query: when were the first castles built in europe

pos: Castle time and has been applied to structures as diverse as hill forts and country houses. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls and arrowslits, were commonplace. European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. These nobles built castles to control the area immediately surrounding them and the castles were both offensive and defensive structures; they provided a base from which raids could

pos: Mongol invasion of Europe China and India. Furthermore, the Mongols were able to conquer Southern China which is located in a tropical climate zone and would have received far more rainfall and humidity than anywhere in Europe. The territory of Western Europe had more forests and castles than the Mongols were accustomed, and there were opportunities for the European heavy cavalry to counter-attack. Also, despite the steppe tactics of the Avars and early Hungarians, both were defeated by Western states in the 9th and 10th centuries. A significant number of important castles and towns in Hungary had also resisted the formidable and infamous Mongol

neg: Castle not completely obscured. If assailants made it past the first line of defence they would be caught in the killing ground between the inner and outer walls and have to assault the second wall. Concentric castles were widely copied across Europe, for instance when Edward I of England – who had himself been on Crusade – built castles in Wales in the late 13th century, four of the eight he founded had a concentric design. Not all the features of the Crusader castles from the 13th century were emulated in Europe. For instance, it was common in Crusader castles to

neg: Castle between 75,000 and 100,000 were built in western Europe; of these around 1,700 were in England and Wales and around 14,000 in German-speaking areas. Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies. The first stage of Spanish fort construction has been termed the "castle period", which lasted from 1492 until the end of the 16th century. Starting with Fortaleza Ozama, "these castles were essentially European medieval castles transposed to America". Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century. In Montreal

neg: Castle example, "shiro" in Japan, described as castles by historian Stephen Turnbull, underwent "a completely different developmental history, were built in a completely different way and were designed to withstand attacks of a completely different nature". While European castles built from the late 12th and early 13th century onwards were generally stone, "shiro" were predominantly timber buildings into the 16th century. By the 16th century, when Japanese and European cultures met, fortification in Europe had moved beyond castles and relied on innovations such as the Italian "trace italienne" and star forts. Forts in India present a similar case; when they were

neg: Castles in Portugal towers. By 1249 the Moors had been expelled from southern Portugal and the nation became the first in Europe to take on its modern borders. The focus of Portuguese castles during this period shifted from lines along east to west flowing rivers, to the towns along the long Portuguese border with rival Castile. The pinnacles of this period were the 13th-century castles built under King Denis, who rebuilt almost every major castle in the land. Until Denis, Portugal’s castles were usually just a three-story keep with one or two rings of walls. New tower keeps were built like the one

neg: Château Gaillard inner bailey, which contained the main residential buildings, used the principles of concentric defence. This and the unusual design of the inner bailey's curtain wall meant that castle was advanced for its age, since it was built before concentric fortification was fully developed in Crusader castles such as Krak des Chevaliers. Concentric castles were widely copied across Europe; for instance when Edward I of England—who had himself been on Crusade—built castles in Wales in the late 13th century, four of the eight he founded were concentric. The keep was inside the inner bailey and contained the king's accommodation. It had

neg: Castle Countries. For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick. About 700,000 bricks were used to build the castle, which has been described as "the finest piece of medieval brick-work in England". Most Spanish castles were built from stone, whereas castles in Eastern Europe were usually of timber construction. Due to the lord's presence in a castle, it was a centre of administration from where he controlled his lands. He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support

neg: Encastellation authority. In this case, encastellation was the result, not of weak central authority, but of a strong royal hand and direction. In Scotland, the spread of castles came with the Normans who, in the twelfth century, began constructing castles of the motte-and-bailey type in the south, where they received royal support, especially in Galloway. At about the same time, the first stone castles appeared in the north, in Orkney, built not by Normans but by the Norse. In Ireland, as in the rest of Britain and most of Europe, encastellation was primarily a Norman venture. The first castles were motte-and-baileys

neg: Bridge castle Bridge castle A bridge castle () is a type of castle that was built to provide military observation and security for a river crossing. In the narrower sense it refers to castles that are built directly on or next to a bridge. Sometimes, however, castles close to a bridge are referred to as bridge castles. These fortifications were often designed as toll castles that charged river tolls and were occupied only by a guard force. In Europe several examples of bridge castles have survived, especially in the south and southeast of the continent. The bridge castle type—which is only rarely

neg: Bartians and invited the Teutonic Knights, an Order of the Catholic Church, to settle in Kulmerland in 1226. Receiving support from the rest of Christian Europe, the military order was able to expand their territory northwest. Their strategy was to conquer a territory and built a castle — a stronghold that would serve as the basis for further expansion. Castles at that time in Europe were built around towns to give their residents protection. The Bartians, together with the Warmians and the Natangians, were conquered by the Teutonic Knights 1238-1240. In Barta the Knights built major castles in Bartenstein and Rößel.

neg: Galicia (Spain) Hercules in A Coruña. During the Middle Ages, a huge quantity of fortified castles were built by Galician feudal nobles to mark their powers against their rivals. Although the most of them were demolished during the Irmandiño Wars (1466–1469), some Galician castles that survived are Pambre, Castro Caldelas, Sobroso, Soutomaior and Monterrei among others. Ecclesiastical architecture raised early in Galicia, and the first churches and monasteries as San Pedro de Rocas, began to be built in 5th and 6th centuries. However, the most famous medieval architecture in Galicia had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe. Some of

neg: Coercion castle Coercion castle A coercion castle () or coercive castle was a heavily fortified, medieval castle built to dominate the surrounding land. Such castles were built mainly in the High and Late Middle Ages in order to protect those territories in areas where the population was not assessed as being entirely loyal to the sovereign. Because of the poor infrastructure of medieval Europe, the construction of castles was one of the most important ways of exercising power, which is why it was governed by royal rights (known as regalia). Examples of coercive castles are the Moritzburg in Halle, which was built

neg: Japanese castle Japanese castle Though they were built to last and used more stone in their construction than most Japanese buildings, castles were still constructed primarily of wood, and many were destroyed over the years. This was especially true during the Sengoku period (1467–1603), when many of these castles were first built. However, many were rebuilt, either later in the Sengoku period, in the Edo period (1603–1867) that followed, or more recently, as national heritage sites or museums. Today there are more than one hundred castles extant, or partially extant, in Japan; it is estimated that once there were five thousand. Some

