query: the structure that supports the organ of corti is the

pos: Organ of Corti of Corti is located in the scala media of the cochlea of the inner ear between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct and is composed of mechanosensory cells, known as hair cells. Strategically positioned on the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti are three rows of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row of inner hair cells (IHCs). Separating these hair cells are supporting cells: Deiters cells, also called phalangeal cells, which separate and support both the OHCs and the IHCs. Projecting from the tops of the hair cells are tiny finger like projections called stereocilia, which are

pos: Critical band illustrated in the form of a place–frequency map: The basilar membrane supports the organ of Corti, which sits within the scala media. The organ of Corti comprises both outer and inner hair cells. There are approximately between 15,000 and 16,000 of these hair cells in one ear. Outer hair cells have stereocilia projecting towards the tectorial membrane, which sits above the organ of Corti. Stereocilia respond to movement of the tectorial membrane when a sound causes vibration through the cochlea. When this occurs, the stereocilia separate and a channel is formed that allows chemical processes to take place. Eventually the

pos: Hearing for the smooth displacement of the inner ear fluid caused by the entering sound waves. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, which is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled tube. It is divided lengthwise by the organ of Corti, which is the main organ of mechanical to neural transduction. Inside the organ of Corti is the basilar membrane, a structure that vibrates when waves from the middle ear propagate through the cochlear fluid – endolymph. The basilar membrane is tonotopic, so that each frequency has a characteristic place of resonance along it. Characteristic frequencies are high at the basal entrance to the

pos: Basilar membrane the perilymph are very different chemically, biochemically, and electrically. Therefore, they are kept strictly separated. This separation is the main function of Reissner's membrane (between scala vestibuli and scala media), and it is also the function of tissue held by the basilar membrane such as the inner and outer sulcus cells (shown in yellow) and the reticular lamina of the organ of Corti (shown in magenta). For the organ of Corti the basilar membrane is permeable to perilymph. Here the border between endolymph and perilymph occurs at the reticular lamina, the endolymph side of the organ of Corti. The basilar

pos: Organ of Corti the first one described, which is instead called Air Conduction (or AC) hearing. Both AC and BC stimulate the basilar membrane in the same way (Békésy, G.v., Experiments in Hearing. 1960). The basilar membrane on the tympanic duct presses against the hair cells of the organ as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. The stereocilia atop the IHCs move with this fluid displacement and in response their cation, or positive ion selective, channels are pulled open by cadherin structures called tip links that connect adjacent stereocilia. The organ of Corti, surrounded in potassium rich fluid endolymph, lies on the basilar membrane at

pos: Organ of Corti of Corti is located in the scala media of the cochlea of the inner ear between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct and is composed of mechanosensory cells, known as hair cells. Strategically positioned on the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti are three rows of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row of inner hair cells (IHCs). Separating these hair cells are supporting cells: Deiters cells, also called phalangeal cells, which separate and support both the OHCs and the IHCs. Projecting from the tops of the hair cells are tiny finger like projections called stereocilia, which are

pos: Topographic map (neuroanatomy) firing of hair cells in the organ of Corti. The organ of Corti projects in an orderly fashion to structures in the brainstem (namely, the cochlear nuclei and the inferior colliculus), and from there to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and the primary auditory cortex. Adjacent sites on the organ of Corti, which are themselves selective for the sound frequency, are represented by adjacent neurons in the aforementioned CNS structures. This projection pattern has been termed tonotopy. The tonotopic layout of sound information begins in the cochlea where the basilar membrane vibrates at different positions along its length

pos: Vestibular membrane Vestibular membrane The vestibular membrane, vestibular wall or Reissner's membrane (), is a membrane inside the cochlea of the inner ear. It separates the cochlear duct from the vestibular duct. Together with the basilar membrane it creates a compartment in the cochlea filled with endolymph, which is important for the function of the spiral organ of Corti. It primarily functions as a diffusion barrier, allowing nutrients to travel from the perilymph to the endolymph of the membranous labyrinth. Histologically, the membrane is composed of two layers of flattened epithelium, separated by a basal lamina. Its structure suggests that its function

pos: Arthur Böttcher 1871 to 1877 he was editor of the magazine "Dorpater Medicinische Zeitschrift". Böttcher is largely known for his anatomical investigations of the inner ear, particularly studies involving the structure of the reticular lamina and nerve fibers of the organ of Corti. Today his name is associated with the eponymous "Bottcher cells", which are cells of the basilar membrane of the cochlea. Other anatomical terms that contain his name are: Arthur Böttcher Jakob Ernst Arthur Böttcher (July 13, 1831 – August 10, 1889) was a Baltic German pathologist and anatomist who was a native of Bauska, in what was then the

pos: Tonotopy Tonotopy In physiology, tonotopy (from Greek tono=frequency and topos = place) is the spatial arrangement of where sounds of different frequency are processed in the brain. Tones close to each other in terms of frequency are represented in topologically neighbouring regions in the brain. Tonotopic maps are a particular case of topographic organization, similar to retinotopy in the visual system. Tonotopy in the auditory system begins at the cochlea, the small snail-like structure in the inner ear that sends information about sound to the brain. Different regions of the basilar membrane in the organ of Corti, the sound-sensitive portion of

pos: Organ of Corti on the membrane of OHCs it then pulls on the basilar membrane and increasing how much the membrane is deflected, creating a more intense effect on the inner hair cells (IHCs). When the cell hyperpolarizes prestin lengthens and eases tension on the IHCs, which decreases the neural impulses to the brain. In this way, the hair cell itself is able to modify the auditory signal before it even reaches the brain. The organ of Corti, in between the scala tympani and the scala media, develops after the formation and growth of the cochlear duct. The inner and outer hair cells

pos: Non-invasive measurement of intracranial pressure ear to the oval window of the cochlea. Vibrations of the footplate of stapes transmit through the oval window to the perilymph, which in turn causes the endolymph, the basilar membrane, and the organ of Corti to vibrate, activating ultimately the acoustic sensor cells, the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti. The transfer function of this complex mechanical system under physiological conditions is modulated by the action of two small muscles of the middle ear, the tensor tympani, and stapedius. The tensor tympani arises from the cartilaginous portion of the auditory tube and the osseous canal of the

pos: Cochlea Corti, and determines the mechanical wave propagation properties of the cochlear system. The cochlea is filled with a watery liquid, the perilymph, which moves in response to the vibrations coming from the middle ear via the oval window. As the fluid moves, the cochlear partition (basilar membrane and organ of Corti) moves; thousands of hair cells sense the motion via their stereocilia, and convert that motion to electrical signals that are communicated via neurotransmitters to many thousands of nerve cells. These primary auditory neurons transform the signals into electrochemical impulses known as action potentials, which travel along the auditory nerve

