query: a carbohydrate composed of three to ten sugar molecules is called a ( n )

pos: Polysaccharide type, the polysaccharide is called a "homopolysaccharide" or "homoglycan", but when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are called "heteropolysaccharides" or "heteroglycans". Natural saccharides are generally of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula (CHO) where "n" is three or more. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehyde. Polysaccharides, meanwhile, have a general formula of C(HO) where "x" is usually a large number between 200 and 2500. When the repeating units in the polymer backbone are six-carbon monosaccharides, as is often the case, the general formula simplifies to (CHO), where typically 40≤n≤3000. As a rule of

pos: Carbohydrate certain proteins. Fructose, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and in humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion, and found in semen. Trehalose, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight. Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide

pos: Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism are inborn error of metabolism that affect the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates. An example is lactose intolerance. Carbohydrates account for a major portion of the human diet. These carbohydrates are composed of three principal monosaccharides: glucose, fructose and galactose; in addition glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in humans. The failure to effectively use these molecules accounts for the majority of the inborn errors of human carbohydrates metabolism. Glycogen storage diseases are enzyme deficiencies which impair glycogen synthesis, glycogen degradation or glycolysis. The two organs most commonly affected

pos: Glycome i.e. [CHO]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length. The glycome exceeds the complexity of the proteome as a result of the even greater diversity of the glycome's constituent carbohydrates and is further complicated by the sheer multiplicity of possibilities in the combination and interaction of the carbohydrates with

pos: Carbohydrate Carbohydrate A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where "m" may be different from "n"). This formula holds true for monosaccharides. Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula CHO. The carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as aldoses and ketoses. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of 'saccharide', a group that includes

pos: Carbohydrate chemistry. Some of the main organic reactions that involve carbohydrates are: Carbohydrate A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where "m" may be different from "n"). This formula holds true for monosaccharides. Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula CHO. The carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as aldoses and ketoses. The term is most common in biochemistry,

pos: Carbohydrate three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides DP * = Degree of polymerization Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•HO), literally a "carbon hydrate". Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes. Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and

pos: Glycan Glycan The terms glycan and polysaccharide are defined by IUPAC as synonyms meaning "compounds consisting of a large number of monosaccharides linked glycosidically". However, in practice the term glycan may also be used to refer to the carbohydrate portion of a glycoconjugate, such as a glycoprotein, glycolipid, or a proteoglycan, even if the carbohydrate is only an oligosaccharide. Glycans usually consist solely of O-glycosidic linkages of monosaccharides. For example, cellulose is a glycan (or, to be more specific, a glucan) composed of β-1,4-linked -glucose, and chitin is a glycan composed of β-1,4-linked "N"-acetyl--glucosamine. Glycans can be homo- or heteropolymers of

pos: Glycome Glycome The glycome is the entire complement of sugars, whether free or present in more complex molecules, of an organism. An alternative definition is the entirety of carbohydrates in a cell. The glycome may in fact be one of the most complex entities in nature. "Glycomics, analogous to genomics and proteomics, is the systematic study of all glycan structures of a given cell type or organism" and is a subset of glycobiology. "Carbohydrate", "glycan", "saccharide", and "sugar" are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”,

pos: Carbohydrate bridge. Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides) in a large variety of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetyl glucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type. They may be classified according to their degree of polymerization, and may be divided initially into

neg: Galactosyltransferase Galactosyltransferase Galactosyltransferase is a type of glycosyltransferase which catalyzes the transfer of galactose. An example is B-N-acetylglucosaminyl-glycopeptide b-1,4-galactosyltransferase. The biosynthesis of disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides involves the action of hundreds of different glycosyltransferases. These enzymes catalyse the transfer of sugar moieties from activated donor molecules to specific acceptor molecules, forming glycosidic bonds. A classification of glycosyltransferases using nucleotide diphospho-sugar, nucleotide monophospho-sugar and sugar phosphates () and related proteins into distinct sequence based families has been described. This classification is available on the CAZy (Carbohydrate-Active EnZymes) web site. The same three-dimensional fold is expected to occur within each of the families.

neg: N-linked glycosylation glycan structure is essentially made up of two N-acetyl glucosamine and three mannose residues. This core glycan is then elaborated and modified further, resulting in a diverse range of N-glycan structures. The process of N-linked glycosylation starts with the formation of dolichol-linked GlcNAc sugar. Dolichol is a lipid molecule composed of repeating isoprene units. This molecule is found attached to the membrane of the ER. Sugar molecules are attached to the dolichol through a pyrophosphate linkage (one phosphate was originally linked to dolichol, and the second phosphate came from the nucleotide sugar). The oligosaccharide chain is then extended through the

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism molecules of ATP is therefore one of the most important biochemical pathways found in living organisms. Glycolysis, which means “sugar splitting,” is the initial process in the cellular respiration pathway. Glycolysis can be either an aerobic or anaerobic process. When oxygen is present, glycolysis continues along the aerobic respiration pathway. If oxygen is not present, then ATP production is restricted to anaerobic respiration. The location where glycolysis, aerobic or anaerobic, occurs is in the cytosol of the cell. In glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is split into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. These carbon molecules are oxidized into NADH and

neg: Glycemic index Glycemic index The glycemic index or glycaemic index (; GI) is a number associated with the carbohydrates in a particular type of food that indicates the effect of these carbohydrates on a person's blood glucose (also called blood sugar) level. A value of 100 represents the standard, an equivalent amount of pure glucose. The GI represents the rise in a person's blood sugar level two hours after consumption of the food. The glycemic effects of foods depends on a number of factors, such as the type of carbohydrate, physical entrapment of the carbohydrate molecules within the food, fat and protein

neg: Light-independent reactions texts list a product of photosynthesis as , this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are: The next stage in the Calvin cycle is

neg: Low-carbohydrate diet may choose to avoid vegetables altogether to minimize carbohydrate intake. Low-carbohydrate vegetarianism is also practiced. Raw fruits and vegetables are packed with an array of other protective chemicals, such as vitamins, flavonoids, and sugar alcohols. Some of those molecules help safeguard against the over-absorption of sugars in the human digestive system. Industrial food raffination depletes some of those beneficial molecules to various degrees, including almost total removal in many cases. Some evidence indicates the increasingly large percentage of calories consumed as refined carbohydrates is positively correlated with the increased incidence of metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. Some evidence

