query: who discovered that all cells come from other cells

pos: Cell theory many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory. It was an important step in the movement away from spontaneous generation. The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below: The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life-forms. The discovery of the

pos: Cell (biology) contain more than 10 trillion (10) cells. Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least

neg: Robert Remak Robert Remak Robert Remak (26 July 1815 – 29 August 1865) was a Jewish Polish-German embryologist, physiologist, and neurologist, born in Posen, Prussia, who discovered that the origin of cells was by the division of pre-existing cells. as well as several other key discoveries. According to historian Paul Weindling, Rudolf Virchow, one of the founders of modern cell theory, plagiarized the notion that all cells come from pre-existing cells from Remak. Remak had reached the conclusion after observing red blood cells from chicken embryos in various stages of division. He then confirmed that the phenomenon existed in the cell of

neg: Merrill Chase laboratory at Rockefeller. Merrill Chase Merrill W. Chase (September 17, 1905 – January 5, 2004) was an immunologist working at the Rockefeller University in New York City who is credited with discovering cell-mediated immunology in the early 1940s. While working with Dr. Karl Landsteiner, Dr. Chase discovered that white blood cells, and not antibodies alone, were important instruments of the immune system. His findings laid the groundwork for later research that discovered the role of B cells, T cells and other types of white blood cells. Recognizing that other scientists were discovering multiple functions of the immune system, he established

neg: Merrill Chase Merrill Chase Merrill W. Chase (September 17, 1905 – January 5, 2004) was an immunologist working at the Rockefeller University in New York City who is credited with discovering cell-mediated immunology in the early 1940s. While working with Dr. Karl Landsteiner, Dr. Chase discovered that white blood cells, and not antibodies alone, were important instruments of the immune system. His findings laid the groundwork for later research that discovered the role of B cells, T cells and other types of white blood cells. Recognizing that other scientists were discovering multiple functions of the immune system, he established an independent Immunology

neg: Biology impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory. Meanwhile,

neg: Organism several organs functioning as an organ system such as the reproductive system, and digestive system. Many multicellular organisms consist of several organ systems, which coordinate to allow for life. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Schleiden and Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from preexisting cells; and cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic cells are usually found in multicellular

neg: Embryonic stem cell California-based company, Stemagen, announced that they had created the first mature cloned human embryos from single skin cells taken from adults. These embryos can be harvested for patient matching embryonic stem cells. The online edition of "Nature Medicine" published a study on January 24, 2005, which stated that the human embryonic stem cells available for federally funded research are contaminated with non-human molecules from the culture medium used to grow the cells. It is a common technique to use mouse cells and other animal cells to maintain the pluripotency of actively dividing stem cells. The problem was discovered when non-human

neg: Cell theory types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista. Cell theory In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells,

neg: Cell theory Cell theory In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later,

neg: Myeloid tissue from the lineage of the myeloblast (the myelocytes, monocytes, and their daughter types). Thus, although all blood cells, even lymphocytes, are normally born in the bone marrow in adults, myeloid cells in the narrowest sense of the term can be distinguished from lymphoid cells, that is, lymphocytes, which come from common lymphoid progenitor cells that give rise to B cells and T cells. Those cells' differentiation (that is, lymphopoiesis) is not complete until they migrate to lymphatic organs such as the spleen and thymus for programming by antigen challenge. Thus, among leukocytes, the term "myeloid" is associated with the innate

neg: Suberites such as collagen, of known animals. Like all sponges, "Suberites" are filter-feeders. They are extremely efficient and can process thousands of liters of water per day. "S. domuncula" has been used for study of graft rejection. Researchers have discovered that apoptotic factors are induced in the tissue that is rejected. "Suberites" consist of many telomerase-positive cells, which means the cells are essentially immortal, barring cell death signal. In most cases, the signal is a lack of connection either to the extracellular matrix or other cells. Their apoptotic cells are similar to homologous to mammalian. However, maintenance of long-lived cells involves

neg: History of biology of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. In 1838 and 1839, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, though they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory. Cell theory led biologists to re-envision individual organisms as interdependent assemblages of individual

neg: History of zoology through 1859 and Schwann began promoting the ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, though they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory. Up through the 19th century, the scope of zoology was largely divided between physiology, which investigated questions of form and function, and natural history, which was concerned with

neg: Zanvil A. Cohn to cell biology, since endocytosis is a process universal to all cells, and is the mechanism by which cells digest materials from their surroundings, ranging from microbes to proteins carrying nutrients." Cohn's team discovered other key functions of macrophages, moving beyond endocytosis to study macrophages' secretions and identifying more than 50 products of macrophages that play "active roles in inflammation and immunity." The team found that "activated macrophages release active oxygen intermediates, such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, to destroy bacteria and tumor cells. A further demonstration that macrophages could be activated by lymphokines in vivo was important in the

neg: Eduard Buchner contents would come out of the cells. Once this step was done, the moist mixture would be put through a press and the resulting "press juice" had glucose, fructose, or maltose added and carbon dioxide was seen to evolve, sometimes for days. Microscopic investigation revealed no living yeast cells in the extract. Buchner hypothesized that yeast cells secrete proteins into their environment in order to ferment sugars, but it was later found that fermentation occurs inside the yeast cells. Maria Manasseina claimed to have discovered free-cell fermentation a generation earlier than Buchner. Though it is believed by some that the

neg: Chorionic villus sampling discovered that chorionic villi can be a rich source of fetal stem cells, multipotent mesenchymal stem cells A potential benefit of using fetal stem cells over those obtained from embryos is that they side-step ethical concerns among anti-abortion activists by obtaining pluripotent lines of undifferentiated cells without harm to a fetus or destruction of an embryo. These stem cells would also, if used to treat the same individual they came from, sidestep the donor/recipient issue which has so far stymied all attempts to use donor-derived stem cells in therapies. Artificial heart valves, working tracheas, as well as muscle, fat, bone,

