types of specialized thinking. They were: 1. Visual Thinkers like her who think in photographically specific images. 2.

neg: Sociology of the Internet and their social impact will have to be measured accordingly, with some sociologists suggesting the formation of socio-technical networks of humans and technical systems. Issues of privacy, right to information, legislation and content creation will come into public scrutiny in light of these technological changes. Researchers have investigated the use of technology (as opposed to the Internet) by children and how it can be used excessively, where it can cause medical health and psychological issues. The use of technological devices by children can cause them to become addicted to them and can lead them to experience negative effects such as

neg: C. Wright Mills massive unemployment rate makes it not just a personal trouble but an issue. Sociologists, then, rightly connect their autobiographical, personal challenges to social institutions. Social scientists should then connect those institutions to social structures and locate them within a historical narrative. The version of "Images of Man: The Classic Tradition in Sociological Thinking" (1960) worked on by C. Wright Mills is simply an edited copy with the addition of an introduction written himself. Through this work, Mills explains that he believes the use of models is "the" characteristic of classical sociologists, and that these models are the reason classical sociologists

neg: Semiotics of dress culture or subculture. When the term semiotics is applied to dress, it refers to the words and symbols used to describe the images supporting "the structure of social interaction". Examples of these social interactions include: the system of statuses and roles. Therefore, the way one dresses can be analyzed as a symbol mechanism to communicate ideas and values with other members in a society, as sociologists Erving Goffman and Gregory P. Stone have suggested. According to Ruth Rubinstin, there are three categories for clothing signs: The first, is task oriented or instrumental in nature; the second, is having one primary

neg: Popular sovereignty is thus a basic tenet of most Republics, and in some monarchies. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau were the most influential thinkers of this school, all postulating that individuals choose to enter into a social contract with one another, thus voluntarily giving up some of their natural freedom in return for protection from dangers derived from the freedom of others. Whether men were seen as naturally more prone to violence and rapine (Hobbes) or cooperation and kindness (Rousseau), the idea that a legitimate social order emerges only when the liberties and duties are equal among citizens binds the social contract thinkers

neg: Social science sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. In the terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an understanding of the "Social Construction of Reality". Most sociologists work in one or more subfields. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behaviour and deviance; and political sociology

neg: Matthew Hay dynamic change in the interaction between social problems, social thought and social action from the 1880s onwards and his work must be understood in the context of that change. As the population of Britain’s cities grew, so too did the problem of housing the poor. Slum dwelling, the public health and public order issues that were associated with overcrowded and insanitary housing challenged the minds of philosophers, sociologists, charities, philanthropists, local government and national government for decades. Were the poor morally blameworthy for their own condition? Why were there slum dwellings? How were the poor to be housed and who

neg: Marxist schools of thought "Frankfurt School" is an informal term used to designate the thinkers affiliated with the Institute for Social Research or influenced by them—it is not the title of any institution and the main thinkers of the Frankfurt School did not use the term to refer to themselves. The Frankfurt School gathered together dissident Marxists, severe critics of capitalism who believed that some of Marx's alleged followers had come to parrot a narrow selection of Marx's ideas, usually in defense of orthodox communist or social democratic parties. Influenced especially by the failure of working-class revolutions in Western Europe after World War I

neg: Philosopher philosophers may employ their writing and reasoning skills in other careers, such as medicine, bioethics, business, publishing, free-lance writing, media, and law. Some known French social thinkers are Claude Henri Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, and Émile Durkheim. British social thought, with thinkers such as Herbert Spencer, addressed questions and ideas relating to political economy and social evolution. The political ideals of John Ruskin were a precursor of social economy ("Unto This Last" had a very important impact on Gandhi's philosophy). Important German philosophers and social thinkers included Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, and Martin

neg: P. C. Chang a lover of traditional Chinese literature and music and someone who knew both Western and Islamic culture. His philosophy was strongly based on the teachings of Confucius. At the first meeting of United Nations Economic and Social Council he quoted Mencius stating that ECOSOC's highest aim should be to "subdue people with goodness." He also argued that many influential western thinkers on rights were guided by Chinese ideas. "In the 18th century, when progressive ideas with respect to human rights had been first put forward in Europe, translations of Chinese philosophers had been known to, and had inspired, such thinkers