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism consists of ten steps, split into two phases. During the first phase, it requires the breakdown of two ATP molecules. During the second phase, chemical energy from the intermediates is transferred into ATP and NADH. The breakdown of one molecule of glucose results in two molecules of pyruvate, which can be further oxidized to access more energy in later processes. Gluconeogenesis is the reverse process of glycolysis. It involves the conversion of non-carbohydrate molecules into glucose. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are converted in this pathway include pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, alanine, and glutamine. This process occurs when there are lowered amounts

neg: Émile Bourquelot Émile Bourquelot Émile Bourquelot (21 June 1851 – 26 January 1921) was a French chemist, and professor of pharmacy at the University of Paris. He was born in Jandun (Ardennes, France), to a farmer, and was the eldest of three sons. Bourqelot became the Chief Pharmacist at the Laënnec Hospital in 1887, where he established a laboratory to conduct his research into carbohydrate chemistry. Bourquelot and other French pharmacists pioneered the study of plant glycosides, molecules in which a sugar is bound to a non-carbohydrate part. They developed methods to stabilize these compounds in solution, and detect them enzymatically. He

neg: 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase is a glucosyltransferase enzyme involved in the generation of beta-glucan in fungi. It serves as a pharmacological target for antifungal drugs such as caspofungin, anidulafungin, and micafungin, deemed 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase inhibitors. The biosynthesis of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides involves the action of hundreds of different glycosyltransferases. These enzymes catalyse the transfer of sugar moieties from activated donor molecules to specific acceptor molecules, forming glycosidic bonds. A classification of glycosyltransferases using nucleotide diphospho-sugar, nucleotide monophospho-sugar and sugar phosphates (), and related proteins into distinct sequence-based families has been described. This classification is available on the CAZy (CArbohydrate-Active

neg: Carbohydrate counting Carbohydrate counting Carbohydrate counting or “carb” counting is a meal planning tool used in diabetes management to help optimize blood sugar control. It can be used with or without the use of insulin therapy. Carbohydrate counting involves determining whether a food item has carbohydrate followed by the subsequent determination of how much carbohydrate the food item has in it. Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as glucose and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with diabetes, the

neg: Affinity chromatography has an affinity for glutathione which is commercially available immobilized as glutathione agarose. During elution, excess glutathione is used to displace the tagged protein. Lectin affinity chromatography is a form of affinity chromatography where lectins are used to separate components within the sample. Lectins, such as concanavalin A are proteins which can bind specific alpha-D-mannose and alpha-D-glucose carbohydrate molecules. Some common carbohydrate molecules that is used in lectin affinity chromatography are Con A-Sepharose and WGA-agraose. Another example of a lectin is wheat germ agglutinin which binds D-N-acetyl-glucosamine. The most common application is to separate glycoproteins from non-glycosylated proteins, or one

neg: Lignocellulosic biomass Lignocellulosic biomass Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels, mainly bio-ethanol. It is composed of carbohydrate polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose), and an aromatic polymer (lignin). These carbohydrate polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and they are tightly bound to lignin. Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified into virgin biomass, waste biomass and energy crops. Virgin biomass includes all naturally occurring terrestrial plants such as trees, bushes and grass. Waste biomass is produced as a low value byproduct

neg: Carbohydrate conformation Carbohydrate conformation Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three-dimensional structure adopted by a carbohydrate (saccharide) molecule as a result of the through-bond and through-space physical forces it experiences arising from its molecular structure. The physical forces that dictate the three-dimensional shapes of all molecules—here, of all monosaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide molecules—are sometimes summarily captured by such terms as "steric interactions" and "stereoelectronic effects" (see below). Saccharide and other chemical conformations can be reasonably shown using two-dimensional structure representations that follow set conventions; these capture for a trained viewer an understanding of the three-dimensional structure via structure drawings (see organic chemistry

neg: Vitelline membrane outer layer protein I (VMO-I) has considerable activity to synthesize N-acetylchito-oligosaccharide from N-acetylglucosamine hexasaccharides but no hydrolysis activity. VMO-I is composed of 163 aa The structure consists of three beta-sheets forming Greek key motifs, which are related by an internal pseudo three-fold symmetry. Furthermore, the structure of VOMI has strong similarity to the structure of the delta-endotoxin, as well as a carbohydrate-binding site in the top region of the common fold. VMO-I revealed a unique structure of the P-prism fold, a new type of multi-sheet assembly. Vitelline membrane outer layer protein I (VMO-I) In molecular biology, this entry refers to a protein domain called, the

neg: Carbohydrate conformation equilibrium population of conformers depends on their relative energies which can be determined to a rough approximation using steric and stereoelectronic arguments. It has been shown that cations in solution can shift the equilibrium. Carbohydrate conformation Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three-dimensional structure adopted by a carbohydrate (saccharide) molecule as a result of the through-bond and through-space physical forces it experiences arising from its molecular structure. The physical forces that dictate the three-dimensional shapes of all molecules—here, of all monosaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide molecules—are sometimes summarily captured by such terms as "steric interactions" and "stereoelectronic effects" (see below). Saccharide

neg: Agave nectar (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The carbohydrate composition in agave syrup depends on the species from which the syrup was made. In "A. tequilana", the syrup contains some 56% to 60% fructose, 20% glucose, and trace amounts of sucrose, whereas in "A. salmiana", sucrose is the main sugar. Fructose molecules in "A. tequilana" syrup chain together to create fructans and fructooligosaccharides, which have sweetening effects. Agave syrup is 1.4 to 1.6 times sweeter than sugar, and may be substituted for sugar or honey in recipes. It is added to some breakfast cereals as a binding agent. Agave

neg: Pluramycin A amino sugars, D-angolosamine and N,N-dimethyl-L-vancosamine, play a key role in sequence recognition in intercalation of the tetracyclic chromophore. Pluramycin A Pluramycin A is an antibiotic/anticancer compound that inhibits nucleic acid biosynthesis. The pluramycin family of natural products are an important group of complex C-aryl glycoside antibiotics that possess the tetracyclic 4H-anthra[1,2-b]pyran-4,7,12-trione moiety A–D as an aromatic core. The D-ring is adorned with two deoxyaminosugars that are appended by C-aryl glycosidic linkages. The E-ring sugar is angolosamine, a carbohydrate that is also found in the antibiotic angolamycin. The F-ring sugar is the N,N-dimethyl derivative of vancosamine, which is the sugar found

neg: Lignocellulosic biomass thus allowing for maximal extraction of sugars from lignocellulosic biomass. These sugars can then be fermented, leading to bio-ethanol. Lignocellulosic biomass Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels, mainly bio-ethanol. It is composed of carbohydrate polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose), and an aromatic polymer (lignin). These carbohydrate polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and they are tightly bound to lignin. Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified into virgin biomass, waste biomass and energy crops. Virgin biomass includes all