neg: Sierra Sciences (the "Hayflick limit"). The enzyme telomerase adds these DNA sequence repeats to the telomere, re-lengthening it. In humans, telomerase is expressed in embryonic stem cells and some other cells, but most somatic cells do not express it. While working at Geron Corporation, Andrews co-discovered the RNA component of human telomerase ("hTR"). For this discovery, Andrews was awarded second place as "National Inventor of the Year" in 1997 by the Intellectual Property Owners Association. Andrews also co-discovered the protein component of human telomerase ("hTERT"). The hTERT gene is present in all human cells, but is repressed in most. In 1997, Andrews

neg: CD90 markers like CD34. In humans, Thy-1 is expressed on neurons and HSCs among others. It is considered a major marker of HSC pluripotency in concordance with CD34. In human HSCs, Thy1 cells are all CD34 positive. Thy 1 is also a marker of other kind of stem cells, for example: mesenchymal stem cells, hepatic stem cells ("oval cells"), keratinocyte stem cells, putative endometrial progenitor/(?)stem cells. CD90 Thy-1 or CD90 (Cluster of Differentiation 90) is a 25–37 kDa heavily N-glycosylated, glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchored conserved cell surface protein with a single V-like immunoglobulin domain, originally discovered as a thymocyte antigen. Thy-1 can

neg: COX-2 inhibitor could inhibit the growth of these cells, even though some of these cancer cells didn’t even contain COX-2. Additional support for the idea that other targets besides COX-2 are important for celecoxib’s anticancer effects has come from studies with chemically modified versions of celecoxib. Several dozen analogs of celecoxib were generated with small alterations in their chemical structures. Some of these analogs retained COX-2 inhibitory activity, whereas many others didn’t. However, when the ability of all these compounds to kill tumor cells in cell culture was investigated, it turned out that the antitumor potency did not at all depend on

neg: Christian de Duve in 1971). Sutherland had been working on the insulin-impurity substance and had named it hyperglycemic-glycogenolytic (HG) factor. He and de Duve immediately discovered that the HG factor was synthesised not only by the pancreas but, surprisingly, by the gastric mucosa and certain other parts of the digestive tract. They further found that the hormone was produced from pancreatic islets by cells differing from the insulin-producing beta cells, presumably the alpha cells. It was de Duve who realised that Sutherland's HG factor was glucagon, and this rediscovery led to its permanent name, which he reintroduced it in 1951. They showed that

neg: G0 phase part of their internal genetic programming. G was first suggested as a cell state based on early cell cycle studies. When the first studies defined the four phases of the cell cycle using radioactive labeling techniques, it was discovered that not all cells in a population proliferate at similar rates. A population's “growth fraction” – or the fraction of the population that was growing – was actively proliferating, but other cells existed in a non-proliferative state. Some of these non-proliferating cells could respond to extrinsic stimuli and proliferate by re-entering the cell cycle. Early contrasting views either considered non-proliferating cells

neg: Enzyme replacement therapy initially manufactured by isolating the therapeutic enzyme from human placenta. The FDA has now approved ERTs that are derived from other human cells, animal cells (i.e. Chinese hamster ovary cells, or CHO cells), and plant cells. Lysosomal storage diseases are fatal group of diseases and a main application of ERT. Lysosomes are cellular organelles that are responsible for the metabolism of many different macromolecules and proteins. They use enzymes to break down macromolecules, which are recycled or disposed. As of 2012, there are 50 lysosomal storage diseases, and more are still being discovered. These disorders arise because of genetic mutations

neg: Adrenal gland before the beginning of puberty. The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts,

neg: Polychromasia red blood cells. In 1893, Max Askanazy, who was studying the blood of an anemic patient, discovered granulation in the blood cells that were polychromatic. Later studies done by other scientists also showed the same results in other forms of anemia. This pattern of granulation was also seen in several types of toxic poisoning, especially lead poisoning. However, other research has shown that there has been stippling found in normal blood cells as well. Stippling is supposed to be one of the earliest symptoms of lead poisoning, although most scientists now regard it as a degenerative condition, along with polychromasia.

neg: Regulatory T cell immunity, thus hindering the body's innate ability to control the growth of cancerous cells. Recent immunotherapy research is studying how regulation of T cells could possibly be utilized in the treatment of cancer. T regulatory cells are a component of the immune system that suppress immune responses of other cells. This is an important "self-check" built into the immune system to prevent excessive reactions. Regulatory T cells come in many forms with the most well-understood being those that express CD4, CD25, and FOXP3 (CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells). These "Tregs" are different from helper T cells. Another regulatory T cell subset

neg: Stoke Industrial School Brother Augustine and his colleagues who all denied that children were being imprisoned, or that prison cells even existed in the school building. Refusing to be diverted by the evasive brothers, the inspectors confronted Brother Loetus who belatedly returned to the school. Two boys, one of whom was James Maher, were eventually discovered in separate confinement cells. A total of five small cells were located. Evidence given to the Royal Commission revealed that boys had been held in solitary confinement for periods as long as 3 months. Notably, "The Industrial Schools Act 1882 Amending Act of 1895" specifically regulated confinement.

