query: the degree to which an experiment measures what is supposed to measure is referred to as

pos: Validity (statistics) Validity (statistics) Validity is the extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world based on probability. The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. This should not be confused with notions of certainty nor necessity. The validity of a measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is considered to be the degree of probability to which the tool measures what it claims to measure; in this case, the validity is an equivalent to a percent of how accurately the claim corresponds to reality. In psychometrics, validity

pos: Validity (statistics) constructs in question. Validity of an assessment is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. This is not the same as reliability, which is the extent to which a measurement gives results that are very consistent. Within validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar, as it does in reliability. However, just because a measure is reliable, it is not necessarily valid. E.g. a scale that is 5 pounds off is reliable but not valid. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Validity is also dependent on the measurement measuring what

pos: Survey methodology planned to measure. Construct validity of a measure is the degree to which it measures the theoretical construct that it was originally supposed to measure. It is important to note that there is evidence to suggest that self-report measures tend to be less accurate and reliable than alternative methods of assessing data (e.g. observational studies; for an example, see. Six steps can be employed to construct a questionnaire that will produce reliable and valid results. First, one must decide what kind of information should be collected. Second, one must decide how to conduct the questionnaire. Thirdly, one must construct a

pos: Rating scale (i.e. that the ratings represent what they are supposed to represent).The degree of validity of an instrument is determined through the application of logic/or statistical procedures." A measurement procedure is valid to the degree that if measures what it proposes to measure" Another fundamental issue is that online ratings usually involve convenience sampling much like television polls, i.e. they represent only the opinions of those inclined to submit ratings. Validity is concerned with different aspects of the measurement process.Each of these types uses logic, statistical verification or both to determine the degree of validity and has special value under certain

pos: Test validity Test validity Test validity is the extent to which a test (such as a chemical, physical, or scholastic test) accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. In the fields of psychological testing and educational testing, "validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests". Although classical models divided the concept into various "validities" (such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity), the currently dominant view is that validity is a single unitary construct. Validity is generally considered the most important issue in psychological and educational

pos: Child PTSD Symptom Scale large where children experienced trauma. Reliability refers to whether the scores are reproducible. Internal consistency (whether all of the items measure the same construct) is the most commonly reported type of reliability in studies using the CPSS. Inter-rater reliability (which would measure how similar peoples' responses were if the interviews were repeated again, or different raters listened to the same interview) is more rarely reported. Validity describes the evidence that an assessment tool measures what it was supposed to measure. There are many different ways of checking validity. For screening measures such as the CPSS, diagnostic accuracy, and discriminative validity

pos: Test validity constructs underlying the interpretations. If the test, and/or the interpretations of the test’s results are revised in any way, a new validation process must gather evidence to support the new version. Test validity Test validity is the extent to which a test (such as a chemical, physical, or scholastic test) accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. In the fields of psychological testing and educational testing, "validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests". Although classical models divided the concept into various "validities" (such as

pos: Validity (statistics) validated against measures of academic performance (the criterion). If the test data and criterion data are collected at the same time, this is referred to as concurrent validity evidence. If the test data are collected first in order to predict criterion data collected at a later point in time, then this is referred to as predictive validity evidence. Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization correlates with other measures of the same construct that are measured at the same time. When the measure is compared to another measure of the same type, they will be related (or

pos: CAGE questionnaire in studies of the CAGE; nor is inter-rater reliability (which would measure how similar peoples' responses were if the interviews were repeated again, or different raters listened to the same interview). Validity describes the evidence that an assessment tool measures what it was supposed to measure. There are many different ways of checking validity. For screening measures such as the CAGE, diagnostic accuracy and discriminative validity are probably the most useful ways of looking at validity. <nowiki>*</nowiki>Table from Youngstrom et al., extending Hunsley & Mash, 2008; *indicates new construct or category The CAGE is designed as a self-report questionnaire. It

pos: Thematic apperception test asserted that TAT answers are highly related to internal states such that high test-retest reliability should not be expected. Gruber and Kreuzpointner (2013) developed a new method for calculating internal consistency using categories instead of pictures. As they demonstrated in a mathematical proof, their method provides a better fit for the underlying construction principles of TAT, and also achieved adequate Cronbach's alpha scores up to .84 The validity of the TAT, or the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure, is low. Jenkins has stated that “the phrase ‘validity of the TAT’ is meaningless, because validity

pos: Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory conditions or in a different context than where it had been studied before. Validity describes the evidence that an assessment tool measures what it was supposed to measure. There are many different ways of checking validity. For screening measures, diagnostic accuracy and discriminative validity are probably the most useful ways of looking at validity. The CASI began as two separate measures that were developed to assist clinicians in obtaining information about youths from their caregivers. Although a variety of checklists were already available, most were not clearly connected to the diagnostic system used by psychiatry and many other professions. The

pos: Construct validity can demonstrate a test's construct validity. If there is a significant difference pre-test and post-test, which are analyzed by statistical tests, then this may demonstrate good construct validity. Convergent and discriminant validity are the two subtypes of validity that make up construct validity. Convergent validity refers to the degree to which two measures of constructs that theoretically should be related, are in fact related. In contrast discriminant validity tests whether concepts or measurements that are supposed to be unrelated are, in fact, unrelated. Take, for example, a construct of general happiness. If a measure of general happiness had convergent validity,

pos: Stanford Sleepiness Scale specified, the reliability scores and values come from studies done with a United States population sample. Validity describes the evidence that an assessment tool measures what it was supposed to measure. Unless otherwise specified, the reliability scores and values come from studies done with a United States population sample. The SSS was developed to measure subjective sleepiness in research and clinical settings. Other instruments measuring sleepiness tend to examine the general experience of sleepiness over the course of a day, but the SSS met a need for a scale measuring sleepiness in specific moments of time. Because it can be

pos: Face validity Face validity Face validity is the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as covering the concept it purports to measure. It refers to the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to test participants. In other words, a test can be said to have face validity if it "looks like" it is going to measure what it is supposed to measure. For instance, if a test is prepared to measure whether students can perform multiplication, and the people to whom it is shown all agree that it looks like a good test of multiplication ability, this