pos: Sensorineural hearing loss as sensorineural deafness but should be distinguishable from the history and audiological testing. Hearing impairment may be associated with damage to the hair cells in the cochlea. Sometimes there may be complete loss of function of inner hair cells (IHCs) over a certain region of the cochlea; this is called a "dead region". The region can be defined in terms of the range of characteristic frequencies (CFs) of the IHCs and/or neurons immediately adjacent to the dead region. Outer hair cells (OHCs) contribute to the structure of the Organ of Corti, which is situated between the basilar membrane and the

pos: Cochlea Corti vibrates due to outer hair cells further amplifying these vibrations. Inner hair cells are then displaced by the vibrations in the fluid, and depolarise by an influx of K+ via their tip-link-connected channels, and send their signals via neurotransmitter to the primary auditory neurons of the spiral ganglion. The hair cells in the organ of Corti are tuned to certain sound frequencies by way of their location in the cochlea, due to the degree of stiffness in the basilar membrane. This stiffness is due to, among other things, the thickness and width of the basilar membrane, which along the

pos: Feature detection (nervous system) pre-pacemaker nucleus, which helps to regulate the discharge frequency of the electric organ in the jamming avoidance response. In the auditory system of bats, like in auditory systems of other vertebrates, primary sensory afferent neurons, which receive inputs from hair cells from a restricted region of the organ of Corti in the cochlea, are the simple feature detectors. These structures are sensitive to a restricted range of frequencies and therefore function as tuned filters. Experimentally, Nobuo Suga and his colleagues (1990) noted that various constant frequency (CF) and frequency modulated (FM) harmonics excited different parts of the basilar membrane because

pos: Tonotopy the cochlea, vibrate at different sinusoidal frequencies due to variations in thickness and width along the length of the membrane. Nerves that transmit information from different regions of the basilar membrane therefore encode frequency tonotopically. This tonotopy then projects through the vestibulocochlear nerve and associated midbrain structures to the primary auditory cortex via the auditory radiation pathway. Throughout this radiation, organization is linear with relation to placement on the organ of Corti, in accordance to the best frequency response (that is, the frequency at which that neuron is most sensitive) of each neuron. However, binaural fusion in the superior olivary

pos: Auditory fatigue heard over time, even when the actual intensity of the noise has not changed. This is caused by the exhaustion of the active process. The active process is also known as the cochlear amplifier. This amplification increases vibrations of the basilar membrane through energy obtained from the Organ of Corti. As the stimulation increases, it is assumed that basilar membrane displacement, caused by the traveling wave, becomes continually more basal in regards to the cochlea. A sustained low-level stimulus can cause an energetic exhaustion of the active system which in turn prevents the passive system from activating. Currently it is

pos: Vestibulocochlear nerve organ of Corti that are responsible for activation of afferent receptors in response to pressure waves reaching the basilar membrane through the transduction of sound. The exact mechanism by which sound is transmitted by the neurons of the cochlear nerve is uncertain; the two competing theories are place theory and temporal theory. The vestibular nerve travels from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The vestibular ganglion houses the cell bodies of the bipolar neurons and extends processes to five sensory organs. Three of these are the cristae located in the ampullae of the semicircular canals. Hair cells of the

pos: Mechanotransduction vestibuli and scala tympani. Because this motion is accompanied by a shearing motion between the tectorial membrane and the reticular lamina of the organ of Corti, the hair bundles that link the two are deflected, which initiates mechano-electrical transduction. When the basilar membrane is driven upward, shear between the hair cells and the tectorial membrane deflects hair bundles in the excitatory direction, toward their tall edge. At the midpoint of an oscillation the hair bundles resume their resting position. When the basilar membrane moves downward, the hair bundles are driven in the inhibitory direction. Basilar Membrane motion causes a shearing

pos: Tympanic duct Tympanic duct The tympanic duct or scala tympani is one of the perilymph-filled cavities in the inner ear of the human. It is separated from the cochlear duct by the basilar membrane, and it extends from the round window to the helicotrema, where it continues as vestibular duct. The purpose of the perilymph-filled tympanic duct and vestibular duct is to transduce the movement of air that causes the tympanic membrane and the ossicles to vibrate, to movement of liquid and the basilar membrane. This movement is conveyed to the organ of Corti inside the cochlear duct, composed of hair cells

pos: Boettcher cell regulation and ion transport. Boettcher cells are named after German pathologist Arthur Boettcher (1831-1889). Nitric oxide synthase is detected abundantly in the cytoplasm of their interdigitations. Their ultrastructure suggests that they perform both secretory and absorptive functions. Panx1 expression has been observed. Boettcher cell Boettcher cells are a special cell type located in the inner ear. Boettcher cells are polyhedral cells on the basilar membrane of the cochlea, and are located beneath Claudius cells. Boettcher cells are considered supporting cells for the organ of Corti, and are present only in the lower turn of the cochlea. These cells interweave with

pos: Transduction (physiology) middle ear (the ossicles) to vibrate. These vibrations then pass into the cochlea, the organ of hearing. Within the cochlea, the hair cells on the sensory epithelium of the organ of Corti bend and cause movement of the basilar membrane. The membrane undulates in different sized waves according to the frequency of the sound. Hair cells are then able to convert this movement (mechanical energy) into electrical signals (graded receptor potentials) which travel along auditory nerves to hearing centres in the brain. In the olfactory system, odorant molecules in the mucus bind to G-protein receptors on olfactory cells. The G-protein

pos: Auditory system ducts are filled with perilymph, and the smaller cochlear duct between them is filled with endolymph, a fluid with a very different ion concentration and voltage. Vestibular duct perilymph vibrations bend organ of Corti outer cells (4 lines) causing prestin to be released in cell tips. This causes the cells to be chemically elongated and shrunk (somatic motor), and hair bundles to shift which, in turn, electrically affects the basilar membrane’s movement (hair-bundle motor). These motors (outer cells) amplify the perilymph vibrations that initially incited them over 40-fold. Since both motors are chemically driven they are unaffected by the newly

pos: Tectorial membrane Tectorial membrane The tectorial membrane (TM) is one of two acellular membranes in the cochlea of the inner ear, the other being the basilar membrane (BM). The TM is located above the spiral limbus and the spiral organ of Corti and extends along the longitudinal length of the cochlea parallel to the BM. Radially the TM is divided into three zones, the limbal, middle and marginal zones. Of these the limbal zone is the thinnest (transversally) and overlies the auditory teeth of Huschke with its inside edge attached to the spiral limbus. The marginal zone is the thickest (transversally) and