neg: Neural fold release of calcium from within the cells. The released calcium interacts with proteins that can modify the actin filaments in the outer epithelial tissue, or ectoderm, in order to induce the dynamic cell movements necessary to create the fold. These cells are held together by cadherins (specifically E and N-cadherin), types of intercellular binding protein. When the cells at the peaks of the neural folds come in proximity with each other, it is the affinity for similar cadherin molecules (N-cadherins) that allows these cells to bind to each other. Thus, when the neural tube precursor cells begin expressing N-cadherin in

neg: Plant cell thickened cellulosic cell walls. These cells mature from meristem derivatives that initially resemble parenchyma, but differences quickly become apparent. Plastids do not develop, and the secretory apparatus (ER and Golgi) proliferates to secrete additional primary wall. The wall is most commonly thickest at the corners, where three or more cells come in contact, and thinnest where only two cells come in contact, though other arrangements of the wall thickening are possible. Pectin and hemicellulose are the dominant constituents of collenchyma cell walls of dicotyledon angiosperms, which may contain as little as 20% of cellulose in "Petasites". Collenchyma cells are typically

neg: Mating in fungi as either haploid or diploid cells. However, when starved, diploid cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type, MATa and MATα, come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the tetrad of cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon

neg: Mating of yeast cells. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type "MATa and "MATα come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon cell division, often produce cells of the opposite mating type with which they can mate (see section “Mating

neg: Chimeric antigen receptor patient, they act as a "living drug" against cancer cells. When they come in contact with their targeted antigen on a cell, CAR-T cells bind to it and become activated, then proceed to proliferate and become cytotoxic. CAR-T cells destroy cells through several mechanisms, including extensive stimulated cell proliferation, increasing the degree to which they are toxic to other living cells (cytotoxicity), and by causing the increased secretion of factors that can affect other cells such as cytokines, interleukins, and growth factors. Adoptive transfer of T cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors is a promising anti-cancer therapeutic as CAR-modified T cells

neg: Cell theory was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states "Omnis cellula e cellula". This translated to: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit. Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission,

neg: Lateral grey column cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called dendrites and passes signals on through a long extension called an axon (or nerve fiber). Synapses are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called neurotransmitters across a small gap called a synaptic cleft. Synapses occur in various locations, including ganglia (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies. Preganglionic nerve cells in the sympathetic nervous system (all of which come from the lateral grey column), use the neurotransmitter

neg: HAMLET (protein complex) HAMLET (protein complex) HAMLET (Human Alpha-lactalbumin Made LEthal to Tumor cells) is a complex between alpha-lactalbumin and oleic acid that induces cell death in tumor cells, but not in healthy cells. HAMLET is a possible chemotherapeutic agent with the ability to kill cancer cells. Alpha-lactalbumin is the primary protein component of human milk. In a 1995 study, it was discovered by Swedish scientist Anders Håkansson (Anders Hakansson) that multimeric alpha-lactalbumin (MAL), a compound isolated from a fraction of human milk called casein, induced what appeared to be apoptosis in human lung carcinoma cells, pneumococcus bacteria, and other pathogens, while leaving

neg: Ralph M. Steinman to identify and purify dendritic cells from mouse spleen. Because dendritic cells were discovered amongst "adherent" accessory cells (i.e. those that attach to tissue culture surfaces), they had to be distinguished from macrophages, whose hallmarks were persistent phagocytosis and adherence to tissue culture surfaces. However, Steinman found that dendritic cells (blue) had different morphology and expressed different molecules from macrophages. For example, they did not express FcR- receptors but did express major components of the Major Histocompatibility Complex II and did not adhere to surfaces or exploit phagocytosis. Macrophages on the other hand showed the opposite characteristics. The study was

neg: Saccharomyces cerevisiae once every 50,000 cell divisions. Thus, it appears that in nature, mating is likely most often between closely related yeast cells. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type MATa and MATα come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating

neg: MHC restriction "MHC restriction". T-cells are a type of lymphocyte that is significant in the immune system to activate other immune cells. T-cells will recognize foreign peptides through T-cell receptors (TCRs) on the surface of the T cells, and then perform different roles depending on the type of T cell they are in order to defend the host from the foreign peptide, which may have come from pathogens like bacteria, viruses or parasites. Enforcing the restriction that T cells are activated by peptide antigens only when the antigens are bound to self-MHC molecules, MHC restriction adds another dimension to the specificity of

neg: Microbial genetics meiosis to form haploid spores. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating types MATa and MATα come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that, in nature, such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same acus, the sac that contains the cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon cell division, often produce cells of the opposite mating type. An analysis

neg: Germline mutation Germline mutation A germline mutation, or germinal mutation, is any detectable variation within germ cells (cells that, when fully developed, become sperm and ovum). Mutations in these cells are the only mutations that can be passed on to offspring, when either a mutated sperm or oocyte come together to form a zygote. After this fertilization event occurs, germ cells divide rapidly to produce all of the cells in the body, causing this mutation to be present in every somatic and germline cell in the offspring; this is also known as a constitutional mutation. Germline mutation is distinct from somatic mutation.

neg: Biogenesis Biogenesis Biogenesis is the production of new living organisms or organelles. Conceptually, biogenesis is primarily attributed to Louis Pasteur and encompasses the belief that complex living things come only from other living things, by means of reproduction. That is, life does not spontaneously arise from non-living material, which was the position held by spontaneous generation. This is summarized in the phrase "Omne vivum ex vivo", Latin for ""all life [is] from life."" A related statement is "Omnis cellula e cellula", "all cells [are] from cells;" this conclusion is one of the central statements of cell theory. The term biogenesis was

neg: Sertoli cell of this cell in 1865. The cell was discovered by Sertoli with a Belthle microscope purchased in 1862, which he used while studying medicine. In the 1865 publication, his first description used the terms "tree-like cell" or "stringy cell" and most importantly he referred to these as "mother cells". It was other scientists who used Enrico's family name, Sertoli, to label these cell in publications, starting in 1888. As of 2006, two textbooks that are devoted specifically to the Sertoli cell have been published. On slides, using standard staining, Sertoli cells can easily be confused with the other cells of

neg: Shu Chien behind the flow of red blood cells. Chien and his colleagues were able to explore the flow properties of red blood cells through various experiments involved with filtering red blood cells through plastic porous sieves. One key finding was that the flow of red blood cells does not follow Newtonian behavior and this characteristic is fundamental in aiding red blood cells to squeeze through capillaries. Chien and his colleagues further discovered the importance of the malleability of red blood cells to pass through tiny pores smaller than the cells' diameter. In other words, a healthy normal red blood cell is

