query: in exfoliative cytology the cells for examination are obtained by

pos: Cytopathology cytology, and intervention cytology. In this method, cells are collected after they have been either spontaneously shed by the body ("spontaneous exfoliation"), or manually scraped/brushed off of a surface in the body ("mechanical exfoliation"). An example of spontaneous exfoliation is when cells of the pleural cavity or peritoneal cavity are shed into the pleural or peritoneal fluid. This fluid can be collected via various methods for examination. Examples of mechanical exfoliation include Pap smears, where cells are scraped from the cervix with a cervical spatula, or bronchial brushings, where a bronchoscope is inserted into the trachea and used to evaluate

neg: Cytopathology cytopathology is the Pap smear, a screening tool used to detect precancerous cervical lesions which may lead to cervical cancer. Cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Different types of smear tests may also be used for cancer diagnosis. In this sense, it is termed a "cytologic smear". Cytopathology is frequently, less precisely, called cytology, which means "the study of cells". There are two methods of collecting cells for cytopathologic analysis: exfoliative

neg: Oral and maxillofacial pathology is administered to eliminate any pain. 3. Exfoliative cytology: A suspected area is gently scraped to collect a sample of cells for examination. These cells are placed on a glass slide and stained with dye, so that they can easily viewed under r a microscope. If any cells appear abnormal, a deeper biopsy will be performed. A great many diseases involve the mouth, jaws and orofacial skin. Some example pathologies which can involve the oral and maxillofacial region are listed. Some are more common than others, and this list is by no means complete. The examples are considered according to

neg: Leukoplakia preferentially biopsied are the areas that show induration (hardening) and erythroplasia (redness), and erosive or ulcerated areas. These areas are more likely to show any dysplasia than homogenous white areas. Brush biopsy/exfoliative cytology is an alternative to incisional biopsy, where a stiff brush is scraped against the lining of the mouth to remove a sample of cells. This is then made into a smear which can be examined microscopically. Sometimes the biopsy site can be selected with adjunct methods which aim to highlight areas of dysplasia. Toluidine blue staining, where the dye is preferentially retained by dysplastic tissue, is sometimes

neg: Leukoedema the clinical appearance alone, but oral exfoliative cytology has been used as a diagnostic aid. Leukoedema is a harmless condition, and no treatment is indicated. People may be alarmed by the appearance and benefit from reassurance. Leukoedema is common. It occurs in about 70-90% of black skinned adults and about 50% of black skinned children. The prevalence in white skinned people is considerably less, but reports range from less than 10% to more than 90%, probably varying depending upon the population studied, and the methods used in the study, e.g. examination conditions and the diagnostic criteria. The ethnic variation may

neg: Cytopathology assist clinicians by assisting with sample collection. A "quick read" is a peek under the microscope and can tell the clinician whether enough diagnostic material was obtained. Cytological specimens must be properly prepared so that the cells are not damaged. Further information about the specimen may be gained by immunohistochemical stains and molecular testing, particularly if the sample is prepared using liquid based cytology. Often "reflex" testing is performed, such as HPV testing on an abnormal pap test or flow cytometry on a lymphoma specimen. Cytopathologic techniques are used in the examination of virtually all body organs and tissues: Cytopathology

neg: Liver cytology Liver cytology Liver cytology is the branch of cytology that studies the liver cells and its functions. The liver is a vital organ, in charge of almost all the body’s metabolism. Main liver cells are hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and hepatic stellate cells; each one with a specific function. Cytology is the name given to the branch of biology that deals with the formation, structure and functionality of the cells. Liver cytology specializes in the study of liver cells. The main liver cells are called hepatocytes; however, there are other cells that can be observed in a liver sample such as

neg: Liver cytology has the ability to regenerate itself after surgery or damage. Since cytology deals with tissues, which are composed of cells, samples of tissues must be obtained in order to analyze the cells. There are several ways of obtaining a sample, the first is through dissecting a corpse, with a sample of tissue taken during an autopsy. The second is performing an aspirate (bone marrow, cerebrospinal fluid, etc.). To perform an aspirate in liquid tissues, a needle is inserted inside the body and a sample is extracted. Another common method is surgery, with a piece being removed during the procedure for

neg: Cervical screening The cells are then checked for any abnormalities. To take the sample of cells, the health care clinician inserts an instrument, called a speculum, inside the vagina. The speculum has two arms that spread the walls of the vagina apart in order to see the cervix. Then, they scrape the surface of the cervix with a spatula or small brush. This collects a sample of cells from the outer layer of the cervix. With a Pap smear, cells collected using a spatula are smeared onto a slide for examination under a microscope. In liquid-based cytology, a sample of cells is

neg: Liquid-based cytology Liquid-based cytology Liquid-based cytology is a method of preparing samples for examination in cytopathology. The sample is collected, normally by a small brush, in the same way as for a conventional smear test, but rather than the smear being transferred directly to a microscope slide, the sample is deposited into a small bottle of preservative liquid. At the laboratory the liquid is treated to remove other elements such as mucus before a layer of cells is placed on a slide. The technique allows more accurate results. The UK screening programmes changed their cervical screening method from the Pap test to

neg: Liver cytology is thought that these drops store a fraction of the body’s vitamin A supply. Hepatic stellate cells rest over the Remak trabecules, and they emit extensions to the sinusoids. Liver cytology Liver cytology is the branch of cytology that studies the liver cells and its functions. The liver is a vital organ, in charge of almost all the body’s metabolism. Main liver cells are hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and hepatic stellate cells; each one with a specific function. Cytology is the name given to the branch of biology that deals with the formation, structure and functionality of the cells. Liver cytology

neg: Urine cytology identify high-grade tumors. Urine cytology Urine typically contains epithelial cells shed from the urinary tract. Urine cytology evaluates this urinary sediment for the presence of cancerous cells from the lining of the urinary tract, and it is a convenient noninvasive technique for follow-up analysis of patients treated for urinary tract cancers. For this process, urine must be collected in a reliable fashion, and if urine samples are inadequate, the urinary tract can be assessed via instrumentation. In urine cytology, collected urine is examined microscopically. One limitation, however, is the inability to definitively identify low-grade cancer cells and urine cytology is