pos: Vestibular membrane is transport of fluid and electrolytes. Reissner's membrane is named after German anatomist Ernst Reissner (1824-1878). Vestibular membrane The vestibular membrane, vestibular wall or Reissner's membrane (), is a membrane inside the cochlea of the inner ear. It separates the cochlear duct from the vestibular duct. Together with the basilar membrane it creates a compartment in the cochlea filled with endolymph, which is important for the function of the spiral organ of Corti. It primarily functions as a diffusion barrier, allowing nutrients to travel from the perilymph to the endolymph of the membranous labyrinth. Histologically, the membrane is composed of

pos: Inner ear In birds, crocodilians, and monotremes, the ducts are simply extended, together forming an elongated, more or less straight, tube. The endolymphatic duct is wrapped in a simple loop around the lagena, with the basilar membrane lying along one side. The first half of the duct is now referred to as the scala vestibuli, while the second half, which includes the basilar membrane, is called the scala tympani. As a result of this increase in length, the basilar membrane and papilla are both extended, with the latter developing into the organ of Corti, while the lagena is now called the cochlear

pos: Hair cell Hair cell Hair cells are the sensory receptors of both the auditory system and the vestibular system in the ears of all vertebrates. Through mechanotransduction, hair cells detect movement in their environment. In mammals, the auditory hair cells are located within the spiral organ of Corti on the thin basilar membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear. They derive their name from the tufts of stereocilia called "hair bundles" that protrude from the apical surface of the cell into the fluid-filled cochlear duct. Mammalian cochlear hair cells are of two anatomically and functionally distinct types, known as outer, and

pos: Audiometry waves in the fluids of the cochlea, causing the basilar membrane to vibrate. This stimulates the sensory cells of the organ of Corti, atop the basilar membrane, to send nerve impulses to the central auditory processing areas of the brain, the auditory cortex, where sound is perceived and interpreted. Subjective audiometry requires the cooperation of the subject, and relies upon subjective responses which may both qualitative and quantitative, and involve attention (focus), reaction time, etc. Speech audiometry may include: Objective audiometry is based on physical, acoustic or electrophysiologic measurements and does not depend on the cooperation or subjective responses of

pos: Inner ear in the membranous labyrinth. The vestibular wall will separate the cochlear duct from the perilymphatic scala vestibuli, a cavity inside the cochlea. The basilar membrane separates the cochlear duct from the scala tympani, a cavity within the cochlear labyrinth. The lateral wall of the cochlear duct is formed by the spiral ligament and the stria vascularis, which produces the endolymph. The hair cells develop from the lateral and medial ridges of the cochlear duct, which together with the tectorial membrane make up the organ of Corti. Rosenthal's canal or the spiral canal of the cochlea is a section of the

neg: Organ of Corti Organ of Corti The organ of Corti, or spiral organ, is the receptor organ for hearing and is located in the mammalian cochlea. This highly varied strip of epithelial cells allows for transduction of auditory signals into nerve impulses' action potential. Transduction occurs through vibrations of structures in the inner ear causing displacement of cochlear fluid and movement of hair cells at the organ of Corti to produce electrochemical signals. Italian anatomist Alfonso Giacomo Gaspare Corti (1822–1876) discovered the organ of Corti in 1851. The structure evolved from the basilar papilla and is crucial for mechanotransduction in mammals. The organ

neg: Organ of Corti arranged in a graduated fashion with the shortest stereocilia on the outer rows and the longest in the center. This gradation is thought to be the most important anatomic feature of the organ of Corti because this allows the sensory cells superior tuning capability. If the cochlea were uncoiled it would roll out to be about 33 mm long in women and 34mm in men, with about 2.28 mm of standard deviation for the population. The cochlea is also tonotopically organized, meaning that different frequencies of sound waves interact with different locations on the structure. The base of the cochlea,

neg: Organ of Corti the organ of Corti before the differentiation of hair cells will result in a disruption in the differentiation, and potential malfunction of, the organ of Corti. The organ of Corti can be damaged by excessive sound levels, leading to noise-induced impairment. The most common kind of hearing impairment, sensorineural hearing loss, includes as one major cause the reduction of function in the organ of Corti. Specifically, the active amplification function of the outer hair cells is very sensitive to damage from exposure to trauma from overly-loud sounds or to certain ototoxic drugs. Once outer hair cells are damaged, they do

neg: Organ of Corti then differentiate into their appropriate positions and are followed by the organization of the supporting cells. The topology of the supporting cells lends itself to the actual mechanical properties that are needed for the highly specialized sound-induced movements within the organ of Corti. Development and growth of the organ of Corti relies on specific genes, many of which have been identified in previous research (SOX2, GATA3, EYA1, FOXG1, BMP4, RAC1 and more), to undergo such differentiation. Specifically, the cochlear duct growth and the formation of hair cells within the organ of Corti. Mutations in the genes expressed in or near

neg: Evolution of the cochlea generally small, with at most 2000 hair cells, whereas in archosaurs the basilar papilla can be much longer (>10mm in owls) and contain many more hair cells that show two typical size extremes, the short and the tall hair cells. In mammals, the structure is known as the organ of Corti and shows a unique arrangement of hair cells and supporting cells. All mammalian organs of Corti contain a supporting tunnel made up of pillar cells, on the inner side of which there are inner hair cells and outer hair cells on the outer side. The definitive mammalian middle ear

neg: Organ of Corti not regenerate, and the result is a loss of sensitivity and an abnormally large growth of loudness (known as "recruitment") in the part of the spectrum that the damaged cells serve. While hearing loss has always been considered irreversible in mammals, fish and birds routinely repair such damage. A 2013 study has shown that the use of particular drugs may reactivate genes normally expressed only during hair cell development. The research was carried out at Harvard Medical School, the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, and the Keio University School of Medicine in Japan. History. (n.d.). Organ of Corti The organ

neg: Inner ear duct. All of these structures together constitute the cochlea. In mammals (other than monotremes), the cochlea is extended still further, becoming a coiled structure in order to accommodate its length within the head. The organ of Corti also has a more complex structure in mammals than it does in other amniotes. The arrangement of the inner ear in living amphibians is, in most respects, similar to that of reptiles. However, they often lack a basilar papilla, having instead an entirely separate set of sensory cells at the upper edge of the saccule, referred to as the papilla amphibiorum, which appear

neg: Organ of Corti closest to the outer ear, is the most stiff and narrow and is where the high frequency sounds are transduced. The apex, or top, of the cochlea is wider and much more flexible and loose and functions as the transduction site for low frequency sounds. The function of the organ of Corti is to transduce auditory signals and minimise the hair cells’ extraction of sound energy. It is the auricle and middle ear that act as mechanical transformers and amplifiers so that the sound waves end up with amplitudes 22 times greater than when they entered the ear. In normal