pos: Construct validity then constructs similar to happiness (satisfaction, contentment, cheerfulness, etc.) should relate closely to the measure of general happiness. If this measure has discriminate validity, then constructs that are not supposed to be related to general happiness (sadness, depression, despair, etc.) should not relate to the measure of general happiness. Measures can have one of the subtypes of construct validity and not the other. Using the example of general happiness, a researcher could create an inventory where there is a very high positive correlation between general happiness and contentment, but if there is also a significant positive correlation between happiness and

pos: Russell H. Fazio biased towards African-Americans is able to more quickly categorize negative words as “bad” after being shown a picture of an African-American face. Fazio used the Modern Racism Scale as an explicit measure of racial biases in his experiments. The validity of Modern Racism Scale as measure of racial attitudes was called into question by the Bona Fide Pipeline results. Subjects who showed less bias on the Modern Racism Scale exhibited more negativity towards Blacks in Fazio’s measures. Fazio tested the reactivity of Modern Racism Scale by conducting an experiment where race of the experimenter and whether or not the subject

pos: Psychometrics sphere shrinks. The lack of the cutting points concerns other multivariate methods, also. Key concepts in classical test theory are reliability and validity. A reliable measure is one that measures a construct consistently across time, individuals, and situations. A valid measure is one that measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability is necessary, but not sufficient, for validity. Both reliability and validity can be assessed statistically. Consistency over repeated measures of the same test can be assessed with the Pearson correlation coefficient, and is often called "test-retest reliability." Similarly, the equivalence of different versions of the same measure can

pos: Ecological validity (perception) the external validity of an experiment; this in turn depends partly on what is now usually called the ecological validity of the experiment. As originally defined by Brunswik, however, ecological validity was a property of a cue, not a property of an experiment. Ecological validity (perception) The ecological validity of a sensory cue in perception is the correlation between the cue (something an organism might be able to measure from the proximal stimulus) and a property of the world (some aspect of the distal stimulus). For example, the color of a banana is a cue that indicates whether the banana

pos: Rating scale A+ and BoardGameGeek, which provides explicit descriptions of each category from 1 to 10. Often, only the top and bottom category is described, such as on "IMDb"'s online rating facility. Validity refers to how well a tool measures what it intends to measure. With each user rating a product only once, for example in a category from 1 to 10, there is no means for evaluating internal reliability using an index such as Cronbach's alpha. It is therefore impossible to evaluate the validity of the ratings as measures of viewer perceptions. Establishing validity would require establishing both reliability and accuracy

neg: Tuna-Dolphin GATT Case (I and II) was only supposed to deal with member states' products, not their processes or policies. To determine whether United States measures for dolphin protection were "necessary," the panel first examined what the meaning of this word meant. The United States argued that necessary meant "needed," whereas, the EEC and the Netherland felt it meant "indispensable" or "unavoidable." To support their argument, they referred to a previously adopted panel report which interpreted "necessary" as meaning "no alternative measures" exist. The panel also agreed with this interpretation, and felt, once again, that banning yellowfin tuna and tuna products was not a measure that

neg: Acoplanarity Acoplanarity In particle physics, the acoplanarity of a scattering experiment measures the degree to which the paths of the scattered particles deviate from being coplanar. Measurements of acoplanarity provide a test of perturbative quantum chromodynamics, because QCD predicts that the emission of gluons can lead to acoplanar scattering events. For a two-jet final state, a useful measure of acoplanartiy is where formula_2 are the azimuthal angles of the final state jets with respect to the beam line. An alternative measure of acoplanarity which is infrared safe and which works for broad jets of many particles is given by where formula_4

neg: Fleischmann–Pons experiment for cold fusion in 26 April US Congress hearings. But when he finally presented his results he reported an excess heat of only one degree celsius, a result that could be explained by chemical differences between heavy and light water in the presence of lithium. He had not tried to measure any radiation and his research was derided by scientists who saw it later. For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news. In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in

neg: United Nations General Assembly Resolution 377 2, which says that if a question which may be considered by the General Assembly calls for enforcement action ... then it must necessarily be referred to the Security Council... But there is a basic reservation... It is that ... the General Assembly may decide, what measures "not involving the use of force" are to be employed. Severance of diplomatic relations is a measure not involving the use of armed force. Interruption of economic relations is an enforcement measure not involving the use of armed force." According to how one characterizes the first case Uniting for Peace has been implemented

neg: Coulter counter the results of an experiment. This is because the conductivity difference between most conductive materials and ions in liquid (referred to as the discharge potential) is so great that most conductive materials act as insulators in a Coulter counter. The voltage necessary to break down this potential barrier is referred to as the breakdown voltage. For those highly conductive materials that present a problem, the voltage used during a Coulter experiment should be reduced below the breakdown potential (which can be determined empirically). The Coulter Principle measures the volume of an object, since the disturbance in the electric field is

neg: Composite measure Composite measure Composite measure in statistics and research design refer to composite measures of variables, i.e. measurements based on multiple data items. An example of a composite measure is an IQ test, which gives a single score based on a series of responses to various questions. Three common composite measures include: Indexes are often referred to as scales, but in fact not all indexes are scales. Whereas indexes are usually created by aggregating scores assigned to individual attributes of various variables, scales are more nuanced and take into account differences in intensity among the attribute of the same variable in

neg: Compactness measure of a shape circle from other shapes. Compactness measure of a shape The compactness measure of a shape is a numerical quantity representing the degree to which a shape is compact. The meaning of "compact" here is not related to the topological notion of compact space. Various compactness measures are used. However, these measures have the following in common: A common compactness measure is the isoperimetric quotient, the ratio of the area of the shape to the area of a circle (the most compact shape) having the same perimeter. Compactness measures can be defined for three-dimensional shapes as well, typically as functions of

neg: Compactness measure of a shape Compactness measure of a shape The compactness measure of a shape is a numerical quantity representing the degree to which a shape is compact. The meaning of "compact" here is not related to the topological notion of compact space. Various compactness measures are used. However, these measures have the following in common: A common compactness measure is the isoperimetric quotient, the ratio of the area of the shape to the area of a circle (the most compact shape) having the same perimeter. Compactness measures can be defined for three-dimensional shapes as well, typically as functions of volume and surface area.