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle of these earthwork remains can be contentious. A small number of motte-and-bailey castles were built outside of northern Europe. In the late-12th century, the Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily; although they had the technology to build more modern designs, in many cases wooden motte-and-bailey castles were built instead for reasons of speed. The Italians came to refer to a range of different castle types as "motta", however, and there may not have been as many genuine motte-and-bailey castles in southern Italy as was once thought on the basis of the documentary evidence alone. In addition, there is evidence of

neg: King John's Castle (Limerick) King John's Castle (Limerick) King John's Castle () is a 13th-century castle located on King's Island in Limerick, Ireland, next to the River Shannon. Although the site dates back to 922 when the Vikings lived on the Island, the castle itself was built on the orders of King John in 1200. One of the best preserved Norman castles in Europe, the walls, towers and fortifications remain today and are visitor attractions. The remains of a Viking settlement were uncovered during archaeological excavations at the site in 1900. The Viking sea-king, Thormodr Helgason, built the first permanent Viking stronghold on Inis

neg: Upper Tüchersfeld Castle the village of Tüchersfeld once ran a medieval road ("Altstrasse"), which wound its way from Gräfenberg via Hiltpoltstein and Obertrubach to Gößweinstein. In Tüchersfeld it crossed the Püttlach valley and then continued via Oberailsfeld and Waischenfeld to Hollfeld. The castles were probably built to control the road and river crossing. The first historical records of the castles date to the 13th century, when a "Friderici quondam de Thvchervelt" was mentioned on 26 November 1243, they were probably built just before this. The Bishop of Bamberg, Berthold of Leiningen, acquired one of the castles on 27 May 1262; from whom he

neg: Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd century. Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd is a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site located in Gwynedd, Wales. It includes the castles of Beaumaris and Harlech and the castles and town walls of Caernarfon and Conwy. UNESCO considers the sites to be the "finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe". The fortifications were built by Edward I after his invasion of North Wales in 1282. Edward defeated the local Welsh princes in a major campaign and set about permanently colonising the

neg: Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd is a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site located in Gwynedd, Wales. It includes the castles of Beaumaris and Harlech and the castles and town walls of Caernarfon and Conwy. UNESCO considers the sites to be the "finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th century military architecture in Europe". The fortifications were built by Edward I after his invasion of North Wales in 1282. Edward defeated the local Welsh princes in a major campaign and set about permanently colonising the area.

neg: Renaissance architecture in Central and Eastern Europe sumptuous summer palace in Visegrád. His successor, King Ulászló II built an Italianate hunting lodge in Budanyék. These monuments were largely destroyed in the Ottoman wars but the remains of the Visegrád Palace were partially reconstructed around 2000 and 69 years ago The Ottoman conquest of Hungary in 1526 put an abrupt end to the short-lived Hungarian Renaissance. The royal court ceased to exist but Hungarian landowner families in the Royal Hungary built a lot of provincial Renaissance castles in the 16–17th centuries. The most important of them was the Rákóczi Castle in Sárospatak. Many significant Renaissance castles were built

neg: English cannon Siege of Calais later the same year and by the 1380s, the "ribaudekin" had become mounted on wheels. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the development of cannon made revolutionary changes to siege warfare throughout Europe, with many castles becoming susceptible to artillery fire. In England, significant changes were evident from the 16th century, when Henry VIII began building Device Forts between 1539 and 1540 as artillery fortresses to counter the threat of invasion from France and Spain. They were built by the state at strategic points to form the first powerful cannon batteries, but, though they had many

neg: Scottish castles Edinburgh. In the fifteenth century, gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture. Existing castles were adapted to allow the use of the new weapons by the incorporation of "keyhole" gun ports, platforms to mount guns and walls that were adapted to resist bombardment. Ravenscraig, Kirkcaldy, begun about 1460, is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort, incorporating "D-shape" bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted. It also used "letter box" gun-ports, common in mainland Europe, although rarer in England, they rapidly spread across

neg: Castle military in nature, so that devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape. Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls. While castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline

neg: Veszprém Belæ Regis Notarius" (the anonymous notary of King Béla III) wrote that a castle already stood here when the Hungarians first occupied the area. The castle was probably a 9th-century Frankish fortress. The castles of Veszprém, Esztergom and Székesfehérvár, were the earliest Hungarian stone castles, which had already been built during the reign of High Prince Géza, a time when motte castles were much more common. Veszprém had an important religious role during the struggle to make Christianity the official religion of Hungary - Stephen I of Hungary defeated the armies of his chief opponent, Koppány, near Veszprém. The city