neg: Inner ear into the intercellular space. They are supporting cells for the auditory hair cells in the organ of Corti. They are named after German pathologist Arthur Böttcher (1831-1889). Claudius' cells are found in the organ of Corti located above rows of Boettcher's cells. Like Boettcher's cells they are considered supporting cells for the auditory hair cells in the organ of Corti. They contain a variety of aquaporin water channels and appear to be involved in ion transport. They also play a role in sealing off endolymphatic spaces. They are named after the German anatomist Friedrich Matthias Claudius (1822-1869). Deiters' cells (phalangeal

neg: Reticular membrane basilar pole, the outer hair cells are firmly held by the phalangeal cells. The inner phalangeal cells that surround the inner hair cells reach the surface of the organ of corti, but, even their inner-most row, are not included in the reticular membrane. Thus, the RM up to the outer edge of the tectorial membrane and does not extend unto the surface of the organ of corti. Reticular membrane The reticular membrane (RM, also called reticular lamina or apical cuticular plate) is a thin, stiff lamina that extends from the outer hair cells to the Hensen's cells. The RM is

neg: Sobp truncating mutations "jc" and "jc" lead to profound hearing loss and erratic circling behavior. Specifically, the cochlear duct is shortened, the organ of Corti exhibits supernumerary outer hair cells, mirror image duplications of tunnel of Corti and inner hair cells, as well as ectopic expression of patches of vestibular-like hair cells in Kolliker's organ. The vestibular end organs have a smaller surface area and are thicker. Sobp Sine oculis-binding protein homolog (SOBP) also known as Jackson circler protein 1 (JXC1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "SOBP" gene. The first "SOBP" gene was identified in "Drosophila

neg: Congenital sensorineural deafness in cats hearing deficiency, 72% of the animals were found to be totally deaf. The entire organ of Corti was found to have degenerated within the first few weeks after birth; however, even during these weeks no brain stem responses could be evoked by auditory stimuli, suggesting that these animals had never experienced any auditory sensations. It was found that some months after the organ of Corti had degenerated, the spiral ganglion also began to degenerate. Domesticated white cats with blue eyes and white coats are often completely deaf. Whether or not this is a result of Waardenburg syndrome remains unclear. Deafness

neg: Organ of Corti hearing subjects, the majority of the auditory signals that reach the organ of Corti in the first place come from the outer ear. Sound waves enter through the auditory canal and vibrate the tympanic membrane, also known as the eardrum, which vibrates three small bones called the ossicles. As a result, the attached oval window moves and causes movement of the round window, which leads to displacement of the cochlear fluid. However, the stimulation can happen also via direct vibration of the cochlea from the skull. The latter is referred to as Bone Conduction (or BC) hearing, as complementary to

neg: Pedipalp final segment of the pedipalp, the tarsus, develops a complicated structure (sometimes called the palpal bulb or palpal organ) that is used to transfer sperm to the female seminal receptacles during mating. The details of this structure vary considerably between different groups of spiders and are useful for identifying species. The cymbium is a spoon-shaped structure located at the end of the spider pedipalp that supports the palpal organ. The cymbium may also be used as a stridulatory organ in spider courtship. The embolus is a narrow whip-like or leaf-like extension of the palpal bulb. Pedipalp Pedipalps (commonly shortened to

neg: Evolution of the cochlea motor function in land vertebrates, but this developed vastly differently in different lineages. In certain birds and mammals, prestins function as both transporters and motors, but the strongest evolution to robust motor dynamics only evolved in therian mammals. It is hypothesized that this motor system is significant to the therian cochlea at high frequencies because of the distinctive cellular and bony composition of the organ of Corti that allows the prestins to intensify movements of the whole structure. Modern ultra-sound echolocating species such as bats and toothed whales show highly evolved prestins, and these prestins show identical sequence alterations over

neg: Organ of Corti then sent through the auditory nerve and into the auditory cortex of the brain as a neural message. The organ of Corti is also capable of modulating the auditory signal. The outer hair cells (OHCs) can amplify the signal through a process called electromotility where they increase movement of the basilar and tectorial membranes and therefore increase deflection of stereocilia in the IHCs. A crucial piece to this cochlear amplification is the motor protein prestin, which changes shape based on the voltage potential inside of the hair cell. When the cell is depolarized prestin shortens, and because it is located

neg: Tectorial membrane is divided from the middle zone by Hensen's Stripe. It overlies the sensory inner hair cells and electrically-motile outer hair cells of the organ of Corti and during acoustic stimulation stimulates the inner hair cells through fluid coupling, and the outer hair cells via direct connection to their tallest stereocilia. The TM is a gel-like structure containing 97% water. Its dry weight is composed of collagen (50%), non-collagenous glycoproteins (25%) and proteoglycans (25%). Three inner-ear specific glycoproteins are expressed in the TM, α-tectorin, β-tectorin and otogelin. Of these proteins α-tectorin and β-tectorin form the striated sheet matrix that regularly organises

neg: GJB6 hair cells for mechanotransduction and supporting cells. Gap junction channels are only found between cochlear supporting cells. While gap junctions in the inner ear are critically involved in potassium recycling to the endolymph, connexin expression in the supporting cells surrounding the organ of Corti have been found to support epithelial tissue lesion repair following loss of sensory hair cells. An experiment with Cx30 null mice found deficits in lesion closure and repair of the organ of Corti following hair cell loss, suggesting that Cx30 has a role in regulating lesion repair response. Connexin 26 and connexin 30 are commonly accepted

neg: Auditory system occur along its length. The frequency is an approximately exponential function of the length of the cochlea within the Organ of Corti. In some species, such as bats and dolphins, the relationship is expanded in specific areas to support their active sonar capability. The organ of Corti forms a ribbon of sensory epithelium which runs lengthwise down the cochlea's entire "scala media". Its hair cells transform the fluid waves into nerve signals. The journey of countless nerves begins with this first step; from here, further processing leads to a panoply of auditory reactions and sensations. Hair cells are columnar cells,

neg: Organ of Corti the base of the scala media. Under the organ of Corti is the scala tympani and above it, the scala vestibuli. Both structures exist in a low potassium fluid called perilymph. Because those stereocilia are in the midst of a high concentration of potassium, once their cation channels are pulled open, potassium ions as well as calcium ions flow into the top of the hair cell. With this influx of positive ions the IHC becomes depolarized, opening voltage-gated calcium channels at the basolateral region of the hair cells and triggering the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. An electrical signal is

neg: Cochlear amplifier of amplification through positive feedback. This positive feedback mechanism is achieved through a somatic motor and a hair bundle motor which operate independently of one another. The somatic motor is the OHC cell body and its ability to elongate or contract longitudinally due to changes in membrane potential. This function is aptly associated with the OHC structure within the Organ of Corti. As seen through scanning electron micrograph imagery, the apical side of the OHC is mechanically coupled to the reticular lamina while the basal side of the OHC is coupled to the Deiter's cell cupula. Because the cell body

