query: when did the use of iron began in the subcontinent

pos: Iron Age are found in the Geum River basin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased in this period. The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began during the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi, Allahabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period

neg: Ferrous metallurgy of bronze or tin in the Early Iron Age. Bronze objects remained abundant, and these objects have the same percentage of tin as those from the Late Bronze Age. The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began in the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in Gangetic plains have yielded iron implements dated between 1800–1200 BC. By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale in India. In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron was in use 12th to 11th centuries BC. The technology of iron metallurgy advanced in the politically stable Maurya period and

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent Medicine in Colonial India", scholar David Arnold examines the effect of the British Raj in Indian mining and metallurgy: The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets were developed by the Mysorean army of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore in the 1780s. The Mysoreans successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BCE and continued well into the British Raj. Metals and related concepts were mentioned in various early

neg: History of domes in the Indian subcontinent Grand Mosque in Mecca was constructed in 1986. It has three domes, the largest of which is the central one which reaches 15 m in height and has a diameter of 21.5 m at the central bulging. History of domes in the Indian subcontinent Islamic rule over northern and central India brought with it the use of domes constructed with stone, brick and mortar, and iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for

neg: History of domes in the Indian subcontinent History of domes in the Indian subcontinent Islamic rule over northern and central India brought with it the use of domes constructed with stone, brick and mortar, and iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforcement. The synthesis of styles created by this introduction of new forms to the Hindu tradition of trabeate construction created a distinctive architecture. Domes in pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape with a lotus

neg: Iron Age in India new finds and their dates suggest the need for a fresh review. According to him, the evidence corroborates the early use of iron in other areas of the country, and attests that India was indeed an independent centre for the development of the working of iron. The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu at around 1000 BCE. Iron Age in India In the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent, an "Iron Age" is recognized as succeeding the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture. The main Iron Age archaeological cultures of present-day northern India are

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent and the Satapatha Brahmana refer to "krsna ayas" ("black metal"), which could be iron (but possibly also iron ore and iron items not made of smelted iron). There is also some controversy if the term syamayas ("black metal) refers to iron or not. In later texts the term refers to iron. In earlier texts, it could possibly also refer to darker-than-copper bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. Copper can also become black by heating it. Oxidation with the use of sulphides can produce the same effect. The Yajurveda seems to know iron. In the Taittiriya Samhita are references to

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent earliest evidence for smelted iron in India dates to 1300 to 1000 BCE. These early findings also occur in places like the Deccan and the earliest evidence for smelted iron occurs in Central India, not in north-western India. Moreover, the dates for iron in India are not later than in those of Central Asia, and according to some scholars (e.g. Koshelenko 1986) the dates for smelted iron may actually be earlier in India than in Central Asia and Iran. The Iron Age did however not necessary imply a major social transformation, and Gregory Possehl wrote that "the Iron Age is

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent with Baluchistan and northern Afghanistan, or the lack of migrants from the north-west who could have procured tin. The copper-bronze metallurgy in the Harappan civilization was widespread and had a high variety and quality. The early use of iron may have developed from the practice of copper-smelting. While there is to date no proven evidence for smelted iron in the Indus Valley Civilization, iron ore and iron items have been unearthed in eight Indus Valley sites, some of them dating to before 2600 BCE. There remains the possibility that some of these items were made of smelted iron, and the

neg: Bloomery of the bloomery. While earlier examples of iron are found, their high nickel content indicates that this is meteoric iron. Other early samples of iron may have been produced by accidental introduction of iron ore in bronze smelting operations. Iron appears to have been smelted in the West as early as 3000 BC, but bronze smiths, not being familiar with iron, did not put it to use until much later. In the West, iron began to be used around 1200 BC. China has long been considered the exception to the general use of bloomeries. It was thought that the Chinese

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent metals such as silver, gold, tin and copper from their ores and their purification were also mentioned in the treatise. The Rasa Ratnasamuccaya describes the extraction and use of copper. Chakrabarti (1976) has identified six early iron-using centres in India: Baluchistan, the Northwest, the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Gangetic valley, eastern India, Malwa and Berar in central India and the megalithic south India. The central Indian region seems to be the earliest iron-using centre. According to Tewari, iron using and iron "was prevalent in the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas from the early 2nd millennium BC." The

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent 1st millennium BCE saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy was achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. The years between 322—185 BCE saw several advancements being made to the technology involved in metallurgy during the politically stable Maurya period (322—185 BCE). Greek historian Herodotus (431—425 BCE) wrote the first western account of the use of iron in India. Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron,

neg: Princely state Though principalities and chiefdoms existed on the Indian subcontinent from at least the Iron Age, the history of princely states on the Indian subcontinent dates to at least the 5th–6th centuries C.E., during the rise of the middle kingdoms of India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire. Many of the future ruling clan groups – notably the Rajputs – began to emerge during this period; by the 13th–14th centuries, many of the Rajput clans had firmly established semi-independent principalities in the north-west, along with several in the north-east. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities

neg: Blacksmith like Athena, fully-grown from the head of Zeus. Very few artifacts remain, due to loss from corrosion, and re-use of iron as a valuable commodity. What information exists indicates that all of the basic operations of blacksmithing were in use as soon as the Iron Age reached a particular locality. The scarcity of records and artifacts, and the rapidity of the switch from Bronze Age to Iron Age, is a reason to use evidence of bronze smithing to infer about the early development of blacksmithing. It is uncertain when Iron weapons replaced Bronze weapons because the earliest Iron swords did