neg: Biological pacemaker By specific inhibition of Ik1 below a certain level, spontaneous activity of cardiomyocytes was observed with resemblance to the action potential pattern of genuine pacemaker cells. Meanwhile, other genes and cells have been discovered, including heart muscle cells derived from embryonic stem cells, "HCN" genes which encode the wild type pacemaker current I(f). Michael Rosen's group demonstrated that transplantation of HCN2-transfected human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) leads to expression of functional HCN2 channels in vitro and in vivo, mimicking overexpression of HCN2 genes in cardiac myocytes. In 2010, Ruhparwar's group again demonstrated a type of biological pacemaker, this time showing

neg: Leonard Hayflick of times "in vitro" (refuting the contention by Alexis Carrel that normal body cells are immortal). This is known as the Hayflick limit. His discoveries overturned a 60-year old dogma that all cultured cells are immortal. Hayflick demonstrated that normal cells have a memory and can remember at what doubling level they have reached. He demonstrated that his normal human cell strains were free from contaminating viruses. His cell strain WI-38 soon replaced primary monkey kidney cells and became the substrate for the production of most of the world's human virus vaccines. Hayflick discovered that the etiological agent of primary

neg: Marian Diamond brain and compare results with the identical regions in the control base of 11 human, male, preserved brains. From previous analysis of the eleven control brains, the Diamond lab "learned the frontal cortex did have more glial cells/neuron than the parietal cortex." After many years of research, Diamond and her team had data proving that, in the rat brain, glial cells increased with enriched conditions, but did not increase with age. Diamond and her associates discovered that the big difference in all four areas was in nonneuronal cells. Einstein had more glial cells per neuron than the average male brains

neg: Gastrointestinal stromal tumor ones grow, mainly outward, from the bowel wall until the point where they outstrip their blood supply and necrose (die) on the inside, forming a cavity that may eventually come to communicate with the bowel lumen. When GIST is suspected—as opposed to other causes for similar tumors—the pathologist can use immunohistochemistry (specific antibodies that stain the molecule CD117 [also known as "c-kit"] —see below). 95% of all GISTs are CD117-positive (other possible markers include CD34, DOG-1, desmin, and vimentin). Other cells that show CD117 positivity are mast cells. If the CD117 stain is negative and suspicion remains that the tumor

neg: Treatment of cancer contrast with "targeted therapy" (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy. Because some drugs work

neg: Satellite glial cell grooves of the sheath, allowing for possible exchange of materials between the cells. In the sympathetic ganglia, satellite glial cells are one of three main types of cells, the other two being the sympathetic ganglion neurons and small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells. SIF cells of sympathetic ganglia are separated into groups, each of which is surrounded by an SGC sheath. The SGCs of the sympathetic ganglia come from the neural crest and do not proliferate during embryonic development until the neurons are present and mature, indicating that the neurons signal the division and maturation of the SGCs. The SGCs of

neg: White blood cell White blood cell White blood cells (also called leukocytes or leucocytes and abbreviated as WBCs) are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the anucleated red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets. Types of white blood cells can be classified in standard

neg: Georgios Papanikolaou from uterine cancer. Upon examination of a slide made from a smear of the patient's vaginal fluid, Papanicolaou discovered that abnormal cancer cells could be plainly observed under a microscope. "The first observation of cancer cells in the smear of the uterine cervix," he later wrote, "gave me one of the greatest thrills I ever experienced during my scientific career." The Romanian physician Aurel Babeş made similar discoveries in the cytologic diagnosis of cervical cancer. He discovered that if a platinum loop was used to collect cells from a woman's cervix, and the cells were then dried on a slide

neg: Karim Nayernia for Stem Cell Biology from the Newcastle University Institute of Human Genetics. In 2009, he created human sperm-like cells from male stem cells in the laboratory for the first time. Previously, in 2006, he used sperm created from embryonic stem cells to impregnate mice. The mice produced seven pups, although one died and the other six had health problems. In 2010, he discovered a new marker for detection of breast cancer stem cells. This findings define this novel marker and its effector signaling pathways as key factors in the proliferation and survival of breast cancer stem cells. He is working

neg: Spin (House) of his symptoms, erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone produced in the kidney that promotes the formation of red blood cells by the bone marrow. Adding more red blood cells increases the oxygen level in the blood, thus presumably causing all of Jeff's symptoms as he fails to produce red blood cells on his own. This explains him also having anemia, caused by chronic Acquired Pure Red Cell Aplasia (PRCA), probably resulting from blood doping. After responding to prednisone, Jeff begins losing more red blood cells, to the point of requiring a transfusion. House scans Jeff's neck and a thymoma is discovered;

neg: HM Prison Forest Bank The term "local" means that this prison holds people on remand to the local courts as well as sentenced prisoners. Adult inmates at Forest Bank come from the courts at Wigan, Leigh, Bolton and Bury. Young offenders come from courts at Manchester, Oldham, Stockport, Trafford, Tameside, Rochdale and High Peak. The prison is divided into eight wings (A-H), a healthcare unit and a Care and Separation unit. Accommodation at the prison consists mostly of single cells, with some double cells. All the cells are designed to be safer, having almost no ligature points due to modularisation being the method of

neg: Sertoli cell been considered to be terminally differentiated, and is unable to proliferate. Therefore, once spermatogenesis has begun, no more Sertoli cells are created. Recently however, some scientists have found a way to induce Sertoli cells to a juvenile proliferative phenotype outside of the body. This gives rise to the possibility of repairing some defects that cause male infertility. It has been suggested that Sertoli cells may derive from the fetal mesonephros. Sertoli cells are called so because of their eponym Enrico Sertoli, an Italian physiologist who discovered them while studying medicine in the University of Pavia, Italy. He published a description