neg: Ganglioside Ganglioside A ganglioside is a molecule composed of a glycosphingolipid (ceramide and oligosaccharide) with one or more sialic acids (e.g. n-acetylneuraminic acid, NANA) linked on the sugar chain. NeuNAc, an acetylated derivative of the carbohydrate sialic acid, makes the head groups of gangliosides anionic at pH 7, which distinguishes them from globosides. The name "ganglioside" was first applied by the German scientist Ernst Klenk in 1942 to lipids newly isolated from ganglion cells of the brain. More than 60 gangliosides are known, which differ from each other mainly in the position and number of NANA residues. It is a component

neg: Ketogenic diet This is achieved by excluding high-carbohydrate foods such as starchy fruits and vegetables, bread, pasta, grains and sugar, while increasing the consumption of foods high in fat such as nuts, cream, and butter. Most dietary fat is made of molecules called long-chain triglycerides (LCTs). However, medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs)—made from fatty acids with shorter carbon chains than LCTs—are more ketogenic. A variant of the classic diet known as the MCT ketogenic diet uses a form of coconut oil, which is rich in MCTs, to provide around half the calories. As less overall fat is needed in this variant of the diet,

neg: Avidin strongest known non-covalent bonds. In its tetrameric form, avidin is estimated to be 66–69 kDa in size. 10% of the molecular weight is contributed by carbohydrate, composed of four to five mannose and three N-acetylglucosamine residues. The carbohydrate moieties of avidin contain at least three unique oligosaccharide structural types that are similar in structure and composition. Functional avidin is found only in raw egg, as the biotin avidity of the protein is destroyed by cooking. The natural function of avidin in eggs is not known, although it has been postulated to be made in the oviduct as a bacterial growth

neg: Ganglioside in several diseases: Ganglioside A ganglioside is a molecule composed of a glycosphingolipid (ceramide and oligosaccharide) with one or more sialic acids (e.g. n-acetylneuraminic acid, NANA) linked on the sugar chain. NeuNAc, an acetylated derivative of the carbohydrate sialic acid, makes the head groups of gangliosides anionic at pH 7, which distinguishes them from globosides. The name "ganglioside" was first applied by the German scientist Ernst Klenk in 1942 to lipids newly isolated from ganglion cells of the brain. More than 60 gangliosides are known, which differ from each other mainly in the position and number of NANA residues. It

neg: Lectin large scale and available on a commercial basis was concanavalin A, which is now the most-used lectin for characterization and purification of sugar-containing molecules and cellular structures. The legume lectins are probably the most well-studied lectins. Most lectins do not possess enzymatic activity. Lectins occur ubiquitously in nature. They may bind to a soluble carbohydrate or to a carbohydrate moiety that is a part of a glycoprotein or glycolipid. They typically agglutinate certain animal cells and/or precipitate glycoconjugates. Lectins serve many different biological functions in animals, from the regulation of cell adhesion to glycoprotein synthesis and the control of protein

neg: Carbohydrate linked α-1,4) and cellulobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose. Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products,

neg: Hydrolysis Hydrolysis Hydrolysis (; ) is a term used for both an electro-chemical process and a biological one. The hydrolysis of water is the separation of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms (water splitting) using electricity (electrolysis). Biological hydrolysis is the cleavage of biomolecules where a water molecule is consumed to affect the separation of a larger molecule into component parts. When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g. sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose), this is termed saccharification. Generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance. Hydrolysis

neg: Hydrolysis rocks of most of the ions other than aluminium and iron and subsequent hydrolysis of the remaining aluminium and iron. Hydrolysis Hydrolysis (; ) is a term used for both an electro-chemical process and a biological one. The hydrolysis of water is the separation of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms (water splitting) using electricity (electrolysis). Biological hydrolysis is the cleavage of biomolecules where a water molecule is consumed to affect the separation of a larger molecule into component parts. When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g. sucrose being broken down into glucose

neg: Peptide nucleic acid naturally but N-(2-aminoethyl)-glycine (AEG), the backbone of PNA, are possibly an early form of genetic molecules for life on earth and produced by cyanobacteria. DNA and RNA have a deoxyribose and ribose sugar backbone, respectively, whereas PNA's backbone is composed of repeating N-(2-aminoethyl)-glycine units linked by peptide bonds. The various purine and pyrimidine bases are linked to the backbone by a methylene bridge (--) and a carbonyl group (-(C=O)-). PNAs are depicted like peptides, with the N-terminus at the first (left) position and the C-terminus at the last (right) position. Since the backbone of PNA contains no charged phosphate groups,

neg: Carbohydrate counting the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding "carbohydrate units". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate counting can be used with or without insulin therapy. When carbohydrate counting is used without insulin, it can be used as a tool to manage blood sugar levels. A certain number of carbohydrate grams or carbohydrate units is

neg: Doughnut due to how tightly its molecules are packed. The sugar used in baking is essentially sucrose, and besides imparting sweetness in the doughnut, sugar also functions in the color and tenderness of the final product. Sucrose is a simple carbohydrate whose structure is made up of a glucose molecule bound to a fructose molecule. Milk is utilized in the making of doughnuts, but in large scale bakeries, one form of milk used is nonfat dry milk solids. These solids are obtained by removing most of the water from skim milk with heat, and this heat additionally denatures the whey proteins

neg: Carbohydrate counting flexible insulin dosage, the insulin is administered in regards to the amount of carbohydrate consumed. The insulin amount will vary based on the amount of carbohydrates consumed. Carbohydrate counting Carbohydrate counting or “carb” counting is a meal planning tool used in diabetes management to help optimize blood sugar control. It can be used with or without the use of insulin therapy. Carbohydrate counting involves determining whether a food item has carbohydrate followed by the subsequent determination of how much carbohydrate the food item has in it. Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients

neg: Pluramycin A Pluramycin A Pluramycin A is an antibiotic/anticancer compound that inhibits nucleic acid biosynthesis. The pluramycin family of natural products are an important group of complex C-aryl glycoside antibiotics that possess the tetracyclic 4H-anthra[1,2-b]pyran-4,7,12-trione moiety A–D as an aromatic core. The D-ring is adorned with two deoxyaminosugars that are appended by C-aryl glycosidic linkages. The E-ring sugar is angolosamine, a carbohydrate that is also found in the antibiotic angolamycin. The F-ring sugar is the N,N-dimethyl derivative of vancosamine, which is the sugar found in the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin. These compounds exhibit potent antitumor activity by DNA alkylation, where the two proximal

neg: Gel electrophoresis the gel forms a solid, yet porous matrix. Acrylamide, in contrast to polyacrylamide, is a neurotoxin and must be handled using appropriate safety precautions to avoid poisoning. Agarose is composed of long unbranched chains of uncharged carbohydrate without cross links resulting in a gel with large pores allowing for the separation of macromolecules and macromolecular complexes. Electrophoresis refers to the electromotive force (EMF) that is used to move the molecules through the gel matrix. By placing the molecules in wells in the gel and applying an electric field, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, determined largely

