query: who is the scientist credited with the discovery of natural selection

pos: Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 18237 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin's writings in 1858. This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in "On the Origin of Species." Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts:

pos: Animal Coloration (book) coloration seemed in the 1890s. Thayer — an artist, not a scientist — had dived head-first into the debate. One of the protagonists, notes Kingsland, was Joel Asaph Allen, who had reviewed Beddard's book, and who believed that the environment directly influenced animal coloration — Kingsland cites Beddard p. 54 here —, so natural selection seemed to him an unlikely factor, and he pointed out that blending inheritance would dilute the effect of selection. Furthermore, argues Kingsland, again citing Beddard (p. 148), another major protagonist, Alfred Russel Wallace, was emphasizing the problem of conspicuous markings, which could be selected for

pos: Biology morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. Although it was the subject of controversy (which continues to this day), Darwin's theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology. The discovery of the physical representation of heredity came along with evolutionary principles and population genetics. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units

pos: Natural selection process of writing his "big book" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell. Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker decided to present his essay together with unpublished writings that Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists, and "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" was read to the Linnean Society of London announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858. Darwin published a detailed account

pos: 19th century in science 19th century in science The 19th century in science saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book "The Origin of Species", which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made

pos: Multiple discovery calculus independently of each other. In another classic case of multiple discovery, the two discoverers showed more civility. By June 1858 Charles Darwin had completed over two-thirds of his "On the Origin of Species" when he received a startling letter from a naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, 13 years his junior, with whom he had corresponded. The letter summarized Wallace's theory of natural selection, with conclusions identical to Darwin's own. Darwin turned for advice to his friend Charles Lyell, the foremost geologist of the day. Lyell proposed that Darwin and Wallace prepare a joint communication to the scientific community. Darwin being

neg: Jeffries Wyman in a "theistic, morphological form of evolution rather than natural selection." Two historians of science who chronicles Wyman's career, A. Hunter Dupree and Toby Appel, disagreed as to Wyman's reception of Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection. Dupree believed that Wyman's religious beliefs caused him to struggle with Darwin's theories, accepting them "only by intense effort both as a scientist and a person." Appel disagreed with Dupree, believing that Wyman had no difficulty accepting Darwin's theory of evolution but that his work in philosophical anatomy made it "doubtful that he ever accepted natural selection." In her article, Appel makes

neg: Dorothy Cheney (scientist) increased fitness in the form of greater longevity and offspring survival. Individuals with close social bonds also experience reduced stress levels. These results suggest that natural selection has favored individuals who have both the skill and the motivation to form strategic social bonds, and that the evolutionary antecedents of human cooperation can be found even in species without language or culture. Dorothy Cheney (scientist) Dorothy Leavitt Cheney (August 24, 1950 – November 9, 2018) was an American scientist who studied the social behavior, communication, and cognition of wild primates in their natural habitat. She was Professor of Biology at the

neg: Beyond Natural Selection Beyond Natural Selection Beyond Natural Selection is a 1991 book by Robert G. Wesson, published by MIT Press. Wesson argues for the case of pluralism in biology. He suggests alternative mechanisms of evolution rather than natural selection. Wesson argues that reductionism is inadequate and looks for chaos theory as an example of a different approach that is needed to explain evolution. The book provides unsolved problems that Wesson believed natural selection could not account for. The paleontologist Joseph G. Carter in a critical review for the "American Scientist" wrote the book "includes innumerable oversimplifications and misrepresentations of both evolutionary theory

neg: Natural Cycles Natural Cycles Natural Cycles is the first app to be certified for contraception in Europe. The app predicts the days on which a woman is fertile and may be used for planning pregnancy and contraception. It was developed by CERN scientist Dr. Elina Berglund, who founded the company with her husband, Dr. Raoul Scherwitzl. In August 2018, the Food and Drug Administration approved U.S. marketing for Natural Cycles. Dr. Berglund was a top physicist at CERN who was part of the Higgs boson discovery, which led to the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013, before co-founding the company with her

neg: Megan Schwamb several trans-Neptunian objects. Megan Schwamb is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery and co-discovery of 14 minor planets during 2007–2010 "(see list)". In addition to the confirmed discoveries, she also participated in the first observations of the unnumbered objects , and . Megan Schwamb Megan "Meg" E. Schwamb (born 1984) is an American astronomer and planetary scientist. As of 2018, she is an Assistant Scientist at the Gemini Observatory's Northern Operations Center in Hilo, Hawai’i. Schwamb discovered and co-discovered several trans-Neptunian objects, and is involved with Citizen science projects such as Planet Four and Planet Hunters. In

neg: Wang Yuanlu numerous manuscripts to archaeologist Aurel Stein, who took a largely random selection of the works. Later Paul Pelliot would come to purchase what may be considered the most valuable among them. Because of his involvement in the discovery and sale of the Dunhuang manuscripts to Westerners for a fraction of their value (₤220 in 1907), Wang is both "revered and reviled". Wang Yuanlu Wang Yuanlu (; c. 1849 – 1931) was a Taoist priest and abbot of the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang during the early 20th century. He is credited with the discovery of the Dunhuang manuscripts. He engaged in

neg: Carlos Chagas Filho son of Dr. Carlos Chagas (1879–1934), an eminent scientist who is credited for the discovery of Chagas disease. His oldest brother was Evandro Chagas (1905–1940), also a physician and scientist specialized, like his father, in tropical medicine. He studied medicine from 1926 to 1931 at the Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Brasil (presently the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. While a student he worked at Manguinhos, where the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz was founded by the eminent physician Dr. Oswaldo Cruz (1872–1917) and where his father worked, as well as at a hospital in Lassance, state of Minas Gerais,

neg: Jan-Åke Gustafsson cloning of the first nuclear receptor fragment, first determination a 3-D structure of a nuclear receptor (the DNA binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor), discovery of the first physiological ligand of a nuclear receptor (fatty acids for the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha), discovery of liver X receptor beta (LXRβ), discovery of estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) and unravelling of some of their functions. Gustafsson also is credited with 12 patents, more than 1,400 peer-reviewed publications and more than 70,000 citations. Jan-Åke Gustafsson Jan-Åke Gustafsson (born 1943, Sweden) is a Swedish scientist and professor in Biology, Biochemistry and Medical Nutrition. When