neg: Urine cytology Urine cytology Urine typically contains epithelial cells shed from the urinary tract. Urine cytology evaluates this urinary sediment for the presence of cancerous cells from the lining of the urinary tract, and it is a convenient noninvasive technique for follow-up analysis of patients treated for urinary tract cancers. For this process, urine must be collected in a reliable fashion, and if urine samples are inadequate, the urinary tract can be assessed via instrumentation. In urine cytology, collected urine is examined microscopically. One limitation, however, is the inability to definitively identify low-grade cancer cells and urine cytology is used mostly to

neg: Albert Levan Albert Levan Albert Levan (8 March 1905 – 28 March 1998) was a Swedish botanist and geneticist. Albert Levan is best known today for co-authoring the report in 1956 that humans had forty-six chromosomes (instead of forty-eight, as previously believed). This epochal discovery was made by Joe Hin Tjio in Levan's laboratory. Originally specialising in plant cytology, Levan later turned to the similarities in the chromosome structure of cancer cells and errors introduced to plant cells via chemical or radioactive elements. These studies later led to examination of chromosomes in animal cells. Levan was elected a member of the Royal

neg: Liver cytology later analysis. Finally, another common method is biopsy. In a biopsy, a needle is inserted into the skin and a solid sample of tissue is obtained. After the sample is obtained, it has to be processed by different methods depending on the nature of the sample. Liquid samples, such as blood, are extracted and dried out, while solid samples must be dehydrated using a different combination of alcoholic compounds. The tissue must also be stained, usually with haematoxylin and eosin, a pair of colorants that identify the acidic-basic nature of the cells. After this treatment the samples are analyzed under

neg: Gustavo Isaza Mejía Gustavo Isaza Mejía Gustavo Isaza Mejía (born in Salamina, Caldas, and died 13 January 2007) was a Colombian physician, surgeon and professor at the University of Antioquia. In 1940, Isaza Mejía examined the use of pituitrine in obstetrics in his work "Algunas consideraciones sobre el uso de la pituitrina en obstetricia" (published by Antioquia, 1940) and founded the cytologic laboratory of the University Hospital of San Vicente de Paúl in Medellín, and introduced the exfoliative cytology in Colombia in 1949. Mejía wrote, among other things, an orientation and guidance for women and mothers: "Maternidad y menstruación sin dolor: la educación

neg: Sixten Franzén Sixten Franzén A. Sixten Franzén (26 November 1919 – 15 March 2008) was a Swedish scientist, and a leading cancer researcher of the 1950s and 1960s. He pioneered fine-needle aspiration cytology, in which suspected cancer cells are removed through a very fine needle for examination under a microscope. Sixten Franzén was born in in Östergötland County. After passing his "studentexamen" in Gävle, he studied medicine at Uppsala University and did practical work at the Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm, where he continued to work for most of his career. He became a Bachelor of medical sciences in 1943, an MD

neg: Pathology diagnosis of cancer, but also helps in the diagnosis of certain infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions as well as thyroid lesions, diseases involving sterile body cavities (peritoneal, pleural, and cerebrospinal), and a wide range of other body sites. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments (in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues) and cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of

neg: Liquid-based cytology that prevents dehydration and collapse of 3-dimensional structures when slides are air-dried, and then spun onto adhesive-coated slides. Advantages include batch processing and reusability of its funnel assembly, which decreases the bulk of disposable plastic that can significantly impact the environment as well as add to the cost of individual tests. Liquid-based cytology Liquid-based cytology is a method of preparing samples for examination in cytopathology. The sample is collected, normally by a small brush, in the same way as for a conventional smear test, but rather than the smear being transferred directly to a microscope slide, the sample is deposited

neg: Gustavo Isaza Mejía de los hijos" (publisher Bedout, 1960). He was an editor of the "Revista Latino Americana de Hipnosis Clínica". Gustavo Isaza Mejía Gustavo Isaza Mejía (born in Salamina, Caldas, and died 13 January 2007) was a Colombian physician, surgeon and professor at the University of Antioquia. In 1940, Isaza Mejía examined the use of pituitrine in obstetrics in his work "Algunas consideraciones sobre el uso de la pituitrina en obstetricia" (published by Antioquia, 1940) and founded the cytologic laboratory of the University Hospital of San Vicente de Paúl in Medellín, and introduced the exfoliative cytology in Colombia in 1949. Mejía wrote,

neg: Georgios Papanikolaou met with skepticism and resistance from the medical community. Papanicolaou's next communication on the subject did not appear until 1941 when, with gynecologist Herbert Traut, he published a paper on the diagnostic value of vaginal smears in carcinoma of the uterus. This was followed 2 years later by an illustrated monograph based on a study of over 3,000 cases. In 1954 he published another memorable work, the "Atlas of Exfoliative Cytology", thus creating the foundation of the modern medical specialty of cytopathology. Georgios Papanikolaou Georgios Nikolaou Papanikolaou (or George Papanicolaou ; ; 13 May 1883 – 19 February 1962) was

neg: Ayre's spatula cervical sample collection in less-income countries. Ayre spatula is introduced into the cervix after visualizing the os using a speculum. The cytology specimens are obtained by rotating the spatula firmly over the ectocervix and quickly transferring the cells to a slide or jar. Ayre's spatula Ayre spatula is a device used to collect Pap smear. It is a wooden spatula with U shaped openings on one side and a flat surface on another. The broad end is for vaginal sample collection and the narrow end is for cervical sample collection. It is rotated 360 degrees in the vagina to obtain

neg: Cytopathology a visible lesion by brushing cells from its surface and subjecting them to cytopathologic analysis. Liquid-based cytology collects the samples in the same way but places them in liquid that is then treated to allow for improved results. In interventional cytology the pathologist intervenes into the body for sample collection. Fine-needle aspiration, or fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC), involves use of a needle attached to a syringe is to collect cells from lesions or masses in various body organs by microcoring, often with the application of negative pressure (suction) to increase yield. FNAC can be performed under palpation guidance (i.e., the

neg: Mesothelioma by thoracentesis or tube thoracostomy (chest tube); for ascites, with paracentesis or ascitic drain; and for pericardial effusion with pericardiocentesis. While absence of malignant cells on cytology does not completely exclude mesothelioma, it makes it much more unlikely, especially if an alternative diagnosis can be made (e.g., tuberculosis, heart failure). However, with primary pericardial mesothelioma, pericardial fluid may not contain malignant cells and a tissue biopsy is more useful in diagnosis. Using conventional cytology diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma is difficult, but immunohistochemistry has greatly enhanced the accuracy of cytology. Generally, a biopsy is needed to confirm a diagnosis of malignant