neg: Carbohydrate counting body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels. Carbohydrate is found in a number of foods including fruits, starchy vegetables (such as peas, potatoes, and corn), grains, milk and yogurt, legumes, and desserts. In general, foods such as meat, eggs, cheese, fats, and non-starchy vegetables (such as greens and broccoli) have little to no carbohydrate. Other foods free of carbohydrate include small quantities of certain condiments, unsweetened coffee and tea, and sugar free sodas. Carbohydrate content of foods is listed on

neg: Nucleotide radiolabeled with radionuclides to yield radionucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of three distinctive chemical sub-units: a five-carbon sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base—which two together are called a nucleoside—and one phosphate group. With all three joined, a nucleotide is also termed a "nucleoside "mono"phosphate". The chemistry sources ACS Style Guide and IUPAC Gold Book prescribe that a nucleotide should contain only one phosphate group, but common usage in molecular biology textbooks often extends the definition to include molecules with two, or with three, phosphates. Thus, the terms "nucleoside "di"phosphate" or "nucleoside "tri"phosphate" may also indicate nucleotides. Nucleotides contain either a purine

neg: Carbohydrate-binding module determine the tertiary structure of the 152 amino acid N-terminal cellulose-binding domain from "C. fimi" 1,4-beta-glucanase CenC (CBDN1). The tertiary structure of CBDN1 is strikingly similar to that of the bacterial 1,3-1,4-beta-glucanases, as well as other sugar-binding proteins with jelly-roll folds. CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related. Carbohydrate-binding module family 5 (CBM5) binds chitin. CBM5 and CBM12 are distantly related. Carbohydrate-binding module family 6 (CBM6) is unusual in that is contains two substrate-binding sites, cleft A and cleft B. "Cellvibrio mixtus" endoglucanase 5A contains two CBM6 domains, the CBM6 domain at the C-terminus displays distinct ligand binding specificities in each

neg: Sialyltransferase Sialyltransferase Sialyltransferases are enzymes that transfer sialic acid to nascent oligosaccharide. Each sialyltransferase is specific for a particular sugar substrate. Sialyltransferases add sialic acid to the terminal portions of the sialylated glycolipids (gangliosides) or to the N- or O-linked sugar chains of glycoproteins. The biosynthesis of disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides involves the action of hundreds of different glycosyltransferases. These enzymes catalyse the transfer of sugar moieties from activated donor molecules to specific acceptor molecules, forming glycosidic bonds. A classification of glycosyltransferases using nucleotide diphospho-sugar, nucleotide monophospho-sugar and sugar phosphates () and related proteins into distinct sequence based families has been

neg: Carbohydrate conformation oxygen is not in the plane the substituents eclipse and when it is in the plane torsional strain is relieved. Conformational analysis for the twist form is similar thus leading to the two forms being very close in energy. Anomers are diastereoisomers of glycosides, hemiacetals or related cyclic forms of sugars, or related molecules differing in configuration only at C-1. When the stereochemistry of the first carbon matches the stereochemistry of the last stereogenic center the sugar is the α-anomer when they are opposite the sugar is the β-anomer. Anomers can be interconverted through a process known as mutarotation. The

neg: Surfactant protein A1 Four SP-A1 variants (6A, 6A, 6A, 6A) are in higher frequency in the general population. The most frequently found variant is 6A. Surfactant protein A (SP-A) is a protein of 248 amino acids usually found in large oligomeric structures. The mature SP-A1 monomer is a 35kDa protein that differs from SP-A2 in four amino acids at the coding region. The structure of SP-A1 monomers consists of four domains: an N-terminal, a collagen-like domain, a neck region, and a carbohydrate recognition domain. The C-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) allows binding to various types of microorganisms and molecules. The amino acid differences

neg: Chi-Huey Wong to solve major problems and create new opportunities in carbohydrate-mediated biological recognition and disease control. Of particular significance is his development of carbohydrate-based vaccines for the treatment of breast cancer and infectious diseases and glycan microarrays for the high-throughput analysis of protein-carbohydrate interaction. Overall, research in the Wong lab encompasses a broad spectrum of bioorganic and synthetic chemistry. Development of small molecules targeting proteins and RNA has been performed to investigate how small molecules interact with biologically important molecules and in turn, learn more about the function of those molecules. Development of both synthetic and bioorganic strategies is also paramount

neg: Galectin bind, and which is long enough to hold about a linear tetrasaccharide. Galectins essentially bind to glycans featuring galactose and its derivatives. However, physiologically, they are likely to require lactose or N-aceyllactosamine for significantly strong binding. Generally, the longer the sugar the stronger the interactions. For example, galectin-9 binds to polylactosamine chains with stronger affinity than to an N-acetyllactosamine monomer. This is because more Van der Waals interactions can occur between sugar and binding pocket. Carbohydrate binding is calcium independent, unlike C-type lectins. The strength of ligand binding is determined by a number of factors: The multivalency of both of

neg: Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces DSC). The researchers in the Biomolecular Systems department, headed by Peter H. Seeberger, are using new methods for synthesizing sugar chains. Until recently most of the known naturally occurring sugars were those that supply energy to organisms such as sucrose (household sugar) and starch (in plants). However, the complex sugar molecules, which belong to the carbohydrate, are also involved in many biological processes. They cover all cells in the human body and play a crucial part in molecular identification of cell surfaces for example in infections, immune reactions and cancer metastases. Complex sugars are omnipresent as cell coatings in nature

neg: Nucleotide Nucleotide Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids; they are composed of three subunit molecules: a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate group. A nucleoside is a nitrogenous base and a 5-carbon sugar. Thus a nucleoside plus a phosphate group yields a nucleotide. Nucleotides also play a central role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They carry

neg: Diferulic acids and also sugar beet and Chinese water chestnut. The 8-O-4'-DiFA tends to predominate in grasses, but 5,5'-DiFA predomintes in barley bran. Rye bread contains ferulic acid dehydrodimers. In chufa (tiger nut, "Cyperus esculentus") and sugar beet the predominant diferulic acids are 8-O-4'-DiFA and 8,5'-DiFA respectively. 8-5' Non cyclic diferulic acid has been identified to be covalently linked to carbohydrate moieties of the arabinogalactan-protein fraction of gum arabic. Diferulic acids are thought to have a structural function in plant cell walls, where they form cross-links between polysaccharide chains. They have been extracted attached to a few sugar molecules at both ends,