neg: Neutral theory of molecular evolution clock, although the discovery of a molecular clock predated neutral theory. Many molecular biologists and population geneticists also contributed to the development of the neutral theory, which is different from the neo-Darwinian theory. Neutral theory does not deny the occurrence of natural selection. Hughes writes: "Evolutionary biologists typically distinguish two main types of natural selection: "purifying selection", which acts to eliminate deleterious mutations; and "positive (Darwinian) selection", which favors advantageous mutations. Positive selection can, in turn, be further subdivided into directional selection, which tends toward fixation of an advantageous allele, and balancing selection, which maintains a polymorphism. The neutral theory

neg: Marc Wilkins (geneticist) Wales, and is the director of the Systems Biology Initiative and the Ramaciotti Centre for Gene Function Analysis. His latest research focus is protein interaction networks (the interactome) and Systems Biology. In 2012, Marc Wilkins was awarded the ASBMB Beckman Coulter Discovery Science Award. This prize is awarded to an ASBMB member for distinguished contributions to the field of biochemistry and molecular biology. Marc Wilkins (geneticist) Marc R. Wilkins is an Australian scientist who is credited with the defining the concept of the proteome. Wilkins is a Professor in the School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences at the University of

neg: Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley (; – 6 February 1804) was an 18th-century English Separatist theologian, natural philosopher, chemist, innovative grammarian, multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist who published over 150 works. He has historically been credited with the discovery of oxygen, having isolated it in its gaseous state, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier also have strong claims to the discovery. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of soda water, his writings on electricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). However, Priestley's determination

neg: The Selfish Genius evolutionary theory that portrays natural selection as acting at the level of the individual gene to the exclusion of group selection models which state that it could also act at the level of organisms or species. The book also claims Dawkins embraces an outdated and prescriptive conception of evolution that actually restricts debate rather than promoting it. The book has provoked controversy with some online commentary claiming it is another 'flea', a term used by Dawkins to describe people who have published books about him or his ideas. An article by Fern Elsdon-Baker in "New Scientist" of 19 July 2009

neg: Edward Bagnall Poulton Edward Bagnall Poulton Sir Edward Bagnall Poulton, FRS HFRSE FLS (27 January 1856 – 20 November 1943) was a British evolutionary biologist who was a lifelong advocate of natural selection through a period in which many scientists such as Reginald Punnett doubted its importance. He invented the term sympatric for evolution of species in the same place, and in his book "The Colours of Animals" (1890) was the first to recognise frequency-dependent selection. Poulton is also remembered for his pioneering work on animal coloration. He is credited with inventing the term aposematism for warning coloration, as well as for his

neg: Discovery Park (Purdue) Discovery Park (Purdue) Discovery Park is a multidisciplinary research park located in Purdue University's West Lafayette campus in the U.S. state of Indiana. Tomás Díaz de la Rubia, an energy and resources industry executive who also spent a decade as a top scientist and administrator at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, serves as Discovery Park's chief scientist and executive director. Discovery Park was established in 2001 with donations from the Lilly Endowment and from the state of Indiana, and its first buildings opened in 2004. By 2014, Discovery Park had surpassed a $1 billion milestone in research investments and impact, with

neg: Maurice Hilleman Maurice Hilleman Maurice Ralph Hilleman (August 30, 1919 – April 11, 2005) was an American microbiologist who specialized in vaccinology and developed over 40 vaccines, an unparalleled record of productivity. Of the 14 vaccines routinely recommended in current vaccine schedules, he developed eight: those for measles, mumps, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, chickenpox, meningitis, pneumonia and "Haemophilus influenzae" bacteria. He also played a role in the discovery of the cold-producing adenoviruses, the hepatitis viruses, and the cancer-causing virus SV40. He is credited with saving more lives than any other medical scientist of the 20th century. Robert Gallo described him as "the

neg: Aptamer 'directed evolution' to alter the cleavage activity of a ribozyme. Since the discovery of aptamers, many researchers have used aptamer selection as a means for application and discovery. In 2001, the process of "in vitro selection" was automated by J. Colin Cox in the Ellington lab at the University of Texas at Austin, reducing the duration of a selection experiment from six weeks to three days. While the process of artificial engineering of nucleic acid ligands is highly interesting to biology and biotechnology, the notion of aptamers in the natural world had yet to be uncovered until 2002 when two

neg: Newton Faller Newton Faller Newton Faller (January 25, 1947–October 9, 1996) the son of Kurt Faller and Ada Faller from Rio Grande do Sul, was a Brazilian computer scientist and electrical engineer. He is credited with the discovery of adaptive Huffman codes while an employee of IBM do Brasil in Rio. He was later the head of the Brazilian UNIX development project at the of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (NCE/UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro. He started his career working with data compression, studying the classical Huffman Codes and was the first to propose the "adaptive Huffman codes". This discovery became

neg: Filippo Pacini death, despite additional publications in 1865, 1866, 1871, 1876, and 1880 which identified the cause of the disease's lethality, and even proposed some effective treatments. John Snow, who disproved the miasma theory, and Robert Koch, were widely and erroneously credited with the discovery of the bacillum 30 years later. Pacini's work was repeatedly published and readily available to the international scientific community via the English translation published in The British and Foreign Medico-chirurgical Review, Volume 38, July 1866. When Koch, a much more widely respected scientist who had previously identified the tuberculosis bacillus, presented his findings to the Cholera Commission

neg: Vinod Kumar Gaur and this discovery assisted him in earning his PhD. His later studies covered the fields of geodesy, seismology and electromagnetics and his studies on the tectonics of Himalayas assisted in estimating the plate under-thrusts and understanding the micro-earthquakes in the region. He is credited with the discovery of the thick Deccan lithosphere which he accomplished using the seismic tomography experiments for the first time in India. He is reported to be the first scientist to use Global Positioning System Geodesy to measure the Indian plate velocity quantitatively in comparison to the Eurasian plate velocity and as well as the first

neg: John McCafferty above technologies with a focus on the study of protein:protein interactions driving direct cell:cell communication and has recently founded a new therapeutic antibody discovery biotechnology company, IONTAS Ltd. John McCafferty John McCafferty is a British scientist, one of the founders of Cambridge Antibody Technology, well known as one of the inventors of scFv antibody fragment phage display, a technology that revolutionised the monoclonal antibody drug discovery. Later improvements of antibody phage display technology enables the display of millions of different antibody fragments on the surface of filamentous phage (better known as antibody phage library) and subsequent selection of highly specific