neg: FIP1L1 two types of diseases. Bone marrow examination may reveal increases in eosinophils and mast cells but usually does not contain elevated numbers of precursor cells or cells with microscopically visible chromosome abnormalities. This examination may be useful in excluding other malignant diseases associated with eosinophilia such as acute myeloid leukemia but does not give definitive results indicating "FIP1L1-PDGFRA"-induced disease. Rather, definitive results are obtained by detecting the presence of the "FIP1L1-PDGFRA" fusion gene in the blood and/or bone marrow cells of sufferers by cytogenic analysis using Fluorescence in situ hybridization or nested Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction testing. Non-eosinophilic forms

neg: Liquid-based cytology liquid-based cytology in 2008. For many years, efforts have been made to develop methods that would enhance the sensitivity and specificity of the Papanicolaou smear (also called "Pap smear"). Emphasis has been placed on creating automated screening machines whose success depends on a representative sampling of cells on standardized slides containing a monolayer of well-stained, well-preserved cells. From this research and development, liquid-based gynecologic specimen collection has evolved. Its proponents argue that liquid-based preparations outperform conventional smears because of improved fixation, decreased obscuring factors, and standardization of cell transfer. Proponents point out that, in direct smears, the cells are not

neg: Cervical screening Cervical screening Cervical screening is the process of detecting and removing abnormal tissue or cells in the cervix before cervical cancer develops. By aiming to detect and treat cervical neoplasia early on, cervical screening aims at secondary prevention of cervical cancer. Several screening methods for cervical cancer are the Pap test (also known as Pap smear or conventional cytology), liquid-based cytology, the HPV DNA testing and the visual inspection with acetic acid. Pap test and liquid-based cytology have been effective in diminishing incidence and mortality rates of cervical cancer in developed countries but not in developing countries. Prospective screening methods

neg: Bone marrow examination Bone marrow examination Bone marrow examination refers to the pathologic analysis of samples of bone marrow obtained by bone marrow biopsy (often called a trephine biopsy) and bone marrow aspiration. Bone marrow examination is used in the diagnosis of a number of conditions, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, lymphoma, anemia, and pancytopenia. The bone marrow produces the cellular elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. While much information can be gleaned by testing the blood itself (drawn from a vein by phlebotomy), it is sometimes necessary to examine the source of the blood cells in

neg: Solitary pulmonary nodule avoided because there is an increased risk of falsely normal results. Cancerous lesions usually have a high metabolism on PET, as demonstrated by their high uptake of FDG (a radioactive sugar). If the lesion is found on further imaging to be suspicious, it should be surgically excised (via thoracotomy or video-assisted thoracic surgery) to confirm the diagnosis by microscopical examination. In selected cases, nodules can also be sampled through the airways using bronchoscopy or through the chest wall using needle aspiration (which can be done under CT guidance). Needle aspiration can only retrieve groups of cells for cytology and not

neg: Histiocytoma (dog) 1 T helper cell cytokines (such as Interferon-gamma) and recruitment of antitumour effector cells. Most commonly histiocytomas are found in young dogs and appear as a small, solitary, hairless lump, although Shar Peis may be predisposed to multiple histiocytomas. They are most commonly found on the head, neck, ears, and limbs, and are usually less than 2.5 cm in diameter. Ulceration of the mass is common. Diagnosis is made through cytology of the mass. Cytology reveals cells with clear to lightly basophilic cytoplasm and round or indented nuclei with fine chromatin and indistinct nucleoli. Most histiocytomas will regress within two

neg: Polyomaviridae used on a biopsy of the tissue or cerebrospinal fluid to amplify the polyomavirus DNA. This allows not only the detection of polyomavirus but also which sub type it is. There are three main diagnostic techniques used for the diagnosis of the reactivation of polyomavirus in polyomavirus nephropathy (PVN): urine cytology, quantification of the viral load in both urine and blood, and a renal biopsy. The reactivation of polyomavirus in the kidneys and urinary tract causes the shedding of infected cells, virions, and/or viral proteins in the urine. This allows urine cytology to examine these cells, which if there is

neg: Breast cancer lump for microscopic analysis (a procedure known as fine needle aspiration, or fine needle aspiration and cytology—FNAC) to help establish the diagnosis. A needle aspiration can be performed in a healthcare provider's office or clinic. A local anaesthetic may be used to numb the breast tissue to prevent pain during the procedure, but may not be necessary if the lump isn't beneath the skin. A finding of clear fluid makes the lump highly unlikely to be cancerous, but bloody fluid may be sent off for inspection under a microscope for cancerous cells. Together, physical examination of the breasts, mammography, and

neg: Colin Laverty had the qualifications MB,BS; BSc(Med); DCP(Syd); FRCPA; Dip.Cytopath (FRCPA). He graduated BSc(Med) with honours in 1959, Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery in 1962 and Diploma in Clinical Pathology in 1969 and subsequently obtained by examination Fellowship of the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia and a Diploma in Cytology from the same college. While at Sydney University he was awarded a Blue for Rowing. Dr Laverty graduated in medicine from Sydney University and then trained in pathology at Royal Prince Alfred and King George V Hospitals in Sydney, as well at St Mary’s Hospital, Manchester, in the United Kingdom. He

neg: Liver cytology of the liver, with the other 20% being occupied by Kupffer cells, hepatic stellate cells, endothelial cells and mesothelial cells, which are not exactly characteristic of the liver, but are present in the liver samples. Histologically speaking, hepatocytes have specific characteristics. Their nuclei are large and spheroidal, occupying the center of the cell. There is at least one nucleolus in each nucleus. In the adult liver, most of the cells are binucleated, and most of the hepatocytes are tetraploid, which means that they have four times the amount of normal DNA. Their average lifespan is from approximately five months, and

neg: Erythroderma of medications used to treat exfoliative dermatitis (ED). A sedative antihistamine may be a useful adjunct for pruritic patients, since it helps patients to sleep at night, thus limiting nocturnal scratching and excoriations. Antimicrobial agents often are used if an infection is suspected to be precipitating or complicating exfoliative dermatitis. Other drugs specifically indicated for management of underlying cause of exfoliative dermatitis may be necessary. The classification of exfoliative dermatitis into Wilson-Brocq (chronic relapsing), Hebra or pityriasis rubra (progressive), and Savill (self-limited) types may have had historical value, but it currently lacks pathophysiologic or clinical utility. Erythroderma Erythroderma (also known