neg: 1st millennium century sees renewed fragmentation in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. In Japan, a sharp increase in population followed when farmers' use of iron tools increased their productivity and crop yields. The Yamato court was established. In South Asia, the Indian subcontinent was divided among numerous kingdoms throughout the first millennium, until the formation of the Gupta Empire. In Mesoamerica, the first millennium was a period of enormous growth known as the Classic Era (200–900 AD). Teotihuacan grew into a metropolis and its empire dominated Mesoamerica. In South America, pre-Incan, coastal cultures flourished, producing impressive metalwork and some of

neg: Tava Tava A tava(h), tawa(h), tapa, saj, or sac is a large flat, concave or convex disc-shaped frying pan (dripping pan/ flat skillet/ griddle) made from metal, usually sheet iron, cast iron, sheet steel or aluminium originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is used in Central, West Asia, Caucasus, and the Indian subcontinent, for cooking a variety of flatbreads and as a frying pan. It also sometimes refers to ceramic frying pan. In West Asia, "tava"/"saj" are invariably convex, while in the Indian subcontinent, both flat and concave versions are found. In nearly all Indo-Aryan languages such as Punjabi, Hindi and

neg: Ferrous metallurgy Ferrous metallurgy Ferrous metallurgy is the metallurgy of iron and its alloys. It began far back in prehistory. The earliest surviving iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in Egypt, were made from meteoritic iron-nickel. It is not known when or where the smelting of iron from ores began, but by the end of the 2nd millennium BC iron was being produced from iron ores from Sub-Saharan Africa to China. The use of wrought iron (worked iron) was known by the 1st millennium BC, and its spread marked the Iron Age. During the medieval period, means were found in Europe

neg: Iron Age may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest in the Migration Period. Iron working was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons. It did not happen at the same time all around Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example the Iron Age of

neg: Sword or the application of diamond shaped patterns on the blade (see sword of Goujian). Also unique for Chinese bronzes is the consistent use of high tin bronze (17–21% tin) which is very hard and breaks if stressed too far, whereas other cultures preferred lower tin bronze (usually 10%), which bends if stressed too far. Although iron swords were made alongside bronze, it was not until the early Han period that iron completely replaced bronze. In the Indian subcontinent, earliest available Bronze age swords of copper were discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization sites in the northwestern regions of South Asia.

neg: Bronze Age the introduction of bronze during the beginning of the Early Yayoi period (~300 BC), which saw the introduction of metalworking and agricultural practices bought in by settlers arriving from the continent. Bronze and iron smelting techniques spread to the Japanese archipelago through contact with other ancient East Asian civilizations, particularly immigration and trade from the Korean peninsula and ancient Mainland China. Iron was mainly used for agricultural and other tools, whereas ritual and ceremonial artifacts were mainly made of bronze. The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the Indus Valley civilization. Inhabitants

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent suggesting that the date of the technology's inception may be placed earlier. In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE. These developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The "Arthashastra" of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. The use of suspension bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible by about the 4th century. The "stupa", the precursor of the pagoda and torii, was constructed by the 3rd century BCE. Rock-cut step wells in the region date from 200-400 CE. Subsequently,

neg: History of domes in the Indian subcontinent is faced with marble blocks in attached to the core by alternating wide and narrow layers and there is evidence of the use of iron cramps to secure them. Iron cramps may also help form a tension ring at the base of the dome. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domed chattri made of brick and faced with stone. Smaller domes were widely made with rectangular bricks beginning in the 16th century, the necessary curvature being created by tapering the mortar joints. Chatris, the domed kiosks on pillars

neg: Sword Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the Ganges-Jamuna Doab region of Indian subcontinent, consisting of bronze but more commonly copper. Diverse specimens have been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt. These swords have been variously dated to times between 1700–1400 BC, but were probably used more in the opening centuries of the 1st millennium BC. Iron became increasingly common from the 13th century BC. Before that the use of swords was less frequent. The iron was not quench-hardened although often containing sufficient carbon, but work-hardened like bronze by hammering. This made them comparable or

neg: White Dragon (comics) his mind. Iron Man learned that he was manipulated and began tracking the transmission. When White Dragon detected the lost contact with Tony Stark and the approaching of Iron Man, White Dragon sent his armored agents to fight Iron Man. The armored agents defeated Iron Man, but were defeated when the Avengers arrived. The armored agents fled while Iron Man leaves to figure out what is wrong with him. When his efforts with Tony Stark is a failure, White Dragon initiated the self-destruct of the device he placed in Tony Stark's head. The device did not harm Tony Stark since

neg: Iron railing Iron railing An iron railing is a fence made of iron. This may either be wrought iron, which is ductile and durable and may be hammered into elaborate shapes when hot, or the cheaper cast iron, which is of low ductility and quite brittle. Cast iron can also produce complicated shapes, but these are created through the use of moulds of compressed sand rather than hammering, which would be likely to damage the iron. One of the earliest uses of cast iron railings in England was in 1710–14 at St Paul's Cathedral, despite the objections of Christopher Wren, who did

neg: Pottery in the Indian subcontinent (OCP, Cemetery H) and gave rise to the Vedic Civilization. Black and red ware culture (BRW) is a late Bronze Age and early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, associated with the Vedic civilization. In the Western Ganges plain (western Uttar Pradesh) it is dated to c. 1450-1200 BCE, and is succeeded by the Painted Grey Ware culture; whereas in the Central and Eastern Ganges plain (eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal) and Central India (Madhya Pradesh) the BRW appears during the same period but continues for longer, until c. 700-500 BCE, when it is

neg: Cast-iron cookware use when cooking stoves became popular; this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast-iron skillet. Cast-iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers during the first half of the 20th century. It was a cheap, yet durable cookware. Most American households had at least one cast-iron cooking pan, and brands such as Griswold, which began manufacturing in 1865, Wagner Ware, which began manufacturing in 1881, and Lodge Manufacturing, which entered the marketplace in 1896 as Blacklock Foundry, all competed for market share. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel-coated cast-iron cookware.