neg: Avadhesha Surolia Belfast, UK. Surolia has elucidated the role of glycosphingolipids as biological receptors through studies on lectin-glycolipid interactions using liposomes. He discovered novel blood group and tumor antigen specific lectins and made original contribution towards elucidation of the energetics and mechanism of protein-sugar recognition. He genetically re-engineered carbohydrate specificities of lectins imparting exquisite T-antigen tumor recognizing ability to peanut agglutinin. He delineated the molecular basis of carbohydrate recognition by legume lectins and demonstrated the novel C-H...O/N hydrogen bond in protein-sugar interactions. He studied thermal unfolding of lectins that led to the discovery of novel modes of oligomerization in them. He found

neg: N-linked glycosylation different types of "N"-linked glycan. There are two types of bonds involved in a glycoprotein: bonds between the saccharides residues in the glycan and the linkage between the glycan chain and the protein molecule. The sugar moieties are linked to one another in the glycan chain via glycosidic bonds. These bonds are typically formed between carbons 1 and 4 of the sugar molecules. The formation of glycosidic bond is energetically unfavourable, therefore the reaction is coupled to the hydrolysis of two ATP molecules. On the other hand, the attachment of a glycan residue to a protein requires the recognition of

neg: Major histocompatibility complex the periphery (i.e. elsewhere in the body). The TCRs of T lymphocytes recognise only sequential epitopes, also called linear epitopes, of only peptides and only if coupled within an MHC molecule. (Antibody molecules secreted by activated B cells, though, ligate diverse epitopes—peptide, lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid—and recognize conformational epitopes, which have three-dimensional structure.) MHC molecules enable immune system surveillance of the population of protein molecules in a host cell, and greater MHC diversity permits greater diversity of antigen presentation. In 1976, Yamazaki "et al" demonstrated a sexual selection mate choice by male mice for females of a different MHC.

neg: Albomycin to ferrichrome. It contains three molecules of δ-N-hydroxy-δ-N-acetyl ornithine linked to a serine, all by peptide linkage. The C-terminus of the serine is linked to another serine attached to the antibiotically active 4’-thio (N4-carbamoyl-3-methyl) cytidine moiety. The trihydroxamate part serves the siderophore function as it can trap Fe and is essential for active transport of the antibiotic. Iron-free albomycin δ2 has a molecular weight of 992 Da, and when loaded with iron it is 1045 Da. Albomycin Albomycins are a group of naturally occurring antibiotics belonging to the class of sideromycins, which are "compounds composed of iron carriers called siderophores

neg: Xeno nucleic acid RNA or DNA. Strands of DNA and RNA are formed by stringing together long chains of molecules called nucleotides. A nucleotide is made up of three chemical components: a phosphate, a five-carbon sugar group (this can be either a deoxyribose sugar — which gives us the "D" in DNA — or a ribose sugar — the "R" in RNA), and one of five standard bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil). The molecules that piece together to form the six xeno nucleic acids are almost identical to those of DNA and RNA, with one exception: in XNA nucleotides, the deoxyribose

neg: Alagebrium less susceptible to normal turnover thus enhancing the presence of these abnormal bonds on various molecules. Importantly, alagebrium does not disrupt the natural carbohydrate modification to proteins, intra-molecular crosslinking or peptide bonds that are responsible for maintaining the normal integrity of the collagen chain. Thus, normal structure and function is preserved while abnormal crosslinking is reduced. Although alagebrium may break some important AGE crosslinks, there is no evidence that it is effective against the most prevalent crosslink: glucosepane. The chemical name for alagebrium is 4,5-dimethyl-3-(2-oxo-2-phenylethyl)thiazolium chloride; it has also been called dimethyl-3-N-phenacylthiazolium chloride. Alteon said that it had selected ALT-711

neg: Glycosylation nitrogen of certain asparagine residues. The influence of glycosylation on the folding and stability of glycoprotein is twofold. Firstly, the highly soluble glycans may have a direct physicochemical stabilisation effect. Secondly, "N"-linked glycans mediate a critical quality control check point in glycoprotein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. Glycosylation also plays a role in cell-to-cell adhesion (a mechanism employed by cells of the immune system) via sugar-binding proteins called lectins, which recognize specific carbohydrate moieties. Glycosylation is an important parameter in the optimization of many glycoprotein-based drugs such as monoclonal antibodies. Glycosylation also underpins the ABO blood group system. It is

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions. Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high

neg: 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase {(1,3)-beta-D-glucosyl}(N+1). 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase is a glucosyltransferase enzyme involved in the generation of beta-glucan in fungi. It serves as a pharmacological target for antifungal drugs such as caspofungin, anidulafungin, and micafungin, deemed 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase inhibitors. The biosynthesis of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides involves the action of hundreds of different glycosyltransferases. These enzymes catalyse the transfer of sugar moieties from activated donor molecules to specific acceptor molecules, forming glycosidic bonds. A classification of glycosyltransferases using nucleotide diphospho-sugar, nucleotide monophospho-sugar and sugar phosphates (), and related proteins into distinct sequence-based families has been described. This classification is available on the CAZy

neg: Phosphocarrier protein domain and in some cases also an EI domain. There is a conserved histidine in the N-terminus of HPr, which serves as an acceptor for the phosphoryl group of EI. In the central part of HPr there is a conserved serine which, in Gram-positive bacteria only, is phosphorylated by an ATP-dependent protein kinase, a process which probably plays a regulatory role in sugar transport. Phosphocarrier protein Phosphocarrier HPr protein is a small cytoplasmic protein that is a component of the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS). The phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS) is a major carbohydrate transport system in bacteria. The

neg: Natural product carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism as well as the biosynthesis of fatty acids and polyketides. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxol, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine) as pyridoxal 5′-phosphate is a cofactor for many enzymes especially transaminases involve in amino acid metabolism. Vitamin B12 (cobalamins) contain a corrin ring similar in structure to porphyrin and is an essential coenzyme for the catabolism of fatty acids as well for the biosynthesis of methionine. DNA and RNA which store and transmit genetic information are composed of nucleic acid primary metabolites. First messengers are signaling molecules that control metabolism or cellular differentiation. These signaling molecules include hormones and

neg: Glycosidic bond hydroxyls, such as -SR (thioglycosides), -SeR (selenoglycosides), -NRR (N-glycosides), or even -CRRR (C-glycosides). Particularly in naturally occurring glycosides, the compound ROH from which the carbohydrate residue has been removed is often termed the aglycone, and the carbohydrate residue itself is sometimes referred to as the 'glycone'. Glycosidic bonds of the form discussed above are known as O-glycosidic bonds, in reference to the glycosidic oxygen that links the glycoside to the aglycone or reducing end sugar. In analogy, one also considers S-glycosidic bonds (which form thioglycosides), where the oxygen of the glycosidic bond is replaced with a sulfur atom. In the