neg: Effect size odds ratio), or to an unstandardized measure (e.g., the difference between group means or the unstandardized regression coefficients). Standardized effect size measures are typically used when: In meta-analyses, standardized effect sizes are used as a common measure that can be calculated for different studies and then combined into an overall summary. About 50 to 100 different measures of effect size are known. These effect sizes estimate the amount of the variance within an experiment that is "explained" or "accounted for" by the experiment's model. Pearson's correlation, often denoted "r" and introduced by Karl Pearson, is widely used as an "effect

neg: Signed measure finite signed measure is given by for all "A" in Σ. This signed measure takes only finite values. To allow it to take +∞ as a value, one needs to replace the assumption about "f" being absolutely integrable with the more relaxed condition where "f"("x") = max(−"f"("x"), 0) is the negative part of "f". What follows are two results which will imply that an extended signed measure is the difference of two nonnegative measures, and a finite signed measure is the difference of two finite non-negative measures. The Hahn decomposition theorem states that given a signed measure μ, there exist

neg: Science of Logic alteration, i.e., addition, subtraction, etc. Unlike mere Quantum, however, the Real Measure of a thing is inwardly determined, and so preserves itself somewhat in alteration. If two material things are combined, the dual Measures of the one are added to those of the other. The degree to which they exhibit self-preservation is registered in the "internal" Measure—weight in this case—which ends up being equal, after combination, to the sum of the original two Measures; the degree to which they exhibit Qualitative alteration is registered in the "external" Measure—space in this case—which does "not" necessarily result in a sum equal to

neg: Cluster analysis that is truly in the same cluster is predicted to be in the same cluster. As with internal evaluation, several external evaluation measures exist, for example: To measure cluster tendency is to measure to what degree clusters exist in the data to be clustered, and may be performed as an initial test, before attempting clustering. One way to do this is to compare the data against random data. On average, random data should not have clusters. Cluster analysis Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same

neg: Community search communities from big graphs. Community search often uses some well-defined, fundamental measures of graphs. The commonly used measures are minimum degree, k-truss, k-edge-connected , etc. Note that, the minimum degree measure is also used for defining the k-core of a graph. Among these measures, the minimum degree measure is the most popular one, and has been used in many recent studies. Community search Discovering communities in a network, known as community detection/discovery, is a fundamental problem in network science, which attracted much attention in the past several decades. In recent years, with the tremendous studies on big data, there is

neg: High-throughput screening Effective analytic QC methods serve as a gatekeeper for excellent quality assays. In a typical HTS experiment, a clear distinction between a positive control and a negative reference such as a negative control is an index for good quality. Many quality-assessment measures have been proposed to measure the degree of differentiation between a positive control and a negative reference. Signal-to-background ratio, signal-to-noise ratio, signal window, assay variability ratio, and Z-factor have been adopted to evaluate data quality. Strictly standardized mean difference (SSMD) has recently been proposed for assessing data quality in HTS assays. A compound with a desired size of

neg: Alcoholic spirits measure Alcoholic spirits measure Alcoholic spirits measures are instruments designed to measure exact amounts or shots of alcoholic spirits. The most common products used today to measure spirits are the thimble measure and the non-drip measure, often referred to as an optic. The terms "Optic", "Optic Pearl", "OpticJade" and "OpticOpal" are all trademarks of Gaskell & Chambers owned by the company IMI Cornelius (UK) Ltd, but the word “optic” has become synonymous with inverted or non-drip spirit measures. Other manufacturers, such as Beaumont TM, also supply this type of measuring device. The optic or non-drip measure is mounted beneath an inverted

neg: Embedded emissions Embedded emissions One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed (also referred to as "embodied emissions"). This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries (the "spillover effect" and "carbon leakage" of an emissions reduction policy). The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production, rather than consumption (UK Parliament, 2010). Consequently, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. The question of whether to measure emissions on production

neg: South African environmental law other measures" was considered in the context of the environmental right in "BP Southern Africa v MEC for Agriculture, Conservation & Land Affairs", where the court determined that it is up to the courts to determine what measures are reasonable. Section 24(b)(i) requires these measures to "prevent pollution and ecological degradation." This leads to the question: What degree of pollution should be tolerated in a developing country like South Africa? This issue was highlighted in "Hichange Investments", where Leach J considered what constitutes "significant pollution." He answered, that "the assessment [...] involves [...] a considerable measure of subjective import," and

neg: James–Lange theory of emotional feelings. It also emphasizes that each emotional feeling has a distinct, unique pattern of physiological responses associated with it. It must meet two criteria which include (a) at least two emotions should be induced and (b) the presence of any emotion should be verified using other measures such as facial expressions or verbal reports. An example would be conducting an experiment to measure happiness and anger. One study is measuring happiness but giving rewards sporadically through out the experiment while the other study is measuring anger by giving the participants a very difficult cross word puzzle to solve.

neg: Pre-measure is called "σ"-additivity. Thus, what is missing for a pre-measure to be a measure is that it is not necessarily defined on a sigma-algebra (or a sigma-ring). It turns out that pre-measures give rise quite naturally to outer measures, which are defined for all subsets of the space "X". More precisely, if "μ" is a pre-measure defined on a ring of subsets "R" of the space "X", then the set function "μ" defined by is an outer measure on "X" and the measure "μ" induced by "μ" on the σ-algebra Σ of Carathéodory-measurable sets satisfies formula_4 for formula_5 (in particular,

neg: Conical measure Conical measure A conical measure is a type of laboratory glassware which consists of a conical cup with a notch on the top to allow for the easy pouring of liquids, and graduated markings on the side to allow easy and accurate measurement of volumes of liquid. They may be made of plastic, glass, or borosilicate glass. The use of the conical measure usually dictates its construction material. Plastic conical measures, commonly referred to as measuring cups are used by patients to measure liquid medicaments for oral administration. Glass and borosilicate conical measures are commonly used when compounding by the