neg: History of the iron and steel industry in the United States ore deposits favored larger, more permanent iron smelters. Most US iron smelting before 1850 took place near iron deposits in eastern Pennsylvania, New York, and northern New Jersey. New Jersey's principal iron ore district, at Dover, supported iron smelters beginning in 1710. The Cornwall Iron Furnace in Pennsylvania was established next to an iron deposit. The Adirondack iron ore district of New York also supported iron smelters. The movement away from charcoal in US iron smelting began in 1827, when a puddling furnace in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania started using anthracite coal. Blast furnaces continued to use only charcoal until about 1840,

neg: Cast iron water to a waterwheel) in Britain, beginning in 1743 and increasing in the 1750s, was a key factor in increasing the production of cast iron, which surged in the following decades. In addition to overcoming the limitation on water power, the steam-pumped-water powered blast gave higher furnace temperatures, which allowed the use of higher lime ratios, enabling the conversion from charcoal, supplies of wood for which were inadequate, to coke. The use of cast iron for structural purposes began in the late 1770s, when Abraham Darby III built the Iron Bridge, although short beams had already been used, such as

neg: African archaeology the origins and spread of livestock pastoralism throughout the continent. Likewise, the early use of metallurgy by farming communities was not developed independently in Africa until around 3000 BCE. Pockets of iron usage appeared in subsequent millennia but metal did not supplant stone in the south of the continent until around 500 BCE, when both iron and copper spread southwards through the continent, reaching the Cape around 200 CE. Although some details regarding the Bantu expansion are still controversial amongst archaeologists, linguists, and historians, the widespread use of iron does seem to have played a major role in the spread

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent BCE, iron smelting was definitely practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may well be placed as early as the 16th century BCE. The Black and Red Ware culture was another early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian subcontinent. It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th centuries BCE, and associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization. It extended from the upper Gangetic plain in Uttar Pradesh to the eastern Vindhya range and West Bengal. Perhaps as early as 300 BCE, although certainly by 200 CE, high quality steel was being

neg: Tava etc. Meat is also cooked on a "saj". The traditional Georgian chicken tapaka is cooked on a tapa. Tava A tava(h), tawa(h), tapa, saj, or sac is a large flat, concave or convex disc-shaped frying pan (dripping pan/ flat skillet/ griddle) made from metal, usually sheet iron, cast iron, sheet steel or aluminium originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is used in Central, West Asia, Caucasus, and the Indian subcontinent, for cooking a variety of flatbreads and as a frying pan. It also sometimes refers to ceramic frying pan. In West Asia, "tava"/"saj" are invariably convex, while in the Indian

neg: Desi Jews of origin, also when the topic involves all the Indian subcontinent. Many outsiders tend to indiscriminately use the word "Indian" for South Asian people and culture. This might be considered offensive by non-Indian Desi (the state of India is just a part of the Indian subcontinent). Unlike other areas of the world, the Jewish communities were accepted and integrated in the local society of the Indian subcontinent. Also, similar to the Parsis, and other (originally) foreign communities, the preservation of group identity was facilitated by the caste system. In Desi society, a person's allegiance to a group, part of its

neg: William Losh when he collaborated with George Stephenson in the development of improved cast-iron rails that did not break as easily as existing rails. At the time, Losh had an ironworks in Walker, where the new rails could be manufactured. Subsequently, when Stephenson was building the Stockton and Darlington Railway, he decided to use wrought-iron rails obtained from the Bedlington Ironworks. This caused a permanent rift with William Losh, who had believed that he had an agreement with Stephenson to use his own rails. Losh retired from the alkali business in 1831. In addition to being an alkali manufacturer he worked as

neg: Iron armour Iron armour Iron armour was a type of armour used on warships and, to a limited degree, fortifications. The use of iron gave rise to the term ironclad as a reference to a ship 'clad' in iron. The earliest material available in sufficient quantities for armouring ships was iron, wrought or cast. While cast iron has never been used for naval armour, it did find a use in land fortifications, presumable due to the lower cost of the material. One well known example of cast-iron armour for land use is the Gruson turret, first tested by the Prussian government in

neg: Ancient history evidence of massive ritual burial. The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region. The Iron Age over all was characterized by the prevalent smelting of iron with Ferrous metallurgy and the use of Carbon steel. Smelted iron proved more durable than earlier metals such as Copper or Bronze and allowed for more productive societies. The Iron Age took place at different times in different parts of the world, and comes to an end when a society began to maintain

neg: South Asia rest of Eurasia. The Indian subcontinent is also a geological term referring to the land mass that drifted northeastwards from ancient Gondwana, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Palaeocene. This geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The use of the term Indian subcontinent began in the British Empire, and has been a term particularly common in its successors. This region has also been labelled as "India" (in its classical and pre-modern sense), "Greater India", or as South Asia. According to anthropologist John R. Lukacs, "the

neg: Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent by three Chinese visitors to India. Chinese scholars travelling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, Yijing, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist "Sangha" in the Northwestern parts of Indian subcontinent, especially in the wake of the Hun invasion from central Asia in the 6th century CE. Xuanzang wrote that numerous monasteries in north-western India had been reduced to ruins by the Huns. The Hun ruler Mihirakula, who ruled from 515 CE in north-western region (modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north India), suppressed Buddhism as well. He did this