neg: Peter C. Doherty in Canberra. Doherty's research focuses on the immune system and his Nobel work described how the body's immune cells protect against viruses. He and Rolf Zinkernagel, the co-recipient of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, discovered how T cells recognise their target antigens in combination with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins. Viruses infect host cells and reproduce inside them. Killer T-cells destroy those infected cells so that the viruses cannot reproduce. Zinkernagel and Doherty discovered that, in order for killer T cells to recognise infected cells, they had to recognise two molecules on the surface of the cell

neg: T cell to belong to either the effector or central memory subtypes, each with their own distinguishing set of cell surface markers (see below). Subsequently, numerous new populations of memory T cells were discovered including tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells, stem memory TSCM cells, and virtual memory T cells. The single unifying theme for all memory T cell subtypes is that they are long-lived and can quickly expand to large numbers of effector T cells upon re-exposure to their cognate antigen. By this mechanism they provide the immune system with "memory" against previously encountered pathogens. Memory T cells may be either CD4

neg: Valerie Horsley in epithelial skin tissue and how these cells contribute to wound healing and the development of cancer, using the mouse as a genetic model system. Through collaborations with her ex-husband Matthew Rodheffer, who is also affiliated with Yale University, Horsley has been researching the role of adipocytes, or fat cells, in hair grow. She found that within epithelial tissues, cells tend to confine to distinct micro-environments. These environments regulate cell activity with the use of adhesion between cells and various signaling molecules that were formerly unknown. Horsley and Rodheffer discovered the source of both fat cells and immune cells as

neg: Spinal cord injury research injured spinal cord will replace killed neurons and oligodendrocytes and secrete factors that support growth. However they may fail to differentiate into neurons when transplanted, either remaining undifferentiated or becoming glia. A phase I/II clinical trials implanting NSCs into humans with SCI began in 2011 and ended in June 2015. Mesenchymal stem cells do not need to come from fetuses, so avoid difficulties around ethics; they come from tissues including bone marrow, adipose tissue, the umbilical cord. They are thought to be pluripotent. Unlike other types of stem cells, mesenchymal cells do not present the threat of tumor formation or

neg: Glycocalyx between its own healthy cells and transplanted tissues, diseased cells, or invading organisms. Included in the glycocalyx are cell-adhesion molecules that enable cells to adhere to each other and guide the movement of cells during embryonic development. The glycocalyx plays a major role in regulation of endothelial vascular tissue, including the modulation of red blood cell volume in capillaries. The slime on the outside of a fish is an example of glycocalyx. The term was initially applied to the polysaccharide matrix coating epithelial cells, but its functions have been discovered to go well beyond that. The glycocalyx is located on

neg: George Otto Gey development of the line, the cells were already being used by scientists all over the world. Due to the unusual growth capabilities of the HeLa cell line, it contaminated many cell cultures and ruined years of research, as discovered by Stanley Gartler in 1966. The cells, as it turned out, could float on dust particles and could be transferred on unwashed hands or used pipettes, and therefore end up in other cell cultures. Because the cells were so pervasive, just one could lead to the complete take-over of a culture. There was also the controversy surrounding how the cells were

neg: Aron Moscona of disconnected, individual cells, many of them quite indistinguishable from certain free-living protozoa." The article included photographs showing how mixtures of cells in flasks differentiated themselves by combining with like cells and how that ability faded over a period of weeks, with newer cells better able to recombine into structures closely resembling their embryonic arrangement than were older ones. He found that "Cells dissociated from adult animals usually do not recohere at all". By 1981, techniques Moscona developed were used to grow brain cells in solution, with cells in the growth medium forming connections with other neurons. Other experiments found

neg: CLE peptide they do not possess any defined end status. In that sense, the meristematic cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals, which have an analogous behavior and function. Within plants SAM cells play a major role in the overall growth and development, this is due to the fact that all cells making up the major parts of the plant come from the shoot apical meristem (SAM). There are three different important area found within the SAM and they include the central zone (CZ), the peripheral zone (PZ), and the rib meristem (RM). Each of these areas play an

neg: Induced stem cells as precursors to fat, bone and nervous system cells. The researchers discovered that GCSF-mimicking antibody can activate a growth-stimulating receptor on marrow cells in a way that induces marrow stem cells that normally develop into white blood cells to become neural progenitor cells. The technique enables researchers to search large libraries of antibodies and quickly select the ones with a desired biological effect. The human gastrointestinal tract is colonized by a vast community of symbionts and commensals. The researchers demonstrate the phenomenon of somatic cell reprograming by bacteria and generation of multipotential cells from adult human dermal fibroblast cells by

neg: Absorption (skin) vivo animal testing. Techniques such as static diffusion cells (Franz cells) and flow-through diffusion cells (Bronaugh cells) have also been used. The Franz Cell apparatus consists of two chambers separated by a membrane of animal or human skin. Human skin is preferred but due to ethical and other considerations is not always available. Human skin often may come from autopsies or plastic surgeries. The test product is applied to the membrane via the top chamber. The bottom chamber contains fluid from which samples are taken at regular intervals for analysis to determine the amount of active that has permeated the

neg: African tick bite fever invades endothelial cells in the circulatory system (veins, arteries, capillaries). The body then releases chemicals that cause inflammation, resulting in the characteristic symptoms like headache and fever. The hallmark of all rickettsial diseases is a histology (cellular) finding called lymphohistiocytic vasculitis that involves immune cell deposition into the endothelial cells that make up vessels. This occurs secondary to the chemicals mentioned above, as well as damage from the infection, and involves signals to immune cells (T cells and macrophages) to come to the site of the infection. Rickettsia bacteria species like "R. africae" replicate around the area of the initial