neg: Conical measure measurements. Conical measure A conical measure is a type of laboratory glassware which consists of a conical cup with a notch on the top to allow for the easy pouring of liquids, and graduated markings on the side to allow easy and accurate measurement of volumes of liquid. They may be made of plastic, glass, or borosilicate glass. The use of the conical measure usually dictates its construction material. Plastic conical measures, commonly referred to as measuring cups are used by patients to measure liquid medicaments for oral administration. Glass and borosilicate conical measures are commonly used when compounding by

neg: Oregon Ballot Measures 47 and 50 Oregon Ballot Measures 47 and 50 Ballot Measure 47 was an initiative in the U.S. state of Oregon that passed in 1996, affecting the assessment of property taxes and instituting a double majority provision for tax legislation. Measure 50 was a revised version of the law, which also passed, after being referred to the voters by the 1997 state legislature. Measure 47, sometimes referred to as a "cut and cap" law, reduced property taxes to the lesser of the 1994–95 tax or the 1995–96 tax minus 10 percent and limited future increases in assessed property values, except for new construction

neg: Englert–Greenberger–Yasin duality relation experiment can yield "partial" information about the wave and particle aspects of a photon simultaneously, but the more information a particular experiment gives about one, the less it will give about the other. The distinguishability formula_2 which expresses the degree of probability with which path of the particle is known, is a measure of the particle information, while the visibility of the fringes formula_1 is a measure of the wave information. The relation shows that they are inversely related, as one goes up, the other goes down. This section reviews the mathematical formulation of the double-slit experiment. The formulation is

neg: The Philadelphia Experiment (album) The Philadelphia Experiment (album) The Philadelphia Experiment is a 2001 studio album by The Philadelphia Experiment, a collaborative project including pianist Uri Caine, bassist Christian McBride, and drummer Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson. It features guest appearances from guitarist Pat Martino, trumpeter John Swana, and cellist Larry Gold. It peaked at number 7 on the "Billboard" Jazz Albums chart. The album borrows its name from an urban legend about a supposed U.S. Naval experiment on invisibility carried out in 1943, referred to as the Philadelphia Experiment. It is the first entry in a series of albums, the second being "The Detroit Experiment"

neg: Affect measures Affect measures One common way of studying human emotion is to obtain self-reports from participants to quantify their current feelings or average feelings over a longer period of time. These are referred to as measures of affect or measures of emotion. Even though some affect measures contain variations that allow assessment of basic predispositions to experience a certain emotion, tests for such stable traits are usually considered to be personality tests. The Affective Slider is an empirically-validated digital scale for the self-assessment of affect composed of two slider controls that measure basic emotions in terms of pleasure and arousal, which

neg: Convergence of measures Convergence of measures In mathematics, more specifically measure theory, there are various notions of the convergence of measures. For an intuitive general sense of what is meant by "convergence in measure", consider a sequence of measures μ on a space, sharing a common collection of measurable sets. Such a sequence might represent an attempt to construct 'better and better' approximations to a desired measure μ that is difficult to obtain directly. The meaning of 'better and better' is subject to all the usual caveats for taking limits; for any error tolerance ε > 0 we require there be "N" sufficiently

neg: Equivalence (measure theory) Equivalence (measure theory) In mathematics, and specifically in measure theory, equivalence is a notion of two measures being qualitatively similar. Specifically, the two measures agree on which events have measure zero. Let formula_1 and formula_2 be two measures on the measurable space formula_3, and let be the set of all formula_5-null sets; formula_6 is similarly defined. Then the measure formula_2 is said to be absolutely continuous in reference to formula_1 iff formula_9. This is denoted as formula_10. The two measures are called equivalent iff formula_11 and formula_10, which is denoted as formula_13. An equivalent definition is that two measures are

neg: Coefficient of colligation So Yule’s measures association as a fraction for the two kinds of tables. Yule’s "Y" measures association in a substantial, intuitively understandable way and therefore it is the measure of preference to measure association. The following crosswise symmetric table can be split up into two tables: and It is obvious that the degree of association equals 0.6 per unum (60%). The following asymmetric table can be transformed in a table with an equal degree of association (the odds ratios of both tables are equal). Here follows the transformed table: The odds ratios of both tables are equal to 9. "Y"

neg: Almost everywhere in terms of measures, because each ultrafilter defines a finitely-additive measure taking only the values 0 and 1, where a set has measure 1 if and only if it is included in the ultrafilter. Almost everywhere In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense, the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of almost everywhere is a companion notion to the concept of measure zero. In the subject of probability, which is largely based in measure theory, the notion is referred to as "almost

neg: Convergence of measures said to converge weakly (or in distribution or in law) to "X" as if the sequence of pushforward measures ("X")(P) converges weakly to "X"(P) in the sense of weak convergence of measures on X, as defined above. Convergence of measures In mathematics, more specifically measure theory, there are various notions of the convergence of measures. For an intuitive general sense of what is meant by "convergence in measure", consider a sequence of measures μ on a space, sharing a common collection of measurable sets. Such a sequence might represent an attempt to construct 'better and better' approximations to a desired

neg: Minkowski's question-mark function the question-mark function. One such construction is obtained by measuring the density of the Farey numbers on the real number line. The question-mark measure is the prototypical example of what are sometimes referred to as multi-fractal measures. The question-mark function maps rational numbers to dyadic rational numbers, meaning those whose base two representation terminates, as may be proven by induction from the recursive construction outlined above. It maps quadratic irrationals to non-dyadic rational numbers. It is an odd function, and satisfies the functional equation ; consequently is an odd periodic function with period one. If is irrational, then is either

neg: Outer measure describes two particularly useful ones which are referred to as Method I and Method II. Let be a set, a family of subsets of which contains the empty set and a non-negative extended real valued function on which vanishes on the empty set. Theorem. Suppose the family and the function are as above and define That is, the infimum extends over all sequences of elements of which cover , with the convention that the infimum is infinite if no such sequence exists. Then is an outer measure on . The second technique is more suitable for constructing outer measures on