neg: George Henry Preble in for repairs, the usual complement of six ships had been reduced to two. "Winona" had been dispatched to chase another blockade runner and was returning from that chase when "Florida" began her run. One of "Oneida"s iron boilers had been shut down for repairs leaving only one in operation. (One of the officers stated that the Navy's choice to use cheaper iron rather than steel was the actual cause of the problem.) When "Florida" began her run, Preble moved to place"Oneida" in front of "Florida". At 6:00 PM, he ordered shots fired across her bow. Believing that the ship

neg: Stone (G.I. Joe) himself on the run when SKAR briefly seized control of America. Along with his team, this attempt was thwarted and Iron Klaw apparently killed. Stone, however, did not believe Iron Klaw as really dead, and eventually concluded that he had replaced Clancy. Upon confronting him, Stone was beaten by Iron Klaw and lay in a coma for some time. Upon recovering, Stone immediately began searching for Clancy, finding him being held captive by the Tong crime syndicate in Hong Kong at the behest of SKAR. After rescuing his old friend, Stone set out to take down Iron Klaw once and

neg: History of metallurgy in China in the Warring-States-period: "Earliest iron and steel Jian also appear, made by the earliest and most basic forging and folding techniques." Iron, however, largely remained a product for non-military and non-aristocratic use, employed by farmers for hundreds of years, and did not really affect the nobility of China until the Qin dynasty, when iron long-swords became a part of the Qin army's equipment. Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 contains, among other early descriptions of inventions, a method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast similar to the modern Bessemer process. Chinese metallurgy was widely practiced during

neg: Wrought iron not harm the iron when it was in the solid state. On the other hand, the German process, used in Germany, Russia, and most of Sweden used a single hearth for all stages. The introduction of coke for use in the blast furnace by Abraham Darby in 1709 (or perhaps others a little earlier) initially had little effect on wrought iron production. Only in the 1750s was coke pig iron used on any significant scale as the feedstock of finery forges. However, charcoal continued to be the fuel for the finery. From the late 1750s, ironmasters began to develop processes

neg: Sword 'Ulfberht' blades (the name of the maker inlaid in the blade) were of particularly consistent high quality. Charles the Bald tried to prohibit the export of these swords, as they were used by Vikings in raids against the Franks. Wootz steel which is also known as Damascus steel was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to the special smelting and reworking of the steel creating networks of iron carbides described as a globular cementite in a matrix of pearlite. The use of Damascus

neg: Benjamin Bevan encouraged to take up engineering after meeting the geologist William Smith. In 1802 he completed his first engineering project; a redesign of the Lake Bridge at Leighton Buzzard. Two years later he began working on canals, first working on the Wendover branch of the Grand Junction, and later taking over (along with John Woodhouse and Henry Provis) from the canal's original engineer James Barnes. On this canal, Bevan pioneered the use of iron as a material for aqueducts, constructing one of Britain's earliest iron aqueducts over the River Great Ouse. The work he did on the Grand Junction led to

neg: Pope John Paul II Agency for Overseas Development published a paper stating, "Any strategy that enables a person to move from a higher-risk towards the lower end of the continuum, [we] believe, is a valid risk reduction strategy." There was strong criticism of the pope for the controversy surrounding the alleged use of charitable social programmes as a means of converting people in the Third World to Catholicism. The pope created an uproar in the Indian subcontinent when he suggested that a great harvest of faith would be witnessed on the subcontinent in the third Christian millennium. In 1988, when Pope John Paul II

neg: Willenhall began to be exploited with ore being sent out to charcoal furnaces in nearby Cannock Chase. The iron product was then returned to be turned into small metal goods. Nails were a common product and by the end of 17th century Willenhall had a healthy hand trade, making grid irons, curry combs, bolts, latches and coffin handles. According to the Hearth Tax Returns in 1665, Willenhall comprised 136 households and 894 persons. The population did not increase dramatically until the 18th century when iron and coal began to be fully exploited. The town grew up around the Market Place and

neg: Askam and Ireleth this record from a church survey taken in 1650: In 1860, Ireleth, along with the newly founded Askam, petitioned for the creation of its own parish following the rapid increase in population. Construction of a parish church began, with the money to build St. Peter's coming from the new-found profits of iron ore mining, giving rise to the name the 'Iron Church'. It was dedicated for use on St. Peter's Day, 29 June 1865, but approval for a new ecclesiastical parish of 'Ireleth-with-Askam' did not come until almost ten years later in 1874. Askam's history starts much more recently. In

neg: Second Industrial Revolution used in the electrification of industry. Household electrification did not become common until the 1920s, and then only in cities. Fluorescent lighting was commercially introduced at the 1939 World's Fair. Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of electro-chemicals, such as aluminium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium. The use of machine tools began with the onset of the First Industrial Revolution. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron—and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. One of the first machine tools was John Wilkinson's boring machine,

neg: Chepstow Railway Bridge their apparent rivalry, Brunel and Stephenson were great personal friends, to the extent that they supported each other professionally. When Stephenson was under pressure during the enquiry following the collapse of his cast-iron girder bridge over the River Dee killing several people, Brunel did not desert him. In spite of his extreme distrust of the use of cast-iron girders for such purposes, Brunel refused to condemn them when cross-examined as an expert witness. He was also present to provide Stephenson moral support, when the great Britannia box-girders were floated across the river prior to being jacked up to their final