neg: Thomas Hunt Morgan of acquired characters. Morgan was not the only scientist attacking natural selection. The period 1875–1925 has been called 'The eclipse of Darwinism'. After discovering many small stable heritable mutations in "Drosophila", Morgan gradually changed his mind. The relevance of mutations for evolution is that only characters that are inherited can have an effect in evolution. Since Morgan (1915) 'solved the problem of heredity', he was in a unique position to examine critically Darwin's theory of natural selection. In "A Critique of the Theory of Evolution" (1916), Morgan discussed questions such as: "Does selection play any role in evolution? How can

neg: C. Michelle Olmstead C. Michelle Olmstead C. Michelle Olmstead (born 1969) is an American astronomer and computer scientist. She is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 46 asteroids for the period between 1977 and 1990. She has also co-discovered 127P/Holt-Olmstead, a periodic comet. The minor planet 3287 Olmstead, a Mars-crosser asteroid discovered by astronomer Schelte J. Bus in 1981, was named in her honour. When Olmsead was an undergraduate at Northern Arizona University in the early 1990s, she participated in several asteroid astrometry programs and made measurements using the existing survey work. Her lowest numbered discovery, , officially discovered

neg: Eisriesenwelt In summer, a cold wind from inside the cave blows toward the entrance and prevents the formations from melting. The first official discovery of Eisriesenwelt was by Anton Posselt, a natural scientist from Salzburg, in 1879, though he only explored the first two hundred meters of the cave. Before his discovery, the cave was known only to locals, who, believing that it was an entrance to Hell, refused to explore it. In 1880, Posselt published his findings in a mountaineering magazine, but the report was quickly forgotten. , a speleologist from Salzburg, was one of the few people who remembered

neg: Geologist drilling results misled Bre-X investors and upon discovery of the fraud, the company collapsed in the largest gold mining scam in history. Geologist A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes the Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences are also useful. Field work is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work. Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors searching for natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, and

neg: Hispanic and Latino Americans and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases. Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry. Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican-American Microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of

neg: Discovery Park (Purdue) The building also houses the Center for Predictive Materials and Devices (c-PRIMED), the Network for Computational Nanotechnology (NCN), and IMPACT, which is Purdue’s academic course transformation project. Discovery Park (Purdue) Discovery Park is a multidisciplinary research park located in Purdue University's West Lafayette campus in the U.S. state of Indiana. Tomás Díaz de la Rubia, an energy and resources industry executive who also spent a decade as a top scientist and administrator at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, serves as Discovery Park's chief scientist and executive director. Discovery Park was established in 2001 with donations from the Lilly Endowment and from

neg: Douglas Mitchell (scientist) Douglas Mitchell (scientist) Douglas A. Mitchell is a Professor of Chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He holds an affiliate appointment in the Department of Microbiology and is a faculty member of the Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology. His research focuses on the chemical biology of natural products. He is known mainly for his work on the biosynthetic enzymology of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) and genome-guided natural product discovery. Mitchell was born in western Pennsylvania and obtained his B.S. in Chemistry from Carnegie Mellon University in 2002. He obtained his PhD in 2006

neg: Richard A. Houghten in 1988 and Houghten Pharmaceuticals, Inc. in 1990. Combinatorial biology is the generation of large numbers of molecules (usually peptides, enzymes or other polypeptides in biology) with non-natural metabolic pathways. The resulting set of molecules is referred to as a library. Because traditional methods of chemical discovery and selection relied on "natural" pathways (those formed by sources found in the wild and brought into the library), creation of the requisite number of peptides for new drug discovery was impractical. New drugs needed to be built from specific combinations of proteins among the trillions of possible combinations. Synthetic avenues for peptide

neg: Evolution evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely. Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population. Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural selection implausible. The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the

neg: David B. Fogel David B. Fogel Dr. David B. Fogel (born February 2, 1964), is a pioneer in evolutionary computation. Dr. Fogel received his Ph.D. in engineering from the University of California, San Diego in 1992. He is currently Chief Scientist at Trials.ai, and holds other founding positions at Natural Selection, Inc., Natural Selection Financial, Inc., and Effect Technologies, Inc., the maker of the patented EffectCheck sentiment analysis software tool. He advises several AI companies in the areas of clinical trials, B2B lead generation, and employee retention, as well as other areas. He is probably best known in artificial intelligence for his research

neg: Frances Arnold 2016. Arnold is credited with pioneering the use of directed evolution to create enzymes (biochemical molecules—often proteins—that catalyze, or speed up, chemical reactions) with improved and/or novel functions. The directed evolution strategy involves iterative rounds of randomly mutating proteins' genes and screening for proteins with improved functions and it has been used to create useful biological systems, including enzymes, metabolic pathways, genetic regulatory circuits, and organisms. In nature, evolution by natural selection can lead to proteins (including enzymes) well-suited to carry out biological tasks, but natural selection can only act on existing sequence variations (mutations) and typically occurs over long

neg: Selfish genetic element successful selfish genetic elements. The discovery of transposable elements led to her being awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1983. The empirical study of selfish genetic elements benefited greatly from the emergence of the so-called gene-centred view of evolution in the nineteen sixties and seventies. In contrast with Darwin's original formulation of the theory of evolution by natural selection that focused on individual organisms, the gene's-eye view takes the gene to be the central unit of selection in evolution. It conceives evolution by natural selection as a process involving two separate entities: replicators (entities that produce faithful

neg: The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) for the science challenges. The contest's name change to the Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge occurred in 2008. Students no longer have to be nominated and now submit a 1-2 minute video clip as their form of entry. http://www.youngscientistchallenge.com/about, Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge – How it began The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) is the former name of the youth science and engineering competition now known as the Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge sponsored by Discovery Education and 3M for middle school students in the United States. It

neg: John McCafferty John McCafferty John McCafferty is a British scientist, one of the founders of Cambridge Antibody Technology, well known as one of the inventors of scFv antibody fragment phage display, a technology that revolutionised the monoclonal antibody drug discovery. Later improvements of antibody phage display technology enables the display of millions of different antibody fragments on the surface of filamentous phage (better known as antibody phage library) and subsequent selection of highly specific recombinant antibodies to any given target. This technology is widely exploited in pharmaceutical industry for the discovery and development of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies to treat mainly cancer, inflammatory

neg: Modernism (1809–1882), author of "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–1883), author of "Das Kapital" (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free. Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates

neg: What Darwin Got Wrong What Darwin Got Wrong What Darwin Got Wrong is a 2010 book by philosopher Jerry Fodor and cognitive scientist Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini, in which the authors criticize Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. It is an extension of an argument first presented as "Why Pigs Don't Have Wings" in the "London Review of Books". Fodor published an article, entitled "Why Pigs Don't Have Wings", in the "London Review of Books" in October 2007. It stated that "In fact, an appreciable number of perfectly reasonable biologists are coming to think that the theory of natural selection can no longer be taken for

neg: Objectivist movement a significant influence of Objectivism in their own work. Prominent among these is John Hospers, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, University of Southern California, who credited Rand's political ideas as helping to shape his own, while in other areas sharp differences remained. Another is Murray Rothbard, who, like Rand, advocated volition, Aristotle and natural rights, but who also advocated anarchism, which was anathema to Rand. Also in this category are journalist Edith Efron, scientist Petr Beckmann, and author Charles Murray. Over the years, some critics have accused the Objectivist movement of being a cult or cult-like, and Rand of being a

neg: Pepper's ghost 16th-century Neapolitan scientist and scholar who is credited with a number of scientific innovations, including the camera obscura. His 1584 work Magia Naturalis (Natural Magic) includes a description of an illusion, titled "How we may see in a Chamber things that are not" that is the first known description of the Pepper's ghost effect. Porta's description, from the 1658 English language translation, is as follows. The Royal Polytechnic Institute London was a permanent science-related institution, first opened in 1838. With a degree in chemistry, John Henry Pepper joined the institution as a lecturer in 1848. The Polytechnic awarded him the

neg: Otto Gottlieb of ecosystems. His studies also resulted in the discovery of substances such as neolignans, which have an anti-inflammatory effect. Otto Gottlieb remained a professor at the University of São Paulo until he retired at the age of 70. He also worked at the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation until 2002, when he moved to Fluminense Federal University. During his life he set up his own library of natural resources with approximately two thousand books. His scientific research resulted in almost 700 articles, all basically about sustainability. Gottlieb is considered the Brazilian scientist who was closest to winning the Nobel Prize, being nominated

neg: Kingdom of Sarawak the introduction of new species", also known as the "Sarawak Law", which anticipated aspects of Darwin's theory of evolution. It is said, albeit without any evidence, that Charles Brooke approved the construction of Sarawak State Museum in 1888, the oldest museum in Borneo, with endorsement from Wallace. Charles Hose, who served under Brooke as an administrator in the Baram region, was an avid photographer, naturalist, ethnologist, and author. He is credited with the discovery of various mammal and bird species endemic to Borneo: some of his specimens are now housed in London's Natural History Museum (catalogue). His ethnological collections are

neg: Schroeder stairs established that involuntary switch of perception occurs with approximate frequency of once in 7.5-12.5 seconds. The change of perception may be attributed either to neuronal fatigue or to conscious selection. Schroeder stairs Schroeder stairs (Schröder's stairs) is an optical illusion which is a two-dimensional drawing which may be perceived either as a drawing of a staircase leading from left to right downwards or the same staircase only turned upside down, a classical example of perspective reversal in psychology of perception. It is named after the German natural scientist Heinrich G. F. Schröder, who published it in 1858. It is sometimes

neg: Leopoldo Nobili Naturale (Royal Museum of Physics and Natural History) in Florence where he worked with Vincenzo Antinori on electromagnetic induction. He was also credited with the discovery of 'Nobili's Rings'. "When a dilute solution of copper acetate is placed on a bright silverplate and a strip of zinc is touched to the silver beneath the copper, a series of rings of copper are formed by electrolysis around the zinc." Leopoldo Nobili Leopoldo Nobili, born on 5 July 1784 in Trassilico (Toscana) and died on 22 August 1835 in Florence, was an Italian physicist who invented a number of instruments critical to

neg: Natural selection Natural selection is seen in action in the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. The widespread misuse of antibiotics has selected for microbial resistance to antibiotics in clinical use, to the point that the methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) has been described as a "superbug" because of the threat it poses to health and its relative invulnerability to existing drugs. Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs. This

neg: Charles Darwin his death, Darwin had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of "On the Origin of Species". Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "the eclipse

neg: Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses J.B.S. Haldane in India. The Society's 1985 publication, "Life—How Did it Get Here? By Evolution or by Creation?" is criticized for its dependency on Francis Hitching, who is cited thirteen times. The book presents Hitching—a TV writer and paranormalist with no scientific credentials—as an evolutionary scientist. Richard Dawkins also criticizes the book for implying that "chance" is the only alternative to deliberate design, stating, "[T]he candidate solutions to the riddle of improbability are not, as falsely implied, design and chance. They are design and natural selection." Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, and the denomination does

neg: Delaware Museum of Natural History before getting a doctorate in natural science in 1965 and writing several books on birds, he became interested in developing a natural history museum. During and after graduate school, DuPont took part in several scientific expeditions to the South Pacific and the Philippines, and is credited with the discovery of two dozen subspecies of birds. At his request, his uncle Henry Francis du Pont provided land across from the Winterthur estate in the Brandywine Valley of Delaware for the museum. The museum opening in 1972 was attended by 200 duPont family members, and representatives of other Northeastern natural history museums.

neg: Renu Malhotra resonant structure of the Kuiper Belt. Malhotra is currently a Professor at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. Renu Malhotra Renu Malhotra (born 1961) is an American planetary scientist known for using the orbital resonance between Pluto and Neptune to infer large-scale orbital migration of the giant planets and to predict the existence of Plutinos in resonance with Neptune. The asteroid 6698 Malhotra was named for her on 14 December 1997 (). She is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the co-discovery of , a trans-Neptunian object in the Kuiper belt. Renu Malhotra was born in New

neg: Frederick Wollaston Hutton Hutton include: Frederick Wollaston Hutton Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, FRS, (16 November 1836 – 27 October 1905) was an English-New Zealand scientist who applied the theory of natural selection to explain the origins and nature of the natural history of New Zealand. An army officer in early life, he then had an academic career in geology and biology. He became one of the most able and prolific nineteenth century naturalists of New Zealand. Hutton was born in Gate Burton, Lincolnshire, England and passed through Southwell Grammar school and the Naval Academy at Gosport, Hampshire. He studied applied science at King's