neg: Glycoside to a "non-sugar" for the molecule to qualify as a glycoside, thus excluding polysaccharides. The sugar group is then known as the "glycone" and the non-sugar group as the "aglycone" or "genin" part of the glycoside. The glycone can consist of a single sugar group (monosaccharide) or several sugar groups (oligosaccharide). The first glycoside ever identified was amygdalin, by the French chemists Pierre Robiquet and Antoine Boutron-Charlard, in 1830. Molecules containing an N-glycosidic bond are known as glycosylamines and are not discussed in this article. (Many authors in biochemistry call these compounds "N-glycosides" and group them with the glycosides; this

neg: Diet drink the Coca-Cola variant, Coca-Cola C2, is a combination of corn syrup, aspartame, acesulfame potassium and sucralose. Pepsi discontinued Edge in 2005, citing lackluster sales. Coca-Cola soon followed suit. Pepsi then released Pepsi Max in 2012. Half of the sugar of a can of regular cola still exceeds the daily sugar allowance of some popular low-carbohydrate diets. It is possible that these soft drinks were targeted to so-called "carb-conscious consumers", who are paying attention to their carbohydrate intake but not trying to drastically reduce it. According to a study by the National Center for Health Statistics, about one-fifth of the US

neg: Glycoside hydrolase family 29 to the reducing-end N-acetylglucosamine of the carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins. Alpha-L-fucosidase is responsible for hydrolysing the alpha-1,6-linked fucose joined to the reducing-end N-acetylglucosamine of the carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins. Fucosylated glycoconjugates are involved in numerous biological events, making alpha-l-fucosidases, the enzymes responsible for their processing, critically important. Deficiency in alpha-l-fucosidase activity is associated with fucosidosis, a lysosomal storage disorder characterised by rapid neurodegeneration, resulting in severe mental and motor deterioration. The enzyme is a hexamer and displays a two-domain fold, composed of a catalytic (beta/alpha)(8)-like domain and a C-terminal beta-sandwich domain. "Drosophila melanogaster" spermatozoa contains an alpha-l-fucosidase that might be

neg: Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism glycogen metabolism see below. Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk. Lactose can not be absorbed by the intestine and needs to be split in the small intestine into galactose and glucose by the enzyme called lactase; unabsorbed lactose can cause abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. In most mammals, production of lactase diminishes after infants are weaned from maternal milk. However, 5% to 90% of the human population possess an advantageous autosomal mutation in which lactase production persists after infancy. The geographic distribution of lactase persistence is concordant with areas

neg: Isomaltulose Isomaltulose Isomaltulose is a disaccharide carbohydrate composed of glucose and fructose. The glucose and fructose are linked by an alpha-1,6-glycosidic bond (chemical name: 6-"0"-α--glucopyranosyl--fructose). Isomaltulose is present in honey and sugarcane extracts. It tastes similar to sucrose (table sugar) with half the sweetness. Isomaltulose is also known by the trade name Palatinose, which is manufactured by enzymatic rearrangement (isomerization) of sucrose from beet sugar. The enzyme and its source were discovered in Germany in 1950, and since then its physiological role and physical properties have been studied extensively. isomaltulose has been used as an alternative to sugar in foods in

neg: Ionized-air glow Ionized-air glow Ionized-air glow is the fluorescent emission of characteristic blue–purple–violet light, of color called electric blue, by air subjected to an energy flux. When energy is deposited to air, the air molecules become excited. As air is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, excited N and O molecules are produced. These can react with other molecules, forming mainly ozone and nitrogen(II) oxide. Water vapor, when present, may also play a role; its presence is characterized by the hydrogen emission lines. The reactive species present in the plasma can readily react with other chemicals present in the air or on

neg: Energy gel gel prior to exercise may be skipped in favor of a high carbohydrate snack instead. Energy gels are then to be used every 30–45 minutes during exercise. The notch can be peeled off at the top and an intake of energy gel is recommended to be followed with a drink of water to avoid risk of dehydration. This is especially important for gels with high simple carbohydrate content. These gels create hyperosmolar gastric content which prevents carbohydrate absorption and gastrointestinal distress. For this reason, energy gels with low sugar content are frequently called "hydrogels". The exact intake of the gel

neg: Nucleic acid peptide nucleic acid, morpholino- and locked nucleic acid, glycol nucleic acid, and threose nucleic acid. Each of these is distinguished from naturally occurring DNA or RNA by changes to the backbone of the molecules. Nucleic acid Nucleic acids are the biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life. The term "nucleic acid" is the overall name for DNA and RNA. They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a compound ribose, the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if

neg: Lipid compounds. The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine. Ceramides (N-acyl-sphingoid bases) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide-linked fatty acid. The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono-unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms. The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins (ceramide phosphocholines), whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose-containing headgroups. The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base. Examples of these are the simple and

neg: Anomer is used to study anomers is the specific rotation, which can be monitored by polarimetry. Anomer An anomer is a type of geometric variation found at certain atoms in carbohydrate molecules. An epimer is a stereoisomer that differs in configuration at any single stereogenic center. An anomer is an epimer at the hemiacetal/acetal carbon in a cyclic saccharide, an atom called the anomeric carbon. The anomeric carbon is the carbon derived from the carbonyl carbon (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-chain form of the carbohydrate molecule. Anomerization is the process of conversion of one anomer to the

neg: Root mucilage throughout the network so that the network is not disrupted by a lack of carbohydrate input. Root mucilage also helps soil to stick to roots. The purpose of this is to maintain the plant's contact with the soil so that the plant can regulate the levels of water it can absorb, decrease friction so that roots can penetrate through the soil, and maintain a micro-climate. Root mucilage Root mucilage is made of plant-specific polysaccharides or long chains of sugar molecules. This polysaccharide secretion of root exudate forms a gelatinous substance that sticks to the caps of roots. Root mucilage is

neg: Carbohydrate-binding module fold and has a bound metal atom, most often observed to be calcium. CBM32 modules are associated with catalytic modules such as sialidases, B-N-acetylglucosaminidases, α-N-acetylglucosaminidases, mannanases and galactose oxidases. Carbohydrate-binding module family 33 (CBM33) is a chitin-binding domain. It has a budded fibronectin type III fold consisting of two beta-sheets, arranged as a beta-sheet sandwich and a bud consisting of three short helices, located between beta-strands 1 and 2. It binds chitin via conserved polar amino acids. This domain is found in isolation in baculoviral spheroidin and spindolin proteins. Carbohydrate-binding module family 48 (CBM48) is often found in enzymes containing