neg: 1796 Heavy Cavalry Sword from the waist via sword-belt slings attached to two loose suspension rings. Variant sword types with the standard trooper's blade, but a bowl hilt similar to that of the officers' pattern, in brass with a brass scabbard (for the Life Guards) or iron with an iron scabbard (for the Horse Guards), exist and are believed to have been issued to the other ranks of the Household regiments for use when on home (ceremonial) service. The scabbards of these swords did not usually have suspension rings, but were fitted with a button or slide for use with a 'frog' - a

neg: Mining stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the demand for iron. Medieval knights, for example, were often laden with up to of plate or chain link armour in addition to swords, lances and other weapons. The overwhelming dependency on iron for military purposes spurred iron production and extraction processes. The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when all mines had reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be pumped dry with the available technology. Although an increased use of banknotes, credit and copper coins during this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on, precious metals, gold and silver still

neg: Cowbell bells can have specific sounds to identify important characteristics of the animals, such as age, sex, and species. Some cultures have even developed names to differentiate between bells and their tones; for example, in Spanish "truco" refers to stud males, "esquila" to female goats or ewes, and "esquileta" for pregnant females and immature animals. Each of these bells possess unique sounds, shapes, and sizes. It is difficult to pinpoint when exactly the use of cow bells began, but the earliest examples of truly recognizable cow bells date back to the Iron Age. The use of iron bells in sub-Saharan African

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent Indian map, depicting the former Rajput capital at Amber in remarkable house-by-house detail, measures 661 × 645 cm. (260 × 254 in., or approximately 22 × 21 ft).' Early volumes of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" described cartographic charts made by the seafaring Dravidian people. In "Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)", Stephen Oliver Fought & John F. Guilmartin, Jr. describe the gunpowder technology in 18th-century Mysore: Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that manufacturing process for Wootz was also in existence in South India before the Christian era. Evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). The mining of diamonds and its early use as gemstones originated in India. Golconda served as an important early center for diamond mining and processing. Diamonds were then exported to other parts of the world. Early reference to diamonds comes from Sanskrit texts. The "Arthashastra" also mentions diamond trade in the region. The Iron pillar of

neg: 2nd millennium BC Iron Age. Other regions of the world are still in the prehistoric period. In Europe, the Beaker culture introduces the Bronze Age, presumably associated with Indo-European expansion. The Indo-Iranian expansion reaches the Iranian plateau and onto the Indian subcontinent (Vedic India), propagating the use of the chariot. Mesoamerica enters the Pre-Classic (Olmec) period. North America is in the late Archaic stage. In Maritime Southeast Asia, the Austronesian expansion reaches Micronesia. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Bantu expansion begins. World population rises steadily, possibly surpassing the 100 million mark for the first time. Please see the article on Chronology of the ancient

neg: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent Shah Bahmani. In "A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder", James Riddick Partington describes the gunpowder warfare of 16th and 17th century Mughal India, and writes that "Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bamboo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic... The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahāngir." By the 16th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse

neg: Hyder Ali Second Anglo–Mysore Wars, and he was the innovator of military use of the iron-cased Mysorean rockets. He also significantly developed Mysore's economy. Though illiterate, Hyder Ali earned an important place in the history of southern India for his administrative acumen and military skills. He concluded an alliance with the French against the British and used the services of French workmen in raising his artillery and arsenal. His rule of Mysore was characterised by frequent warfare with his neighbours and rebellion within his territories. This was not unusual for the time as much of the Indian subcontinent was then in turmoil.

neg: Against All Odds (2005) win his matches) during the match, he would be automatically disqualified and would lose the NWA World Heavyweight Championship to Nash even if the referee did not see him use it. Another storyline rivalry heading into Against All Odds was for the TNA X Division Championship between the champion, A.J. Styles, and the challenger, Christopher Daniels, in a thirty-minute Iron Man match. An Iron Man match involves two competitors fighting for a predetermined amount of time, in this case thirty-minutes, after which whoever gained more pinfalls or submissions is the victor. The rivalry for this match began on the January

neg: Cumberland Valley Railroad rails. Iron bar, thick by wide, was spiked to the top of the stringers. When service began to Chambersburg, the iron was not laid for the last and the cars were run in on the wooden stringers. The first Cumberland Valley Railroad Bridge across the Susquehanna was opened for travel on January 16, 1839. The first regular passenger service to Philadelphia, via the Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mount Joy and Lancaster Railroad, began on February 1, 1839 with the following schedule: The Cumberland Valley Railroad pioneered the use of sleeping cars in the spring of 1839, a first on any American railroad,

neg: Marquette, Michigan of the area did not begin until 1844, when William Burt and Jacob Houghton (the brother of geologist Douglass Houghton) discovered iron deposits near Teal Lake west of Marquette. In 1845, Jackson Mining Company, the first organized mining company in the region, was formed. The village of Marquette began on September 14, 1849, with the formation of a second iron concern, the Marquette Iron Company. Three men participated in organizing the firm: Robert J. Graveraet, who had prospected the region for ore; Edward Clark, agent for Waterman A. Fisher of Worcester, Massachusetts, who financed the company, and Amos Rogers Harlow.

