query: brown vs board of education supreme court justices

pos: Brown v. Board of Education to the benefit of the African-American community; Tom C. Clark wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out." Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to judicial activism and expressed concerns about the proposed decision's enforceability. Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice. Warren had supported the integration of Mexican-American students in California school systems following "Mendez v. Westminster". However, Eisenhower invited Earl

pos: Equal Protection Clause selecting the best legal proving grounds for their cause. In 1954 the contextualization of the equal protection clause would change forever. The Supreme Court itself recognized the gravity of the Brown v Board decision acknowledging that a split decision would be a threat to the role of the Supreme Court and even to the country. When Earl Warren became Chief Justice in 1953, "Brown" had already come before the Court. While Vinson was still Chief Justice, there had been a preliminary vote on the case at a conference of all nine justices. At that time, the Court had split, with

pos: Brown v. Board of Education mental status. The United States and the Soviet Union were both at the height of the Cold War during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court Justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism played on America's international image. When Justice William O. Douglas traveled to India in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes?" Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India." Chief Justice

pos: Naim v. Naim stated: Han Say Naim's attorney, David Carliner, attempted to appeal the state's decision to the Supreme Court of the United States, with the backing of the American Jewish Congress, the Japanese American Citizens League, the Association on American Indian Affairs and the Association of Immigration and Nationality Lawyers. The justices, however, refused to consider the appeal, fearing that to do so would further encourage opposition to the enforcement of "Brown v. Board of Education". As Justice Tom C. Clark said, "one bombshell at a time is enough." Naim v. Naim Naim v. Naim, 197 Va 80; 87 S.E.2d 749 (1955),

pos: Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ordered immediate desegregation of public schools in the American South. It followed 15 years of delays to integrate by most Southern school boards after the Court's ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. Justice Felix Frankfurter demanded that the opinion in 1955's "Brown v. Board of Education II" order desegregation with the phrase of "all deliberate speed". The South took it as an excuse to emphasize "deliberate"

pos: Brown v. Board of Education foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision." In spring 1953, the Court heard the case but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks. The Court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the Court to gather a consensus around a "Brown" opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation

neg: School integration in the United States discrimination in voting affairs. In 1971 the Supreme Court in "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" approved the use of busing to achieve desegregation, despite racially segregated neighborhoods and limited radii of school districts. By 1988 school integration reached an all-time high with nearly 45% of black students attending previously all-white schools. After "Brown vs. Board of Education" ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional, the implementation of desegregation was discussed in a follow-up Supreme Court case termed "Brown II". Though the NAACP lawyers argued for an immediate timetable of integration, the Supreme Court issued an ambiguous order that school districts

neg: Linda Carol Brown families suing the Topeka Board of Education which is why their name was listed first and the case is commonly referred to as Brown vs. the Board of Education. Although her right to attend a non-segregated school was ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court, Brown did not have the opportunity to attend Sumner. By the time the case was decided in 1954, Brown was in junior high school. Brown was reportedly harassed by journalists after the ruling. Brown later attended Washburn and Kansas State University. At the time of the Brown v. Board of Education case in 1951, accommodations for

neg: Brown v. Board of Education directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools. The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received by the U.S. Supreme Court Justices. The 13

neg: United States in the 1950s from the hearings, the comic book industry adopted the Comics Code Authority (CCA), a self-regulatory ratings code that is still used by some publishers today in a modified form. In the immediate aftermath of the hearings, several publishers were forced to revamp their schedules and drastically censor or even cancel many popular long-standing comic series. The civil rights movement began in earnest, with the landmark Supreme Court ruling of Brown vs. the Board of Education in 1954. In the early 1950s the 1954 "Brown v. Board of Education" ruling by the Supreme Court of the United States opened the door

neg: Hugo Black noting that he "earlier had appointed Miss Annie Butt, a Catholic, as a secretary, and the Supreme Court had designated Leon Smallwood, a Negro and a Catholic as his messenger." Black was one of the nine justices of the Supreme Court who in 1955 ruled unanimously in "Brown v. Board of Education" that segregation in public schools is unconstitutional. The plaintiffs were represented by Thurgood Marshall. A decade later, on October 2, 1967 Marshall became the first African American to be appointed to the Supreme Court, and served with Black on the Court until Black's retirement on September 17, 1971.

neg: Black Southerners the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Segregation was finally put to a stop 1954 with the Supreme Court ruling of Brown vs The Board of Education. In this ruling, the Supreme Court overruled the "separate but equal" ruling of Plessy vs Ferguson in 1896. The 1954 Supreme Court ruling came about after 13 parents took to the courts to end racial segregation when their students were not admitted into the white school in their neighborhood. Segregation was a huge part of southern life. It was everywhere; restaurants, restrooms, and water fountains were segregated- to name a few. Segregation was supposed to

neg: Solicitor General of the United States in "Brown v. Board of Education", wrote, "When the Supreme Court invites you, that's the equivalent of a royal command. An invitation from the Supreme Court just can't be rejected." The Court typically issues a CVSG where the justices believe that the petition is important, and may be considering granting it, but would like a legal opinion before making that decision. Examples include where there is a federal interest involved in the case; where there is a new issue for which there is no established precedent; or where an issue has evolved, perhaps becoming more complex or affecting other issues.