neg: Inner ear bony labyrinth of the inner ear that is approximately 30 mm long and makes 2¾ turns about the modiolus, the central axis of the cochlea that contains the spiral ganglion. There are several specialized types of cell in the inner ear. Among these are hair cells, pillar cells, Boettcher's cells, Claudius' cells and Deiters' cells (phalangeal cells). The hair cells are the primary auditory receptor cells and they are also known as auditory sensory cells, acoustic hair cells, auditory cells or cells of Corti. The organ of Corti is lined with a single row of inner hair cells and three

neg: Jonathan Ashmore which led to work with Paul Fatt and Gertrude Falk between 1974 and 1977 in the Biophysics Department. Ashmore was appointed a Lecturer in Physiology at the University of Bristol in 1983 an promoted to Reader in 1988, before moving back to UCL in 1993. Ashmore has worked on dissecting the cellular mechanisms of hearing by studying the organ of Corti in the mammalian cochlea especially the guinea pig ("Cavia porcellus"). This structure in the inner ear increases the selectivity and sensitivity of our hearing through an in-built cochlear amplifier. He showed that specialised cells known as outer hair cells

neg: Sensorineural hearing loss They are also useful in cases where a tumour is suspected or to determine the degree of damage in a hearing loss caused by bacterial infection or auto-immune disease. Scanning is of no value in age-related deafness. Sensory hearing loss is caused by abnormal structure or function of the hair cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea. Neural hearing impairments are consequent upon damage to the eighth cranial nerve (the vestibulocochlear nerve) or the auditory tracts of the brainstem. If higher levels of the auditory tract are affected this is known as central deafness. Central deafness may present

neg: David Bodian and director of the department in 1957. When he accepted the position of professor emeritus of anatomy and neurobiology in the Department of Laryngology and Otology in 1977, he ran an electron microscopy laboratory. In his later work, Bodian studied the spiral structure within the cochlea known as the Organ of Corti. David Bodian married Elinor Widmont, a medical illustrator and painter who contributed illustrations to some of Bodian's published articles, in 1944. They had five children. Bodian died of Parkinson's disease in September 1992. Over the next twenty years, the Hopkins team made a series of discoveries, several of

neg: Urban Pritchard appointed lecturer on physiology for evening classes at King's College. At the same time, he was researching the structure of the ear, and the organ of Corti in particular. He continued to research and publish papers until 1881, after which he devoted himself to clinical work and to his extensive private practice. In 1874 he was appointed surgeon of the Royal Ear Hospital, holding this position until 1900, when he stepped down and became consulting surgeon. In 1876 he was appointed aural surgeon at King's College Hospital, holding this position until 1910. On his retirement he was succeeded by Arthur

neg: Stereocilia (inner ear) to tiny springs, which, when stretched, open cation selective channels thus allowing ions to flow across the cell membrane into the hair cells. They also are involved in the force transmission across the bundle and the maintenance of the hair bundle structure. As acoustic sensors in mammals, stereocilia are lined up in the organ of Corti within the cochlea of the inner ear. In hearing, stereocilia transform the mechanical energy of sound waves into electrical signals for the hair cells, which ultimately leads to an excitation of the auditory nerve. Stereocilia are composed of cytoplasm with embedded bundles of cross-linked

neg: Speech science into mechanical energy, the message reaches the oval window, which is the beginning of the inner ear. Once inside the inner ear, the message is transferred into hydraulic energy by going through the cochlea, which is filled with fluid, and on to the Organ of Corti. This organ again helps the sound to be transferred into a neural impulse that stimulates the auditory pathway and reaches the brain. Sound is then processed in Heschl's gyrus and associated with meaning in Wernicke's area. As for theories of speech perception, there are a motor and an auditory theory. The motor theory is

neg: Evolution of the cochlea of the ear, consisting of the scala media, the scala tympani, and the scala vestibuli. Regarding mammals, placental and marsupial cochleae have similar cochlear responses to auditory stimulation as well as DC resting potentials. This leads to the investigation of the relationship between these therian mammals and researching their ancestral species to trace the origin of the cochlea. This spiral-shaped cochlea that is in both marsupial and placental mammals is traced back to approximately 120 million years ago. The development of the most basic basilar papilla (the auditory organ that later evolved into the Organ of Corti in mammals) happened

neg: Circumventricular organs with cardiovascular control. Recent study has focused on the subfornical organ as an area particularly important in the regulation of energy. The observation that subfornical neurons are perceptive of a wide range of circulating energy balance signals, and that electrical stimulation of the SFO in rats resulted in food intake supports the SFO’s importance in energy homeostasis. Additionally, it is assumed that the SFO is the lone forebrain structure capable of constant monitoring of circulating concentrations of glucose. This responsiveness to glucose again serves to solidify the SFO’s integral role as a regulator of energy homeostasis. The subcommissural organ (SCO)

neg: Sensorineural hearing loss tectorial membrane within the cochlea (See Figure 3). The tunnel of corti, which runs through the Organ of Corti, divides the OHCs and the inner hair cells (IHCs). OHCs are connected to the reticular laminar and the Deiters’ cells. There are roughly twelve thousand OHCs in each human ear, and these are arranged in up to five rows. Each OHC has small tufts of 'hairs', or cilia, on their upper surface known as stereocilia, and these are also arranged into rows which are graded in height. There are approximately 140 stereocilia on each OHC. The fundamental role of the OHCs

neg: Cochlea to its coiled shape; the cochlea is coiled in mammals with the exception of monotremes. Cochlea The cochlea is the part of the inner ear involved in hearing. It is a spiral-shaped cavity in the bony labyrinth, in humans making 2 turns(full) and a 3/4(3 quarters) turn around its axis, the modiolus. A core component of the cochlea is the Organ of Corti, the sensory organ of hearing, which is distributed along the partition separating fluid chambers in the coiled tapered tube of the cochlea. The name cochlea derives . The cochlea (plural is cochleae) is a spiralled, hollow, conical

neg: Cochlea Cochlea The cochlea is the part of the inner ear involved in hearing. It is a spiral-shaped cavity in the bony labyrinth, in humans making 2 turns(full) and a 3/4(3 quarters) turn around its axis, the modiolus. A core component of the cochlea is the Organ of Corti, the sensory organ of hearing, which is distributed along the partition separating fluid chambers in the coiled tapered tube of the cochlea. The name cochlea derives . The cochlea (plural is cochleae) is a spiralled, hollow, conical chamber of bone, in which waves propagate from the "base" (near the middle ear and