neg: Makera Assada around 1500 BC, with the development of furnaces capable of forging iron tools. The era of Iron had begun and the art of blacksmith soon spread throughout western Africa. Blacksmithing began with the Iron Age, when primitive man first began making tools from iron. The Iron Age began when some primitive person noticed that a certain type of rock yielded iron, when heated by the coals of a very hot campfire. In short, we can say that blacksmithing the art of crafting that crude metal into a usable implement, has been around for a long time. In Nigeria, the NOK

neg: Wendel Bollman for all bridges on the line. Noticing that wooden bridges had a life-span of only about 10 years, he began looking at using iron for his bridges. At that time railroads made limited use of iron bridges. After a failure of an iron bridge on the New York and Erie in 1849, that railroad stopped using them. Bollman began working on a new truss configuration for iron bridges, and in 1849 Latrobe found it acceptable for use on two of the B&O's shorter spans. In 1851 Bollman replaced the 124-foot (37.8 m) wooden bridge at Harpers Ferry. This would become

neg: Northern Black Polished Ware of it, and saw an independent development toward urbanisation and the use of iron. The end of the NBP culture around 200 BCE was marked by the replacement of the NBP ware with a different style of pottery, namely red ware decorated with stamped and incised designs. However, the same cities continued to be inhabited, and the period from c. 200 BCE to c. 300 CE was still "marked by urban prosperity all over the subcontinent," corresponding to the Shunga and Satavahana Dynasties, and the Kushan Empire. Some notable NBPW sites, associated with the mahajanapadas, are as follows: Other sites

neg: Curtain wall (architecture) particularly when large panels of glass infill were involved. When iron began to be used extensively in buildings in late 18th-century Britain such as at Ditherington Flax Mill, and later when buildings of wrought iron and glass such as The Crystal Palace were built, the building blocks of structural understanding were laid for the development of curtain walls. Oriel Chambers (1864) and 16 Cook Street (1866), both built in Liverpool, England, by local architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis, are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Towards the courtyards they even boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls,

neg: Iron ore of aluminum contamination was small enough that it did not have an effect on either the iron or slag. However, when brick began to be used for hearths and the interior of blast furnaces, the amount of aluminium contamination increased dramatically. This was due to the erosion of the furnace lining by the liquid slag. Aluminium is difficult to reduce. As a result, aluminium contamination of the iron is not a problem. However, it does increase the viscosity of the slag ( and ). This will have a number of adverse effects on furnace operation. The thicker slag will slow

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent more of a continuation of the past then a break with it". Archaeological data suggests that India was "an independent and early centre of iron technology." According to Shaffer, the "nature and context of the iron objects involved [of the BRW culture] are very different from early iron objects found in Southwest Asia." In Central Asia, the development of iron technology was not necessarily connected with Indo-Iranian migrations either. J.M. Kenoyer (1995) also remarks that there is a "long break in tin acquisition" necessary for the production of "tin bronzes" in the Indus Valley region, suggesting a lack of contact

neg: Iron Age in India Iron Age in India In the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent, an "Iron Age" is recognized as succeeding the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture. The main Iron Age archaeological cultures of present-day northern India are the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200 to 600 BCE) and the Northern Black Polished Ware (700 to 200 BCE). This corresponds to the transition of the Janapadas or tribal kingdoms of the Vedic period to the sixteen Mahajanapadas or kingdoms of the proto-historic period, culminating in the emergence of the historical Buddhist Maurya Empire towards the end of the period. As elsewhere, the earliest evidence

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent Wootz steel was held in high regard in Europe, and Indian iron was often considered to be the best. The first form of crucible steel was wootz, developed in India some time around 300 BCE. In its production the iron was mixed with glass and then slowly heated and then cooled. As the mixture cooled the glass would bond to impurities in the steel and then float to the surface, leaving the steel considerably more pure. Carbon could enter the iron by diffusing in through the porous walls of the crucibles. Carbon dioxide would not react with the iron, but

neg: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent have begun as early as 1800 BCE. In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that "Indian and the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron." Ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron. Pliny the Elder also mentioned Indian iron. Muhammad al-Idrisi wrote the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron, and that it would be impossible to find anything to surpass the edge from Hindwani steel. Quintus Curtius wrote about an Indian present of steel to Alexander. "Ferrum indicum" appeared in the list of articles subject to duty under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Indian

neg: Iron Dome impressive, but we would still like to see it perform better." On 22 August 2011, "Haaretz" reported that according to Israeli security sources, Palestinian militants changed their rocket-launching tactics in an attempt to evade the two Iron Dome batteries deployed in southern Israel. The new tactics included aiming more frequently at areas beyond the Iron Dome protection range. After the Palestinian launch teams realized that the systems deployed in the previous two weeks around Ashkelon and Be'er Sheva provided near-perfect protection from rockets, they began firing more frequently at Ashdod and Ofakim. When they did aim at Beersheba on 21

neg: Merthyr Tramroad were both replaced by brick arches. Later on chairs were introduced into which the plate rails were keyed. Initially one horse pulled about five trams, making one return journey a day. Later trains of about 25 trams hauled by 3 horses became normal. The owners of the line did allow other people to use it on payment of a toll but it is not known if anyone did. Regular locomotive working began in 1832. The wagons (or trams) were about 7 ft 6 in long by 4 ft 9 in wide at the top, made of wood strapped with iron

neg: Indian subcontinent occasional use since the 1970s. Geologically, the Indian subcontinent was first a part of so-called "Greater India", a region of Gondwana that drifted away from East Africa about 160 million years ago, around the Middle Jurassic period. The region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antarctica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. This geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet

neg: Bonawe Iron Furnace up to 2500 kilograms of pig iron and the annual production was about 700,000 kilograms. As the complex did not include a forge, finished iron products could not be manufactured, with the exception of simple objects such as cannonballs. The majority of pig iron was taken to offices of the Newland Company in Cumbria to be shipped for further processing. As of 1750, the use of coke as fuel was becoming common. The first blast furnace in Scotland which made use of coke was built in 1759 near Falkirk. This new development in the production of iron in the complex