neg: German Roman Catholic Central Verein of North America Central Bureau. The philosophical roots of the journal and its parent organization are to be located in the German Romantic tradition of such thinkers as Johann Josef von Görres (1776-1848), as well as in the solidarist economics of the Jesuit Heinrich Pesch (1854-1926). Pesch's ideas were highly influential in the background of Pope Pius VI's famous social encyclical, "Quadragesimo Anno", and in later papal documents. GK Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc's distributist economic theories have also been well-received by the writers who appear in "Social Justice Review". The purpose of the Central Verein has always been the promotion of Catholic practice,

neg: History of sociology private establishment. From this point on the Institute of Social Research would have a close connection to sociology studies in the United States. International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when René Worms (1869–1926) founded the small "Institut International de Sociologie", eclipsed by much larger International Sociological Association from 1949. In 1905 the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and Lester F. Ward was selected to serve as the first President of the new society. Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are typically cited as the three principal architects of modern social science. The sociological "canon

neg: Capitalism a social formation where capitalist class processes dominate, but are not exclusive. To these thinkers, capitalist class processes are simply those in which surplus labor takes the form of surplus value, usable as capital; other tendencies for utilization of labor nonetheless exist simultaneously in existing societies where capitalist processes predominate. However, other late Marxian thinkers argue that a social formation as a whole may be classed as capitalist if capitalism is the mode by which a surplus is extracted, even if this surplus is not produced by capitalist activity as when an absolute majority of the population is engaged in

neg: New Right refers to three historically distinct conservative political movements. These American New Rights are distinct from and opposed to the more moderate tradition of the so-called Rockefeller Republicans. The New Right also differs from the Old Right (1933–55) on issues concerning foreign policy with neoconservatives being opposed to the non-interventionism of the Old Right. The first New Right (1955–64) was centered around the libertarians, traditionalists, and anti-communists at William F. Buckley's "National Review". Sociologists and journalists had used "new right" since the 1950s; it was first used as self-identification in 1962 by the student activist group Young Americans for Freedom. The

neg: Avant-garde areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to mainstream cultural values and often has a trenchant social or political edge. Many writers, critics and theorists made assertions about vanguard culture during the formative years of modernism, although the initial definitive statement on the avant-garde was the essay "Avant-Garde and Kitsch" by New York art critic Clement Greenberg, published in "Partisan Review" in 1939. Greenberg argued that vanguard culture has historically been opposed to "high" or "mainstream" culture, and that it has also

neg: Fire in the Minds of Men popular revolutions went (until it resurfaced as national socialism in 1920s' Germany). Instead the idea of "equality" would become the fuel for socialism and communism. Billington equates the two schools of thought, claiming that though socially opposed in outside appearance, in their own respective way (one promoting individualism, the other collectivism), each is striving toward establishing these mutual goals, viz. a secular humanist society that is both egalitarian and utilitarian. These two social power factions were founded by the two thinkers Proudhon and Marx, the former being the social and secularist republican (anti-monarchist) individualist, and the latter the socialist anarchist

neg: Social mobility nothing is changing within each social construct and education is at the forefront in terms of its contribution to the future issues. Social status attainment and therefore social mobility in adulthood are of interest to psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, economists, epidemiologists and many more. The reason behind the interest is because it indicates access to material goods, educational opportunities, healthy environments, and nonetheless the economic growth. Researchers did a study that encompassed a wide range of data of individuals in lifetime (in childhood and during mid-adulthood). Most of the Scottish children which were born in 1921 participated in the Scottish

neg: Sociologists for Women in Society Sociologists for Women in Society Sociologists for Women in Society (SWS) is an international organization of social scientists--students, faculty, practitioners, and researchers--working together to improve the position of women within sociology and society in general. In 1969, several hundred women gathered at a "counter-convention" at Glide Memorial Church rather than attend the ASA meetings at the Hilton Hotel. Sharing feelings of insecurity and stories of initially mystifying experiences as graduate students and faculty, and encouraging each other with applause, they came to see that some of the stresses in being sociologists were not idiosyncratic, but part of the experience of