neg: Anderson Hunt Brown Anderson Hunt Brown Anderson Hunt Brown (1880 – 1974), was an American businessman. He was a very successful African-American man in West Virginia. A.H. Brown worked on behalf of citizens and residents of the Charleston Independent School District for the integration of public schools in Brown vs. Board of Education in 1928. In 1928, the high court desegregated the Charleston library in a for A. H. Brown. Willard L. Brown, the son of A. H. Brown, was the lead lawyer for the West Virginia NAACP in the historic U.S. Supreme Court school desegregation ruling in 1954. Generally known as Brown

neg: Howard High School of Technology to Howard sued to allow admittance to all-white Claymont High School. Upon appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, it combined with four other cases, and thus was one of five schools subject of the 1954 "Brown vs. Board of Education" U.S. Supreme Court case. The Howard case was the only one that resulted in an order of desegregation at the state level. The Supreme Court ruling overturned "separate but equal" doctrine and ordered desegregation in all of the cases. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2005. It is located in the East Brandywine Historic District. Howard High School

neg: Margaret Bush Wilson the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1948, the Supreme Court ruled in "Shelley v. Kraemer" that such covenants were unenforceable in the courts. In 1954, Wilson celebrated with colleagues and friends when the "Brown vs. Board of Education" decision was handed down. The next year, her five-year-old son started kindergarten at one of the city’s first integrated schools. Wilson’s professional experience included serving as United States Attorney for the Rural Electrification Administration of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Assistant Attorney General of Missouri. She was Chair of the NAACP National Board of Directors, serving nine terms in that office. She

neg: Supreme Court of Texas Republican losses at the trial court level likewise. Texas is one of seven states that elects Supreme Court justices on partisan ballots. Four justices of the Texas Supreme Court faced re-election in 2014. Three of the four sitting Supreme Court Justices, Chief Justice Nathan Hecht, Justice Jeff Brown and Justice Phil Johnson, were required to defeat challengers in a March primary before the general election in November. The candidates challenging the incumbent Supreme Court Justices, according to reports filed with the Texas Ethics Commission, were recruited for the election and funded by a Houston plaintiff lawyer and Ali Davari, owner

neg: Charles C. Bernstein to 1948, he was secretary of the Democratic State Central Committee. In 1949 he was appointed as a Superior Court Judge in Arizona, becoming "the first Jewish judge in Arizona history", where he "achieved a national reputation as a juvenile court judge". On May 5, 1954, Bernstein ruled that segregation of African-American students in Phoenix's Wilson Elementary School District was a violation of the 14th Amendment in "Heard vs. Davis". At the time, the U.S. Supreme Court was preparing to decide "Brown v. Board of Education", and the Supreme Court requested a copy of Judge Bernstein's opinion. On May 17,

neg: Institutionalized discrimination of African descent in the U.S. are at a much higher risk of encountering these types of sociostructural disadvantage. Among the severe and long-lasting detrimental effects of institutionalized discrimination on affected populations are increased suicide rates, suppressed attainment of wealth and decreased access to health care. Examples of institutionalized discrimination include laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the "Plessy vs. Ferguson" U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans. This ruling was struck down by the "Brown vs. Board of Education" Supreme

neg: Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States viewpoints. Dissenting opinions carry no legal weight or precedent, but they can set the argument for future cases. John Marshall Harlan's dissent in "Plessy v. Ferguson" set down for the majority opinion later in "Brown v. Board of Education". After granting a writ of "certiorari" and accepting a case for review, the justices may decide against further review of the case. For example, the Court may feel the case presented during oral arguments did not present the constitutional issues in a clear-cut way, and that adjudication of these issues is better deferred until a suitable case comes before the court.

neg: James A. Washington Jr. retirement in 1984. Having extensive experience in civil rights legislation, he worked for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) during the 1940s and 1950s to advance their goal of overturning the 1896 Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson, which had legalized segregation of public facilities by race under the doctrine of "separate but equal". He helped to prepare legal arguments and advised the NAACP teams that were drawing up briefs, testing presentations, and holding moot court exercises. This work eventually culminated in the 1954 Supreme Court decision in "Brown vs. Board of Education", which found that

neg: Richmond Public Schools the Supreme Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education". Powell's law firm had represented one of the defendant school districts in the case that was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court under the "Brown" label. Powell did not take any part in his law firm's representation of that client school district. The lawsuit, "Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County", later became one of the five cases decided under the caption "Brown v. Board of Education" before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954. The Richmond School Board had no authority at the time to

neg: Black school as worthy of preservation as "beacons of African American education". By 2009 many communities restored Rosenwald schools. Public schools were technically desegregated in the United States in 1954 by the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Brown vs Board of Education". Some schools, such as the Baltimore Polytechnic Institute, were forced into a limited form of desegregation before that; with the Baltimore City Public School System voting to desegregate the prestigious advanced placement programme in 1952. However, many were still "de facto" segregated due to inequality in housing and patterns of racial segregation in neighborhoods. President Dwight Eisenhower enforced the Supreme

neg: Separate but Equal (film) Arts and Sciences rewarded the film Outstanding Miniseries award. The issue before the United States Supreme Court is whether the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution mandates the individual states to desegregate public schools; that is, whether the nation's "separate but equal" policy heretofore upheld under the law, is unconstitutional. The issue is placed before the Court by "Brown v. Board of Education" and its companion case, "Briggs v. Elliott". Many of the justices personally believe segregation is morally unacceptable, but have difficulty justifying the idea legally under the 14th Amendment. Marshall and Davis argue

neg: Warren County High School (Virginia) but equal" black high school), and local authorities were not ready to comply with U.S. Supreme court-ordered integration, WCHS was ordered closed by the Governor in the fall of 1958, as part of Virginia's "massive resistance" to implementation of the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Brown vs. Board of Education. (See also Virginia governor Lindsay Almond and the Stanley plan). Although the high school building was closed, education continued in donated private and church spaces. Many seniors transferred to neighboring Rappahannock County (where an even smaller black population was not as politically active and the integration issue was not forced).