neg: Frederick Wollaston Hutton Frederick Wollaston Hutton Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, FRS, (16 November 1836 – 27 October 1905) was an English-New Zealand scientist who applied the theory of natural selection to explain the origins and nature of the natural history of New Zealand. An army officer in early life, he then had an academic career in geology and biology. He became one of the most able and prolific nineteenth century naturalists of New Zealand. Hutton was born in Gate Burton, Lincolnshire, England and passed through Southwell Grammar school and the Naval Academy at Gosport, Hampshire. He studied applied science at King's College London

neg: Coloration evidence for natural selection more predators have come to mimic each other's warning signals, was clearly adaptive; Fritz Müller described the effect in 1879, in an account notable for being the first use of a mathematical argument in evolutionary ecology to show how powerful the effect of natural selection would be. In 1867, in a letter to Darwin, Wallace described warning coloration. The evolutionary zoologist James Mallet notes that this discovery "rather illogically" followed rather than preceded the accounts of Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, which both rely on the existence and effectiveness of warning coloration. The conspicuous colours and patterns of animals with strong

neg: Renu Malhotra Renu Malhotra Renu Malhotra (born 1961) is an American planetary scientist known for using the orbital resonance between Pluto and Neptune to infer large-scale orbital migration of the giant planets and to predict the existence of Plutinos in resonance with Neptune. The asteroid 6698 Malhotra was named for her on 14 December 1997 (). She is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the co-discovery of , a trans-Neptunian object in the Kuiper belt. Renu Malhotra was born in New Delhi in 1961. Her father was an aircraft engineer at Indian Airlines. Her family moved to Hyderabad when she was

neg: The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) is the former name of the youth science and engineering competition now known as the Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge sponsored by Discovery Education and 3M for middle school students in the United States. It was created in 1999 as an engineering research and exhibit competition for students in grades 5 through 8 and was sponsored primarily by Discovery Communications, Society for Science and the Public, and Elmer's Glue. Competitors originally qualified for DCYSC by entering in an International Science and Engineering affiliated science fair

neg: Oxford University Museum of Natural History debate were written by scientists. Thomas Huxley and Samuel Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, are generally cast as the main protagonists in the debate. Huxley was a keen scientist and a staunch supporter of Darwin's theories. Wilberforce had supported the construction of the museum as the centre for the science departments, for the study of the wonders of God's creations. On the Wednesday of the meeting, 27 June 1860, botanist Charles Daubeny presented a paper on plant sexuality, which made reference to Darwin's theory of natural selection. Richard Owen, a zoologist who believed that evolution was governed by divine influence,

neg: Peter Zanca articles and exhibits in his career and was credited with the discovery of the "Zanca View". The "Zanca View" is a specific technique used to evaluate acromioclavicular joint injuries. He was a Fellow of the American College of Radiology, member of the American Medical Association; the American Roetgen Ray Society; American Radiological Society; Radiological Society of North America; New York Academy of Science and the Texas Medical Association. He died of natural causes in San Antonio, Texas. Peter Zanca Peter Zanca (October 29, 1908, New York City - July 31, 1976, San Antonio, Texas) was an American physician who served

neg: Alexander L. Wolf Alexander L. Wolf Alexander L. Wolf (born 12 September 1956) is a Computer Scientist known for his research in software engineering, distributed systems, and computer networking. He is credited, along with his many collaborators, with introducing the modern study of software architecture, content-based publish/subscribe messaging, content-based networking, automated process discovery, and the software deployment lifecycle. Wolf's 1985 Ph.D. dissertation developed language features for expressing a module's import/export specifications and the notion of multiple interfaces for a type, both of which are now common in modern computer programming languages. Wolf is Past President of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). Previously,

neg: Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish is similar to the scene in which Kane destroys his ex-wife's room. Mary Bailey shares her name with George Bailey's wife in the 1946 film "It's a Wonderful Life". Burns hires an actor to portray the nineteenth-century scientist Charles Darwin to help in his claim that the three-eyed fish was the result of evolution. Darwin was a naturalist who presented compelling evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors, through the process he called natural selection. The clip of Burns driving a military tank in his campaign montage is similar to a clip featured in

neg: Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge split into eight teams consisting of five members each for the science challenges. In 2008 the contest became the Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge. Students no longer have to be nominated and now submit a 1-2 minute video clip as their form of entry. Since 2003, themes for the Young Scientist Challenge have followed scientific curiosities and been built on the activities and innovations around them. Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge The Young Scientist Challenge is a youth science and engineering competition administered by Discovery Education and 3M for middle school students in the United States, similar to

neg: Karl Baedeker (scientist) This was the first example of doping a semiconductor to change its properties and also the discovery of transparent conductive materials. He also observed a Hall effect in transparent copper iodide thin films that had the reverse sign to that in copper, an observation of what was later to be known as conduction by electron holes in semiconductors. This observation was critical in developing the theory of electron conduction in solids. Along with his graduate student Karl Steinberg, Baedeker studied the effect of varying concentration of iodine on the electrical properties of copper iodide. He also is credited with making

neg: Newton Faller daughters, Maria Clara Kremer Faller and Ana Luisa Kremer Faller. He spent his childhood in Flamengo, Rio de Janeiro, and had two younger sisters: Ana Maria Faller and Angela Faller. Faller died in 1996 and today the Brazilian equivalent of the Turing Award is called the "Newton Faller Award". Newton Faller Newton Faller (January 25, 1947–October 9, 1996) the son of Kurt Faller and Ada Faller from Rio Grande do Sul, was a Brazilian computer scientist and electrical engineer. He is credited with the discovery of adaptive Huffman codes while an employee of IBM do Brasil in Rio. He was

neg: Yosemite National Park was Dr. Lafayette Bunnell, the company physician, who later wrote about his awestruck impressions of the valley in "The Discovery of the Yosemite". Bunnell is credited with naming Yosemite Valley, based on his interviews with Chief Tenaya. Bunnell wrote that Chief Tenaya was the founder of the Ah-wah-nee colony. The Miwok, a neighboring tribe, and most white settlers considered the Ahwahneechee to be especially violent because of their frequent territorial disputes. The Miwok term for the Pai-Ute band was "yohhe'meti," meaning "they are killers". Correspondence and articles written by members of the battalion helped to popularize the natural wonders of

neg: N,N-Dimethyltryptamine as they can have fatal interactions with some prescription drugs such as SSRI antidepressants, and some over-the-counter drugs known as sympathomimetics such as Ephedrine or certain cough medicines and even some herbal remedies . DMT was first synthesized in 1931 by chemist Richard Helmuth Fredrick Manske (born 1901 in Berlin, Germany – 1977). In general, its discovery as a natural product is credited to Brazilian chemist and microbiologist Oswaldo Gonçalves de Lima (1908–1989) who, in 1946, isolated an alkaloid he named "nigerina" (nigerine) from the root bark of "jurema preta", that is, "Mimosa tenuiflora". However, in a careful review of