neg: Katz centrality Katz centrality In graph theory, the Katz centrality of a node is a measure of centrality in a network. It was introduced by Leo Katz in 1953 and is used to measure the relative degree of influence of an actor (or node) within a social network. Unlike typical centrality measures which consider only the shortest path (the geodesic) between a pair of actors, Katz centrality measures influence by taking into account the total number of walks between a pair of actors. It is similar to Google's PageRank and to the eigenvector centrality. Katz centrality computes the relative influence of a

neg: Turgor pressure measure individual algal cells, but can now be used on larger-celled specimens. It is usually used on higher plant tissues, but wasn't used to measure turgor pressure until Hüsken and Zimmerman improved on the method. Pressure probes measure turgor pressure via displacement. A glass micro-capillary tube is inserted into the cell and whatever the cell exudes into the tube is observed through a microscope. An attached device then measures how much pressure is required to push the emission back into the cell. These are used to accurately quantify measurements of smaller cells. In an experiment by Weber, Smith and colleagues,

neg: Tape measure cases, spring return pocket tape measures and long tape measures. Spring return pocket tape measures will generally fit in a pocket. They are small, the case is up to about three inches across. The tape is returned to the case by a spring mechanism. Pocket tape measures have a tape one foot to fifteen feet in length and ¼ to ¾ inches across. When most people think of a tape measure, they are thinking of the pocket tape measure. A second tape measure design is what is called the long tape. These are cased tape measures with tapes of 25,

neg: Science of Logic Affinity is an external relation between two Real Measures that is determined by their Quantitative aspects. In and of themselves, each Real Measure retains its Qualitative indifference to all others, even those it has Affinity for. Real Measures, however, are also subject to "internal" alteration akin to what has already been discussed in “Measure” above, i.e., that its Quality can be maintained only within a certain Quantitative range beyond which it undergoes a sudden “leap” into another Quality. These different Qualities form "Nodes" on a line of gradual Quantitative increase or decrease. Measure, being the unity of Quality and Quantity,

neg: Faraday paradox in circuit, although sometimes it can measure the incorporation of the second term such as when the second term contributes part of the current which the galvanometer measures as motional EMF, e.g. in the Faraday's disk experiment. In the situation above, the first term is zero and only the first term leads a current that the galvanometer measures, so there is no induced voltage. However, Faraday's Law still holds since the apparent change of the magnetic flux goes to the second term in the above generalization of EMF. But it is not measured by the galvanometer. Remember formula_30 is the

neg: Age at risk Age at risk Age at Risk (AaR) is a time-based risk measure designed to measure longevity risk in actuarial models. AaR represents certain quantile for a given probability distribution, so is similar to Value at Risk (VaR). But, AaR measures risk amount as time(time until an adverse event) rather than value(loss amount). Age at Risk is a special case of Time at Risk (TaR). When TaR is applied to a household's financial planning rather than corporate finance, TaR in this case is referred to as AaR. In fact, TaR is an expanded idea from AaR which is originated by actuaries.

neg: Katz centrality a quantification of the cross communicability that produced clusters in line with the success of learning. Katz centrality In graph theory, the Katz centrality of a node is a measure of centrality in a network. It was introduced by Leo Katz in 1953 and is used to measure the relative degree of influence of an actor (or node) within a social network. Unlike typical centrality measures which consider only the shortest path (the geodesic) between a pair of actors, Katz centrality measures influence by taking into account the total number of walks between a pair of actors. It is similar

neg: Double Chooz Double Chooz Double Chooz is a short-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment in Chooz, France. Its goal is to measure or set a limit on the "θ" mixing angle, a neutrino oscillation parameter responsible for changing electron neutrinos into other neutrinos. The experiment uses reactors of the Chooz Nuclear Power Plant as a neutrino source and measures the flux of neutrinos they receive. To accomplish this, Double Chooz has a set of two detectors situated 400 meters and 1050 meters from the reactors. Double Chooz is a successor to the Chooz experiment; one of its detectors occupies the same site as its

neg: Directivity Directivity In electromagnetics, directivity is a parameter of an antenna or optical system which measures the degree to which the radiation emitted is concentrated in a single direction. It measures the power density the antenna radiates in the direction of its strongest emission, versus the power density radiated by an ideal isotropic radiator (which emits uniformly in all directions) radiating the same total power. An antenna's directivity is a component of its gain; the other component is its (electrical) efficiency. Directivity is an important measure because many antennas and optical systems are designed to radiate electromagnetic waves in a single

neg: Frankenberg, Hesse and if so with what success, municipal measures can have a positive influence on demographic development. As part of the scientifically conducted experiment, the town gets up to €5,000,000, spread out over the experiment's running time, to carry out the municipal measures in question. The focus of the Frankenberg experiment will be measures aimed at making family life and work life compatible (the so-called work-life balance). Frankenberg is twinned with: Frankenberg, Hesse Frankenberg an der Eder is a town in Waldeck-Frankenberg district, Hesse, Germany. The mountain at a ford over the Eder north of the Burgwald range was for a

neg: Optimal computing budget allocation important, the decision makers can use the MOCBA. In other situations, the decision makers have one primary performance measure to be optimized while the secondary performance measures are constrained by certain limits. The primary performance measure can be called the main objective while the secondary performance measures are referred as the constraint measures. This falls into the problem of constrained optimization. When the number of alternatives is fixed, the problem is called constrained ranking and selection where the goal is to select the best feasible design given that both the main objective and the constraint measures need to be estimated

neg: Informed consent in exploring whether, and to what extent, race or gender influences the prices that buyers pay for used cars, it would be difficult to measure accurately the degree of discrimination among used car dealers who know that they are taking part in an experiment." In cases where such interference is likely, and after careful consideration, a researcher may forgo the informed consent process. This is commonly done after weighting the risk to study participants versus the benefit to society and whether participants are present in the study out of their own wish and treated fairly. Researchers often consult with an

neg: Embedded emissions with trade in commodities such as steel, cement, and chemicals, and 50% in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles, clothing or industrial machinery and equipment. Embedded emissions One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed (also referred to as "embodied emissions"). This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries (the "spillover effect" and "carbon leakage" of an emissions reduction policy). The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production, rather than consumption (UK Parliament, 2010).