neg: Anomer Anomer An anomer is a type of geometric variation found at certain atoms in carbohydrate molecules. An epimer is a stereoisomer that differs in configuration at any single stereogenic center. An anomer is an epimer at the hemiacetal/acetal carbon in a cyclic saccharide, an atom called the anomeric carbon. The anomeric carbon is the carbon derived from the carbonyl carbon (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-chain form of the carbohydrate molecule. Anomerization is the process of conversion of one anomer to the other. As is typical for stereoisomeric compounds, different anomers have different physical properties, melting points

neg: Carbohydrate catabolism Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high energy potential to drive the production of ATP in the electron transport chain. ATP production occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. There are two methods of producing ATP: aerobic and anaerobic. In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Oxygen plays a key role as it increases ATP production from 4 ATP

neg: FeMoco FeMoco FeMoco ( cofactor) is the primary cofactor of nitrogenase. Nitrogenase is the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen molecules N into ammonia (NH) through the process known as nitrogen fixation. Containing iron and molybdenum, the cofactor is called FeMoco. Its stoichiometry is FeMoSC. The FeMo cofactor is a cluster with composition FeMoSC. Fe is the chemical symbol for the element iron (ferrum), and Mo is the symbol for molybdenum. This large cluster can be viewed as two subunits composed of one FeS (iron(III) sulfide) cluster and one MoFeS cluster. The two clusters are linked by three sulfide

neg: Peanut agglutinin accession of P02872. There are over 20 structures of this protein in the PDB which reveal and all beta-sheet protein with a tetrameric quaternary structure. It is a member of the Lectin_legB PFAM family. Available Structures of peanut agglutinin Because peanut agglutinin specifically binds a particular carbohydrate sequence it finds use in a range of methods for cell biology and biochemistry. For example in PNA-affinity chromatography the binding specificity of peanut agglutinin is used to isolate glycosylated molecules which have the sugar sequence Gal-β(1-3)-GalNAc. Peanut agglutinin activity is inhibited by lactose and galactose which compete for the binding site. Other

neg: Basal metabolic rate in water—that is, 2 to 1—all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete oxidation of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed. The overall equation for this reaction is: Because the gas exchange in this reaction is equal, the respiratory quotient (R.Q.) for carbohydrate is unity or 1.0: The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in

neg: Nucleic acid are connected to each other in an alternating chain (sugar-phosphate backbone) through phosphodiester linkages. In conventional nomenclature, the carbons to which the phosphate groups attach are the 3'-end and the 5'-end carbons of the sugar. This gives nucleic acids directionality, and the ends of nucleic acid molecules are referred to as 5'-end and 3'-end. The nucleobases are joined to the sugars via an N-glycosidic linkage involving a nucleobase ring nitrogen (N-1 for pyrimidines and N-9 for purines) and the 1' carbon of the pentose sugar ring. Non-standard nucleosides are also found in both RNA and DNA and usually arise from

neg: Potato mop-top virus which has an internal domain spurring transportation of the virus to neighboring cells, and an N-terminal domain used for long-distance (systemic) travel. This N-terminal domain of TGB1 has shown some promise as a target to limit systemic infection of the pathogen in "N. benthamiana", since systemic infection requires an interaction between a molecule called importin-a within the host plant and the N-terminal domain. Of the three positive-sense RNA molecules used by PMTV, there is one thought to code for a virulence factor protein. The other two molecules code for a polymerase and a coat protein both of which are necessary

neg: Lectin cells. Many legume seeds have been proven to contain high lectin activity, termed "hemagglutination." Soybean is the most important grain legume crop in this category. Its seeds contain high activity of soybean lectins (soybean agglutinin or SBA). SBA is able to disrupt small intestinal metabolism and damage small intestinal villi via the ability of lectins to bind with brush border surfaces in the distal part of small intestine. Lectin Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins, macromolecules that are highly specific for sugar moieties of other molecules. Lectins perform recognition on the cellular and molecular level and play numerous roles in biological recognition

neg: Fucose Fucose Fucose is a hexose deoxy sugar with the chemical formula CHO. It is found on "N"-linked glycans on the mammalian, insect and plant cell surface. Fucose is the fundamental sub-unit of the seaweed polysaccharide fucoidan. α(1→3) linked core fucose is a suspected carbohydrate antigen for IgE-mediated allergy. Two structural features distinguish fucose from other six-carbon sugars present in mammals: the lack of a hydroxyl group on the carbon at the 6-position (C-6) (thereby making it a deoxy sugar) and the -configuration. It is equivalent to 6-deoxy--galactose. In the fucose-containing glycan structures, fucosylated glycans, fucose can exist as a terminal

neg: Ideal Protein and four calcium tablets daily is considered excessive by some. Ideal Protein Ideal Protein is a four-phase carbohydrate-restricted weight loss plan composed of premade meals, lean protein, vegetables, and water. It is designed to target fat loss using ketosis while maintaining muscle mass and stabilizing blood sugar levels. Ideal Protein was developed by Tran Tien Chanh. The diet consists of a four-phase plan to lose weight and maintain weight loss. Sugar and carbohydrates are restricted. Participants work with a qualified weight loss coach and are taught healthy food choices to maintain a healthier lifestyle. Ideal Protein produces a line of

neg: Reducing sugar dextrin the macromolecule begins with a reducing sugar, a free aldehyde. More hydrolyzed starch contains more reducing sugars. The percentage of reducing sugars present in these starch derivatives is called dextrose equivalent (DE). Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals. It is a reducing sugar with only one reducing end; no matter how large the glycogen molecule is or how many branches it has, each branch ends in a nonreducing sugar residue. When glycogen is broken down to be used as an energy source, glucose units are removed

neg: Cell adhesion multiple adhesion molecules with different specificities that bind to carbohydrates located on surfaces of their host cells. cell–cell adhesion is key for pathogenic protozoans to attach en enter their host cells. An example of a pathogenic protozoan is the malarial parasite ("Plasmodium falciparum"), which uses one adhesion molecule called the circumsporozoite protein to bind to liver cells, and another adhesion molecule called the merozoite surface protein to bind red blood cells. Pathogenic fungi use adhesion molecules present on its cell wall to attach, either through protein-protein or protein-carbohydrate interactions, to host cells or fibronectins in the extracellular matrix. Prokaryotes have

neg: Ideal Protein Ideal Protein Ideal Protein is a four-phase carbohydrate-restricted weight loss plan composed of premade meals, lean protein, vegetables, and water. It is designed to target fat loss using ketosis while maintaining muscle mass and stabilizing blood sugar levels. Ideal Protein was developed by Tran Tien Chanh. The diet consists of a four-phase plan to lose weight and maintain weight loss. Sugar and carbohydrates are restricted. Participants work with a qualified weight loss coach and are taught healthy food choices to maintain a healthier lifestyle. Ideal Protein produces a line of foods, shakes, snacks and dietary supplements to facilitate the dietary