neg: Cytopathology cells, and often show a bright-red nucleolus. While the cytologist's primary responsibility is to discern whether cancerous or precancerous pathology is present in the cellular sample analysed, other pathologies may be seen such as: Various normal functions of cell growth, metabolism, and division can fail or work in abnormal ways and lead to diseases. Cytopathology is best used as one of three tools, the second and third being the physical examination and medical imaging. Cytology can be used to diagnose a condition and spare a patient from surgery to obtain a larger specimen. An example is thyroid FNAC; many benign

neg: Liver cytology it flow to the central veins. The space located between the endothelium is known as the Disse Space. Histologically speaking, Kupffer cells are difficult to identify; however, they are easily seen if there are stained particles that were phagocytosed. The main function of the Kupffer cells is the destruction of old blood cells that go through the liver. In the perisinusoidal space, a different type of cells can be found. These cells are characteristic of the liver, since they are not found in any other tissue. These hepatic stellate cells, also named lipocytes, have lipid drops in their cytosol. It

neg: Bladder cancer is by way of cystoscopy, which is a procedure in which a flexible tube bearing a camera and various instruments is introduced into the bladder through the urethra. The procedure allows for a visual inspection of the bladder, for minor remedial work to be undertaken and for samples of suspicious lesions to be taken for a biopsy. Urine cytology can be obtained in voided urine or at the time of the cystoscopy ("bladder washing"). Cytology is not very sensitive (a negative result cannot reliably exclude bladder cancer). There are newer non-invasive urine bound markers available as aids in the diagnosis

neg: Cervical screening a disease are correctly identified as having it and those without the disease are not identified as having it. Regarding the role of HPV testing, randomized controlled trials have compared HPV to colposcopy. HPV testing appears as sensitive as immediate colposcopy while reducing the number of colposcopies needed. randomized controlled trial have suggested that HPV testing could follow abnormal cytology or could precede cervical cytology examination. A study published in 2007 suggested that the act of performing a Pap smear produces an inflammatory cytokine response, which may initiate immunologic clearance of HPV, therefore reducing the risk of cervical cancer. Women

neg: Skin cancer in cats and dogs analysis of the suspected mass is done prior to initiating treatment. The commonly used diagnostic procedures for skin tumors are fine-needle aspiration cytology and tissue biopsy. Cytology is an important tool that can help the veterinarian distinguish a tumor from inflammatory lesions. The biopsy technique used will largely depend on the tumor's size and location. Small masses are usually completely excised and sent to the pathology lab to confirm that the surrounding healthy tissues that were excised along with the tumor do not contain any cancer cells. If the tumor is larger, a small sample is removed for analysis and

neg: Bone marrow process. Bone marrow examination is the pathologic analysis of samples of bone marrow obtained via biopsy and bone marrow aspiration. Bone marrow examination is used in the diagnosis of a number of conditions, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, anemia, and pancytopenia. The bone marrow produces the cellular elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. While much information can be gleaned by testing the blood itself (drawn from a vein by phlebotomy), it is sometimes necessary to examine the source of the blood cells in the bone marrow to obtain more information on hematopoiesis; this is

neg: Urethra concert with bladder contraction(s) to forcefully expel the urine in a pressurized stream. Following this, the urethra re-establishes muscle tone by contracting the smooth muscle layer, and the bladder returns to a relaxed, quiescent state. Urethral smooth muscle cells are mechanically coupled to each other to coordinate mechanical force and electrical signaling in an organized, unitary fashion. The male urethra is the conduit for semen during sexual intercourse. It also serves as a passage for urine to flow. Urine typically contains epithelial cells shed from the urinary tract. Urine cytology evaluates this urinary sediment for the presence of cancerous cells

neg: Liver cytology a microscope, which can be optical or electronic, to determine if the sample is normal or pathological. The hepatocytes are the parenchymal cells of the liver, which form the lobules. They are intimately associated with the sinusoids, which are a network of capillaries. Since they are metabolically active cells, their cytoplasm has many organelles. Hepatocytes are the main cells of the liver. They are large polyhedral cells, with six surfaces, three of which have a relevant function. The three relevant type of surfaces are sinusoidal, canalicular and intercellular. These surfaces are involved in the exchange of substances between the hepatocyte,

neg: Chronic superficial keratitis although it eventually can extend from any part of the limbus to cover the entire cornea. Severe cases can cause blindness. Although CSK is usually identifiable by the appearance of the eye and the breed of the affected dog, cytology will reveal the presence of lymphocytes and plasma cells. CSK is immune-mediated in nature, characterized by an infiltration of white blood cells into the superficial stroma of the cornea. These cells are predominantly CD4-expressing T lymphocytes and to a lesser extent CD8-expressing T cells. The CD4-expressing T-cells secrete gamma interferon, which causes expression of the major histocompatibility complex class II

neg: Chromosomal translocation the field of radiation cytology, and led him to be called "the father of radiation cytology". Chromosomal translocation In genetics, a chromosome translocation is a chromosome abnormality caused by rearrangement of parts between nonhomologous chromosomes. A gene fusion may be created when the translocation joins two otherwise-separated genes. It is detected on cytogenetics or a karyotype of affected cells. Translocations can be balanced (in an even exchange of material with no genetic information extra or missing, and ideally full functionality) or unbalanced (where the exchange of chromosome material is unequal resulting in extra or missing genes). Reciprocal translocations are usually

neg: Urethra from the lining of the urinary tract, and it is a convenient noninvasive technique for follow-up analysis of patients treated for urinary tract cancers. For this process, urine must be collected in a reliable fashion, and if urine samples are inadequate, the urinary tract can be assessed via instrumentation. In urine cytology, collected urine is examined microscopically. One limitation is the inability to definitively identify low-grade cancer cells and urine cytology is used mostly to identify high-grade tumours. As the urethra is an open vessel with a lumen, investigations of the genitourinary tract may involve the urethra. Endoscopy of the

neg: Liver cytology different from the rest of the body’s sinusoids since they have macrophage cells intercalated in between their endothelial cells. Kupffer cells have a different embryological origin, coming from the myeloid line in the reticuloendohelial system (also called mononuclear phagocyte system) and are related to the immune system. They first develop in the bone marrow and then migrate to the liver where they differentiate into Kupffer cells. In fact, they are the macrophages of the liver and are located in the sinusoids. Sinusoids are vascular channels that receive blood from terminal branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein and make