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland castles were initially deployed along the south coast where the Channel ports, essential for English trade and military operations in Europe, were increasingly threatened by French raids. Carisbrooke, Corfe, Dover, Portchester, Saltwood and Southampton Castle received cannon during the late 14th century, small circular "keyhole" gunports being built in the walls to accommodate the new weapons. Carisbrooke Castle was subject to an unsuccessful French siege in 1377, the Crown reacting by equipping the castle with cannon and a mill for producing gunpowder in 1379. Some further English castles along the Welsh borders and Scotland were similarly equipped, with the Tower

neg: Fortification of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the generic fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble and command a specific defensive territory. Roman forts and hill forts were the main antecedents of castles in Europe, which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of some towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete

neg: Llywelyn the Great Following Reginald de Braose's death in 1228, Llywelyn also made an alliance with the powerful Mortimer family of Wigmore when Gwladus Ddu married as her second husband Ralph de Mortimer. Llywelyn was careful not to provoke unnecessary hostilities with the crown or the Marcher lords; for example in 1220, he compelled Rhys Gryg to return four commotes in South Wales to their previous Anglo-Norman owners. He built a number of castles to defend his borders, most thought to have been built between 1220 and 1230. These were the first sophisticated stone castles in Wales; his castles at Criccieth, Deganwy, Dolbadarn,

neg: Counter-castle to defeat Scotland in the same way foundered due to the cost of such a building campaign. Among the most important English occupation castles were those of built by James of St. George including Caernarfon, Conway and Harlech. During the siege of larger, fortified cities and towns castles were sometimes built as protection against sallies and relief troops. During the First Crusade the Crusaders built the first siege castles before the gates of Islamic towns and cities in the Holy Land. In 1097 Malregard Castle was built in front of the St. Paul's Gate at Antioch. A little later the

neg: Japanese castle a degree of luxuriousness to the lord's residence, could also provide water and fruit in case of supplies running down due to siege, as well as wood for a variety of purposes. Aerial views of Japanese castles reveal a consistent military strategy that informs the over-all planning for each unique location. Japanese castle Though they were built to last and used more stone in their construction than most Japanese buildings, castles were still constructed primarily of wood, and many were destroyed over the years. This was especially true during the Sengoku period (1467–1603), when many of these castles were first

neg: Hill castle Hill castle A hill castle is a castle built on a natural feature that stands above the surrounding terrain. It is a term derived from the German "Höhenburg" used in categorising castle sites by their topographical location. Hill castles are thus distinguished from lowland castles ("Niederungsburgen"). Hill castles may be further subdivided depending on their situation into the following: When in the 10th and 11th centuries castles lost their pure fortress character and were increasingly built as residence castles for the kings and the nobility, the hill castle was the preferred choice owing to its better defensive capability. In Germany,

neg: France in 2008), which hosts contemporary works. Outside Paris, all the large cities have a Museum of Fine Arts with a section dedicated to European and French painting. Some of the finest collections are in Lyon, Lille, Rouen, Dijon, Rennes and Grenoble. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so-called Cathar castles. During this era, France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe. Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France

neg: Buckton Castle mostly lowland, and Beeston is the only other castle in the area that rises as prominently above the surrounding landscape. According to the archaeologist Rachel Swallow, hilltop castles in the area, which include Buckton, Beeston, Halton and Mold, are "predominantly a symbol of significant offensive and elite personal power in these landscapes". The earliest castles in England typically were constructed from timber, at least when they were first built, as building in stone was more expensive. Paleoenvironmental evidence shows that between the 9th and 11th centuries, the area where Buckton Castle would later be built was cleared of woodland. This

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland with castles enabling them to control the newly conquered territories. The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions, many of these were motte-and-bailey constructions; in Louth at least 23 of these were built. It remains uncertain how many ringwork castles were built in Ireland by the Anglo-Normans. Other castles, such as Trim and Carrickfergus, were built in stone as the "caput" centres for major barons. Analysis of these stone castles suggests that building in stone was not simply a military decision; indeed, several of the castles contain serious defensive flaws. Instead the designs, including their focus on large

neg: Amato above sea level, between the gulfs of Sant'Eufemia and Squillace. This new town appears to have been built during the Middle Ages when the Normans came to the Amato Plains. In fact, thanks to the Normans the Amato Plains were fortified against pirate attacks. They built castles at Nicastro, Maida, Feroleto, Lamezia Terme and one also at Amato. Some of these Norman castles still exist today. Their names are often preceded by the word rocca from the Latin 'rock', which means fortification. Some examples are Rocca di Neto, Rocca Imperiale, Roccaraso, to name a few. The Italias were the first

neg: Coercion castle in the late 15th century, and the Alte Burg in Koblenz. Coercion castle A coercion castle () or coercive castle was a heavily fortified, medieval castle built to dominate the surrounding land. Such castles were built mainly in the High and Late Middle Ages in order to protect those territories in areas where the population was not assessed as being entirely loyal to the sovereign. Because of the poor infrastructure of medieval Europe, the construction of castles was one of the most important ways of exercising power, which is why it was governed by royal rights (known as regalia). Examples

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland south Wales. One theory put forward to explain this variation is that ringworks were easier to build in these shallow-soil areas than the larger mottes. The White Tower in London and the keep of Colchester Castle were the only stone castles to be built in England immediately after the conquest, both with the characteristic square Norman keep. Both these castles were built in the Romanesque style and were intended to impress as well as provide military protection. In Wales the first wave of the Norman castles were again made of wood, in a mixture of motte-and-bailey and ringwork designs, with

neg: Gothic architecture in modern Poland and building castles, which initially could be built only with the consent of the ruler. For this reason, the oldest castles have public character of the building. Initially, in the 13th century, the characteristic elements of the locks were placed in a role within the wood-earth castles, so the first castles were irregular in shape (e.g., in Opole). After the mid-13th century abandoned the construction palatiów to be connected rather with the earlier epoch. Regular shape of castles spread throughout the Polish Kingdom in the reign of Casimir the Great, and built them into this shape, even in areas of

neg: Simmering (Vienna) Simmering (Vienna) Simmering () is the 11th district of Vienna, Austria (German: "11. Bezirk, Simmering"). It borders the Danube and was established as a district in 1892. Simmering has several churches, some museums, schools, old castles, and four cemeteries, one of them being the Wiener Zentralfriedhof, one of the largest cemeteries of Europe. The first indications of the settlement "Simmering" are from 1028. A brewery was built in 1605 and continued to bring in revenue for the area for more than 300 years. Simmering remained small until 1860, when the "Rinnböckhäuser" housing development was built, which at the time was