neg: Permanent way (history) top portion could easily be replaced when worn out. The rails were held together by wooden sleepers, covered with ballast to provide a surface for the horse to walk on. Cast iron strips could be laid on top of timber rails, and the use of such materials probably occurred in 1738, but there are claims that this technology went back to 1716. In 1767, Ketley ironworks began producing cast iron plates, which were fixed to the top of wooden rails with nails, to provide a more durable running surface. This construct was known as strap-iron rail (or strap rail) and

neg: Sugarcane mill windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in what are today Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran. In the Indian subcontinent, sugar mills came into extended use in the 13th and 14th centuries, which greatly increased sugar production. The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at Delhi in 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Sugar rolling mills also first appeared in the Indian subcontinent, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century. Sugarcane mill A sugar cane mill can refer

neg: Linens used for household linens. Its use in cloth-making also dates back to prehistoric times, in Indian subcontinent, China, Peru and Egypt. The Indian subcontinent was especially well known for high quality cotton cloth as early as 1500 BCE. Linen was an especially popular cloth during the Middle Ages in Europe, when cotton was an exotic import. It was used for underclothing, chemises, shifts, shirts and blouses, in fact most clothing worn next to the skin, by those able to afford an extra layer of clothing. The tradition of calling household fabric goods "linens" dates from this period, but meant clothing

neg: Dal makhani Dal makhani Dal makhani or dal makhni (pronounced "daal makh-nee", "buttery lentils") is a dish originating from the Indian subcontinent, notably in the Punjab region. The primary ingredients are whole black lentil ("urad"), red kidney beans ("rajma"), butter and cream. The dish gets its richness from the use of cream, but it can also be prepared with yogurt, milk or no dairy. Dal makhani is a staple in the Indian subcontinent. It was popularized in India following partition, when many people from the Punjab migrated to the northern regions of India. As the Punjabi diaspora migrated across India and internationally,

neg: Cradle of civilization then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. However trade with the old cities did not flourish. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. The Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into the Indus River Valley during this period and began the Vedic age of India. The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilization continued in later Indian subcontinent and Vedic cultures. Drawing on archaeology, geology and anthropology, modern scholars do not see the origins of

neg: Bathtub to peel with time. The Scottish-born inventor David Buick invented a process for bonding porcelain enamel to cast iron in the 1880s while working for the Alexander Manufacturing Company in Detroit. The company, as well as others including Kohler Company and J. L. Mott Iron Works, began successfully marketing porcelain enameled cast-iron bathtubs, a process that remains broadly the same to this day. Far from the ornate feet and luxury most associated with clawfoot tubs, an early Kohler example was advertised as a "horse trough/hog scalder, when furnished with four legs will serve as a bathtub." The item's use as

neg: History of India distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period. Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. Most

neg: Khoa Khoa Khoa is a dairy product, originating from the Indian subcontinent, widely used in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, encompassing India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan. It is made of either dried whole milk or milk thickened by heating in an open iron pan. It is lower in moisture than typical fresh cheeses such as ricotta. A concentration of milk to one-fifth volume is normal in the production of khoa. Khoa is used as the base for a wide variety of Indian sweets. About 600,000 metric tons are produced annually in India. Khoa is made from both cow and water

neg: History of Hinduism History of Hinduism History of Hinduism denotes a wide variety of related religious traditions native to the Indian subcontinent. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. It has thus been called the "oldest religion" in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder. The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period

neg: Napoleon III style Palace in London (1851), Parisian architects began to use cast-iron frames and walls of glass in their buildings. The most dramatic use of iron and glass was in the new central market of Paris, Les Halles (1853–1870), an ensemble of huge iron and glass pavilions designed by Victor Baltard (1805–1874) and Félix-Emmanuel Callet (1792-1854). Jacques-Ignace Hittorff also made extensive use of iron and glass in the interior of the new Gare du Nord train station (1842–1865), although the façade was perfectly neoclassical, decorated with classical statues representing the cities served by the railway. Baltard also used a steel frame in

neg: Indo-Aryan migration to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism". In the second millennium BCE widespread aridification led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the Indian subcontinent. On the steppes, humidification led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding". Water shortage also had a strong impact in the Indian subcontinent, "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations". When the British started

neg: History of India called Sanskritisation. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts. The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms — notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha. The Kuru kingdom was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 – 800 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda (the first Indian text

neg: Ancient history Zhou force, led by King Wu of Zhou, overthrew the last king of the Shang dynasty. The Zhou dynasty was established in China shortly thereafter. During this Zhou era China embraced a feudal society of decentralized power. Iron Age China then dissolved into the warring states period where possibly millions of soldiers fought each other over feudal struggles. Pirak is an early iron-age site in Balochistan, Pakistan, going back to about 1200 BC. This period is believed to be the beginning of the Iron Age in India and the subcontinent. Around the same time came the Vedas, the oldest sacred

neg: Iron Age the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporary Brahmi inscriptions in south India. It is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist in Kandarodai, Matota, Pilapitiya and Tissamaharama. Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age. In Philippines and Vietnam, the Sa Huynh culture showed evidence of an