neg: Cervical screening a number of different types of screening method available. In the United States, cervical screening is usually performed using the Pap test (or 'smear test'), though the UK screening programmes changed the screening method to liquid-based cytology in 2008. In the conventional Pap smear, the physician collecting the cells smears them on a microscope slide and applies a fixative. In general, the slide is sent to a laboratory for evaluation. Studies of the accuracy of conventional cytology report: Since the mid-1990s, techniques based on placing the sample into a vial containing a liquid medium that preserves the cells have been

neg: Pap test central opening of the cervix. The cells are placed on a glass slide and taken to the laboratory to be checked for abnormalities. A plastic-fronded broom is sometimes used in place of the spatula and brush. The broom is not as good a collection device, since it is much less effective at collecting endocervical material than the spatula and brush. The broom is used more frequently with the advent of liquid-based cytology, although either type of collection device may be used with either type of cytology. The sample is stained using the Papanicolaou technique, in which tinctorial dyes and acids

neg: Liquid-based cytology 20 mm diameter circle. Both methods result in a well-preserved approximate monolayer of cells with a background devoid of blood and mucus. However, the current high cost of these patented commercial systems, requiring cytotechnologists and pathologists to interpret the ThinPrep slides, has led to the development and evaluation of less costly alternatives. One such method referred to as SpinThin, developed by Khalbuss et al. (2000), uses a modified electric toothbrush to release the cells into suspension from the collecting device. The cells are spun directly onto a 10 × 20 mm area of a glass slide using a Cytospin II

neg: Interstitial nephritis loss. Other conditions that may develop include a high concentration of potassium in the blood, metabolic acidosis, and kidney failure. About 23% of patients have a high level of eosinophils in the blood. Urinary findings include: While non-invasive patient evaluation (physical examination, blood and urine testing, imaging studies) can be suggestive, the only way to definitively diagnosis interstitial nephritis is with a tissue diagnosis obtained by kidney biopsy. Pathologic examination will reveal the presence of interstitial edema and inflammatory infiltration with various while blood cells, including neutrophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. Generally, blood vessels and glomeruli are not affected. Electron microscopy

neg: Journal of Cell Science a cytologist. Under the latter's influence, the journal accepted a growing number of papers in the relatively new discipline of cytology, now usually termed cell biology. After Pantin's retirement in 1960, the scope of the journal was refocused on the field of cytology, which the editors defined as "Everything that relates directly to the structure, chemical composition, physical nature, and functions of animal and plant cells, or to the techniques that are used in cytological investigations". Subsequent editors include H. G. Callan and A. V. Grimstone. In 1966, the journal was redesigned and relaunched under the new title "Journal of

neg: Ampicillin rashes and hives, exfoliative dermatitis, erythema multiforme, and a temporary decrease in both red and white blood cells. Ampicillin is not recommended in people with concurrent mononucleosis, as over 40% of patients develop a skin rash. Ampicillin is comparatively less toxic than other antibiotics, and side effects are more likely in those who are sensitive to penicillins and those with a history of asthma or allergies. In very rare cases, it causes severe side effects such as angioedema, anaphylaxis, and "C. difficile" infection (that can range from mild diarrhea to serious pseudomembranous colitis). Some develop black "furry" tongue. Serious adverse

neg: Follicular thyroid cancer Follicular thyroid cancer Follicular thyroid cancer or follicular thyroid carcinoma accounts for 15% of thyroid cancer and occurs more commonly in women over 50 years of age. Thyroglobulin (Tg) can be used as a tumor marker for well-differentiated follicular thyroid cancer. Follicular cells are the thyroid cells responsible for the production and secretion of thyroid hormones. It is impossible to distinguish between follicular adenoma and carcinoma on cytological grounds. If fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) suggests follicular neoplasm, thyroid lobectomy should be performed to establish the histopathological diagnosis. Features "sine qua non" for the diagnosis of follicular carcinoma are capsular

neg: Liquid-based cytology glass slide, it is transferred to a vial of fixative. In the SurePath method, the sample is vortexed, strained, layered onto a density gradient, and centrifuged. Instruments required are a computer-controlled robotic pipette and a centrifuge. The cells form a circle 12.5 mm in diameter. The ThinPrep method requires an instrument and special polycarbonate filters. After the instrument immerses the filter into the vial, the filter is rotated to homogenize the sample. Cells are collected on the surface of the filter when a vacuum is applied. The filter is then pressed against a slide to transfer the cells into a

neg: Ploidy have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology. Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by haploidisation of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution. Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion. The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for

neg: FNA Mapping used, the classical testis biopsy has little or no correlation with specific diseases, is associated with significant variability in interpretation, and can miss mixed patterns of spermatogenesis that may qualify infertile men for assisted reproduction. In many countries, testicular FNA cytology is preferable to surgical testis biopsy for the evaluation of male infertility. In addition to accurately demonstrating the presence or absence of mature sperm with tails, FNA provides tubular cells for cytologic analysis, also informative for the diagnosis of infertility. Unlike testis biopsy histology, however, FNA cytology has not been rigorously evaluated for the ability to distinguish in situ

neg: Anal sac adenocarcinoma (palpable masse in anal sac) and behavior, but a biopsy and histopathology is necessary for a definitive diagnosis. Fine needle aspiration and cytology is a common first step. Cytopathology reveals clusters of cells with uniform round nuclei. These cells do not have many of the features usually associated with malignancy, such as a high nucleus to cytoplasm ratio or prominent nucleoli. Ultrasonography and radiography are performed to look for metastasis. Aggressive surgical removal of the tumor and any enlarged sublumbar lymph nodes is essential for treatment of the tumor and associated hypercalcaemia. There is a high recurrence rate, although removal

neg: Hydrogenosome early 1970s by D. G. Lindmark and M. Müller at Rockefeller University. In addition to this seminal study on hydrogenosomes, they also demonstrated, for the first time, the presence of and hydrogenase in eukaryotes. Further studies were subsequently conducted on the biochemical cytology and subcellular organization of anaerobic protozoan parasites ("Trichomonas vaginalis, Tritrichomonas foetus, Monocercomonas sp., Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba sp., and Hexamita inflata)". It is often forgotten that a Czechoslovakian group also biochemically described hydrogenosomes in 1973. Using information obtained from hydrogenosomal and biochemical cytology studies these researchers determined the mode of action of metronidazole (Flagyl) in 1976. Metronidazole is