neg: Francis Flaherty (judge) victory over the incumbent, Governor Bruce Sundlun, in 1992. In the years after, Flaherty returned to private law practice, served on the Rhode Island Board of Governors for Higher Education from 1998 to 2003, and was appointed to the Supreme Court in 2003. Francis Flaherty (judge) Francis X. Flaherty (born January 8, 1947) is an Associate Justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court. The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. Justice Flaherty was appointed to the Supreme Court by Governor Donald Carcieri in 2003. Prior to his service on the Supreme Court, Justice Flaherty's career

neg: Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site "Brown v. Board of Education" National Historic Site was established in Topeka, Kansas, on October 26, 1992, by the United States Congress to commemorate the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision aimed at ending racial segregation in public schools. On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" and, as such, violated the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees all citizens "equal protection of the laws." The site consists of the Monroe Elementary School, one of the four segregated elementary schools for African

neg: Institutional racism under his administration. The next chapter was the Hatch Act of 1939 which prevented state and local civil servants from taking part in political activities or running for office. It was a response to conservative forces in Congress who wanted to prevent administration appointments to certain agencies aligned with the WPA and FDR presidential confidante Harry Hopkins, whom they felt were giving jobs to the 'wrong people'. Until the "Brown vs. Board of Education" Supreme Court decision and the related cases that ushered in the Civil Rights era, Institutional segregation was upheld at the federal level by the "Plessy vs.

neg: Francis Flaherty (judge) Francis Flaherty (judge) Francis X. Flaherty (born January 8, 1947) is an Associate Justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court. The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. Justice Flaherty was appointed to the Supreme Court by Governor Donald Carcieri in 2003. Prior to his service on the Supreme Court, Justice Flaherty's career included service as a member of the Rhode Island Board of Governors for Higher Education, the mayor of the city of Warwick, and the private practice of law. Justice Flaherty is a graduate of Suffolk University Law School and Providence College. Between college

neg: Elizabeth Campbell (television) school board was replaced by an appointed board during the state's Massive Resistance crisis. Beginning in 1954, Campbell helped pave the way to desegregate Arlington's public schools, despite opposition to the Supreme Court's decisions in Brown vs. Board of Education proclaimed by Virginia's U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd Sr. and others. Her husband came to represent parents of students in Norfolk, Virginia who had been locked out of schools closed by the Byrd Organization rather than allow then integrate pursuant to court orders. Both Campbells sought to work with parents across the state to resolved the crisis. On January 19,

neg: New York City Board of Education v. Tom F. New York City Board of Education v. Tom F. New York City Board of Education v. Tom F., 552 U.S. 1 (2007), is a legal case in the United States. The case involves the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and tuition reimbursement. The case was granted certiorari by the Supreme Court. Oral arguments took place October 1, 2007. The Court ruled in favor of Tom F. 9 days later, on October 10, 2007, affirming the appellate court's decision with a 4-4 split. The decision did not list which justices voted which way, except that Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy did

neg: New York City Board of Education v. Tom F. New York City Board of Education v. Tom F. New York City Board of Education v. Tom F., 552 U.S. 1 (2007), is a legal case in the United States. The case involves the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and tuition reimbursement. The case was granted certiorari by the Supreme Court. Oral arguments took place October 1, 2007. The Court ruled in favor of Tom F. 9 days later, on October 10, 2007, affirming the appellate court's decision with a 4-4 split. The decision did not list which justices voted which way, except that Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy did

neg: Warwick High School (Virginia) voted to be politically consolidated with the neighboring independent city of Newport News, adopting the name of the latter for the newly enlarged independent city, which became the largest in Virginia geographically at the time. The facilities at Warwick High School were expanded to their present size in 1968. Following the 1954 "Brown vs. Board of Education" decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, racial desegregation lawsuits eventually resulted in a federal court-ordered busing program in Newport News which began in 1971. Busing changed the nature of Warwick's population and community. However, in the years after the federal court supervision ended,

neg: Paden City High School first time. in Ray Berger, one of the moving forces behind the formation of the high school, became the first principal. Townspeople took fierce pride in the fact that they finally had their own high school and that high school students in Paden City could continue their education in their own community. Citizens were also concerned about education for all students in Paden City. In 1952, more than a year before the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court ruling Brown vs. the Board of Education, which integrated southern schools, Paden City High School was an integrated educational institution. "Paden City High School

neg: Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States be considered for appointment to the Supreme Court". Combined with the reduction in responsibilities carried out by modern justices as compared to the early justices, this results in much longer potential terms of service. This has led to proposals such as imposing a mandatory retirement age for Supreme Court justices and predetermined term limits. Although the Constitution imposes no educational background requirements for federal judges, the work of the Court involves complex questions of law—ranging from constitutional law to administrative law to admiralty law—and consequently, a legal education has become a "de facto" prerequisite to appointment on the Supreme Court.

neg: Supreme Court of the United States example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in "Lochner v. New York", which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts, and which was reversed in the 1930s. An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is "Roe v. Wade" (1973), which legalized abortion on the basis of the "right to privacy" inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous. Legal scholars, justices, and presidential candidates have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive "Brown v. Board of Education" decision has been criticized by

neg: Vermont Supreme Court Vermont Supreme Court The Vermont Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority of the U.S. state of Vermont. Unlike most other states, the Vermont Supreme Court hears appeals directly from the trial courts, as Vermont has no intermediate appeals court. The Court consists of a chief justice and four associate justices; the Court mostly hears appeals of cases that have been decided by other courts. The Supreme Court justices are appointed by the Governor of Vermont with confirmation by the Vermont Senate. When a judicial vacancy occurs, the judicial nominating board submits to the governor the names of as many

neg: Howard W. Jackson a still, influential former mayor of the City, he later supported the racial integration of the student body of musicians at the Peabody Conservatory of Music in the Peabody Institute in 1949, the relatively smooth integration of the local Baltimore City Public Schools in September 1954, and added his support to later mayoral administrations of Mayors Thomas L.J. D'Alesandro, Jr., J. Harold Grady, and Board of School Commissioners efforts after the United States Supreme Court unanimous decision of May 1954, in "Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas". Under his first mayoralty, a large number of public schools were

neg: Gordon B. Davidson Commonwealth of Kentucky in 1951. From 1954 to 1955, Davidson was a law clerk to U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stanley Forman Reed. He and other clerks did research on the "Brown vs. Board of Education" desegregation litigation. In 1960, Davidson was part of the Louisville Sponsoring Group, who was responsible for signing Muhammad Ali to boxing. The contract was signed on October 26, 1960, and Ali's first professional fight took place three days later, on October 29, 1960. Mr. Davidson served as managing partner at Wyatt, Tarrant & Combs from 1980 to 1995. Davidson served on the board of important