neg: Jesse Corti Maryland. At that time, Laura Corti had been returning to New York City after having seen her husband perform in "Les Misérables" at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C.. The crew of the freight train in that collision tested positive for marijuana and Jesse Corti subsequently appeared in both an English-language and a Spanish-language public service announcement for Partnership for a Drug-Free America. Jesse Corti Jesse Corti (born July 3, 1955) is a Venezuelan-American actor and voice actor. He is best known for voicing Le Fou in "Beauty and the Beast" and playing Courfeyrac in the original Broadway show "Les

neg: Auditory fatigue metabolic demands of the system. These increasing demands fatigue the system and eventually lead to structural damages to the Organ of Corti. In all cases of auditory fatigue, sufficient recovery time should allow full correction of the hearing impairment and return threshold levels to their baseline values. There is currently no way to estimate the amount of time needed to recover from auditory fatigue because it is not usually detectable until after the injury has already occurred. Studies that measured recovery time have noted that the time required is related to the magnitude of the initial hearing loss. The most

neg: Ear the brain. The hollow channels of the inner ear are filled with liquid, and contain a sensory epithelium that is studded with hair cells. The microscopic "hairs" of these cells are structural protein filaments that project out into the fluid. The hair cells are mechanoreceptors that release a chemical neurotransmitter when stimulated. Sound waves moving through fluid flows against the receptor cells of the organ of Corti. The fluid pushes the filaments of individual cells; movement of the filaments causes receptor cells to become open to receive the potassium-rich endolymph. This causes the cell to depolarise, and creates an action

neg: Acoustic reflex reflex). The protection of the organ of Corti, provided by the acoustic reflex against excessive stimulation (especially that of the lower frequencies) has been demonstrated both in man and animals. But this protection effect is limited. According to the article "Significance of the stapedius reflex for the understanding of speech", the latency of contraction is only about 10ms, but maximum tension may not be reached for 100 ms or more. According to the article "Le traumatisme acoustique", the latency of contraction is 150 ms with noise stimulus which SPL is at the threshold (ATR), and 25-35 ms at high sound

neg: Retinoblastoma protein the gene for Rb is deleted in mice cochlea, hair cells continue to proliferate in early adulthood. Though this may seem to be a positive development, Rb-knockdown mice tend to develop severe hearing loss due to degeneration of the organ of Corti. For this reason, Rb seems to be instrumental for completing the development of mammalian hair cells and keeping them alive. However, it is clear that without Rb, hair cells have the ability to proliferate, which is why Rb is known as a tumor suppressor. Temporarily and precisely turning off Rb in adult mammals with damaged hair cells may

neg: St. Mary's Basilica (Phoenix) was the only parish in Phoenix until 1924 and is home to Arizona's largest stained glass windows collection and a 26 rank pipe organ built by the Schantz Organ Company. The church's Mission Revival–Spanish Colonial Revival structure supports four domes spanning the length of the Basilica. All the domes are compound design with the pendentives, following Roman architecture, transferring the weight of the roof to the pillars. The dome over the intercept point of the crossover, the nave center aisle and the apse, is topped with stained glass and features a lantern above the dome to emit light into the

neg: Vestibulocochlear nerve the brainstem). This junction between the pons, medulla, and cerebellum that contains the 8th nerve is called the cerebellopontine angle. The vestibulocochlear nerve is accompanied by the labyrinthine artery, which usually branches off from the anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) at the cerebellopontine angle, and then goes with the 8th nerve through the internal acoustic meatus to the internal ear. The cochlear nerve travels away from the cochlea of the inner ear where it starts as the spiral ganglia. Processes from the organ of Corti conduct afferent transmission to the spiral ganglia. It is the inner hair cells of the

neg: Evolution of the cochlea Thus evidence from fossils demonstrate homoplasies for the detachment of the ear from the jaw. Furthermore, it is apparent that the land-based eardrum, or tympanic membrane, and connecting structures such as the Eustachian tube evolved convergently in multiple different settings as opposed to being a defining morphology. Evolution of the cochlea Cochlea is Latin for “snail, shell or screw” and originates from the Greek word κοχλίας "kohlias". The modern definition, the auditory portion of the inner ear, originated in the late 17th century. Within the mammalian cochlea exists the organ of Corti, which contains hair cells that are responsible for

neg: Evolution of the cochlea Evolution of the cochlea Cochlea is Latin for “snail, shell or screw” and originates from the Greek word κοχλίας "kohlias". The modern definition, the auditory portion of the inner ear, originated in the late 17th century. Within the mammalian cochlea exists the organ of Corti, which contains hair cells that are responsible for translating the vibrations it receives from surrounding fluid-filled ducts into electrical impulses that are sent to the brain to process sound. This spiral-shaped cochlea is estimated to have originated during the early Cretaceous Period, around 120 million years ago. Further, the auditory innervation of the spiral-shaped cochlea

neg: Actin loss. Six autosomal-dominant point mutations in the sequence have been found to cause various types of hearing loss, particularly sensorineural hearing loss linked to the DFNA 20/26 locus. It seems that they affect the stereocilia of the ciliated cells present in the inner ear's Organ of Corti. β-actin is the most abundant protein found in human tissue, but it is not very abundant in ciliated cells, which explains the location of the pathology. On the other hand, it appears that the majority of these mutations affect the areas involved in linking with other proteins, particularly actomyosin. Some experiments have suggested

neg: Olivocochlear system from the fibres’ characteristic frequency, and are thus tonotopically organised in the same fashion as the primary afferent neurons. The fibres of the LOCS also appear to be arranged in a tonotopic fashion. However, it is not known whether the characteristic frequencies of the LOCS fibres coincide with the characteristic frequencies of the primary afferent neurons, since attempts to selectively stimulate the fibres of the LOCS have been largely unsuccessful. Intrinsic LOCS derived axons travel only approximately 1 µm within the organ of Corti, generally spiraling apically. They give off a small tuft of synaptic boutons that is compact in

neg: Olivocochlear system its extent, often involving less than 10 IHCs. In comparison, shell neurons spiral both apically and basally, and can cover large territories within the organ of Corti. The shell axons often cover 1-2 octaves of tonotopic length. Their terminal arbor is quite sparse, however. All currently known activity of the olivocochlear system is via a nicotinic class neurotransmitter receptor complex that is coupled with a calcium-activated potassium channel. Together, these systems generate an unusual synaptic response to stimulation from the brain. The olivocochlear synaptic terminals contain various neurotransmitters and neuroactive peptides. The major neurotransmitter employed by the olivocochlear system is

neg: Nico Corti Nico Corti Nicolas Corti (born 2 June 1995) is a Belgian footballer who plays for Rio Grande Valley FC Toros in the United Soccer League. Corti played five years of college soccer at Stanford University between 2013 and 2017, including a redshirted year in 2013. While at college, Corti played with USL PDL side Burlingame Dragons. Corti joined United Soccer League side Rio Grande Valley FC Toros on 18 January 2018. He made his professional debut on 16 March 2018 in a 1-1 draw with Saint Louis FC. Corti was born in Brussels, but was raised in the south of