neg: Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 20th-century Marxian economists consider capitalism to be a social formation where capitalist class processes dominate, but are not exclusive. To these thinkers, capitalist class processes are simply those in which surplus labor takes the form of surplus value, usable as capital whiles other tendencies for utilization of labor nonetheless exist simultaneously in existing societies where capitalist processes are predominant. However, other late Marxian thinkers argue that a social formation as a whole may be classed as capitalist if capitalism is the mode by which a surplus is extracted even if this surplus is not produced by capitalist activity as when

neg: Culture or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present. Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term "Kultursoziologie" (cultural sociology). Cultural sociology was then "reinvented" in the English-speaking world as a product of the "cultural turn" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists

neg: Benedict Anderson of nations: communities that were limited by their borders and were sovereign. Anderson conceived nationalism as having come about in different "waves." Like other thinkers such as Marshall McLuhan in his "The Gutenberg Galaxy", of particular importance to Anderson's theory on nationalism is his stress on the role of printed literature and its dissemination. Thinkers like McLuhan, Elizabeth Eisenstein, and Anderson did not believe that nationalism came about because of a vaguely-defined "European" way of thinking, but because of the social, economic, and cultural practices associated with the rise of the printing press and the mass reproduction of printed material.

neg: Collective behavior tremendously destructive, as with riots or mob violence, silly, as with fads, or anywhere in between. Collective behavior is always driven by group dynamics, encouraging people to engage in acts they might consider unthinkable under typical social circumstances (Locher 2002). Turner and Killian (1957) were the first sociologists to back their theoretical propositions with visual evidence in the form of photographs and motion pictures of collective behavior in action. Prior to that sociologists relied heavily upon eyewitness accounts, which turned out to be far less reliable than one would hope. Turner and Killian's approach is based largely upon the arguments

neg: Richard Durning Holt Derby in 1903, when he lost to William Rutherford. He stood and lost again there in 1906. He was elected at a by-election in 1907 as a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Hexham but his classical liberal ideas were increasingly out of fashion in the Liberal Party; he opposed David Lloyd George's social welfare legislation as government interference. However he did accept the minimum wage in 1900 and a public works programme in 1929 after at first opposing it. He became part of the "Holt Cave" of Liberal MPs who opposed Lloyd George's 1914 budget. He was Liberal candidate

neg: Lynching of a "lower" caste, it was found to be an example of communal violence. It was retaliation against a family who had opposed the Eminent Domain seizure of its fields so a road could be built that would have benefitted the group who murdered them. The women of the family were paraded naked in public, before being mutilated and murdered. Sociologists and social scientists reject attributing racial discrimination to the caste system and attributed this and similar events to intra-racial ethno-cultural conflicts. There have been numerous lynchings in relation to cow vigilante violence in India since 2014, mainly involving Hindu

neg: Gail Omvedt has on occasion supported big-dam projects and GMO crops. Omvedt's portrayal of caste-discrimination and violence as forms of "racism" was opposed by the Indian government and sociologists in India, including Andre Beteille, who while acknowledging that discrimination exists, deeply opposed treating caste as a form of racism "simply to protect against prejudice and discrimination", describing such attempts as "politically mischievous" and "worse, scientifically nonsense". Beteille argues (that): In the past, some groups claimed superior rights on the ground that they belonged to the Aryan race or the Teutonic race. The anthropologists rejected such claims on two grounds: first, on the

neg: Same-sex marriage in Spain to them to resist the law. He said every profession linked with implementing same-sex marriages should oppose it, even if it meant losing their jobs. Gay rights supporters argued that while the Catholic Church also formally opposed opposite-sex, non-religious marriage, its opposition was not as vocal; for example, the Church did not object to the marriage of Prince Felipe to Letizia Ortiz, who had divorced from a previous civil marriage. The church was unable to gather enough support to derail the bill, even though more than 60% of Spaniards identify as members of the Catholic Faith. Sociologists believe this may