neg: Glass molecules) in the composition range 4<"R"<8. An aqueous solution containing sugar has a glassy state and can be used as a surfactant. A "molecular liquid" is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. Many molecular liquids can be supercooled into a glass; some are excellent glass formers that normally do not crystallize. An example of this is sugar glass. Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes that can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions. In 2006 Italian

neg: Cellulosic ethanol highly digestible cellulose, undegraded hemicellulose sugars, reactive lignin and lignosulfonates, and is characterized by efficient recovery of chemicals. There are two major cellulose hydrolysis (cellulolysis) processes: a chemical reaction using acids, or an enzymatic reaction use cellulases. The cellulose molecules are composed of long chains of sugar molecules. In the hydrolysis of cellulose (that is, cellulolysis), these chains are broken down to free the sugar before it is fermented for alcohol production. In the traditional methods developed in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, hydrolysis is performed by attacking the cellulose with an acid. Dilute

neg: Ionized-air glow a beta particle to attain 99.97% c is 21.1 MeV formula_1, the possibility of Cherenkov radiation produced in air via a fission criticality or a radioactive decay is virtually eliminated. Cherenkov radiation can be however readily observed in more optically dense environments, "e.g." in water or in transparent solids. Ionized-air glow Ionized-air glow is the fluorescent emission of characteristic blue–purple–violet light, of color called electric blue, by air subjected to an energy flux. When energy is deposited to air, the air molecules become excited. As air is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, excited N and O molecules are produced.

neg: Cellobiose Cellobiose Cellobiose is a disaccharide with the formula CHO. Cellobiose, a reducing sugar, consists of two β-glucose molecules linked by a β(1→4) bond. It can be hydrolyzed to glucose enzymatically or with acid. Cellobiose has eight free alcohol (OH) groups, one acetal linkage and one hemiacetal linkage, which give rise to strong inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonds. It can be obtained by enzymatic or acidic hydrolysis of cellulose and cellulose rich materials such as cotton, jute, or paper. Cellobiose can be used as an indicator carbohydrate for Crohn's disease and malabsorption syndrome. Treatment of cellulose with acetic anhydride and sulfuric

neg: Carbohydrate metabolism FADH, which drive the creation of ATP in other processes. A molecule of NADH can produce 1.5–2.5 molecules of ATP, whereas a molecule of FADH will yield 1.5 molecules of ATP. Typically, the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose via aerobic respiration (i.e. involving both glycolysis and the Citric Acid Cycle) is usually about 30–32 molecules of ATP. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy. Glucoregulation is the maintenance of steady levels of glucose in the body. Hormones released from the pancreas regulate the overall metabolism of glucose. Insulin and glucagon are the primary

neg: Chloroplast the light reactions. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. While named ""the dark reactions"", in most plants, they take place in the light, since the dark reactions are dependent on the products of the light reactions. The Calvin cycle starts by using the enzyme RuBisCO to fix CO into five-carbon Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) molecules. The result is unstable six-carbon molecules that immediately break down into three-carbon molecules called 3-phosphoglyceric acid, or 3-PGA. The ATP and NADPH made in the light reactions is used to convert the 3-PGA into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P sugar molecules. Most of

neg: Carbohydrate Structure Database Carbohydrate Structure Database Carbohydrate Structure Database (CSDB) is a free database and service platform in glycoinformatics, launched in 2005 by a group of Russian scientists from N.D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences. CSDB stores published structural, taxonomical, bibliographic and NMR-spectroscopic data on natural carbohydrates and carbohydrate-related molecules. The main data stored in CSDB are carbohydrate structures of bacterial, fungal, and plant origin. Each structure is assigned to an organism and is provided with the link(s) to the corresponding scientific publication(s), in which it was described. Apart from structural data, CSDB also stores NMR spectra, information on

neg: Bovine submaxillary mucin coatings BSM has a hydration enthalpy of -20 kJ/mol and an RH level for glass transition of 60-70%. Being large glycoproteins, mucins have high carbohydrate content, contributing to their fibrous structure. These carbohydrates branch off of polypeptide chains in the form of oligosaccharides including N-acetylgalactosamine, N-acetylglucosamine, fucose, galactose, and sialic acid. The serine and threonine hydroxyl groups link to the polypeptide chains via O-glycosidic linkages. Mucins interact with surfaces in a unique way due to the amphiphilic properties the molecules exhibit. Mucins adhere well to polymeric surfaces through various types of bonding: (1) covalent bond attachment (2) electrostatic interaction, which requires

neg: Tipson–Cohen reaction Tipson–Cohen reaction The Tipson–Cohen reaction is a name reaction first discovered by Stuart Tipson and Alex Cohen at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington D.C. The Tipson–Cohen reaction occurs when two neighboring secondary sulfonyloxy groups in a sugar molecule are treated with zinc dust (Zn) and sodium iodide (NaI) in a refluxing solvent such as "N","N"-dimethylformamide (DMF) to give an unsaturated carbohydrate. Unsaturated carbohydrates are desired as they are versatile building blocks that can be used in a variety of reactions. For example, they can be used as intermediates in the synthesis of natural products, or as dienophiles in

neg: Argpyrimidine derivative produced through the MG-incubation with N-t-BOC-Arg (N-alpha-(tertbutoxycarbonyl)-L-Arginine), an alpha-amine protected amino acid derivative, "in vitro" used a reductone intermediate, 3-hydroxypentane-2,4-dione. This argpyrimidine product was found to be detectable by its blue fluorescent properties. Argpyrimidine is also found in food chemistry through the browning of food by the Maillard Reaction. During this process, Glycation occurs, adding carbohydrate modifications to proteins and lipids. By adding the sugar components to the food, there is an added/changed element to the flavor of the food. This reaction is involved in the formation of most yeast containing foods, including breads and fermented alcohols. The Maillard

neg: Selectin Selectin The selectins (cluster of differentiation 62 or CD62) are a family of cell adhesion molecules (or CAMs). All selectins are single-chain transmembrane glycoproteins that share similar properties to C-type lectins due to a related amino terminus and calcium-dependent binding. Selectins bind to sugar moieties and so are considered to be a type of lectin, cell adhesion proteins that bind sugar polymers. All three known members of the selectin family (L-, E-, and P-selectin) share a similar cassette structure: an N-terminal, calcium-dependent lectin domain, an epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like domain, a variable number of consensus repeat units (2, 6, and