neg: Japanese castle prevent the neglect of national heritage. Japanese castles were built in a variety of environments, but all were constructed within variations of a fairly well-defined architectural scheme. "Yamajiro" (山城), or "mountain castles" were the most common, and provided the best natural defenses. However, castles built on flat plains (平城, "hirajiro") and those built on lowlands hills (平山城, "hirayamajiro") were not uncommon, and a few very isolated castles were even built on small natural or artificial islands in lakes or the sea, or along the shore. The science of building and fortifying castles was known as "chikujo-jutsu" (). Japanese castles were

neg: Castle – castles were built well into the 16th century. Artillery powered by gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 1320s and spread quickly. Handguns, which were initially unpredictable and inaccurate weapons, were not recorded until the 1380s. Castles were adapted to allow small artillery pieces – averaging between – to fire from towers. These guns were too heavy for a man to carry and fire, but if he supported the butt end and rested the muzzle on the edge of the gun port he could fire the weapon. The gun ports developed in this period show a unique feature, that

neg: Csesznek Castle the Garai family until 1482. Then Matthias Corvinus donated the castle to Stephen Zápolya. Csesznek Castle The Csesznek Castle lies in the Bakony between Győr and Zirc in the village of Csesznek. The castle was constructed after the Mongol invasion of Europe around 1263 in a period where many castles were built. The first castle was built by Jakab Cseszneky of the Bána clan. The first written mention of the castle is in a document from 1281 that gives Jakab Cseszneky's sons joint ownership of the castle. In 1315 the Csák clan conquered the castle. In 1392 Sigismund gave the

neg: Csesznek Castle Csesznek Castle The Csesznek Castle lies in the Bakony between Győr and Zirc in the village of Csesznek. The castle was constructed after the Mongol invasion of Europe around 1263 in a period where many castles were built. The first castle was built by Jakab Cseszneky of the Bána clan. The first written mention of the castle is in a document from 1281 that gives Jakab Cseszneky's sons joint ownership of the castle. In 1315 the Csák clan conquered the castle. In 1392 Sigismund gave the castle and 31 surrounding villages to the Garai family. The castle was owned by

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle around them – so-called "buried" keeps. The ability of mottes, especially newly built mottes, to support the heavier stone structures, was limited, and many needed to be built on fresh ground. Concentric castles, relying on several lines of baileys and defensive walls, made increasingly little use of keeps or mottes at all. Across Europe, motte-and-bailey construction came to an end. At the end of the 12th century the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone, primarily in the principality of North Wales and usually along the higher peaks where mottes were unnecessary. In Flanders, decline came in the 13th

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle crude and rustic by later standards, belying the power and prestige of their builders. William the Conqueror, as the Duke of Normandy, is believed to have adopted the motte-and-bailey design from neighbouring Anjou. Duke William went on to prohibit the building of castles without his consent through the "Consuetudines et Justicie", with his legal definition of castles centring on the classic motte-and-bailey features of ditching, banking and palisading. By the 11th century, castles were built throughout the Holy Roman Empire, which then spanned central Europe. They now typically took the form of an enclosure on a hilltop, or, on lower

neg: Grünenberg Castle Grünenberg Castle The ruins of Grünenberg Castle, Schnabelburg Castle and Langenstein Castle are a complex of three interconnected castles on a hill above the municipality of Melchnau in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. The three castles formed the center of power of the Barons of Grünenberg in the Oberaargau region during the High Middle Ages. The complex of three ruined castles sit on a hill above the village of Melchnau. The Lords of Langenstein were first mentioned in 1194 when they helped found St. Urban's Abbey. The castle was likely built around that same time. Shortly thereafter, the Barons

neg: Castle they became dukes of Normandy. These were the men who built all the most typical twelfth-century fortified castles remaining to-day". Despite this, by the beginning of the 15th century, the rate of castle construction in England and Wales went into decline. The new castles were generally of a lighter build than earlier structures and presented few innovations, although strong sites were still created such as that of Raglan in Wales. At the same time, French castle architecture came to the fore and led the way in the field of medieval fortifications. Across Europe – particularly the Baltic, Germany, and Scotland

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle various mottes were abandoned. In Germany and Denmark, motte-and-bailey castles also provided the model for the later "wasserburg", or "water castle", a stronghold and bailey construction surrounded by water, and widely built in the late medieval period. In England, motte-and-bailey earthworks were put to various uses over later years; in some cases, mottes were turned into garden features in the 18th century, or reused as military defences during the Second World War. Today, almost no mottes of motte-and-bailey castles remain in regular use in Europe, with one of the few exceptions being that at Windsor Castle, converted for the storage

neg: Castle Europe. Historians have interpreted the widespread presence of castles across Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries as evidence that warfare was common, and usually between local lords. Castles were introduced into England shortly before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Before the 12th century castles were as uncommon in Denmark as they had been in England before the Norman Conquest. The introduction of castles to Denmark was a reaction to attacks from Wendish pirates, and they were usually intended as coastal defences. The motte and bailey remained the dominant form of castle in England, Wales, and Ireland well into the

neg: Zvolen now central Slovakia. Zvolen remained the capital of Zólyom County until the 1760s. In the 11th and 12th centuries, one of the largest medieval castles in Europe, Pustý hrad, was constructed. The town, originally built under the castle, lay on an important trade route ("Via Magna") from Buda to Kraków. Zvolen was granted town privileges by King Béla IV in the 1230s - as one of the first towns in the Kingdom of Hungary. The privileges were confirmed on 28 December 1243, after the original document was destroyed in war. Later, King Louis I the Great built a new castle,