neg: Diamond Jenness was then "borrowed" by others. Jenness goes onto explain that indigenous communities began to use copper first and following this, Inuit adopted it. This reasoning was reached through the understanding that slate was previously used among Inuit and was replaced by copper at a later time than the advent of when indigenous communities began to use it. It is also stated that the "Copper Eskimos" are in a pseudo-metal stage, in between the Stone and Iron Ages because this cultural group treats copper as simply a malleable stone which is hammered into tools and weapons. The work of Diamond Jenness

neg: Indo–Roman relations Indo–Roman relations Indo-Roman relations began during the reign of Augustus (23 September 63 BCE – 19 August 14 CE), the first emperor of the Roman Empire. The presence of Romans in the Indian Subcontinent and the relations between these regions during the period of the Roman Empire are poorly documented. Before the conquests of Alexander in the Indian subcontinent, there are no surviving accounts by contemporaries or near-contemporaries, so modern understanding depends on more abundant literary, numismatic, and archaeological evidence, mainly relating to the trade between them. Indo-Roman relations were built on trade. Roman trade in the subcontinent began with

neg: Pottery in the Indian subcontinent bright colours. Other parts of India use this style to make figures like horses with riders, sometimes votive offerings. (Abhandlungen der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse / Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz ; 1972,10) Pottery in the Indian subcontinent Pottery in the Indian subcontinent has an ancient history and is one of the most tangible and iconic elements of Indian art. Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Lahuradewa and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Today, it is a cultural art that is still practiced extensively in Indian subcontinent. Until recent times all Indian

neg: Hinduism and other religions Christian monasticism with the Hindu "sannyasa" tradition. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers,(See also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths). While others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers. Hindu – Islamic relations began when Islamic influence first came to be found in the Indian subcontinent during the early 7th century. Hinduism and Islam are two of the world’s three largest religions. Hinduism is the socio-religious way of life of the Hindu people of the Indian subcontinent, their diaspora, and some other regions which had Hindu influence in the ancient

neg: History of Hinduism ideology in the following decades; the establishment of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement. Subnotes Print Web History of Hinduism History of Hinduism denotes a wide variety of related religious traditions native to the Indian subcontinent. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the

neg: History of Bangladesh Banga) was located in the eastern part of the Indian Subcontinent, comprising part of West Bengal, India and present-day modern Bangladesh. Vanga and Pundra were two dominant tribes in Bangladesh in ancient time. Many of archaeological excavations in Bangladesh revealed evidences of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW or NBP) culture of the Indian Subcontinent (c. 700–200 BC), which was an Iron Age culture developed beginning around 700 BC and peaked from c. 500–300 BC, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or mahajanapadas in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire. The eastern part of

neg: Pottery in the Indian subcontinent culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE, which probably corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period, i.e., the Kuru-Panchala kingdom, the first large state in South Asia after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is a successor of the Black and red ware culture (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India. Northern Black Polished Ware (abbreviated NBPW or NBP) is an urban Iron Age culture of the Indian Subcontinent, lasting c. 700–200

neg: India varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade. During the period 2000–500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age. The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism, were composed during this period, and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west. The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free

neg: James Henry Greathead shields within a grew years of each other. Beach never came to England to learn of Barlow's patent and later provisional patent, and Greathead did not know about Barlow's provisional patent idea until 1895 when it was discussed in the Institution of Civil Engineers meeting attended by Greathead shortly after Barlow's death. The Greathead shield consisted of an iron cylinder in diameter fitted with screw jacks which enabled it to be jacked forward. In use, the shield was inched forward as the working face was excavated, while behind it a permanent tunnel lining of cast iron segments was fitted into

neg: Ketley Ironworks £110,000. His interests in the works were passed to Joseph. By 1816 demand had fallen, and he closed the works. The site was revived in 1818 by the newly created Ketley Company: the forge and three blast furnaces were again in use, and in 1830 about 5,750 tons of pig iron were produced. The Ketley Company was dissolved about 1874, and the works closed. The site was sold to Nettlefolds Limited in 1879, but ironworking did not resume. The site was first used again in 1903, when the Sinclair Iron Co. Ltd. was established, making light castings. In 1929 it

neg: Wrought iron coldshort iron was considered sufficient for nails. Phosphorus is not necessarily detrimental to iron. Ancient Near Eastern smiths did not add lime to their furnaces. The absence of calcium oxide in the slag, and the deliberate use of wood with high phosphorus content during the smelting, induces a higher phosphorus content (typically <.3%) than in modern iron (<.02-.03%). Analysis of the Iron Pillar of Delhi gives 0.11% in the iron. The included slag in wrought iron also imparts corrosion resistance. The presence of phosphorus (without carbon) produces a ductile iron suitable for wire drawing for piano wire. Wrought iron has

neg: Bloomery for sale. Early European bloomeries were relatively small, smelting less than 1 kg of iron with each firing. Progressively larger bloomeries were constructed in the late 14th century, with a capacity of about 15 kg on average, though exceptions did exist. The use of waterwheels to power the bellows allowed the bloomery to become larger and hotter. European average bloom sizes quickly rose to 300 kg, where they levelled off until the demise of the bloomery. As a bloomery's size is increased, the iron ore is exposed to burning charcoal for a longer time. When combined with the strong air

neg: USS Dunderberg made of soft pine and did not withstand the force of recoil well. Other problems that delayed the ship's completion were shortages of material, labor and money. Prices for pig iron and bar iron nearly tripled while boiler plate and copper roughly doubled. Wages of even inexperienced workers increased between 50 and 100 percent. The New York City draft riots in July 1863 and several machinist's strikes further slowed progress on "Dunderberg". Webb failed to account for these problems when negotiating the ship's contract and he repeatedly tried to charge the Navy for alterations as well as use cheaper materials