neg: Alexander L. Wolf Switzerland. In 2006, Wolf became a Professor in the Department of Computing at Imperial College London. In July 2016, he became the sixth dean of the Jack Baskin School of Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Alexander L. Wolf Alexander L. Wolf (born 12 September 1956) is a Computer Scientist known for his research in software engineering, distributed systems, and computer networking. He is credited, along with his many collaborators, with introducing the modern study of software architecture, content-based publish/subscribe messaging, content-based networking, automated process discovery, and the software deployment lifecycle. Wolf's 1985 Ph.D. dissertation developed language features

neg: Predictability behavioral disorders can most often be explained by analyzing defects in genetic code. Scientist who focus on examples like these argue that human behavior is entirely predictable. Those on the other side of the debate argue that genetics can only provide a predisposition to act a certain way and that, ultimately, humans possess the free will to choose whether or not to act. Animals have significantly more predictable behavior than humans. Driven by natural selection, animals develop mating calls, predator warnings, and communicative dances. One example of these engrained behaviors is the Belding's ground squirrel, which developed a specific set

neg: Carolyn S. Shoemaker Rittenhouse Medal of the Rittenhouse Astronomical Society in 1988 and the Scientist of the Year Award in 1995. The Hildian asteroid 4446 Carolyn, discovered by college Edward Bowell at Lowell Observatory in 1985, was named in her honor. Carolyn Shoemaker is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 377 numbered minor planets made between 1980 and 1994. Carolyn S. Shoemaker Carolyn Jean Spellmann Shoemaker (born June 24, 1929) is an American astronomer and is a co-discoverer of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9. She once held the record for most comets discovered by an individual. Carolyn Jean Spellmann was born

neg: Empedocles of natural forces disappeared as suddenly as they arose; only in those rare cases where the parts were found to be adapted to each other did the complex structures last. Thus the organic universe sprang from spontaneous aggregations that suited each other as if this had been intended. Soon various influences reduced creatures of double sex to a male and a female, and the world was replenished with organic life. It is possible to see this theory as an anticipation of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, although Empedocles was not trying to explain evolution. Empedocles is credited with the

neg: Microbial genetics selection is a source used. Studying evolution by using microbial genetics involves scientists looking at evolutionary balance. An example of how they may accomplish this is studying natural selection or drift of microbes. Application of this knowledge comes from looking for the presence or absence in a variety of different ways. The ways include identifying certain pathways, genes, and functions. Once the subject is observed, scientist may compare it to a sequence of a conserved gene. The process of studying microbial evolution in this way lacks the ability to give a time scale of when the evolution took place. However,

neg: Clinical pharmaceutical scientist Clinical pharmaceutical scientist A clinical pharmaceutical scientist (or pharmacist-scientist) is a licensed, practicing pharmacist who also functions as an independent researcher in the pharmaceutical sciences. Clinical pharmaceutical scientists are a type of clinician scientist, analogous to physician-scientists. The term clinical pharmaceutical scientist is distinct from the term pharmaceutical scientist, in that a clinical pharmaceutical scientist is a practicing clinical pharmacist involved in science relating to the discovery and/or development of pharmaceuticals, the development of new knowledge improving the use of pharmaceuticals in clinical practice, or any other subfield of pharmaceutical science (e.g. pharmacoeconomics, pharmacokinetics, outcomes research), while a pharmaceutical scientist

neg: Ernst Knobil Ernst Knobil Ernst Knobil (September 20, 1926 – April 13, 2000) was a scientist known for his studies of endocrinology. Knobil's research into hormonal regulation in primates led to his discovery of growth hormone's species-specific effects. These discoveries led to the first treatment of Growth hormone deficiency. Knobil is also credited with discovering the key role of pulsatile Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and estrogen feedback during the menstrual cycle. This work today forms the basis of reproductive endocrinology and enabled development of the world's first hormonal contraceptives. In addition to being the author of 217 scientific papers, he was the editor of

neg: Ernst Knobil A.O., JoAnne S. Richards, Ph.D., and Paul M. Wassarman, Ph.D. Ernst Knobil Ernst Knobil (September 20, 1926 – April 13, 2000) was a scientist known for his studies of endocrinology. Knobil's research into hormonal regulation in primates led to his discovery of growth hormone's species-specific effects. These discoveries led to the first treatment of Growth hormone deficiency. Knobil is also credited with discovering the key role of pulsatile Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and estrogen feedback during the menstrual cycle. This work today forms the basis of reproductive endocrinology and enabled development of the world's first hormonal contraceptives. In addition to being the

neg: Mary Ann Mantell Although the couple became a coherent research team, their personal lives suffered and the pair became increasingly distant causing their marriage to end in divorce. They had three children together, including prominent New Zealand scientist and politician Walter Mantell. Gideon was the primary caretaker of the children after the divorce was finalized; he died in 1852 of an opium overdose. Mary Ann Mantell Mary Ann Mantell ("née" Woodhouse; 1799 – 1847 or 9 April 1795 – ) is credited with the discovery of the first fossils of "Iguanodon", and provided several pen and ink sketches of the fossils for her

neg: Mark Schena papers published in the microarray field, written by Eugene Garfield. "The Scientist" also credited Schena with creating the first array. Schena was proclaimed the "Father of Microarrays" in an article written by Lloyd Dunlap, contributing editor of Drug Discovery News, in an account of Schena's pioneering work to decipher Parkinson's disease. Schena and Rene Schena reside in Los Altos, California. Mark Schena Mark Alden Schena (born May 21, 1963) is an American biochemist and president of a public life sciences health care company. Schena was born in Buffalo, New York. He received his B.A. in biochemistry from Daniel E. Koshland,

neg: Faith Vilas 1987-88 Antarctic Search for Meteorites field season in Antarctica, helping collect nearly 700 meteorites from the Beardmore/Walcott Neve and Allan Hills/Elephant Moraine icefields. She also served as the Program Scientist for the Discovery, Dawn, and NEAR data analysis programs at NASA Headquarters from 2001-2002, ensuring the integrity of the Discovery program selection process during a time of national duress following the chaos of the 9/11 attack. She returned to JSC as the Group Chief for Planetary Astronomy within the Astromaterials Research and Exploration Office from 2002-2005. Vilas then became the director of the Multiple Mirror Telescope Observatory from 2005 to