neg: Social death In the context of health, social death—when the ailing person no longer has the consciousness to communicate with others—can occur. Social death occurs during the progression of Alzheimer's disease and to patients rendered unconscious through palliative sedation (a type of end-of-life care) to reduce pain before an imminent death. Employees who retire from their careers can experience another example of social death because of their removal from the daily work lives of co-workers. Social death Social death is the condition of people not accepted as fully human by wider society. It is used by sociologists such as Zygmunt Bauman and

neg: Relative deprivation sociologists, have cited 'relative deprivation' (especially temporal relative deprivation) as a potential cause of social movements and deviance, leading in extreme situations to political violence such as rioting, terrorism, civil wars and other instances of social deviance such as crime. For example, some scholars of social movements explain their rise by citing grievances of people who feel deprived of what they perceive as values to which they are entitled. Similarly, individuals engage in deviant behaviors when their means do not match their goals. Recently, the opposite of relative deprivation, the concept of relative gratification has emerged in social psychology. American

neg: Nonmarket forces social sciences have identified and promoted political, social and cultural (including moral and ethical) factors as necessary complements to economic ones. Their inclusion helps achieve individual and organizational effectiveness in exchanges through personalized relations, internalized rules, norms and customs. For sociologists (e.g., Granovetter, 1985, 1992), nonmarket refers to endogenized social, political and cultural factors that permeate economic exchanges and are often necessary to achieve individual, organizational and interorganizational effectiveness which is not possible when economic action is “under-socialized.” Such factors allow many exchanges to take place even when pricing is difficult, money is inappropriate, markets are not available, property rights

neg: Sociology of culture to, the cultural." Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar, Germany, where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term "Kultursoziologie" (cultural sociology). Cultural sociology was then "reinvented" in the English-speaking world as a product of the "cultural turn" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may loosely be regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. In the beginning of the cultural turn, sociologists tended to use qualitative methods and hermeneutic approaches to research, focusing on meanings, words, artifacts and symbols. "Culture" has since become an important

neg: Disability neither is disability. Around the early 1970s, sociologists, notably Eliot Friedson, began to argue that labeling theory and social deviance could be applied to disability studies. This led to the creation of the social construction of disability theory. The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed as the social response to a deviance from the norm. The medical industry is the creator of the ill and disabled social role. Medical professionals and institutions, who wield expertise over health, have the ability to define health and physical and mental norms. When an individual has a feature that

neg: Sociological theory distinguish criminals from non criminals, but genetic factors together with environmental factors are strong predictors of adult crime and violence. Most psychologists see deviance as the result of "unsuccessful" socialization and abnormality in an individual personality. Sociologists have been active in developing theories about the nature of science and technology: Sociologists have developed various theories about social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Chronologically (by approximate date of origin) they include: Sociological theory Sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related. They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to paradigms

neg: Controversies about psychiatry everyday existence, and they rejected medicalization in the name of liberation. This critique was embodied in works such as Conrad's "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 (hyperkinesis was the term then used to describe what we might now call ADHD). Nevertheless, opium was used to pacify children in ancient Egypt before 2000 BC. These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz,1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that

neg: Pavel Romanov School of Economics. From 2010 to 2014 he was a professor of Socio-economic systems and Social Politics Department, the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Social Policy Studies, the member of the Russian Society of Sociologists, International Sociological Association, European Sociological Association and EspaNET. He died on June 9, 2014. Social Politics, Social History, Labour Relations, Sociology and Anthropology of Professions, Organizations and Management, Visual Studies, Methods of Sociological Researches, Economic Anthropology, Gender Studies. He was a professor in the following courses: Taught at several international summer schools, did open lectures in several universities. Created the concept of Industrial Paternalism, which

neg: Scale relativity space representation. Special and general relativity theory are notoriously hard to understand for non-specialists. This is partly because our psychological and sociological use of the concepts of space and time are not the same as the one in physics. Yet, the relativity of scales is still harder to apprehend than other relativity theories. Indeed, humans can change their positions and velocities but have virtually no experience of shrinking or dilating themselves. Such transformations appear in fiction however, such as in "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" or in the movie "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids". Sociologists Bontems and Gingras did a detailed