neg: Cochlear nucleus Axons from the spiral ganglion cells of the lower frequencies innervate the ventrolateral portions of the ventral cochlear nucleus and lateral-ventral portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The axons from the higher frequency organ of corti hair cells project to the dorsal portion of the ventral cochlear nucleus and the dorsal-medial portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The mid frequency projections end up in between the two extremes; in this way the tonotopic organization that is established in the cochlea is preserved in the cochlear nuclei. This tonotopic organization is preserved because only a few inner hair cells synapse on

neg: Renato Corti Stations of the Cross at Rome's Colosseum in 2015. Pope Francis raised Corti to the rank of cardinal at a consistory held on 19 November 2016. Having passed the age of 80, Corti is not eligible to participate in a papal conclave. He was given the rank of Cardinal-Priest and assigned the titular church of San Giovanni a Porta Latina. Renato Corti Renato Corti (born 1 March 1936) is an Italian cardinal and prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He was Bishop of Novara from 1990 to 2011. Pope Francis raised Corti to the rank of cardinal at a consistory

neg: Inner ear cells) are a type of neuroglial cell found in the organ of Corti and organised in one row of inner phalangeal cells and three rows of outer phalangeal cells. They are the supporting cells of the hair cell area within the cochlea. They are named after the German pathologist Otto Deiters (1834-1863) who described them. Hensen's cells are high columnar cells that are directly adjacent to the third row of Deiters’ cells. Hensen's stripe is the section of the tectorial membrane above the inner hair cell. Nuel's spaces refer to the fluid filled spaces between the outer pillar cells and

neg: Cochlear amplifier confirmation that such an active mechanism was present in the ear. These emissions are now termed otoacoustic emissions and are produced by what we call the cochlear amplifier. The first modeling effort to define the cochlear amplifier was a simple augmentation of Georg von Békésy's passive traveling wave with an active component. In such a model, a lop sided pressure about the Organ of Corti is hypothesized which actively adds to the passive traveling wave to form the active traveling wave. Perhaps the most popular example of this model was defined by Neely, S.T. and Kim, D.O. The definition of

neg: Axel Corti Hans Swarowsky. Corti also worked as a film director and was appointed a professor at the Filmacademy Vienna in 1972. His 1975 film "The Condemned" was entered into the 9th Moscow International Film Festival. Corti married in 1964 and was the father of three sons. He died of leukemia in Oberndorf, Salzburg and is buried in the Arnsdorf cemetery of nearby Lamprechtshausen. Since 1997 an annual "Axel-Corti-Preis" for outstanding TV productions is awarded by several Austrian adult education associations. Axel Corti Axel Corti (born "Axel Fuhrmanns"; 7 May 1933 – 29 December 1993) was an Austrian screenwriter, film director and

neg: Sound localization middle ear to vibrate, which then sends the energy through the oval window and into the cochlea where it is changed into a chemical signal by hair cells in the organ of corti, which synapse onto spiral ganglion fibers that travel through the cochlear nerve into the brain. In vertebrates, inter-aural time differences are known to be calculated in the superior olivary nucleus of the brainstem. According to Jeffress, this calculation relies on delay lines: neurons in the superior olive which accept innervation from each ear with different connecting axon lengths. Some cells are more directly connected to one ear

neg: Claudio Corti (motorcyclist) Claudio Corti (motorcyclist) Claudio Corti (born 25 June 1987) is a Grand Prix motorcycle racer from Italy. He currently competes in the British National Superstock 1000 Championship aboard a Kawasaki ZX-10R. Born in Como, Corti progressed up the motorcycling ladder through the Italian 125GP Championship and by 2004, he had finished as runner-up in the Italian Supersport Championship. In 2005, Corti moved into the European Superstock 600cc Cup, run on the Superbike World Championship support package. Riding for the Trasimeno team, Corti and France's Yoann Tiberio battled for the championship title, with Corti claiming the honours by eight points. He

neg: Interaural time difference fibres innervate the outer hair cells. Both leave the organ of Corti through an opening called the habenula perforata. The type I fibres are thicker than the type II fibres and may also differ in how they innervate the inner hair cells. Neurons with large calycal endings ensure preservation of timing information throughout the ITD pathway. Next in the pathway is the cochlear nucleus, which receives mainly ipsilateral (that is, from the same side) afferent input. The cochlear nucleus has three distinct anatomical divisions, known as the antero-ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN), postero-ventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN) and dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN)

neg: Nico Corti France and California in the United States. He holds Belgian, French and American citizenship. Nico Corti Nicolas Corti (born 2 June 1995) is a Belgian footballer who plays for Rio Grande Valley FC Toros in the United Soccer League. Corti played five years of college soccer at Stanford University between 2013 and 2017, including a redshirted year in 2013. While at college, Corti played with USL PDL side Burlingame Dragons. Corti joined United Soccer League side Rio Grande Valley FC Toros on 18 January 2018. He made his professional debut on 16 March 2018 in a 1-1 draw with Saint

neg: Interaural time difference to shift the membrane potential of the neuron. Furthermore, the shift is dependent on the frequency tuning of each neuron, ultimately creating a more complex confluence and analysis of sound. Franken, et al.'s findings provide several pieces of evidence that contradict existing theories about binaural audition. The auditory nerve fibres, known as the afferent nerve fibres, carry information from the organ of Corti to the brainstem and brain. Auditory afferent fibres consist of two types of fibres called type I and type II fibres. Type I fibres innervate the base of one or two inner hair cells and Type II

neg: Andrew Rayel trance-influenced big room house track which was initially debuted in his 2018 Ultra Music Festival performance. He released "Dark Resistance" on 11 May 2018, "In The Dark" with Haliene on 1 June 2018, and "New Dawn" with Corti Organ and Max Cameron on 6 July 2018. Rayel underwent a change in his big room sound with the release of "Last Summer" with Fernando Garibay on 3 August 2018, which was a pop song that incorporated aspects of acoustic music. Rayel told "Billboard" that the track was an "completely unexpected sound", and that he enjoyed "experimenting and trying something [he has]

neg: Jesse Corti was raised in Paterson, New Jersey. His father was a Baptist minister. He graduated from Eastside High School in 1973. He is married to Julietta Corti and they have two children. Their children are Jesse David Corti, an actor, who provided the voice of Neku Sakuraba in the video games "The World Ends with You" and "", and Avrielle Corti, who is also an actress. He is the uncle of Miguel Corti, who is part of Capcom's localization staff. Corti's first wife, Laura, was killed in a 1987 collision between an Amtrak train and a Conrail freight train in Chase,