neg: Japanese castle for military defense, Japanese castles were placed in strategic locations, along trade routes, roads, and rivers. Though castles continued to be built with these considerations, for centuries, fortresses were also built as centres of governance. By the Sengoku period, they had come to serve as the homes of "daimyōs" (feudal lords), to impress and to intimidate rivals not only with their defences but also with their sizes, architecture, and elegant interiors. In 1576, Oda Nobunaga was among the first to build one of these palace-like castles: Azuchi Castle was Japan's first castle to have a tower keep (天守閣, "tenshukaku"), and

neg: Counter-castle succeeded in repelling the Vikings but now exhausted, had to fight roughly 7,000 well-equipped Norman warriors. During the invasion numerous simple 'occupation castles' were built, the first, at Pevensey, being at the landing-place of William's army. In addition to mottes, circular ramparts with palisades were built and older Celtic or Saxon fortifications were reactivated. The wooden components of these wood and earth castles had in some cases been prepared on the continent and were later assembled on the spot. This enabled the rapid establishment of a dense network of military strongpoints, some of which were later turned into stone castles.

neg: Romrod 11th century in the Antrift valley. It is thus assumed that there was already a settlement there, as valley castles were often built in places where there were already people. In the first half of the 12th century, the old castle with the moat was built. The builders of this castle were presumably the local "von Romrod" noble family's forebears. These nobles were first mentioned in writing in 1197, when Ludwig von Romrod's name cropped up when he witnessed a document from the Fulda Abbey. In the centuries that followed, the von Romrods held important offices. Heinrich von Romrod was

neg: Fortification in Europe, which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, which very often obtained the right of fortification soon afterwards. The founding of urban centres was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in eastern Europe, were founded precisely for this purpose during the period of

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland many wooden castles were as robust and as complex as their stone equivalents. Some wooden castles were not converted into stone for many years and instead expanded in wood, such as at Hen Domen. Several early stone keeps had been built after the conquest, with somewhere between ten and fifteen in existence by 1100, and more followed in the 12th century until around 100 had been built by 1216. Typically these were four sided designs with the corners reinforced by pilaster buttresses. Keeps were up to four storeys high, with the entrance on the first storey to prevent the door

neg: Norman architecture Norman barons built timber castles on earthen mounds, beginning the development of motte-and-bailey castles, and great stone churches in the Romanesque style of the Franks. By 950, they were building stone keeps. The Normans were among the most travelled peoples of Europe, exposing them to a wide variety of cultural influences which became incorporated in their art and architecture. They elaborated on the early Christian basilica plan. Originally longitudinal with side aisles and an apse they began to add in towers, as at the Church of Saint-Étienne]] at Caen, in 1067. This would eventually form a model for the larger

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle Motte-and-bailey castle A motte-and-bailey castle is a fortification with a wooden or stone keep situated on a raised earthwork called a motte, accompanied by an enclosed courtyard, or bailey, surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade. Relatively easy to build with unskilled, often forced, labour, but still militarily formidable, these castles were built across northern Europe from the 10th century onwards, spreading from Normandy and Anjou in France, into the Holy Roman Empire in the 11th century. The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, the Low

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland destroying, castles captured in Scotland from the English to prevent their re-use in subsequent invasions – most of the new Scottish castles built by nobles were of the tower house design; the few larger castles built in Scotland were typically royal castles, built by the Scottish kings. Some of these changes were driven by developments in military technology. Before 1190 mining was used rarely and the siege engines of the time were largely incapable of damaging the thicker castle walls. The introduction of the trebuchet began to change this situation; it was able to throw much heavier balls, with remarkable

neg: Sandal Castle castle was a ruin. The following year Parliament ordered that it be made untenable. The castles built by William the Conqueror's followers were self-sufficient strongholds, some of which were tax-gathering points, some controlled the larger towns, river crossings or passes through hills. Two castles were built near Wakefield, one at Lowe Hill on the north bank of the Calder and Sandal on the south bank. The first castles were probably started and completed in the early 12th century by William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey after he had been granted the manor of Wakefield by Henry I. Sandal and

neg: Romanesque architecture and other local traditions, Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy pillars, barrel vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials. Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great abbey churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete

neg: Castles Camp a role and has stated "[the forts] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [of an increasing population] burst out into open warfare. But I wouldn't see them as having been built because there was a state of war. They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed, but this was not the only, or even the most significant, factor in their construction". Castles Camp Castles Camp is a univallate Iron Age hill fort in the Taunton Deane district of Somerset, England. The hill

neg: Scottish castles Scottish castles Scottish castles are buildings that combine fortifications and residence, built within the borders of modern Scotland. Castles arrived in Scotland with the introduction of feudalism in the twelfth century. Initially these were wooden motte-and-bailey constructions, but many were replaced by stone castles with a high curtain wall. During the Wars of Independence, Robert the Bruce pursued a policy of castle slighting. In the late Middle Ages new castles were built, some on a grander scale as "livery and maintenance" castles that could support a large garrison. Gunpowder weaponry led to the use of gun ports, platforms to mount

neg: Scottish castles and some are maintained by building preservation trusts and other charitable bodies, for example Sauchie Tower, Clackmannanshire. Scottish castles Scottish castles are buildings that combine fortifications and residence, built within the borders of modern Scotland. Castles arrived in Scotland with the introduction of feudalism in the twelfth century. Initially these were wooden motte-and-bailey constructions, but many were replaced by stone castles with a high curtain wall. During the Wars of Independence, Robert the Bruce pursued a policy of castle slighting. In the late Middle Ages new castles were built, some on a grander scale as "livery and maintenance" castles that

neg: Encastellation the Kingdom of León, even adopted the name Castile because of its many castles. The castles first began to spread quickly in the tenth century, in light of the increasing power of the Castilian counts "vis-à-vis" the king. During the long reign of Count Fernán González, Castile became "de facto" independent and its castles multiplied. True medieval castles were a somewhat later arrival in Britain than in continental Europe. The process of encastellation in Britain is as inextricably linked to Normanisation (which is, of course, linked to the Norman Conquest) as the encastellation of Spain is to the Reconquista. Normanisation