neg: Memory T cell time the immune system responded to the pathogen that entered the body. This behaviour is utilized in T lymphocyte proliferation assays, which can reveal exposure to specific antigens. Historically, memory T cells were thought to belong to either the effector or central memory subtypes, each with their own distinguishing set of cell surface markers (see below). Subsequently, numerous additional populations of memory T cells were discovered including tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells, stem memory TSCM cells, and virtual memory T cells. The single unifying theme for all memory T cell subtypes is that they are long-lived and can quickly expand

neg: Solar energy block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells. In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels. Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established. Solar technologies are

neg: Heterothallism that each yeast cell is of a certain mating type and can only mate with a cell of the other mating type. During vegetative growth that ordinarily occurs when nutrients are abundant, "S. cerevisiae" reproduces by mitosis as either haploid or diploid cells. However, when starved, diploid cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type, MATa and MATα, come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in

neg: Dermatitis herpetiformis and other gene variants that cause atopy. tTG is up-regulated after gluten absorption. cDCs endocytose tTG-modified gliadin complexes or modified gliadin alone but they only present gliadin to CD4+ T cells on pMHC-II complexes. These T cells become activated and polarised into type I helper T (Th1) cells. Th1 cells reactive towards gliadin have been discovered, but none against tTG. A naive B cell sequesters tTG-modified gliadin complexes from the surface of cDCs in the lymph nodes (LNs) before they become endocytosed by the cDCs. The B cell receptor (membrane bound antibody; BCR) is specific to the tTG portion of

neg: Snub 24-cell honeycomb Regular and uniform honeycombs in 4-space: Snub 24-cell honeycomb In four-dimensional Euclidean geometry, the snub 24-cell honeycomb, or snub icositetrachoric honeycomb is a uniform space-filling tessellation (or honeycomb) by snub 24-cells, 16-cells, and 5-cells. It was discovered by Thorold Gosset with his 1900 paper of semiregular polytopes. It is not semiregular by Gosset's definition of regular facets, but all of its cells (ridges) are regular, either tetrahedra or icosahedra. It can be seen as an alternation of a truncated 24-cell honeycomb, and can be represented by Schläfli symbol s{3,4,3,3}, s{3}, and 3 other snub constructions. It is defined by an

neg: Snub 24-cell honeycomb Snub 24-cell honeycomb In four-dimensional Euclidean geometry, the snub 24-cell honeycomb, or snub icositetrachoric honeycomb is a uniform space-filling tessellation (or honeycomb) by snub 24-cells, 16-cells, and 5-cells. It was discovered by Thorold Gosset with his 1900 paper of semiregular polytopes. It is not semiregular by Gosset's definition of regular facets, but all of its cells (ridges) are regular, either tetrahedra or icosahedra. It can be seen as an alternation of a truncated 24-cell honeycomb, and can be represented by Schläfli symbol s{3,4,3,3}, s{3}, and 3 other snub constructions. It is defined by an irregular decachoron vertex figure (10-celled 4-polytope),

neg: Amacrine cell motion. Acetylcholine is also released from these amacrine cells, but its function is not completely understood. Another subtype of GABAergic amacrine cells are those that are dopaminergic. These are all TH expressing and these amacrine cells modulate light adaption and circadian rhythm. These are widely spreading amacrine cells, and they diffusely release dopamine, while still releasing GABA and carrying out all normal synaptic release. Many other divisions of GABAergic amacrine cells have been noted, but those listed above are some of the most extensively researched and discussed. Glycinergic amacrine cells aren't as extensively characterized as GABAergic amacrine cells. All glycinergic

neg: Neuropeptide Y Additionally, NPY was found in neuronal fibers that pass through the sub-ventricular zone and extend to other brain areas. A variety of other effects and physiological processes involving NPY in the sub-ventricular zone have been discovered, many of which involve neuron migration patterns. It was found that after blocking NPY expression in mouse olfactory epithelium, the amount of olfactory precursor cells decreased by half. This in turn caused the mice to develop a lower amount of olfactory cells overall. This study exemplified NPY's influence on precursor cells. Following the isolation of neuropeptide-y (NPY) from the porcine hypothalamus in 1982, researchers

neg: Immunocytochemistry differs from immunohistochemistry in that the former is performed on samples of intact cells that have had most, if not all, of their surrounding extracellular matrix removed. This includes individual cells that have been isolated from a block of solid tissue, cells grown within a culture, cells deposited from suspension, or cells taken from a smear. In contrast, immunohistochemical samples are sections of biological tissue, where each cell is surrounded by tissue architecture and other cells normally found in the intact tissue. Immunocytochemistry is a technique used to assess the presence of a specific protein or antigen in cells (cultured

neg: Michael Abercrombie until 1943, then returned to Birmingham. In 1947 he and his wife moved to the anatomy and zoology departments at University College London. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1958. He finally became director of the Strangeways Research Laboratory at Cambridge from 1970 until his death. Here Abercrombie studied cell population growth and behaviour. He notably discovered that animal cells moving through tissue culture will halt when they come into contact with another cell of the same type, with the important exception of cancer cells. This discovery led to new interest and research into the dynamics

neg: Boundary cell Boundary cell Boundary cells (also known as border cells or boundary vector cells) are neurons found in the hippocampal formation that respond to the presence of an environmental boundary at a particular distance and direction from an animal. The existence of cells with these firing characteristics were first predicted on the basis of properties of place cells. Boundary cells were subsequently discovered in several regions of the hippocampal formation: the subiculum, presubiculum and entorhinal cortex. O'Keefe and Burgess had noted that the firing fields of place cells, which characteristically respond only in a circumscribed area of an animal's environment, tended

neg: Klas Kärre Klas Kärre Klas Kärre (born January 12, 1954 in Strasbourg, France) is a Swedish immunologist. Kärre received his doctorate in 1981 at Karolinska Institutet and is a professor of molecular immunology at Karolinska Institutet since 1993. In the mid-1980s Kärre discovered one of the mechanisms for how cells of the immune system, natural killer cells (NK cells), identify their target cells and kill them. The findings were that the NK cells are inhibited by a transplantation antigen, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, which prevents NK cells from killing their target cells. When MHC class I is removed from