neg: Trouton–Rankine experiment Trouton–Rankine experiment The Trouton–Rankine experiment was an experiment designed to measure if the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction of an object according to one frame (as defined by the luminiferous aether) produced a measurable effect in the rest frame of the object, so that the ether would act as a "preferred frame". The experiment was first performed by Frederick Thomas Trouton and Alexander Oliver Rankine in 1908. The outcome of the experiment was negative, which is in agreement with the principle of relativity (and thus special relativity as well), according to which observers at rest in a certain inertial reference frame, cannot measure

neg: Thermomechanical analysis is no stress other than a nominal contact stress. The material can be best characterized by an experiment in which the original material is first heated to the upper temperature required, then the material should be cooled at the same rate, followed by a second heating scan. The first heating scan provides a measure of the material with all of its structural complexities. The cooling scan allows and measures the material as the molecules lose mobility, so it is going from an equilibrium state and gradually moving away from equilibrium as the cooling rate exceeds the relaxation rate. The second

neg: Advertising research (Recall) scores do not predict sales. The measure, persuasion, also known as motivation, is validated as a predictor of sales. The measure known as “breakthrough” is re-examined by researchers who make a distinction between the attention-getting power of the creative execution (attention) and how well “branded” the ad is (brand linkage). Herbert Krugman seeks to measure non-verbal measures biologically by tracking brain wave activities as respondents watch commercials. (Krugman) Others experiment with galvanic skin response, voice pitch analysis, and eye-tracking. 1980s - Researchers begin to view commercials as a “structured flow of experience” rather than a single unit to be

neg: Performance metric choose measures that have little value. This is referred to as the "measurement inversion". For example, metrics seem to emphasize what organizations find immediately measurable—even if those are low value—and tend to ignore high value measurements simply because they seem harder to measure (whether they are or not). To correct for the measurement inversion other methods, like applied information economics, introduce the "value of information analysis" step in the process so that metrics focus on high-value measures. Organizations where this has been applied find that they define completely different metrics than they otherwise would have and, often, fewer metrics. For

neg: Alcoholic spirits measure used in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The landlord can chose one or the other but not both. Thimble measures are also used in 175ml and 250ml volumes for measuring wine. Although government stamped for the correct volume, the thimble measure does rely on the user measuring the wine out manually into the thimble. Alcoholic spirits measure Alcoholic spirits measures are instruments designed to measure exact amounts or shots of alcoholic spirits. The most common products used today to measure spirits are the thimble measure and the non-drip measure, often referred to as an optic. The terms "Optic", "Optic Pearl", "OpticJade"

neg: Metric (unit) fallacy', the erroneous belief that if a conclusion is reached by quantitative measurement, it must be vindicated, irrespective of what parameters or purpose the investigation is supposed to have. In business, they are sometimes referred to as key performance indicators (KPI), such as overall equipment effectiveness (OEE), or key risk indicators (KRI). In the field of Facilities Management, a key metric is the facility condition index (FCI). Metric (unit) A metric is a measure for quantitatively assessing, controlling or selecting a person, process, event, or institution, along with the procedures to carry out measurements and the procedures for the interpretation

neg: Diet-induced obesity model diet-induced obesity model has an experimental and a control group. The control group is given a diet with low percentage of total energy from fat (e.g. 10%), while the experimental group is given a diet with a high percentage of total energy from fat (e.g. 60%). The effect of the diet is quantified using the measures detailed below. Often, the experiment aims to see how obesity affects some other physiological or behavioral outcome, so other measures may be taken. Common such measures include stress (both physiological and psychological), changes in hormones, and insulin. The outcome measure of obesity is usually

neg: Pint metric measure. Such milk bottles are no longer officially referred to as pints. However, the "pint glass" in pubs in Australia remains closer to the standard imperial pint, at 570 ml. It holds about 500 ml of beer and about 70 ml of froth, except in South Australia, where a pint is served in a 425 ml glass and a 570 ml glass is called an "imperial pint". In New Zealand, there is no longer any legal requirement for beer to be served in standard measures: in pubs, the largest size of glass, which is referred to as a pint,

neg: Prelude in E-flat major (Rachmaninoff) F, E flat, A flat, F, and G. A repetition of the theme occurs at measure 21, and then is drastically simplified. Measure 28 An exchange of ascending and descending chromatic sequences occurs at measures 31 and 32, offset contrapuntally by the changes of the primary theme. Measures 31 and 32 Towards the end of the Prelude, an emphasis is placed on the sixteenth note accompaniment, which expands into two hands, rising upward in a chromatic pattern to the finish. Measures 39–40 Measure 19 Measure 37 Measures 23–24 Measures 37–38 Alexis Weissenberg as well as Boris Berezovsky have recorded all

neg: 2008 Oregon Ballot Measure 56 2008 Oregon Ballot Measure 56 Oregon Ballot Measure 56 or House Joint Resolution 15 (HJR 15) is a legislatively referred constitutional amendment that enacted law which provides that property tax elections decided at May and November elections will be decided by a majority of voters who are voting in the relevant election. It repealed the double majority requirement passed by the voters in the 1990s via Measures 47 and 50, which requires that, for non-general elections, all bond measures can pass only when a majority of registered voters turn out. The measure appeared on the November 4, 2008 general election

neg: Two-factor theory of intelligence can soon be eliminated and a point reached where all the correlations are due to the General Factor alone. (pp. 217) Spearman originally came up with the term General Intelligence, or as he called it, "g", to measure intelligence in his Two Theory on Intelligence. Spearman first researched in an experiment with 24 children from a small village school measuring three intellectual measures, based on teachers rankings, to address intellectual and sensory as the two different sets of measure: School Cleverness, Common Sense A and Common Sense B. His results showed the average r between intellectual and sensory measures to

neg: Interest (emotion) measured, the changes in pupil size – despite its weaker, but still consistent, correlations with other measures such as self-reported measures of sexual interest's orientation – have been proposed as its appropriate measure. Interest (emotion) Interest is a feeling or emotion that causes attention to focus on an object, event, or process. In contemporary psychology of interest, the term is used as a general concept that may encompass other more specific psychological terms, such as curiosity and to a much lesser degree surprise. The emotion of interest does have its own facial expression, of which the most prominent component is