neg: Inner ear "otocyst". The auditory vesicle will give rise to the utricular and saccular components of the membranous labyrinth. They contain the sensory hair cells and otoliths of the macula of utricle and of the saccule, respectively, which respond to linear acceleration and the force of gravity. The utricular division of the auditory vesicle also responds to angular acceleration, as well as the endolymphatic sac and duct that connect the saccule and utricle. Beginning in the fifth week of development, the auditory vesicle also gives rise to the cochlear duct, which contains the spiral organ of Corti and the endolymph that accumulates

neg: Alberto Alén Pérez this article, Alberto Alén applied his extensive knowledge of psychology and statistics to the traditional musical forms analysis. In it he explains, referring to the perception of musical structures: “The visual forms (as well as the audition and tactile forms) are something different from a succession or sum of particular sensations. They are something else. The complex of stimulations that arrive to the retina (or to the Organ of Corti in the case of audition) generate, at a cortical level, – so affirms Pavlov- “functional systems that act integrally as in the case of an elemental conditioned reflex’, where all

neg: Sustentacular cell Sustentacular cell A sustentacular cell is a type of cell primarily associated with structural support. One type of sustentacular cell is the Sertoli cell, in the testicle. It is located in the walls of the seminiferous tubules and supplies nutrients to sperm. Another type of sustentacular cell is found in the olfactory epithelium. The organ of Corti in the inner ear and taste buds also contain sustentacular cells. Another type of sustentacular cell is found with glomus cells of the carotid and aortic bodies. About 40% of carcinoids have a scattering of sustentacular cells, which stain positive for S-100. Sustentacular

neg: Renato Corti Renato Corti Renato Corti (born 1 March 1936) is an Italian cardinal and prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He was Bishop of Novara from 1990 to 2011. Pope Francis raised Corti to the rank of cardinal at a consistory on 19 November 2016. Renato Corti was born in Galbiate in the province of Lecco, part of the Archdiocese of Milan on 1 March 1936. He studied at the seminary in Milan and was ordained on 28 July 1959 by Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini (later Pope Paul VI). His assignments included serving as parrochial vicar of the Oratory of Caronno

neg: Pendrin chloride (Cl) for bicarbonate (HCO) across a plasma membrane in the chloride cells of freshwater fish. By phylogenetic analysis, pendrin has been found to be a close relative of prestin present on the hair cells or organ of corti in the inner ear. Prestin is primarily an electromechanical transducer but pendrin is an ion transporter. Pendrin is an ion exchanger found in many types of cells in the body. High levels of pendrin expression have been identified in the inner ear and thyroid. In the thyroid, pendrin mediates a component of the efflux of iodide across the apical membrane of

neg: Cochlea interpreted. Two of the three fluid sections are canals and the third is a sensitive 'organ of Corti' which detects pressure impulses which travel along the auditory nerve to the brain. The two canals are called the vestibular canal and the tympanic canal. The walls of the hollow cochlea are made of bone, with a thin, delicate lining of epithelial tissue. This coiled tube is divided through most of its length by an inner membranous partition. Two fluid-filled outer spaces ("ducts" or "scalae") are formed by this dividing membrane. At the top of the snailshell-like coiling tubes, there is a

neg: Cochlea the cochlear duct. Its fluid, endolymph, also contains electrolytes and proteins, but is chemically quite different from perilymph. Whereas the perilymph is rich in sodium ions, the endolymph is rich in potassium ions, which produces an ionic, electrical potential. The hair cells are arranged in four rows in the organ of Corti along the entire length of the cochlear coil. Three rows consist of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row consists of inner hair cells (IHCs). The inner hair cells provide the main neural output of the cochlea. The outer hair cells, instead, mainly "receive" neural input from the

neg: Claudio Corti (climber) Claudio Corti (climber) Claudio Corti (1928 – 3 February 2010) was a mountain climber from Olginate, Italy. He is most famous for his 1957 effort to climb the 1938 route on the north face of the Eiger, during which his party was stranded and a massive rescue operation was organized. Corti was successfully rescued, but his partner, Stefano Longhi, was not. The German team of Gunther Nothdurft and Franz Meyer, who met the Italian team on the face, successfully summited but died on the way down. Corti, who spent over a week on the face, became the centre of a

neg: Aquaporin 4 involved in a variety of physiological processes such as waste removal and fine-tuning of potassium homeostasis. Water flowing into and out of the brain or spinal cord is assisted by AQP4. Here, AQP4 channels respond passively to osmotic gradients. In addition, they play a role in brain water transport, cell migration, brain edema, metabolism and cell homeostasis. Other systems are also regulated by AQP4. Within the inner ear, the main role is to provide osmotic balance in supporting epithelium cells within the organ of Corti by recycling K+. Another specific role AQP4 plays is to help odorant molecules bind to

neg: Eugenio Corti petition through its website. The aim of the petition is to compel the Swedish Academy to make Corti a candidate for the Nobel Prize for literature. As of September 2010, the petition has been signed by several thousand supporters. On 4 February 2014 Corti, aged 93, died at his home in Besana in Brianza. Eugenio Corti Eugenio Corti (21 January 1921 – 4 February 2014) was an Italian writer born in Besana in Brianza. After participating in the Italian retreat from Russia in World War II, he joined the Italian Freedom Fighters. Based on these experiences, he wrote "Few Returned"

neg: Inner ear rows of outer hair cells. The hair cells have a hair bundle at the apical surface of the cell. The hair bundle consists of an array of actin-based stereocilia. Each stereocilium inserts as a rootlet into a dense filamentous actin mesh known as the cuticular plate. Disruption of these bundles results in hearing impairments and balance defects. Pillar cells are found in the organ of Corti and act as supporting cells for hair cells. They are divided into two types: inner and outer. Outer pillar cells are unique in that they are free standing cells with no contact to adjacent

neg: Ear vestibular duct, the cochlear duct, and the tympanic duct. Hair cells responsible for transduction—changing mechanical changes into electrical stimuli are present in the organ of Corti in the cochlea. The blood supply of the ear differs according to each part of the ear. The outer ear is supplied by a number of arteries. The posterior auricular artery provides the majority of the blood supply. The anterior auricular arteries provide some supply to the outer rim of the ear and scalp behind it. The posterior auricular artery is a direct branch of the external carotid artery, and the anterior auricular arteries

neg: Cochlea responds better to lower frequencies. In addition, in mammals, the cochlea is coiled, which has been shown to enhance low-frequency vibrations as they travel through the fluid-filled coil. This spatial arrangement of sound reception is referred to as tonotopy. For "very low frequencies" (below 20 Hz), the waves propagate along the complete route of the cochlea – differentially up "vestibular duct" and "tympanic duct" all the way to the "helicotrema". Frequencies this low still activate the organ of Corti to some extent, but are too low to elicit the perception of a pitch. Higher frequencies do not propagate to the