neg: Romanesque architecture in Spain century, some better preserved than others. Civil monuments (bridges, palaces, castles, walls and towers) were also built in this style, although few have survived. The Romanesque period corresponds to a time when Christianity was more secure and optimistic. Europe had seen, in the preceding centuries, the decline of the Carolingian splendour and had undergone Norman and Hungarian invasions (the Hungarians reached as far as Burgundy) that resulted in the destruction of many of the peninsula's monasteries. In Spain the Almanzor campaigns were disastrous, also razing and destroying many of the monasteries and small churches. Towards the end of the tenth

neg: Middle Rhine as the parts of these territories were not connected. initially, the castles served to secure territory. In the late 12th century, the princes discovered customs revenue as a source of income and some castles were built to control customs. Castles were also built outside cities to keep the aspirations to freedom of the city dwellers in check. By the end of the 14th century, firearms were introduced in the area. Structural responses were needed, which only wealthy castle owners could afford. Many castles lost their strategic importance to firearms in this period. Most castles declined slowly or were abandoned. In

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle tied to the creation of local fiefdoms and feudal landowners, and areas without this method of governance rarely built these castles. Yet another theory suggests that the design emerged as a result of the pressures of space on ringworks, and that the earliest motte-and-baileys were converted ringworks. Finally, there may be a link between the local geography and the building of motte-and-bailey castles, which are usually built on low-lying areas, in many cases subject to regular flooding. Regardless of the reasons behind the initial popularity of the motte-and-bailey design, however, there is widespread agreement that the castles were first widely

neg: History of architecture because of its numerous ambas or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, yielded little tactical use from the structures in contrast to their advantages in the flat terrain of Europe and other areas, and so had until this point little developed the tradition. Castles were built especially beginning with the reign of Sarsa Dengel around the Lake Tana region, and subsequent Emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of the Fasil Ghebbi (royal enclosure of castles) in the newly founded capital (1635), Gondar. Emperor Susenyos (r.1606-1632) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and attempted to make it the state religion,

neg: Architecture of Ethiopia the country during the late 16th century during its war with the Ottoman Empire (see Habesh), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally easily defensible because of its numerous ambas or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, yielded little tactical use from the structures in contrast to their advantages in the flat terrain of Europe and other areas, and so had until this point little developed the tradition. Castles were built especially beginning with the reign of Sarsa Dengel around the Lake Tana region, and subsequent Emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of

neg: Architecture of Africa Adal, and later Jesuits came hoping to convert the country. Some Turkish influence may have entered the country during the late 16th century during its war with the Ottoman Empire (see Habesh), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally hard to defensible because of its numerous ambas or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, yielded little tactical use from the structures in contrast to their advantages in the flat terrain of Europe and other areas, and so had until this point little developed the tradition. Castles were built especially beginning with the reign of Sarsa Dengel

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland labour. Not all of the castles were occupied simultaneously. Some were built during the invasions and then abandoned while other new castles were constructed elsewhere, especially along the western borders. Recent estimates suggest that between 500 and 600 castles were occupied at any one time in the post-conquest period. There was a large degree of variation in the size and exact shape of the castles built in England and Wales after the invasion. One popular form was the motte and bailey, in which earth would be piled up into a mound (called a "motte") to support a wooden tower, and

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland plan, reflecting local circumstances such as military factors and the layout of existing estates and church lands. Castles were often situated along the old Roman roads that still formed the backbone for travel across the country, both to control the lines of communication and to ensure easy movement between different estates. Many castles were built close to inland river ports and those built on the coast were usually located at the mouths of rivers or in ports, Pevensey and Portchester being rare exceptions. Some groups of castles were located so as to be mutually reinforcing – for example the castles

neg: Three Castles Hereford. The first castles on these sites were built from earth and timber. The earldom's landholdings in the region were slowly broken up after William's son, Roger de Breteuil, rebelled against the King in 1075. In 1135, a major Welsh revolt took place, however, and in response King Stephen restructured the landholdings along this section of the Marches, bringing the castles back under the control of the Crown to form the lordship known as the "Three Castles". Conflict with the Welsh continued, and following a period of detente under King Henry II in the 1160s, the de Mortimer and de

neg: Keep remains in common academic use, some academics prefer to use the term "donjon", and most modern historians warn against using the term "keep" simplistically. The fortifications that we would today call keeps certainly did not necessarily form part of a unified medieval style, nor were they all used in a similar fashion during the period. The earliest keeps were built as part of motte-and-bailey castles from the 10th century onwards – a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence places the first such castle, built at Vincy, in 979. These castles were initially built by the more powerful lords of Anjou

neg: Japanese castle to the production of iron or steel cannon. The few cannon that were used were smaller and weaker than those used in European sieges, and many of them were in fact taken from European ships and remounted to serve on land; where the advent of cannon and other artillery brought an end to stone castles in Europe, wooden ones would remain in Japan for several centuries longer. A few castles boasted 'wall guns', but these are presumed to have been little more than large caliber arquebuses, lacking the power of a true cannon. When siege weapons were used in Japan,

neg: Ansembourg Castle the buildings surrounding the castle. Ansembourg Castle Ansembourg Old Castle (, , ), known as the Old Castle of Ansembourg, in central Luxembourg is one of the castles belonging to the Valley of the Seven Castles. Located high above the little village of Ansembourg, the medieval castle is the private residence of the current Count and Countess of Ansembourg. The property is first mentioned in 1135 when the lord of the castle was Hubert d'Ansembourg. The fortifications were probably built in the middle of the 12th century. At the beginning of the 14th century, the south-western tower gate and the