neg: Anderson Hunt Brown The original case was brought before the Circuit Court judge in Kanawha County and the judge ruled that the Board was not in violation of the law. The African American lawyers, along with Anderson H. Brown, took the case to the West Virginia State Supreme Court of Appeals. “The Supreme Court ruled in Anderson Brown’s favor by saying that – ‘the Board of Education could not exclude colored people from using the Kanawha County Library”. Anderson Hunt Brown Anderson Hunt Brown (1880 – 1974), was an American businessman. He was a very successful African-American man in West Virginia. A.H. Brown

neg: Oppositional culture ultimately decided that race was an acceptable categorization by which to divide individuals. Additionally the case determined that separation of these individuals was permissible provided that the condition of both facilities was equal. This case helped to promote segregationist practices that prevented African American children from attending white schools. African-American schools had fewer resources leading to greater racial gaps in educational achievement. In 1954, the Supreme Court decided that the concept of separate but equal was unconstitutional in its landmark decision in "Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education" 347 U.S. 483. The court also ruled that segregation inherently caused harm

neg: Paul G. Blazer College library was Blazer's first acceptance of a public naming request. Chief Justice Fred Vinson died of a heart attack in September 1953 eight months before the May 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education U.S. Supreme Court ruling invalidating segregation in public schools. Blazer's personal contributions to Kentucky State College initiated the student loan fund in 1950 and his May 29, 1960 Kentucky State College commencement address on integration and educational advancement was recorded in the June 28, 1960 United States Congressional Record. In 1957 Blazer again played a significant role in the Ashland area's higher education opportunities with his

neg: Supreme Court of Indiana other reorganizations. Court reforms led to a majority of Supreme Court cases being delegated to lower courts, an enlarged panel of justices, and employment of a large staff to assist as its caseload increases. In 2008 the Court consisted of one chief justice and four associate justices, the constitutional minimum; however, the Indiana General Assembly may increase the number of associate justices to a maximum of eight for a total of nine court justices. A board of five commissioners assists the Court in its administrative duties. Commissioners are nominated by the Judicial Nominating Commission and appointed by the governor. The

neg: Board of Education v. Walters district. Furthermore, they argued that forcing a school district to adequately fund its district violated the education provisions of the State Constitution. At the trial court level, the method of funding for public schools was deemed unconstitutional. However, on appeal, the Ohio Supreme Court reversed that decision and upheld the constitutionality of the school funding method. The Ohio Supreme Court justices argued that despite the inequalities that existed between school districts in terms of funding and ability to raise local revenue, there was no basis to strike down the funding method. They agreed with the defendant, in this case the

neg: Visiting Forces Agreement (Philippines – United States) the VFA was challenged twice. The case "Bayan v. Zamora" was dismissed on October 10, 2000 by the Supreme Court of the Philippines, sitting "en banc". The second challenge, "Suzette Nicolas y Sombilon Vs. Alberto Romulo, et al. / Jovito R. Salonga, et al. Vs. Daniel Smith, et al. / Bagong Alyansang Makabayan, et al. Vs. President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, et al." submitted on January 2, 2007, was decided on February 11, 2009, again by the Supreme Court sitting en banc. In deciding this second challenge, the court ruled 9–4 (with two justices inhibiting) that, "The Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA) between

neg: Law of Nigeria State and State vs. Federal Government cases. The Supreme Court is headed by a Chief Justice who is assisted by other Justices. The appointment of the Chief Justice and Justices requires confirmation by the Senate. The next highest court is the Court of Appeal, in Abuja. However, to bring the administration of justice closer to the people, the Court of Appeal has multiple divisions (currently sixteen) in various parts of the country. The head of the Court of Appeal has the title President of the Appeal Court. He/She is assisted by Justices. Only the appointment of the President of the

neg: Brown v. Board of Education And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just couldn't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates. Linda Brown died on March 25, 2018 at the age of 76. Brown v. Board of Education Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black

neg: Citizens' Councils propaganda, and violence against citizens and civil-rights activists. By the 1970s, following passage of federal civil rights legislation and its enforcement by the federal government, the influence of the Councils had waned considerably. The council's mailing lists and some of their board members found their way to the St. Louis-based Council of Conservative Citizens, founded in 1985. In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled in "Brown vs. Board of Education" that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Some sources claim that the White Citizens' Council first started after this in Greenwood, Mississippi. Others say that it originated in Indianola, Mississippi.

neg: Rosenwald (film) the scale of the school construction project; the foundation primarily funded rural schools for African-American children in the South. It was based on offering matching construction funds to communities, and gaining white school board approval and commitment for operating funds. Local communities conducted fundraising and sweat equity participation, with some also donating land for these schools. By Rosenwald's death in 1932, some 5,357 of the informally named Rosenwald schools had been built. They comprised about one-third of all elementary schools available for African Americans prior to the 1954 US Supreme Court ruling in "Brown vs. Board of Education" that segregated

neg: Anderson Hunt Brown v. Board of Education, the far-reaching case included West Virginia and 16 other states, and the District of Columbia. Anderson Brown was a and Civil Rights activist. His real estate included primary locations of many of the original businesses in The Block. Mr.Brown was one of the petitioners in a West Virginia lawsuit "Brown vs Kanawha County Board of Education" over the denial of black persons to use the Kanawha County Public Library (West Virginia's own Brown vs Board of Education, like that of the famous Brown vs Board of Education of Topeka, KS). Anderson Hunt Brown was born in

neg: Carver Vocational-Technical High School the Johns Hopkins Hospital campus. But by 1952, racial segregation barriers in Baltimore City's public schools had fallen first at the City's best and elite college prep schools, Baltimore Polytechnic Institute in 1952, in a famous local court case and hearing, followed the next year at academic and athletic rival The Baltimore City College. Beginning in the Fall of 1954, following that May's Supreme Court decision of "Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas", Baltimore's "colored schools" system was dismantled gradually but increasingly year by year during the rest of the decade of the 1950s with small numbers of