neg: Joseph Priestley also awards their highest honour, the Priestley Medal, in his name. The most exhaustive biography of Priestley is Robert Schofield's recent two-volume work; several one-volume treatments exist, all somewhat older: Gibbs, Holt and Thorpe. Graham and Smith focus on Priestley's life in America and Uglow and Jackson both discuss Priestley's life in the context of other developments in science. Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley (; – 6 February 1804) was an 18th-century English Separatist theologian, natural philosopher, chemist, innovative grammarian, multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist who published over 150 works. He has historically been credited with the discovery of oxygen,

neg: Suzanne W. Tourtellotte and Martha Schaefer she studied the solar phase curves and rotation states of Kuiper belt objects. In 2013; she worked on the La Silla Observatory Quest KBO survey Tourtellote was faculty member at Albertus Magnus College until 2008. She was a research scientist at the department of astronomy at Yale.. She died at the age of 68 in Hamden, Connecticut. Tourtellotte is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the co-discovery of 15 numbered minor planets made at the Chilean La Silla Observatory in 2010, in collaboration with astronomers David L. Rabinowitz and Megan E. Schwamb. Most notably are and

neg: Natural Selection (video game) , released in December 2006. The proposed feature would dynamically generate bacterial infestation based on what areas of the map the alien team controlled. The alpha testing of "Natural Selection 2" began on 26 July 2010. The game was released on October 30, 2012. Natural Selection (video game) Natural Selection is a modification for the video game "Half-Life". Its concept is a mixture of the first-person shooter and real-time strategy game genres. The game was created by Charlie "Flayra" Cleveland, who later founded the company Unknown Worlds Entertainment. Natural Selection v1 was first publicly released on Halloween 2002, and is

neg: Natural Selection (video game) Natural Selection (video game) Natural Selection is a modification for the video game "Half-Life". Its concept is a mixture of the first-person shooter and real-time strategy game genres. The game was created by Charlie "Flayra" Cleveland, who later founded the company Unknown Worlds Entertainment. Natural Selection v1 was first publicly released on Halloween 2002, and is now at version 3.2. "Natural Selection 2" was released in late 2012. The game features two teams: Kharaa (alien species) and Frontiersmen (human space marines). The visible Kharaa "units" are actually simply the spawn of the real Kharaa (aliens) which are microscopic life-forms according

neg: Eddy-current testing Eddy-current testing Eddy-current testing (also commonly seen as eddy current testing and ECT) is one of many electromagnetic testing methods used in nondestructive testing (NDT) making use of electromagnetic induction to detect and characterize surface and sub-surface flaws in conductive materials. Eddy current testing (ECT) as a technique for testing finds its roots in electromagnetism. Eddy currents were first observed by François Arago in 1824, but French physicist Léon Foucault is credited with discovering them in 1855. ECT began largely as a result of the English scientist Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831. Faraday discovered that when there

neg: Ralph J. Roberts (geologist) the 1970s he spent six years in Saudi Arabia, mapping ore deposits and contributing to the development of the Arabian mining industry. He retired from the USGS in 1981, but continued his mineral exploration in Nevada for over two decades. In 2002, he published his autobiography, entitled "A Passion for Gold". Ralph J. Roberts (geologist) Ralph Jackson Roberts (1911–2007) was an American geologist and research scientist with the USGS. He is credited with the discovery of the Carlin and Battle Mountain Gold Belts, which make up the richest gold-mining region in Nevada as well as the United States. Roberts grew

neg: Ralph J. Roberts (geologist) Ralph J. Roberts (geologist) Ralph Jackson Roberts (1911–2007) was an American geologist and research scientist with the USGS. He is credited with the discovery of the Carlin and Battle Mountain Gold Belts, which make up the richest gold-mining region in Nevada as well as the United States. Roberts grew up in eastern Washington, and earned his bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Washington in Seattle. His PhD research, which he conducted at Yale University, defined the Antler orogeny, a major mountain-building episode in the late Paleozoic. During World War II Roberts lived in Central America, where he had

neg: Cynthia Ahearn Cynthia Ahearn Cynthia Anne Gust Ahearn (October 17, 1952 – August 31, 2008), was an American Echinodermologist and Museum Specialist at the Smithsonian Institution. She was responsible for the curation of the Smithsonian's extensive collection of echinoderms. An impactful individual in the field of Echinodermology, Ahearn identified nearly 300,000 echinoderm specimen lots and had a nearly complete cataloged collection for the NMNH Echinodermata. Ahearn was also responsible for several newsletters during her career, as well as the "Discovery Cart", a segment on the Discovery Channel's 'Young Scientist' program. In 2005, Ahearn was presented with the Natural History Museum's Public Outreach

neg: C. Michelle Olmstead at Palomar Observatory in 1978, and presumably taken on photographic plates by Tom Gehrels shortly after the last Palomar–Leiden Survey campaign, had its discovering astrometric observation published on 12 September 1992 (). C. Michelle Olmstead C. Michelle Olmstead (born 1969) is an American astronomer and computer scientist. She is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 46 asteroids for the period between 1977 and 1990. She has also co-discovered 127P/Holt-Olmstead, a periodic comet. The minor planet 3287 Olmstead, a Mars-crosser asteroid discovered by astronomer Schelte J. Bus in 1981, was named in her honour. When Olmsead was

neg: The Compatibility Gene The Compatibility Gene The Compatibility Gene is a 2014 book about the discovery of the mechanism of compatibility in the human immune system by professor Daniel M. Davis. It describes the history of immunology with the discovery of the principle of graft rejection by Peter Medawar, and the way the body distinguishes self from not-self via natural killer cells. The compatibility mechanism contributes also to the success of pregnancy by helping the placenta to form, and may play a role in mate selection. Daniel M. Davis has a doctorate in physics from Strathclyde University. He was professor of molecular immunology

neg: Natural Selection (The Spectacular Spider-Man) Natural Selection (The Spectacular Spider-Man) "Natural Selection" is the third episode of the animated television series "The Spectacular Spider-Man," which is based on the comic book character Spider-Man, created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. In the episode, Spider-Man must face "The Lizard," who was a lab professor he was interning for until he was mutated by a serum designed to regrow his missing arm. "Natural Selection" was written by Matt Wayne, known for his work on "Justice League Unlimited," and was the first time he had done so for "The Spectacular Spider-Man." David Bullock directed it. "Natural Selection" originally