neg: Bullous impetigo Bullous impetigo Bullous Impetigo is a skin condition that characteristically occurs in the newborn, and is caused by a bacterial infection, presenting with bullae. It can be caused by Exfoliative toxin A. The phyogenic superficial infection can be divided into two other subdivisions; Impetigo, and non-bullous impetigo. Bullous impetigo is caused by "Staphylococcus aureus," which produces exfoliative toxins, whereas non-bullous impetigo is caused by either "Staphylococcus aureus", or "Streptococcus pyogenes." Thirty percent of all Impetigo cases are related to Bullous impetigo. Bullous impetigo, in newborns, children, or adults who are immunocompromised and/or are experiencing renal failure, can develop into a

neg: Autoimmune pancreatitis acinar cell atrophy in later stages. at the initial stages, typically, there is a cuff of lymphoplasma cells surrounding the ducts but also more diffuse infiltration in the lobular parenchyma. However, localization and the degree of duct wall infiltration are variable. Whereas histopathologic examination remains the primary method for differentiation of AIP from acute and chronic pancreatitis, lymphoma, and cancer. By Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA) the diagnosis can be made if adequate tissue is obtained. In such cases, lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the lobules are the key finding. Rarely, granulomatous reaction could be observed. It has been proposed that a cytologic

neg: Cora Jipson Beckwith and her PhD, also from Columbia University in 1914. Her research was in cytology, mainly associated with bowfin ("Amia calva") and the lateral cell lines of these bony fish. She also worked on the cytology of the germ cells of certain hydroids, and had papers published on these subjects in the Biological Bulletin. Cora Beckwith joined Vasser College as an assistant, became a professor during her career and was head of the zoology department by the time she retired in 1940. She was a life member of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, where she had spent many summers

neg: Aurel Babeș international reputation that Georges Papanikolaou had gained in contrast to his own. In a spirit of recognition and fairness, Romania refers to cervical testing as "Methode Babeș-Papanicolaou" in honor of Babeș. Although Georgios Papanikolaou is generally credited for the invention of the cervical cancer screening test by cervical cytology, O'Dowd and Philipp believe that Babeș was the true pioneer in the cytologic diagnosis of cervical cancer. He discovered that if a platinum loop was used to collect cells from a woman's cervix, and the cells were then dried on a slide and stained, it could be determined if cancer cells

neg: Neurooncology of patients with neurological malignancies are crucial. The imaging studies commonly used in neurooncology are computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Less commonly used are myelography, positron emission tomography (PET), and diagnostic angiography. Lumbar puncture (LP) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis are important for the evaluation of some primary tumors, metastatic conditions, and neurologic complications of cancer. Accurate histologic diagnosis is critical for treatment planning and patient counseling. Surgically obtained tissue usually is required to make a histologic diagnosis. For certain tumors, a definitive diagnosis can be accomplished by vitreous aspirate, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytology, or suggested by

neg: Carbon nanotubes in medicine no exacerbation at the higher dose. Similar results were obtained with A549 cells. Experiments using calcein/PI staining did not confirm MTT cytotoxicity data neither in D384- nor in A549-cells. The viability of these cells was not affected by any nanotube at any concentration or time of exposure, with the exception of the positive control SiO2. The results suggested the need of a careful examination of carbon nanotubes toxic effects by means of multiple tests to circumvent the possible problem of artifactual results due to the interference of nanomaterials with the dye markers employed. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes have been investigated in

neg: Papillary urothelial neoplasm of low malignant potential in the urine (hematuria) or may be asymptomatic. PUNLMPs are exophytic lesions that appear friable to the naked eye and when imaged during cystoscopy. They are definitively diagnosed after removal by microscopic examination by pathologists. Histologically, they have a papillary architecture with slender fibrovascular cores and rare basal mitoses. The papillae rarely fuse and uncommonly branch. Cytologically, they have uniform nuclear enlargement. They cannot be reliably differentiated from low grade papillary urothelial carcinomas using cytology, and their diagnosis (vis-a-vis low grade papillary urothelial carcinoma) has a poor inter-rater reliability. Pathologic grading and staging tumors are: graded by the degree of

neg: Sixten Franzén in 1949, and after being recruited to work in Radiumhemmet, the university's oncology clinic, docent in radiotherapy and tumor diagnosis in 1968. On his retirement from the Karolinska University Hospital he was awarded the title of professor; he continued as a researcher for another twelve years, at Radiumhemmet and then at the Norwegian Radium Hospital in Oslo. Franzén was trained in hematology-oncology rather than cytology, but pioneered fine-cell aspiration cytology as a method of diagnosing cancer after noticing that he could sometimes recognize metastatic cancer cells in liver biopsies. He also invented a pistol-grip handle to make aspiration of cell

neg: Symbiodinium reasons. Firstly, available phylogenetic and population genetic markers allow for detailed examination of their genetic diversity over broad spatial and temporal scales. Also, large quantities of "Symbiodinium" cells are readily obtained through the collection of hosts that harbor them. Lastly, their association with animals provides an additional axis by which to compare and contrast ecological distributions. The earliest genetic methods for assessing "Symbiodinium" diversity relied on low-resolution molecular markers that separated the genus into a few evolutionarily divergent lineages, referred to as "clades". Previous characterizations of geographic distribution and dominance have focused on the clade-level of genetic resolution, but more

neg: Cell biology Cell biology Cell biology (also called cytology, from the Greek κύτος, "kytos", "vessel") is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell, which is the basic unit of life. Cell biology is concerned with the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences; it is also essential for research in bio-medical fields

neg: Veterinary pathology using the tools of chemistry, microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. The Indian, European, Japanese and American Colleges of Veterinary Pathologists certify veterinary clinical pathologists. The American College of Veterinary Pathologists certification exam consists of four parts: General Pathology (shared with the Anatomic Pathology certifying examination), Cytology and Surgical Pathology, Hematology, and Clinical Chemistry. The credential, DACVP (Diplomate, American College of Veterinary Pathologists) is usually followed by a parenthetical notation of "(Clinical Pathology)" to distinguish DACVP counterparts certified for anatomic pathology. The European credential is DipECVCP (Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary Clinical Pathology). Clinical pathologists are employed in diagnostic