neg: Social class in the United States Due to class mobility individuals may also acculturate to the culture of another class when ascending or descending in the social order. However, one does need to remember that all social classes in the United States, except the upper class, consist of tens of millions of people. Thus social classes form social groups so large that they feature considerable diversity within and any statement regarding a given social class' culture needs to be seen as a broad generalization. Since 1970, sociologists Paula LeMasters and Melvin Kohl have set out repeatedly to research class based cultures. Class culture has been shown

neg: History of citizenship well as the possibility of social reform, according to one view. It invokes a model of what a person should do in relation to the state, and suggests education or punishment for those who stray from the model. Several thinkers see the modern notion of individualism as being sometimes consistent with citizenship, and other times opposed to it. Accordingly, the "modern individual" and the "modern citizen" seem to be the same, but too much individualism can have the effect of leading to a "crisis of citizenship". Another agreed that individualism can corrupt citizenship. Another sees citizenship as a substantial dilemma

neg: Renzo Novatore is true that he fights against the state, but he fights against it only because the state as it is doesn’t function as he would like". He also sees that Spencer "does not penetrate or understand the mysterious, aristocratic, vagabond, rebel individual!". And so he is critical of thinkers such as "Darwin, Comte, Spencer and Marx" which he sees as sociologists who will tend to not being "able to understand the varied, the particular... sacrifices the one or the other on the altar of the universal." Instead he takes sides with authors who are for him "the giants of Art

neg: Environmental sociology failed to fit in many Marxist analytic frameworks of conflict sociology. Sociologists entered the fray with empirical research on these novel social conflicts. Neo-Marxism's stress on the relative autonomy of the state from capital control instead of it being only a reflection of economic determinism of class conflict yielded this novel theoretical viewpoint in the 1970s. Neo-Marxist ideas of conflict sociology were applied to capital/state/labor/"environmental" conflicts instead of only labor/capital/state conflicts over production. Therefore, some sociologists wanted to stretch Marxist ideas of social conflict to analyze environmental social movements from this materialist framework instead of interpreting environmental movements as a

neg: Jindyworobak Movement express both the power and the alien character of the land. There is little that is really social or cultural about this use of an Aboriginal perspective, and no real sense of history." It is thus arguable in certain cases whether the poetry is aiming at an indigenous consciousness in whites or possession of the land, which the Indigenous Australians are seen as being in close contact with. The greatest indigenous influence on the Jindyworobaks was literature which had been taken down by white folklorists and anthropologists. Written, as opposed to transcribed, indigenous literature did not appear in print until

neg: Japanese philosophy existence, with own virtue. While the early modern Japanese thought developed in Confucianism and Buddhism, English Enlightenment and French human rights were prevalent after the Meiji Restoration rapidly affected by Western thought. From the time of Sino- and Russo-Japanese Wars, Japanese capitalism highly developed. Christianity and socialism developed and they tied to various social movements. In addition, nationalistic thought and study were formed while being opposed to foreign study. In the Meiji Restoration, English and French civil society was introduced, in particular, utilitarianism and social Darwinism from England, and popular sovereignty of Jean-Jacques Rousseau from France. The thinkers of the

neg: Songhai people of the population inherited slavery, and the "Zima", or priests and Islamic clerics, had to be initiated but did not automatically inherit that profession, making the cleric strata a pseudo-caste. Louis Dumont, the 20th-century author famous for his classic "Homo Hierarchicus", recognized the social stratification among Zarma-Songhai people as well as other ethnic groups in West Africa, but suggested that sociologists should invent a new term for West African social stratification system. Other scholars consider this a bias and isolationist because the West African system shares all elements in Dumont's system, including economic, endogamous, ritual, religious, deemed polluting, segregative and

neg: Analytical sociology bring about, analytical sociology is part of the "complexity turn" within sociology. Until very recently sociologists did not have the tools needed for analyzing the dynamics of complex systems, but powerful computers and simulation software have changed the picture considerably. So-called agent-based computer simulations are transforming important parts of sociology (as well as many other parts of the social and natural sciences) because they allow for rigorous theoretical analyses of large complex systems. The basic idea behind such analyses is to perform virtual experiments reflecting the analyst’s theoretical ideas and empirically-based knowledge about the social mechanisms influencing the action and