neg: Ansembourg Castle Ansembourg Castle Ansembourg Old Castle (, , ), known as the Old Castle of Ansembourg, in central Luxembourg is one of the castles belonging to the Valley of the Seven Castles. Located high above the little village of Ansembourg, the medieval castle is the private residence of the current Count and Countess of Ansembourg. The property is first mentioned in 1135 when the lord of the castle was Hubert d'Ansembourg. The fortifications were probably built in the middle of the 12th century. At the beginning of the 14th century, the south-western tower gate and the northern keep appear to have

neg: Elis (regional unit) Western Europe (traditionally referred to as "Franks" in southeastern Europe) established the principality of Achaea in territory of the defeated Byzantine Empire, including Elis. They built castles like Chlemoutsi. The principality lasted from 1204 until 1460, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire ruled most of Greece until the Greek War of Independence of 1821. The Venetian Republic controlled a few coastal towns in the 1490s, early 16th century and from 1686 until 1715. Battlegrounds of the Greek War of Independence in Elis include Chlemoutsi, Gastouni, Lala, Lampeia, Pyrgos and Andritsaina. As a part of independent

neg: Architecture of Luxembourg the middle of the 13th century when the Gothic style was introduced throughout the building. Luxembourg has many other medieval castles, most of them now in ruins. Some of the more interesting ones are listed below. Luxembourg also has a number of architecturally interesting churches. The Abbey of Echternach (700) is the oldest Anglo-Saxon monastery in continental Europe. After the original buildings had burnt down in 1017, a new abbey was built. The church was originally Romanesque in style, but there were Gothic additions in the 14th and 16th centuries. Luxembourg City has several distinctive bridges. The Adolphe Bridge, connecting

neg: Ibelin (castle) four castles on the southern border of the kingdom, between the crusader city of Jaffa and the Fatimid city of Ascalon. Ibelin, and the other castles, were built to guard against attacks from Ascalon, to provide shelter for the people when attacked, and to serve as a base for crusader attacks of Fatimids. Ascalon was a threat to the kingdom during the first half of the 12th century; the Fatimids staged raids from the city in most years aimed at Jaffa and the surrounding country, while its strong defences and harbour made it impervious to crusader attack. The city could

neg: Mail delivery by animal civil correspondence as a rule. Later, post riders became popular when there was an obvious demand for the transportation of public correspondence. The Hanseatic League had a regular mounted service as early adopters the year 1274 between the principal towns of the League as well as the fortified castles which protected the merchants in their commerce. On behalf of the far-flung Habsburg dynasty of The Holy Roman Empire, Franz von Taxis set up a courier network that grew to cover all of Western Europe in the middle of the 16th century. Permanent post stations were built about a day's journey

neg: Castle This sometimes led to compromising defence for the sake of display. Until the 12th century, stone-built and earth and timber castles were contemporary, but by the late 12th century the number of castles being built went into decline. This has been partly attributed to the higher cost of stone-built fortifications, and the obsolescence of timber and earthwork sites, which meant it was preferable to build in more durable stone. Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless. This is evidenced by the continual maintenance of timber castles over long periods, sometimes several centuries;

neg: Warfare in pre-colonial Philippines other coastal towns. The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes often built fortifications to protect themselves during times of war. They built their so-called "idjangs" on hills and elevated areas. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived. Philippine ships, such as the "karakao" or "korkoa," were of excellent quality and some of them were used by the Spaniards in expeditions against rebellious tribes and Dutch

neg: Castles of Bellinzona during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. While the fort fell into disrepair in the following centuries, it was rebuilt and greatly expanded in the 4th century AD. During the reign of Diocletian and Constantin a chain of castles and watchtowers were built to protect northern Italy from invasion. Bellinzona's location was recognized as a key point in the defenses and a large castle was built on the Castelgrande. This castle, which was capable of holding a cohort or nearly a 1000 men, was tested in 475 when a formation of 900 Alemannic soldiers were defeated by the smaller

neg: Motte-and-bailey castle adopted in Normandy and Angevin territory in the 10th and 11th centuries. The earliest purely documentary evidence for motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy and Angers comes from between 1020 and 1040, but a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence pushes the date for the first motte and bailey castle, at Vincy, back to 979. The castles were built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular Fulk III and his son, Geoffrey II, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060. Many of these earliest castles would have appeared quite

neg: Castles in Portugal Islamic peoples who had arrived in the Iberian Peninsula from Northern Africa around 711 A.D., conquering the Christian lands ruled by the Germanic Kingdoms of the peninsula, built strong castles and fortifications in many cities. They brought innovative stonework and heavily fortified gates to Portugal. Meanwhile, Northern European and English forts/castles were built with wood material during this period. Although many Portuguese medieval castles originated in the Islamic period, most of them were extensively remodeled after the Christian reconquest. One of the best-preserved is the Castle of Silves, in the ancient capital of the Al-Garb (today's Algarve). Built between the

neg: Fortification walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor. The Forbidden City made up the inner portion of the Beijing city fortifications. The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes often built fortifications to protect themselves during times of war. They built their so-called "idjangs" on hills and elevated areas. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived.