neg: Stem cell radiation before the transplant to remove the person's previous cells, or because the patient's immune system may target the stem cells. One approach to avoid the second possibility is to use stem cells from the same patient who is being treated. Pluripotency in certain stem cells could also make it difficult to obtain a specific cell type. It is also difficult to obtain the exact cell type needed, because not all cells in a population differentiate uniformly. Undifferentiated cells can create tissues other than desired types. Some stem cells form tumors after transplantation; pluripotency is linked to tumor formation especially

neg: Human body connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle tissue. Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia) or internal cavities (endothelium) come in numerous shapes and forms – from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces. Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function, sit within the body. Examples

neg: Nerve guidance conduit of a well-defined definition of stem cells beyond hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Each stem cell 'type' has more than one method for identifying, isolating, and expanding the cells; this has caused much confusion because all stem cells of a 'type' (neural, mesenchymal, retinal) do not necessarily behave in the same manner under identical conditions. Adult stem cells are not able to proliferate and differentiate as effectively "in vitro" as they are able to "in vivo". Adult stem cells can come from many different tissue locations, but it is difficult to isolate them because they are defined by behavior and not

neg: GenSpera the body are found, the prodrug releases its active ingredient and destroys all of the targeted cells. The National Cancer Institute had previously demonstrated that thaspigargin was ten-to-a-hundredfold more potent than traditional chemotherapeutic agents in killing all types of cells. Thapsigargin kills cells irrespective of the rate of cell division, which may provide an effective approach to kill both fast- and slow-growing cancers as well as cancer stem cells. In 1992, Professor John T. Isaacs of The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland, was investigating ways to approach the treatment of slow-growing tumors and discovered they could be

neg: Stem cell Stem cell Stem cells are biological cells that can differentiate into other types of cells and can divide to produce more of the same type of stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms. In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells—ectoderm, endoderm

neg: Hsp90 other means, all of which caused the cell’s proteins to begin to denature. However it was later discovered that Hsp90 also has essential functions in unstressed cells. Hsp90 is highly conserved and expressed in a variety of different organisms from bacteria to mammals – including the prokaryotic analogue HtpG (high-temperature protein G) with 40% sequence identity and 55% similarity to the human protein. Yeast Hsp90 is 60% identical to human Hsp90α. In mammalian cells, there are two or more genes encoding cytosolic Hsp90 homologues, with the human Hsp90α showing 85% sequence identity to Hsp90β. The α- and the β-forms are

neg: Ovarian cancer karyotype and ovaries (Turner syndrome) who develop a unilateral dysgerminoma are at risk for a gonadoblastoma in the other ovary, and in this case, both ovaries are usually removed when a unilateral dysgerminoma is discovered to avoid the risk of another malignant tumor. Gonadoblastomas in people with Swyer or Turner syndrome become malignant in approximately 40% of cases. However, in general, dysgerminomas are bilateral 10–20% of the time. They are composed of cells that cannot differentiate further and develop directly from germ cells or from gonadoblastomas. Dysgerminomas contain syncytiotrophoblasts in approximately 5% of cases, and can therefore cause elevated hCG

neg: Regulatory T cell activated effector T cells, a certain region within the Foxp3 gene (TSDR, Treg-specific-demethylated region) is found demethylated, which allows to monitor Treg cells through a PCR reaction or other DNA-based analysis methods. Interplay between the Th17 cells and regulatory T cells are important in many diseases like respiratory diseases. Recent evidence suggests that mast cells may be important mediators of Treg-dependent peripheral tolerance. Regulatory T cell epitopes ('Tregitopes') were discovered in 2008 and consist of linear sequences of amino acids contained within monoclonal antibodies and immunoglobulin G (IgG). Since their discovery, evidence has indicated Tregitopes may be crucial to the

neg: OPN1LW LWS cone cells into horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and finally ganglion cells before continuing to the brain via the optic nerve. Ganglion cells compile the signal from the LWS cones with all other cone signals that occurred in response to the light that was seen, and pass the overall signal into the optic nerve. The cones themselves do not process colour, it is the brain that decides what colour is being seen by the signal combination it receives from the ganglion cells. Before humans evolved to be a trichromatic species, our vision was dichromatic and consisted of only

neg: Hematopoietic stem cell in the circulation. In vertebrates, the vast majority of hematopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow and is derived from a limited number of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that are multipotent and capable of extensive self-renewal. HSCs give rise to both the myeloid and lymphoid lineages of blood cells. Myeloid and lymphoid lineages both are involved in dendritic cell formation. Myeloid cells include monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, erythrocytes, and megakaryocytes to platelets. Lymphoid cells include T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. The definition of hematopoietic stem cells has evolved since HSCs were first discovered in 1961. The hematopoietic

neg: Alan Trounson Medal from the Obstetrical and Gynaecological Society, Singapore. In 2000, he again made international headlines when he led the team which discovered that nerve stem cells could be derived from embryonic stem cells. This announcement led to a dramatic increase in interest in the potential of stem cells to cure a range of currently incurable diseases. In 2002, Tounson apologised for misleading members of the Australian Parliament by attributing the recovery of a crippled rat to embryonic stem cells, when in fact the cells were germ cells from a fetal rat. In 2003 he was appointed a Personal Chair as

neg: Amacrine cell access to a full set of processing elements. MEGF10 and MEGF11 transmembrane proteins have critical roles in the formation of the mosaics by starburst amacrine cells and horizontal cells in mice. In many cases, the subtype of the amacrine cell speaks to its function (form leads to function), but some specific functions of the retinal amacrine cells can be outlined. There is still much to be discovered about all of the different functions of all of the different amacrine cells. Amacrine cells with extensive dendritic trees are thought to contribute to inhibitory surrounds by feedback at both the bipolar cell