neg: Brown v. Board of Education Brown v. Board of Education Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision effectively overturned the "Plessy v. Ferguson" decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court's unanimous (9–0) decision stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." As a result, "de jure" racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection

neg: Jordan Brown case review was made to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, which granted an appeal to consider Brown's claims that the evidence was insufficient as a matter of law to sustain the adjudication of the juvenile court, and that its adjudication was against the weight of the evidence. On July 18, 2018, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court overturned his conviction in a 5-0 decision. The two Pennsylvania Supreme Court justices who did not participate had previously ruled in Jordan's favor on his earlier appeal while they had served as judges in the Pennsylvania Superior Court. The justices attacked the evidence as insufficient and said

neg: Supreme Court of the United States University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School. Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice. Eight Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens

neg: Arlington Central School District Board of Education v. Murphy Arlington Central School District Board of Education v. Murphy Arlington Central School District Board of Education v. Murphy, 548 U.S. 291 (2006), was a United States Supreme Court case about experts' fees in cases commenced under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Justice Samuel Alito, writing for the majority, ruled that IDEA does not authorize the payment of the experts' fees of the prevailing parents. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg concurred in part, and in the judgment. Justices David Souter and Stephen Breyer filed dissents. The respondents, Pearl and Theodore Murphy of LaGrange, New York, sued the petitioner, Arlington Central

neg: Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada replace the Court Martial Appeal Board. Due to the court's small caseload, justices of the CMAC are cross-appointed from justices of provincial superior courts and the Federal Court and Federal Court of Appeal. Appeals from the CMAC lie with the Supreme Court of Canada. Appeals require leave from the Supreme Court, unless a justice of the CMAC dissents on a question of law, in which case there is an appeal as of right to the Supreme Court. Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada The Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada (CMAC) () hears appeals from Courts-martial of Canada ("courts martial").

neg: Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses by country Fiske Stone once quipped, "I think the Jehovah's Witnesses ought to have an endowment in view of the aid which they give in solving the legal problems of civil liberties." The most important U.S. Supreme Court legal victory won by the Witnesses was in the case "West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette" (1943), in which the court ruled that school children could not be forced to pledge allegiance to or salute the U.S. flag. The "Barnette" decision overturned an earlier case, "Minersville School District vs. Gobitis" (1940), in which the court had held that Witnesses could be forced

neg: Brown v. Board of Education plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming, Zelma Henderson, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, and Lucinda Todd. The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88. The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in "Plessy v. Ferguson", , which had upheld a state law requiring "separate but equal" segregated facilities for blacks and whites in railway cars. The three-judge District Court panel found that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect

neg: Stanley plan Defenders proved highly influential in state politics. The crisis over school desegregation worsened throughout 1955. On May 31, 1955, the Supreme Court in "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka" (known as "Brown II") ordered that school desegregation occur with "all deliberate speed". Two weeks later, Governor Stanley and the Virginia State Board of Education announced that state policy would be to continue to operate the state's public schools on a segregated basis. Then, in a seemingly unrelated case, the Supreme Court of Virginia ruled on November 7, 1955, in "Almond v. Day" that providing state funds to private schools

neg: Everson v. Board of Education governments' dual duty to satisfy both the nonestablishment clause and the free exercise clause contained in the language of the amendment. The majority and dissenting Justices in "Everson" split over this very question, with Rutledge in the minority by insisting that the Constitution forbids "every form of public aid or support for religion". Everson v. Board of Education Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court which applied the Establishment Clause in the country's Bill of Rights to State law. Prior to this decision, the First Amendment's words, "Congress

neg: Brown v. Board of Education historically-white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of white flight, however.) The intellectual roots of "Plessy v. Ferguson", the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation in 1896 under the doctrine of "separate but equal" were, in part, tied to the scientific racism of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time. In deciding "Brown v. Board of Education", the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific

neg: History of the United States (1945–1964) of 1964. In the early days of the Civil Rights Movement, litigation and lobbying were the focus of integration efforts. The U.S. Supreme Court decisions in "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka" (1954); "Powell v. Alabama" (1932); "Smith v. Allwright" (1944); "Shelley v. Kraemer" (1948); "Sweatt v. Painter" (1950); and "McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents" (1950) led to a shift in tactics, and from 1955 to 1965, "direct action" was the strategy—primarily bus boycotts, sit-ins, freedom rides, and social movements. "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka" was a landmark case of the United States Supreme Court which explicitly

neg: John Ben Shepperd Texas State Board of Education. In 1950, Shivers appointed Shepperd Secretary of State of Texas. In that capacity, Shepperd organized an elections law task force and promoted measures to ensure economy in government. In 1952, Shepperd was elected to the first of two two-year terms as Texas Attorney General. As his state's chief legal officer Shepperd led the fight against the 1954 United States Supreme Court decision "Brown v. Board of Education", which mandated desegregation of public schools. He accomplished this by delivering a pro-segregation amicus curae to the Supreme Court in October of 1954 in response to Brown v.

neg: Hedgepeth and Williams v. Board of Education to exclude children from any public school on ground that they are of negro race". Robert Queen represented the plaintiffs in this lawsuit. The Hedgepeth–Williams case was cited in the Supreme Court decision in the "Brown v. Board of Education" case on May 17, 1954. Ten years later, the Honorable Thurgood Marshall and his team of NAACP attorneys applied the Hedgepeth and Williams decision (the only state anti-segregation legal precedent in the Nation) to the successful litigation strategy used in the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court's "Brown v. Board of Education", Topeka KS decision, which overturned the doctrine of "Separate but

neg: Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates Later, however, Obama seemed to step away from the example of Warren. In an interview with the editorial board of the "Detroit Free Press" on October 2, 2008, Obama said: Instead, Obama mentioned then current justices David Souter and Stephen Breyer as examples of people he would like to nominate to the Supreme Court in the future: In the third and final presidential debate with Republican nominee John McCain on October 15, 2008, Obama also implied that he would look for a Supreme Court nominee with previous judicial experience: Demographic considerations have played into the appointment of Supreme Court justices