neg: Logology (science of science) of scientific thought. Nevertheless, writes Zuckerman, "To some extent, students of promise can choose masters with whom to work and masters can choose among the cohorts of students who present themselves for study. This process of bilateral assortative selection is conspicuously at work among the ultra-elite of science. Actual and prospective members of that elite select their scientist parents and therewith their scientist ancestors just as later they select their scientist progeny and therewith their scientist descendants." Zuckerman writes: "[T]he lines of elite apprentices to elite masters who had themselves been elite apprentices, and so on indefinitely, often reach far

neg: Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology be examined." Evolutionary psychologists consider Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to be important to an understanding of psychology. Natural selection occurs because individual organisms who are genetically better suited to the current environment leave more descendants, and their genes spread through the population, thus explaining why organisms fit their environments so closely. This process is slow and cumulative, with new traits layered over older traits. The advantages created by natural selection are known as adaptations. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals, just as they evolve physical adaptations, evolve psychological adaptations. Evolutionary psychologists emphasize that natural selection mostly generates specialized adaptations,

neg: Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge by a panel of judges selected by Discovery Education and its partner organizations according to the following guidelines: After the Final Event, participants attend an award ceremony and dinner, at which the winner of the title "America’s Top Young Scientist" is announced. First Place (America's Top Young Scientist) Three Runner-Up Prize winners Six Second Prize winners Up to 51 Merit Winners (one from each state and the District of Columbia) Formerly known as the Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), the Young Scientist challenge was created in 1999 as an engineering research and exhibit competition for students in grades 5

neg: Actinium be credited with the discovery. A less confrontational vision of scientific discovery is proposed by Adloff. He suggests that hindsight criticism of the early publications should be mitigated by the then nascent state of radiochemistry: highlighting the prudence of Debierne's claims in the original papers, he notes that nobody can contend that Debierne's substance did not contain actinium. Debierne, who is now considered by the vast majority of historians as the discoverer, lost interest in the element and left the topic. Giesel, on the other hand, can rightfully be credited with the first preparation of radiochemically pure actinium and with

neg: A Natural History of Rape book as an "intellectual masterpiece" that was "courageous, compassionate, and scholarly". They credited its authors with explaining the "basic premises of evolution by natural selection" and exposing misunderstandings of the subject, as well as with providing a clear discussion of the evolution of sex differences, demonstrating that an evolutionary perspective is necessary to understand rape and design effective treatments for its victims and perpetrators, discrediting several hypotheses about the ultimate causes of rape, and providing "a brilliant expose of the power of political and social ideology to obscure, interfere with, and even to halt altogether the scientific search for truth

neg: Scottish National Antarctic Expedition Scottish National Antarctic Expedition The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (SNAE), 1902–04, was organised and led by William Speirs Bruce, a natural scientist and former medical student from the University of Edinburgh. Although overshadowed in prestige terms by Robert Falcon Scott's concurrent Discovery Expedition, the SNAE completed a full programme of exploration and scientific work. Its achievements included the establishment of a manned meteorological station, the first in Antarctic territory, and the discovery of new land to the east of the Weddell Sea. Its large collection of biological and geological specimens, together with those from Bruce's earlier travels, led to the

neg: History of Capri Blue Grotto on the Isle of Capri) by German painter and writer August Kopisch, in which he describes his 1826 stay on Capri and his (re)discovery of the Blue Grotto. Also in the 19th century, the natural scientist Ignazio Cerio catalogued Capri's flora and fauna. Several books were written about Capri in the early 20th century by authors who lived there. The best known of all was the Swedish physician Axel Munthe, who wrote a highly popular memoir entitled "The Story of San Michele". Others were Fersen, Douglas, and Mackenzie. Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen wrote the "roman à clef" "Et le feu

neg: The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC) and nominated by a teacher or professional "(also see Intel International Science and Engineering Fair)". The judging criteria challenged students to complete an application that included several essays. The essays were then evaluated for communication abilities by DCYSC judges who selected 400 semi-finalists. The judging panel also selected 40 finalists who received an all-expense-paid trip to Washington D.C. to compete in the final competition. The finals were composed of two parts. The first was a research presentation, accounting for 20% of the total score, held at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, the National Academy of Sciences, or another

neg: Korado Korlević Korlević, and he spends much time teaching. Korlević is a member of the following organisations: Korado Korlević Korado Korlević (born on 19 September 1958 in Poreč) is a Croatian teacher and prolific amateur astronomer, who ranks among the world's top 20 discoverers of minor planets. As of 2016, he is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 1162 numbered minor planets he made at Višnjan Observatory during 1996–2001. In addition, he is credited with the co-discovery of another 132 minor planets. His discoveries include the slowly-rotating outer main-belt asteroid 10415 Mali Lošinj, and 10645 Brač, a member

neg: Bone Wars up at the quarry—playing mind games with Cope's gang." Bone Wars The Bone Wars, also known as the Great Dinosaur Rush, was a period of intense and ruthlessly competitive fossil hunting and discovery during the Gilded Age of American history, marked by a heated rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope (of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia) and Othniel Charles Marsh (of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale). Each of the two paleontologists used underhanded methods to try to outdo the other in the field, resorting to bribery, theft, and the destruction of bones. Each scientist also sought

neg: Cold Summer (song) a pool boy who stumbles in to a party. Cold Summer (song) "Cold Summer" is the second single released from Fuel's album "Puppet Strings". The song dates back to the early 2000s (decade) before the band's 2003 album "Natural Selection". According to Scallions the band had recorded the song several times and lost hope in it until producer Eddie Wohl convinced Scallions to record it for "Puppet Strings". Song composed by Brett Scallions and Eddie Wohl. Ken Schalk is credited to performing drums on this track, however, left the band before the release of "Puppet Strings". A music video was

neg: Korado Korlević Korado Korlević Korado Korlević (born on 19 September 1958 in Poreč) is a Croatian teacher and prolific amateur astronomer, who ranks among the world's top 20 discoverers of minor planets. As of 2016, he is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 1162 numbered minor planets he made at Višnjan Observatory during 1996–2001. In addition, he is credited with the co-discovery of another 132 minor planets. His discoveries include the slowly-rotating outer main-belt asteroid 10415 Mali Lošinj, and 10645 Brač, a member of the Eunomia family of asteroids. He has also discovered two comets, namely 183P/Korlević-Jurić and