neg: Lie detection measure blood pressure fluctuations. Respiration is measured by wearing pneumographs around the chest, and finally electrodes are placed on the subject's fingers to measure skin conductivity. To determine truth it is assumed the subject will show more signs of fear when answering the control questions compared with the relevant questions. If a person is showing a deception there will be changes in the autonomic arousal responses to the relevant questions. Results are considered inconclusive if there is no fluctuation in any of the questions. These measures are supposed to indicate a short-term stress response which can be from lying or

neg: Compactness measure of a shape One example of a compactness measure is sphericity formula_1. Another measure in use is formula_2, which is proportional to formula_3. The Polsby-Popper Test is a mathematical measure of compactness that was developed to quantify the degree of gerrymandering of political districts. A common use of compactness measures is in redistricting. The goal is to maximize the compactness of electoral districts, subject to other constraints, and thereby to avoid gerrymandering. Another use is in zoning, to regulate the manner in which land can be subdivided into building lots. Another use is in pattern classification projects so that you can classify the

neg: Double Chooz C background. An ortho-positronium lifetime of was measured, compatible with other dedicated setups. Limits on Lorentz violation parameters were also set. Double Chooz Double Chooz is a short-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment in Chooz, France. Its goal is to measure or set a limit on the "θ" mixing angle, a neutrino oscillation parameter responsible for changing electron neutrinos into other neutrinos. The experiment uses reactors of the Chooz Nuclear Power Plant as a neutrino source and measures the flux of neutrinos they receive. To accomplish this, Double Chooz has a set of two detectors situated 400 meters and 1050 meters from

neg: LHCb experiment the strange b-meson to dimuon branching fraction. CP violation was studied in various particle systems such as B, Kaons, and D. New Xi baryons were observed in 2014. Analysis of the decay of bottom lambda baryons (Λ) in the LHCb experiment also revealed the apparent existence of pentaquarks, in what was described as an "accidental" discovery. LHCb experiment The LHCb (Large Hadron Collider beauty) experiment is one of seven particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics experiment, designed primarily to measure the parameters of CP violation in the interactions

neg: Neutral particle oscillation decay, formula_127 was referred to as the short-lived Kaon formula_130, and formula_128 as the long-lived Kaon formula_132. The 1964 experiment showed that contrary to what was expected, formula_132 could decay to two pions. This implied that the long lived Kaon cannot be purely the CP eigenstate formula_128, but must contain a small admixture of formula_127, thereby no longer being a CP eigenstate. Similarly, the short-lived Kaon was predicted to have a small admixture of formula_128. That is, formula_137 and, formula_138 where, formula_139 is a complex quantity and is a measure of departure from CP invariance. Experimentally, formula_140. Writing formula_127 and

neg: Wigner's friend quantum theoretical analysis yields inconsistent statements. The scenario corresponds roughly to two parallel pairs of "Wigners" and friends: formula_38 with formula_39 and formula_40 with formula_41. The friends each measure a specific spin system, and each Wigner measures “his” friend’s laboratory (which includes the friend). The explicit steps of the thought experiment are the following: Each agent measures his assigned system in a particular basis, as defined above. Upon his measurement result, the agent now starts to reason about the results of other agents by using logical arguments compatible with quantum theory. It is assumed that all agents know about the

neg: Associator Associator In abstract algebra, the term associator is used in different ways as a measure of the nonassociativity of an algebraic structure. Associators are commonly studied as triple systems. For a nonassociative ring or algebra formula_1, the associator is the multilinear map formula_2 given by Just as the commutator measures the degree of noncommutativity, the associator measures the degree of nonassociativity of formula_1. For an associative ring or algebra the associator is identically zero. The associator in any ring obeys the identity The associator is alternating precisely when formula_1 is an alternative ring. The associator is symmetric in its two

neg: Space Cadets (TV series) ""what is, in effect, an alternative universe."" The actor Cadet on the 'mission' stated that it was easier to let himself believe the experience was genuine; trying to consciously remind himself of the hoax left him disorientated and "30% convinced, despite everything I know, that I am actually in space". Parallels can be drawn to the supposed 'group experiment' element of "Big Brother" which "Space Cadets" draws on, and in wider terms propaganda, subliminal advertising, and the consensus nature of reality. See also: Asch conformity experiments, Milgram experiment and the Stanford prison experiment. Several episodes of "" staged similar "false

neg: Turing degree and the manner in which they are satisfied must be carefully chosen to produce the required result. Turing degree In computer science and mathematical logic the Turing degree (named after Alan Turing) or degree of unsolvability of a set of natural numbers measures the level of algorithmic unsolvability of the set. The concept of Turing degree is fundamental in computability theory, where sets of natural numbers are often regarded as decision problems. The Turing degree of a set is a measure of how difficult it is to solve the decision problem associated with the set, that is, to determine whether

neg: Associator In higher-dimensional algebra, where there may be non-identity morphisms between algebraic expressions, an associator is an isomorphism In category theory, the associator expresses the associative properties of the internal product functor in monoidal categories. Associator In abstract algebra, the term associator is used in different ways as a measure of the nonassociativity of an algebraic structure. Associators are commonly studied as triple systems. For a nonassociative ring or algebra formula_1, the associator is the multilinear map formula_2 given by Just as the commutator measures the degree of noncommutativity, the associator measures the degree of nonassociativity of formula_1. For an associative

neg: The Mice (The Outer Limits) The Mice (The Outer Limits) "The Mice" is an episode of the original "The Outer Limits" television show. It first aired on 6 January 1964, during the first season. A convict named Chino Rivera, sentenced to life imprisonment after being charged with first degree homicide when he killed his sister's abusive husband, volunteers to be a human guinea pig for a matter transportation experiment. In reality, the experiment is supposed to be an exchange of technology between Earth and an alien race called the Chromoites. When an inhabitant of Chromo, designated as their 'volunteer', materializes in the testing lab, it