neg: Henry L. Marsh a local judge. In 1956, Marsh obtained an A.B. degree in sociology from Virginia Union University. He attended the Howard University School of Law with an award of a scholarship, earning his LL.B in 1959. Marsh then served in the United States Army. Marsh married Diane Harris, and they had three children together. During his senior year at Virginia Union, Marsh testified on behalf of the student government at a joint session of the Virginia General Assembly. Despite the US Supreme Court ruling in "Brown vs. Board of Education", the Virginia legislature, consisting of all white members, was considering laws

neg: History of IBM structure that enabled him to more effectively oversee the fast moving company. He codified well known but unwritten IBM practices and philosophy into formal corporate policies and programs – such as IBM's Three Basic Beliefs, and Open Door and Speak Up! Perhaps the most significant of which was his shepherding of the company's first equal opportunity policy letter into existence in 1953, one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Brown vs. Board of Education" and 11 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964. He continued to expand the company's physical capabilities – in 1952 IBM San Jose

neg: Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County of Virginia. The state court ruled against the plaintiffs, who appealed the case to the U.S. District Court. The students' request was unanimously rejected by a three-judge panel of the U.S. District Court. "We have found no hurt or harm to either race," the court ruled. The case was then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court and consolidated with four other cases from other districts around the country into the famous "Brown v. Board of Education" case. In it, the US Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public education was, effectively, unconstitutional and illegal. The ruling was extremely unpopular among

neg: Nathan Hare involved with the Black Power movement on campus and leading student-faculty protests. In 1966 he wrote a letter to the campus newspaper, "The Hilltop", mocking Howard president James Nabrit's statement to the "Washington Post" on September 3, 1966 that he hoped to increase white enrollment at Howard to as much as 60%. Nabrit had been part of the NAACP legal team to successfully argue the 1954 "Brown vs. Board of Education" case before the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. By 1966, the civil rights movement had achieved passage of the Civil Rights Act

neg: Allen University countless organizations' and community events. The auditorium was the site of the meeting of educators and lawyers to initiate efforts that led to the landmark US Supreme Court case "Brown vs. the Board of Education" (1954) on school integration. In addition, nationally known musicians and artists, including Leontyne Price, Brooks Benton and Langston Hughes, have performed in the auditorium. Notable speakers include: Mary McCloud Bethune, Reverend Martin Luther King, Muhammad Ali, Reverend Jesse Jackson, George Elmore, John H. McCray, and Senator Strom Thurmond. Chappelle Auditorium was designed by John Anderson Langford (1874-1946), who is known as the 'Dean of Black

neg: Jamie Whitten November 4, 1941 to January 3, 1995 set a record for length of service in the House, which remained unbroken until February 11, 2009, when Michigan Congressman John Dingell surpassed it. Whitten is also the 5th Longest serving Congressman (House and/or Senate) behind Daniel Inouye, Carl T. Hayden, Robert Byrd and John Dingell. Whitten was originally a segregationist, as were many of his colleagues from Mississippi and the rest of the South. He signed the Southern Manifesto condemning the U.S. Supreme Court decision Brown vs. Board of Education, which desegregated public schools. Along with virtually the entire Mississippi congressional delegation,

neg: Desegregation busing to racial tension. Meanwhile, the post-war housing boom and the rise of suburbia allowed whites to migrate into the suburbs. By 1960, all major Northern and Western cities had sizable black populations (e.g., 23% in Chicago, 29% in Detroit, and 32% in Los Angeles). Blacks tended to be concentrated in inner cities, whereas newer suburbs of most cities were almost exclusively white. At the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in "Brown vs Board of Education" (1954) overturned racial segregation laws for public schools that had been in place in a number of states since the late 19th century,

neg: Stentorians the 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. Board of Education and other cases, Alderson asked the Los Angeles city attorney whether the decision affected his department, and was told that it did. Based on this, the Chief assigned black firefighters from the segregated fire stations to all-white fire houses, beginning what was to become a year of crisis for the LAFD. Newspaper writers penned articles both pro and con integration and while firefighters came together while fighting fires, the rest of the time spent in the firehouse was for the most part their own. With the introduction of blacks

neg: New York Supreme Court available only for elected Supreme Court Justices, not for "Acting" Justices whose election or appointments were to lower courts. In many counties, the number of New York Supreme Court justices is fewer than the number of needed justices. For that reason, judges of the New York City Civil Court, New York City Criminal Court, New York Family Court, and New York Court of Claims are designated as Acting Supreme Court Justices. The New York Supreme Court is the oldest Supreme Court with general original jurisdiction. It was established as the Supreme Court of Judicature by the Province of New York

neg: Gebhart v. Belton attend their school. The State Board of Education decided to allow these children to remain in Arden. The State Board of Education declared that no other public schools in Delaware were permitted to integrate until after the "Brown v. Board" decision was decided. The State Attorney General appealed Chancellor Seitz' decision in "Gebhart" to the Delaware Supreme Court. The plaintiffs, believing the Court of Chancery had not gone far enough in overturning the concept of "separate but equal", cross-appealed. The Supreme Court affirmed the decision in a relatively short opinion, relying on "Plessy" to reject arguments that segregation "per se"

neg: Brown v. Board of Education inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the Court must overrule "Plessy" to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive Southern resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion. Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justices Jackson and Reed finally decided to drop their dissent. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the Court. Reed

neg: Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria of Nigeria.<ref> Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria The Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria are members of the Supreme Court of Nigeria headed by the Chief Justice of Nigeria. The Justices are often recommended by the National Judicial Council to the President of Nigeria, who will send the names to the Senate for confirmation. Currently, there are 16 Justices of the Supreme court of Nigeria, including the Chief Justice of Nigeria. Prior to the appointment of Justice Olukayode Ariwola and Mary Odili, the wife of Peter Odili, there were 14 Justices of the Supreme Court, including the