neg: Barrett's esophagus characteristic appearance of this condition by direct inspection of the lower esophagus; followed by microscopic examination of tissue from the affected area obtained from biopsy. The cells of Barrett's esophagus are classified into four categories: nondysplastic, low-grade dysplasia, high-grade dysplasia, and frank carcinoma. High-grade dysplasia and early stages of adenocarcinoma may be treated by endoscopic resection or radiofrequency ablation. Later stages of adenocarcinoma may be treated with surgical resection or palliation. Those with nondysplastic or low-grade dysplasia are managed by annual observation with endoscopy, or treatment with radiofrequency ablation. In high-grade dysplasia, the risk of developing cancer might be at

neg: Cheilitis to identify the substance triggering allergic contact cheilitis. Infectious cheilitis refers to cheilitis caused by infectious disease. The terms "Candidal cheilitis" and "bacterial cheilitis" are sometimes used, denoting the involvement of Candida organisms and bacterial species respectively. The term "cheilocandidiasis" describes exfoliative (flaking) lesions of the lips and the skin around the lips, and is caused by a superficial candidal infection due to chronic lip licking. Impetigo (caused by "Streptococcus pyogenes" and/or "Staphylococcus aureus"), can manifest as an exfoliative cheilitis-like appearance. Herpes labialis (cold sore) is a common cause of infectious cheilitis. A lesion caused by recurrence of a latent

neg: Bone marrow examination is examined microscopically (sometimes with the aid of immunohistochemistry) for cellularity and infiltrative processes. An aspiration, using a 20 mL syringe, yields approximately 300 μL of bone marrow. A volume greater than 300 μL is not recommended, since it may dilute the sample with peripheral blood. Aspiration does not always represent all cells since some such as lymphoma stick to the trabecula, and would thus be missed by a simple aspiration. Bone marrow aspiration and trephine biopsy are usually performed on the back of the hipbone, or posterior iliac crest. An "aspirate" can also be obtained from the sternum (breastbone).

neg: Tobacco wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes. In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco. Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics. Tobacco BY-2 cells, derived from "N. tabacum" cultivar 'Bright Yellow-2', are among the most important research tools in plant cytology. Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology. The

neg: Bullous impetigo depending on the severity of infection and how much it has spread. Bullous impetigo Bullous Impetigo is a skin condition that characteristically occurs in the newborn, and is caused by a bacterial infection, presenting with bullae. It can be caused by Exfoliative toxin A. The phyogenic superficial infection can be divided into two other subdivisions; Impetigo, and non-bullous impetigo. Bullous impetigo is caused by "Staphylococcus aureus," which produces exfoliative toxins, whereas non-bullous impetigo is caused by either "Staphylococcus aureus", or "Streptococcus pyogenes." Thirty percent of all Impetigo cases are related to Bullous impetigo. Bullous impetigo, in newborns, children, or adults

neg: Sincalide in conjunction with secretin) prior to obtaining a duodenal aspirate for analysis of enzyme activity, composition, and cytology. In some instances it is used to accelerate the transit of a barium meal through the small bowel, thereby decreasing the time and-extent of radiation associated with fluoroscopy and x-ray examination of the intestinal tract. Sincalide Sincalide (INN) is a cholecystokinetic drug administered by injection to aid in diagnosing disorders of the gallbladder and pancreas. It is the 8-amino acid C-terminal fragment of cholecystokinin, and also known as CCK-8. Common adverse effects following administration include abdominal discomfort and nausea. These effects are

neg: Cancer in cats treated if diagnosed early. While the causes of cancer in cats are unknown, feline leukemia virus is suspected to be a prime contributor. Other factors suspected to increase rates of feline cancer include toxins from the environment, second hand smoking, excessive grooming, or licking parts of the body that have been in contact with an environmental toxin. Cancer can be detected early on by observing for certain signs and symptoms. Common diagnosing methods include physical examination, x-rays, ultrasounds, cytology, blood tests, urine tests, and nuclear scans. Depending on the type of cancer and its level of progress, surgery, radiation, chemotherapy,

neg: Anatomical pathology surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Surgical pathology increasingly requires technologies and skills traditionally associated with clinical pathology such as molecular diagnostics. In the United States, subspecialty-trained doctors of dentistry, rather than medical doctors, can be certified by a professional board to practice Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. Cytopathology is a sub-discipline of anatomical pathology concerned with the microscopic examination of whole, individual cells obtained from exfoliation or fine-needle aspirates. Cytopathologists are trained to perform fine-needle aspirates of superficially located organs, masses, or cysts and are often able

neg: Granulomatosis with polyangiitis is more common in granulomatosis with polyangiitis than in the similar condition microscopic polyangiitis. If the person has kidney failure or cutaneous vasculitis, a biopsy is obtained from the kidneys. On rare occasions, thoracoscopic lung biopsy is required. On histopathological examination, a biopsy will show "leukocytoclastic vasculitis" with necrotic changes and granulomatous inflammation (clumps of typically arranged white blood cells) on microscopy. These granulomas are the main reason for the name granulomatosis with polyangiitis, although it is not an essential feature. Nevertheless, necrotizing granulomas are a hallmark of this disease. However, many biopsies can be nonspecific and 50% provide too

neg: Plant morphology and moss capsules. The detailed study of reproductive structures in plants led to the discovery of the alternation of generations found in all plants and most algae. This area of plant morphology overlaps with the study of biodiversity and plant systematics. Thirdly, plant morphology studies plant structure at a range of scales. At the smallest scales are ultrastructure, the general structural features of cells visible only with the aid of an electron microscope, and cytology, the study of cells using optical microscopy. At this scale, plant morphology overlaps with plant anatomy as a field of study. At the largest scale

neg: Germ cell neoplasia in situ germ cell neoplasia". The following testicular GCTs do not arise from ITGCN: GCNIS is not palpable, and not visible on macroscopic examination of testicular tissue. Microscopic examination of affected testicular tissue most commonly shows germ cells with enlarged hyperchromatic nuclei with prominent nucleoli and clear cytoplasm. These cells are typically arranged along the basement membrane of the tubule, and mitotic figures are frequently seen. The sertoli cells are pushed toward the lumen by the neoplastic germ cells, and spermatogenesis is almost always absent in the affected tubules. Pagetoid spread of GCNIS into the rete testis is common. Immunostaining with placental