neg: Ceiling effect (statistics) ceiling effects prevent accurate interpretation of data, it is important to attempt preventing the effects from occurring or using the presence of the effects to adjust the instrument and procedures that were used. Researchers may try to prevent ceiling effects from occurring using a number of methods. The first of which is choosing a previously validated measure by reviewing past research. If no validated measures exist, pilot testing may be conducted using the proposed methods. Pilot testing, or conducting a pilot experiment, involves a small-scale trial of instruments and procedures prior to the actual experiment, allowing for the recognition that

neg: Information theory and measure theory an information diagram. This allows the sum of two measures to be written: and the analog of Bayes' theorem (formula_37) allows the difference of two measures to be written: This can be a handy mnemonic device in some situations, e.g. Note that measures (expectation values of the logarithm) of true probabilities are called "entropy" and generally represented by the letter "H", while other measures are often referred to as "information" or "correlation" and generally represented by the letter "I". For notational simplicity, the letter "I" is sometimes used for all measures. Certain extensions to the definitions of Shannon's basic measures

neg: Kind of Blue notes, "Miles conceived these settings only hours before the recording dates." Evans continued with an introduction concerning the modes used in each composition on the album. "So What" consists of two modes: sixteen measures of the first, followed by eight measures of the second, and then eight again of the first. "Freddie Freeloader" is a standard twelve-bar blues form. "Blue in Green" consists of a ten-measure cycle following a short four-measure introduction. "All Blues" is a twelve-bar blues form in 6/8 time. "Flamenco Sketches" consists of five scales, which are each played "as long as the soloist wishes until he

neg: Robotic sensors strain-gauge based sensing is used at the end-effector location for contact force control. It is the part of the robot.Internal sensors measure the robot's internal state. They are used to measure position, velocity and acceleration of the robot joint or end effectors. Position sensors measure the position of a joint (the degree to which the joint is extended). They include: A velocity or speed sensor measures consecutive position measurements at known intervals and computes the time rate of change in the position values. In a parts feeder, a vision sensor can eliminate the need for an alignment pallet. Vision-enabled insertion

neg: Human Relations Area Files passages that deal with cultural ideas about childtraining or general methods of discipline, but coding schemes need to be developed to measure dimensions of variation, such as "degree to which corporal punishment is employed," "degree to which threatening is employed," or "degree to which children are praised." It is not difficult, after a little practice, to develop ordinal scales that can allow for the coding of words into quantitative measures, and once that is done it is easy to use available software to test hypotheses, and compare, combine, and model the results. The indexed texts in HRAF are also amenable

neg: Probability measure formula_4 is not zero. Probability measures are distinct from the more general notion of fuzzy measures in which there is no requirement that the fuzzy values sum up to 1, and the additive property is replaced by an order relation based on set inclusion. "Market measures" which assign probabilities to financial market spaces based on actual market movements are examples of probability measures which are of interest in mathematical finance, e.g. in the pricing of financial derivatives. For instance, a risk-neutral measure is a probability measure which assumes that the current value of assets is the expected value of the

neg: Envy-free cake-cutting most "d", there is an algorithm which is polynomial in "n" and "d". Given "d", the algorithm asks the agents "d"+1 evaluation queries, which give "d"+1 points in the graph of the value measure. It is known that "d"+1 points are sufficient to interpolate a polynomial of degree "d". Hence, the algorithm can interpolate the entire value measures of all agents, and find an envy-free division offline. The number of required queries is formula_13. Free disposal is a third work-around that keeps the requirement that the division be totally envy-free and works for all value measures, but drops the requirement

neg: Turing degree Turing degree In computer science and mathematical logic the Turing degree (named after Alan Turing) or degree of unsolvability of a set of natural numbers measures the level of algorithmic unsolvability of the set. The concept of Turing degree is fundamental in computability theory, where sets of natural numbers are often regarded as decision problems. The Turing degree of a set is a measure of how difficult it is to solve the decision problem associated with the set, that is, to determine whether an arbitrary number is in the given set. Two sets are Turing equivalent if they have the

neg: Dirac measure space . We can also say that the measure is a single atom at ; however, treating the Dirac measure as an atomic measure is not correct when we consider the sequential definition of Dirac delta, as the limit of a delta sequence. The Dirac measures are the extreme points of the convex set of probability measures on . The name is a back-formation from the Dirac delta function, considered as a Schwartz distribution, for example on the real line; measures can be taken to be a special kind of distribution. The identity which, in the form is often taken

neg: Pressure measurement measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge. A vacuum gauge is a pressure gauge used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (e.g.: −15 psig or −760 mmHg equals total vacuum). Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form of reading is simply referred to as "gauge pressure". However, anything greater than total vacuum is technically a form of pressure. For very accurate readings, especially at very low pressures, a gauge that uses total vacuum as

neg: Relational quantum mechanics In the EPR thought experiment, a radioactive source produces two electrons in a singlet state, meaning that the sum of the spin on the two electrons is zero. These electrons are fired off at time formula_15 towards two spacelike separated observers, Alice and Bob, who can perform spin measurements, which they do at time formula_43. The fact that the two electrons are a singlet means that if Alice measures z-spin up on her electron, Bob will measure z-spin down on his, and "vice versa": the correlation is perfect. If Alice measures z-axis spin, and Bob measures the orthogonal y-axis spin,

neg: 2008 Oregon Ballot Measure 61 not. Supporters of Measure 61 believe that the method of establishing the ballot title for Oregon ballot measures is unfair and gives the legislatively referred Measure 57 an undue advantage at the polls. For a citizen-initiated measure in Oregon, the ballot title is determined by the state's Attorney General. In the case of the measure that will compete with Measure 61, the claim has been made that the legislature plans to set the ballot title without going through those normal channels., Ballot Measure 61 enacted the following provisions: The state's Financial Estimate Committee prepares estimated fiscal impact statements for any

neg: Intensity (measure theory) all measures on formula_12. The mapping defined by is measurable. Intensity (measure theory) In the mathematical discipline of measure theory, the intensity of a measure is the average value the measure assigns to an interval of length one. Let formula_1 be a measure on the real number. Then the intensity formula_2 of formula_1 is defined as if the limit exists and is independent of formula_5 for all formula_6 Look at the Lebesgue measure formula_7. Then for a fixed formula_5, it is so Therefore the Lebesgue measure has intensity one. The set of all measures formula_11 for which the intensity is