neg: Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria The Justices of the Supreme Court of Nigeria are members of the Supreme Court of Nigeria headed by the Chief Justice of Nigeria. The Justices are often recommended by the National Judicial Council to the President of Nigeria, who will send the names to the Senate for confirmation. Currently, there are 16 Justices of the Supreme court of Nigeria, including the Chief Justice of Nigeria. Prior to the appointment of Justice Olukayode Ariwola and Mary Odili, the wife of Peter Odili, there were 14 Justices of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice

neg: Immaculata-LaSalle High School diverse students to the school as had always been their tradition in America. Although the U.S. Supreme Court 1954 decision in Brown vs. Board of Education made segregated schools illegal, in 1964 only 2% of public schools nationwide were racially integrated. On September 11, 1961, LaSalle High School was officially founded by Bishop Coleman F. Carroll under the direction of the District of Cuba of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (the Christian Brothers). LaSalle opened its doors for the first time in late September with 260 students (grades 7 through 12) with a faculty of 13 Christian Brothers. The

neg: South Granville High School until 1970 when the Creedmoor School (a former high school) burned to the ground because of an electrical fire. South Granville soon became the leading high school in the southern part of Granville County. To replace the Creedmoor School the county built Creedmoor Elementary School in 1972. Since the Supreme Court case of Brown vs. Board of Education the schools of North Carolina worked to become integrated. In Granville County this did not become true until late 1969. The black high school of G. C. Hawley (est. 1936) located a mile away from South Granville became the junior high school

neg: Maryland Interscholastic Athletic Association separate athletic league in the District of Columbia. It was inspired by the hope that all economic classes, educational backgrounds and religious traditions would be able to compete together on the field, in the arena or stadium or in the pool. For over eighty years that Association realized and grew with those hopes and philosophies. In 1956, two years after the "Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" Supreme Court decision (which resulted in the immediate integration of Baltimore City's schools that Fall of 1954), racial integration in the old M.S.A. occurred by including the several formerly "colored" schools

neg: New Bridge Middle School (Jacksonville, NC) another fire destroyed much of the interior of the building. Reusing all of the exterior walls, the school was reopened again in 1941, years prior to the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision by the US Supreme Court that required desegregation and decades before actual racial integration in eastern North Carolina. Jacksonville Senior High School housed white students in the Jacksonville, NC area nearby Georgetown housed their back counterparts. Both schools were located in downtown Jacksonville, just blocks from both the Jacksonville City Hall and the Onslow County Courthouse. The location of Georgetown and Jacksonville Senior was central to

neg: Haliwa-Saponi Richardson the Third Chief of the tribe, James Mills, Theadore Lynch, and others. After the US Supreme Court ruled in "Brown vs. The Board of Education" (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, the state undertook resistance by what was called the Pearsall Plan, which allowed municipalities to make funds available to create private neighborhood schools. The Haliwa-Saponi took advantage of this provision to build and operate the private Haliwa Indian School, which was attended only by Indian children. It was the only tribally supported Indian school that was not on a reservation. They operated it from 1957-1969. After

neg: Henri Leighton selected by Edward Steichen for The Museum of Modern Art 1955 world-touring exhibition "The Family of Man" seen by 9 million visitors. The picture was made in the year leading up to the Supreme Court (May 17, 1954) decision in Brown vs. Board of Education that abolished racial segregation in American schools. It shows two boys, one who is black with his arm over the shoulders of his companion who is white, walking in step past run-down shops. The taller boy delicately clasps a baseball card in his left hand, as if having just shown it to his friend. They

neg: Carver Junior College show, in response to the unanimous Supreme Court decision mandating school integration ("Brown vs. Board of Education"), that the older standard of "separate but equal" educational facilities was still viable in Florida. Prior to this legislative initiative, the only publicly-funded colleges for negro or colored students (as they were called at the time) were Florida A&M University, in Tallahassee, and Booker T. Washington Junior College, in Pensacola. The only President of the college was James R. Greene, who was also principal of the black Monroe Senior High School. In 1962 the Carver Junior College building, adjacent to the high school,

neg: Daisy Elizabeth Adams Lampkin to lead the organization in its successful litigation in Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka before the U.S. Supreme Court. She was credited with having the most substantial gains in membership among any of the organization's executive leadership. During her last year as National Field Secretary she raised over $1 million for the organizations. So dedicated was she to the NAACP and community organizing that has been said she to have crossed the country conducting 40 NAACP chapter meetings in one month. Lampkin would eventually take on a renewed interest in black women's organizing; assisting the Delta Sigma Theta

neg: Man High School to Logan High School. The principal, Dr. Barrington, also left after that year. During the 1920s, Man High School would see a significant increase in enrollment, and most believe it was around this time that construction of the present-day old Man Jr. High was executed. In the 1930s and 40s, enrollment decreased. In 1954, segregation was outlawed by the Supreme Court in their decision on Brown vs. Board of Education. Three years later, in 1957, Man High School was consolidated with the former African-American Buffalo High School, which stood on Buffalo Creek between Crown and Accoville. A new school was

neg: HMX-1 the Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education desegregation ruling handed down by the U.S. Supreme Court in May 1954. Typically, the return trip to Washington, D.C., required an hour-long ferry ride across Narragansett Bay to Air Force One, followed by a 45-minute flight to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, and a 20-minute motorcade ride to the White House. Realizing the urgent need for his presence in Washington, President Eisenhower directed his staff to find a faster way to Air Force One. An HMX-1, UH-34 helicopter was on Aquidneck Island in case of an emergency and could be used to fly

neg: White America, Inc. to prevent or stop racial integration in the state's schools. The president of the group stated they were going to stop "any attempts by Negroes to enter white schools" and that they would do so "on a peaceable basis_through legal action", but warned if that failed that "the people" would "take matters into their own hands". The organization believed that the "Brown vs. Board of Education" ruling by the United States Supreme Court violated states' rights. The co-founder and organization president, L. D. Poynter, stated at a meeting in Pine Bluff that if integration happened "in a few years we

neg: West Virginia High School Football State Championships and playoff history of Sports in West Virginia", so this author left them on this list as well. It is almost surreal to think that, not that many years ago, African American students were barred from playing football with White Americans. This changed in 1954 with a Supreme Court decision, "Brown vs. Board of Education", overturning school segregation. The black school athletics were governed by the WV Athletic Union but did not receive as consistent media attention as their white counterparts. This makes research difficult. Information on the Colored State Football Champions has been provided by Robert Bonner, WV high school football researcher.