neg: Llantrisant Castle Cardiff." "Earl Robert seems to have built a castle at Llantrisant, and the accounts of the Lordship in 1184 shows that the Castles Newport, Kenfig and Neath were at that time regularly established fortresses." This appears to be a period when many castles in Glamorgan were built, and many strong places to have been renewed. The present fragments of masonry comparing with other places of that age. There is no certainty for how long a period the castle was used as a residence. We find an account of writs issued 15 July 1297, to Walter de Hacklut, custos, to complete

neg: Scotland in the Middle Ages Ages new castles were built, some on a grander scale as "livery and maintenance" castles, to house retained troops. Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture, with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of "keyhole" gun ports, platforms to mount guns and walls being adapted to resist bombardment. Ravenscraig, Kirkcaldy, begun about 1460, is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort, incorporating "D-shape" bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted. The largest number of late

neg: Castles in Great Britain and Ireland considerably from smaller fortifications, such as Dinas Emrys in Snowdonia, to more substantial castles like Deganwy Castle and the largest, Castell y Bere. Native Welsh castles typically maximised the defensive benefits of high, mountainous sites, often being built in an irregular shape to fit a rocky peak. Most had deep ditches cut out of the rock to protect the main castle. The Welsh castles were usually built with a relatively short keep, used as living accommodation for princes and nobility, and with distinctive rectangular watch-towers along the walls. In comparison to Norman castles the gatehouses were much weaker in design,

neg: Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd suite of medieval private royal chambers in England and Wales", including a private garden for the use of the queen. When built, the castles would have been more colourful than today, in keeping with the fashions of the 13th century. At Conwy, for example, the walls were white-washed with a lime render, and the putlog holes in the walls may have been used to display painted shields called "targes" from the walls. The castles made a clear, imperial statement about Edward's intentions to rule North Wales on a permanent basis. As already noted, they were typically located on sites that

neg: Planta Castle was first mentioned, when he was granted the chancery title, which was stripped from the Pontresina family, by the bishop. The castle tower was also built in the 13th century, either for Andreas or by the bishop. In 1294 the Planta family received the chancery title again and thereby became one of the most powerful families in the Upper Engadine. Zuoz became the center of their power and a number of other towers and mansions were built in the town over the following centuries. They built castles throughout the region and a number of cadet branches were founded, with major

neg: Architecture of the Philippines Batanes often built fortifications to protect themselves during times of war. They built their so-called "idjangs" A type of Citadels on hills and elevated areas. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles could only be accessed by a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers, and could be hidden away when invaders arrived. The Igorots built forts made of stone walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times the width in height around 2000 BC. The El Fraile Island or Fort

neg: Counter-castle Mermuth in the Hunsrück and Trutzeltz Castle. The last-named was built during the Eltz Feud as a counter-castle to Eltz. The Rauschenburg was also built in connection with the Eltz Feud as counter castle to the castles of Ehrenburg, Waldeck and Schöneck. In the majority of known cases, siege castles were abandoned after the fighting and fell into disrepair. Sometimes the lord of the formerly besieged castle was given the counter-castle in a peace agreement or even took it over as a fief, as in the case of Trutzeltz Castle. In exceptional cases, such structures were - when the conquest

neg: Heidenberg Castle Heidenberg Castle Heidenberg Castle is a ruined castle in the municipality of Obersaxen Mundaun of the Canton of Graubünden in Switzerland. Heidenberg Castle was the first of four castles built to defend and control the region around Obersaxen. The Obersaxen plateau first appears in historic records in 765 when Bishop Tello gave his farms and meadows there to Disentis Abbey. In 806 it became an Imperial Estate, which it remained until 956 when Emperor Otto I donated the village and the village church back to the Bishop of Chur. To control this important village along the Rhine river, four castles

neg: Cave castle Cave castle A cave castle () or grotto castle (German: "Grottenburg") is a residential or refuge castle that has been built into a natural cave. It falls within the category of hill castles. Unlike other types (such as water castles), such castles can only be assaulted from the front; the gateway is usually located in the middle of a rock face, which makes it much more difficult to penetrate. Archaeological discoveries have revealed that caves were used as places of refuge as early as the Stone Age. The first medieval cave castles emerged in the 11th and 12th centuries. In

neg: Piatt Castles business, though it was a minor industry compared to the farm and grist mill located on the property. Touring continued with the family living in the home until 1985, when the family moved out of their home. The Piatt family still owns and manages the museums. Both Castles are popular sites for weddings, receptions and other events. Piatt Castles The Piatt Castles, built by brothers Donn and Abram S. Piatt in the 1860s and 1870s, are two chateaux built in a Gothic design, located and east of the village of West Liberty in Logan County, Ohio, United States. They are

neg: Idjang period. They lived in fortified mountain areas called "idjangs" and drank sugar-cane wine, or "palek". They also used gold as currency and produced a thriving agriculture-based industry. They were also seafarers and boat-builders. The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes often built fortifications to protect themselves during times of war. They built their so-called "idjangs" on hills and elevated areas. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when

neg: Berestia horse herds that were an integral part of their military formations, did not move further into Europe. Brest was besieged by enemies many times; more than once the town was put to the torch, but each time it was reconstructed. To defend their territories from invaders the Slavonic dukes built fortification castles and towers. In the 12th century a castle and a fortification to harbor the trade caravans that passed through Berestia were built in the city. Brest served as a customs port where the merchants paid taxes on the goods they carried. In 1276 the Wolyn Duke (or Prince)

neg: Heidenberg Castle were built at various points throughout the Middle Ages. The first was Heidenberg above Tavanasa which may have been built as early as 1000. It was followed by Moregg and Saxenstein (around 1200) and Schwarzenstein (13th century). However, Heidenberg does not appear in any surviving medieval records. In 1468 the inheritance of the Counts of Rhäzüns the other three castles around Obersaxen were mentioned, but Heidenberg was omitted, probably indicating that it had already fallen into ruin. In 1556 the Obersaxen castles of "Schwarzenburg", "Saxenstein" and "Heydnischburg" were fixed as the border between Obersaxen and Waltensburg. In 1573 the chronicle

neg: Scottish castles guns and walls adapted to resist bombardment. Many of the late Medieval castles built in the borders were in the form of tower houses, smaller pele towers or simpler bastle houses. From the fifteenth century there was a phase of Renaissance palace building, which restructured them as castle-type palaces, beginning at Linlithgow. Elements of Medieval castles, royal palaces and tower houses were used in the construction of Scots baronial estate houses, which were built largely for comfort, but with a castle-like appearance. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the military significance of castles declined, but they increasingly became tourist attractions.