neg: Adaptive immune system autoimmune disorders. The relevance of CD4+ T helper cells is highlighted during an HIV infection. HIV is able to subvert the immune system by specifically attacking the CD4+ T cells, precisely the cells that could drive the clearance of the virus, but also the cells that drive immunity against all other pathogens encountered during an organism's lifetime. Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells) possess an alternative T cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ αβ T cells and share characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets

neg: Lymphopoiesis become yet more mature. And T Cells come in many flavors, for example: the conventional TcRαβ T cells; the so-called unconventional TcRγδ T cells; NKT cells; and T regulatory cells (Treg). Details regarding the developmental and life cycle of the unconventional T cells are less well-described compared to the conventional T cells. Stages of T cell maturation Stage One: Thymic Migration Multipotent lymphoid progenitors (MLP) enter the T cell pathway as they immigrate to the thymus. The most primitive cells in the thymus are the early thymocyte progenitors (ETP), which retain all lymphoid and myeloid potential but exist only transiently,

neg: Limb bud to proliferate to the point where they create a bulge under the ectodermal cells above. The mesoderm cells in the limb bud that come from the lateral plate mesoderm will eventually differentiate into the developing limb’s connective tissues, such as cartilage, bone, and tendon. Moreover, the mesoderm cells that come from the somites will eventually differentiate into the myogenic cells of the limb muscles. The limb bud remains active throughout much of limb development as it stimulates the creation and positive feedback retention of two signaling regions: the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) and the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) with

neg: Foreign-body giant cell cells can detect and eliminate bacteria caught within the body, by sensing the unique sugar coating that are on the invading prokaryotes. These macrophage cells are one of a few phagocytic cells, but not the first to come to an injury site, and tend to linger from anytime between days to weeks. There has been some research done on other variations of giant cells with different functions. Foreign-body giant cell A foreign-body giant cell is a collection of fused macrophages (giant cell) which are generated in response to the presence of a large foreign body. This is particularly evident with

neg: Glucokinase cells, the beta cells of the pancreatic islets are the most-studied and best-understood. It is likely that many of the regulatory relationships discovered in the beta cells will also exist in the other neuroendocrine tissues with glucokinase. In islet beta cells, glucokinase activity serves as a principal control for the secretion of insulin in response to rising levels of blood glucose. As G6P is consumed, increasing amounts of ATP initiate a series of processes that result in release of insulin. One of the immediate consequences of increased cellular respiration is a rise in the NADH and NADPH concentrations (collectively referred

neg: Discodermia calyx that contain the molecule known as calyculin A. This well-studied toxin was discovered originally in "D. calyx." When it was first studied it was discovered to be a phosphatase inhibitor, it stops an enzyme that dephosphorylates proteins within the cell. Calyculin A was studied in an experiment that used breast cancer cells. The toxin extracted from this primitive species enhanced the phosphorylation of cyclin D1. This caused the degradation of cyclin D1, which leads to arrest in cell cycle progression in the breast cancer cells. This, among other studies established calyculin as a phosphatase inhibitor. This toxin, and therefore this

neg: Orthoreovirus understanding in the pathophysiology of those strains, though it can be assumed they act in similar ways. One of the most relevant uses for the mammalian orthoreoviruses are the manipulation of their oncolytic properties for their use in cancer treatments. This particular use of reoviruses was discovered in 1995 by Dr Patrick Lee who discovered these viruses could kill those cells that contained an over-activated Ras pathway, often a hallmark of cancerous cells. These viruses are particularly ideal for these sort of therapies because they are self-limiting while simultaneously harnessing the ability to induce apoptosis in tumor cells exclusively. One

neg: Opsonin coated in opsonins, binding to immune cells is greatly enhanced. Opsonization also mediates phagocytosis via signal cascades from cell surface receptors. Opsonins aid the immune system in a number of ways. In a healthy individual, they mark dead and dying self cells for clearance by macrophages and neutrophils, activate complement proteins, and target cells for destruction through the action of natural killer (NK) cells. All cell membranes have negative charges (Zeta potential) which makes it difficult for two cells to come close together. When opsonins bind to their targets they boost the kinetics of phagocytosis by favoring interaction between the

neg: Gail R. Martin mechanisms that control the growth of fibroblasts in vitro. She completed her Ph.D. thesis in 1971. It was during that time that she married Steven Martin, a British scientist who had come to Berkeley to do postdoctoral work in the Rubin laboratory. After completing her graduate studies, Martin and her husband moved to London. In 1973, she worked with Martin J. Evans at University College London. Evans was then working with teratocarcinomas (a type of tumor), which are of interest because they contain pluripotent stem cells (known as embryonal carcinoma, [EC] cells) from which all the differentiated cell types in

neg: Hh blood group Hh blood group The h/h blood group, also known as Oh or the Bombay blood group, is a rare blood type. This blood phenotype was first discovered in Bombay, now known as Mumbai, in India, by Dr. Y. M. Bhende in 1952. It is mostly found in India, Pakistan, and Iran. The first person found to have the Bombay phenotype had an interesting blood type that reacted to other blood types in a way never seen before. The serum contained antibodies that reacted with all red blood cells' normal ABO phenotypes. The red blood cells appeared to lack all of

neg: Cell division cell is then referred to as senescent. Cells stop dividing because the telomeres, protective bits of DNA on the end of a chromosome required for replication, shorten with each copy, eventually being consumed. Cancer cells, on the other hand, are not thought to degrade in this way, if at all. An enzyme called telomerase, present in large quantities in cancerous cells, rebuilds the telomeres, allowing division to continue indefinitely. A cell division under microscope was first discovered by German botanist Hugo von Mohl in 1835 as he worked over Green algae "Cladophora glomerata". In 1943, cell division was filmed for