neg: Towson, Maryland building. It was established in 1992 and known as the Central Technical High School. It was renamed for the African-American scientist George Washington Carver (1864-1943), and to remember the previous Carver High School in Towson. That school had served black residents of the county for several decades in the previously racially segregated public school system before the early 1960s, when the suburban county lagged behind fully integrating after the 1954 landmark "Brown vs. Board of Education" decision by the U.S. Supreme Court. Towson is served by seven public elementary schools in the school district.: Rodgers Forge, Stoneleigh, Riderwood, Hampton, West

neg: WVSSAC Super Six Football Championships classes; Class AA (big schools), Class A (medium sized schools) and Class B (small schools). From 1958 to the present there have been three classes as well, however the names have been changed to; Class AAA (big schools), Class AA (medium sized schools) and Class A (small schools). It is almost surreal to think that, not that many years ago, African American students were barred from playing football with White Americans. This changed in 1954 with a supreme court decision, "Brown vs. Board of Education", overturning school segregation. The black schools were governed by the WV Athletic Union but did

neg: Vivian Burey Marshall months, as he was leading the case of "Brown v. Board of Education" at the US Supreme Court. After it ruled on May 17, 1954, she told Marshall about her illness. Richard Kluger credits Burey with being one of two people who had been indirectly active but important influencers of the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision, in his book, "Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality" (2011). Burey died of lung cancer on February 11, 1955, her 44th birthday, after 25 years of marriage. Marshall remarried in December 1955, to

neg: Civil rights movement new organizations, political redress, and labor organizing (see the African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954)). The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to end race discrimination through litigation, education, and lobbying efforts. Its crowning achievement was its legal victory in the Supreme Court decision "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) when the Court rejected separate white and colored school systems and, by implication, overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in "Plessy v. Ferguson" of 1896. Segregation had continued intact into the mid-1950s. Following the unanimous Supreme Court decision in "Brown v.

neg: Edmond Edward Wysinger laborer and part-time preacher. He stressed the importance of education for his children. He tried to admit his son Arthur to a regular public school but was refused, resulting in him entering a suit against the county school board of education in the Supreme Court of the State California in October 1888. On March 1, 1890, the California Supreme Court, in "Wysinger vs. Crookshank" reversed a lower court decision and ordered that 12-year-old Arthur Wysinger be admitted to Visalia's regular school system. If the people of the state desired separate but equal schools for citizens of African descent, and Indians,

neg: Constitution of Louisiana been used to drive incarceration, especially of black people. The proceedings of the convention at which the 1898 constitution was developed and adopted contains the word "supremacy" at least eight times, including: A constitutional convention was called to re-fund the state debt and enlarge the powers of the New Orleans Sewer and Water Board. Concerns over possible Supreme Court constitutionality decisions led to a longer constitution with all sixty-six amendments to the Constitution of 1898 being included. Supreme Court Justices to be elected, more funding for education was provided, and five amendments to the Confederate Pension Plan. The Louisiana Constitution

neg: Sanford Brown as president of the board from 1991-1992 during its AIDS education controversy. He ran unsuccessfully for school board in the Wenatchee School District in 1997. Brown gained local notoriety for his challenge, along with Rev. Kel Groseclose, of the 1999 election of the Wenatchee mayor. Brown and Groseclose contended in Chelan County Superior Court that Mayor Gary Schoessler was not a resident of Wenatchee for the requisite one year prior to his election. The court agreed, the verdict was upheld on appeal to the Washington Supreme Court on April 20, 2000, and Schoessler was removed from office. In 2001 Brown

neg: North Dakota Supreme Court North Dakota Supreme Court The North Dakota Supreme Court is the highest court of law in the state of North Dakota. The Court rules on questions of law in appeals from the state's district courts. Each of the five justices are elected on a no-party ballot for ten year terms, arranged such that one seat is contested every two years. The Chief Justice is elected from the Justices every five years (or upon vacancy) by vote of the Supreme Court justices and the District Court judges. The justices of the North Dakota Supreme Court are currently: The Supreme Court is

neg: Supreme People's Court of Vietnam Justices consists of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justices, and other justices of the Supreme People's Court as appointed by the National Assembly on nomination by the President. It must have at least 13 members, and at most 17 members. Appeals are heard by panels of five justices, or by the entire Council of Justices when appropriate under law. Supreme People's Court of Vietnam The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam () is the highest court of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The Supreme People's Court is one of the two institutions at the apex of the judicial system of

neg: Martin A. Martin v. Richmond School Board." In the fall of 1960, two African American pupils were admitted to Chandler Elementary School, over a year after decisions by a three judge federal panel and the Virginia Supreme Court on Robert E. Lee's birthday (but in other cases litigated by the law firm) declared most of the Stanley plan implementing Massive Resistance unconstitutional as defying the U.S. Supreme Court decisions in Brown v. Board of Education. Martin died of a heart attack, aged 52, in his Richmond home on April 27, 1963, months after the U.S. Supreme Court decision in NAACP v. Button stopped

neg: Supreme Court of Nepal Supreme Court of Nepal The Supreme Court of Nepal () is the highest court in Nepal. It has appellate jurisdiction over decisions of the seven High Courts (including eleven Benches of the High Courts) and extraordinary original jurisdiction. The court consists of twenty Justices and one Chief Justice. The Supreme Court is composed of the Chief Justice, twenty Justices. The Chief Justice is appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Constitutional Council. S/he is appointed from among the justices having at least three years as a Supreme Court justice. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the