neg: Thyroid disease often be done in a doctor's office, is painless, and does not expose the individual to any radiation. The main characteristics that can help distinguish a benign vs. malignant (cancerous) thyroid nodule on ultrasound are as follows: Although ultrasonography is a very important diagnostic tool, this method is not always able to separate benign from malignant nodules with certainty. In suspicious cases, a tissue sample is often obtained by biopsy for microscopic examination. Thyroid scintigraphy, in which the thyroid is imaged with the aid of radioactive iodine (usually iodine-123, which does not harm thyroid cells, or rarely, iodine-131), is performed

neg: History of biology cells. Scientists in the rising field of cytology, armed with increasingly powerful microscopes and new staining methods, soon found that even single cells were far more complex than the homogeneous fluid-filled chambers described by earlier microscopists. Robert Brown had described the nucleus in 1831, and by the end of the 19th century cytologists identified many of the key cell components: chromosomes, centrosomes mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other structures made visible through staining. Between 1874 and 1884 Walther Flemming described the discrete stages of mitosis, showing that they were not artifacts of staining but occurred in living cells, and moreover, that chromosomes

neg: Staining cells, to make their nuclei more observable. Also used to stain the blood film and used in cytology. Neutral red (or toluylene red) stains Nissl substance red. It is usually used as a counterstain in combination with other dyes. Nile blue (or Nile blue A) stains nuclei blue. It may be used with living cells. Nile red (also known as Nile blue oxazone) is formed by boiling Nile blue with sulfuric acid. This produces a mix of Nile red and Nile blue. Nile red is a lipophilic stain; it will accumulate in lipid globules inside cells, staining them red. Nile

neg: Infantile hemangioma compared to the mother's DNA that contradicted this hypothesis. Other studies have revealed the role of increased angiogenesis and vasculogenesis in the etiology of hemangiomas. The majority of IHs can be diagnosed by history and physical examination. In rare cases, imaging (ultrasound with Doppler, magnetic resonance imaging), and/or cytology or histopathology are needed to confirm the diagnosis. IHs are usually absent at birth or a small area of pallor, telangiectasias, or duskiness may be seen. A fully formed mass at birth usually indicates a diagnosis other than IH. Superficial hemangiomas in the upper dermis have a bright-red strawberry color, whereas

neg: Fine-needle aspiration Fine-needle aspiration Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is a diagnostic procedure used to investigate lumps or masses. In this technique, a thin (23–25 gauge), hollow needle is inserted into the mass for sampling of cells that, after being stained, will be examined under a microscope (biopsy). The sampling and biopsy considered together are called fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) or fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) (the latter to emphasize that any aspiration biopsy involves cytopathology not histopathology). Fine-needle aspiration biopsies are very safe, minor surgical procedures. Often, a major surgical (excisional or open) biopsy can be avoided by performing a needle aspiration biopsy instead,

neg: Tuberculous lymphadenitis different body part, although it is most typical to have at least one near the collar bone. The characteristic morphological element is the tuberculous granuloma (caseating tubercule): giant multinucleated cells (Langhans cells), surrounded by epithelioid cells aggregates, T cell lymphocytes and few fibroblasts. Granulomatous tubercules evolve to central caseous necrosis and tend to become confluent, replacing the lymphoid tissue. The diagnosis of tuberculous lymphadenitis may require a biopsy. Other possible diagnostic steps include: positive tuberclin test, chest radiograph, CT scan, cytology/biopsy (FNAC), AFB staining, and mycobacterial culture. Incision drainage with proper evacuation of the fluid followed by anti-tubercular medication. Treatment

neg: Ultraviolet to provide sensations of happiness, well being and serenity to human beings. UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma. In addition, UV light, in particular UVB radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type of skin cell. As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary. In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result

neg: Liver cytology Kupffer cells (macrophages). The liver is the biggest gland of the body. It has a wide variety of functions that range from the destruction of old blood cells to the control of the whole metabolism of macromolecules. In the fetus, the liver works as a principal center for hematopoiesis, function that is later replaced by the bone marrow. This hematopoietic function is not normally seen after birth; however, in certain pathological conditions this function may still be seen. It is important to note that the liver is an essential organ and it is the only one in the body that

neg: Albert Levan Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1967. He was cited by professor Bryan Sykes in "Adam's Curse: A Future Without Men" Albert Levan Albert Levan (8 March 1905 – 28 March 1998) was a Swedish botanist and geneticist. Albert Levan is best known today for co-authoring the report in 1956 that humans had forty-six chromosomes (instead of forty-eight, as previously believed). This epochal discovery was made by Joe Hin Tjio in Levan's laboratory. Originally specialising in plant cytology, Levan later turned to the similarities in the chromosome structure of cancer cells and errors introduced to plant cells via chemical or radioactive

neg: Polyomaviridae polyomavirus inclusion of the nucleus, is diagnostic of infection. Also as the urine of an infected individual will contain virions and/or viral DNA, quanitation of the viral load can be done through PCR. This is also true for the blood. Renal biopsy can also be used if the two methods just described are inconclusive or if the specific viral load for the renal tissue is desired. Similarly to the urine cytology, the renal cells are examined under light microscopy for polyomavirus inclusion of the nucleus, as well as cell lysis and viral partials in the extra cellular fluid. The viral

neg: Ernest Everett Just at the French fishing village of Roscoff, located on the English channel. Just authored two books, "Basic Methods for Experiments on Eggs of Marine Animals" (1939) and "The Biology of the Cell Surface" (1939), and he also published at least seventy papers in the areas of cytology, fertilization and early embryonic development. He discovered what is known as the fast block to polyspermy; he further elucidated the slow block, which had been discovered by Fol in the 1870s; and he showed that the adhesive properties of the cells of the early embryo are surface phenomena exquisitely dependent on developmental stage.

neg: Treatment of bipolar disorder nausea, and fatigue, as well as some rare but serious side effects such as blood dyscrasias, pancreatitis, exfoliative dermatitis, and hepatic failure. Monitoring of liver enzymes, platelets, and blood cell counts are recommended. Lamotrigine generally has minimal side effects, but the dose must be increased slowly to avoid rashes, including exfoliative dermatitis. Antipsychotics work best in the manic phase of bipolar disorder. Second-generation or atypical antipsychotics (including aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, paliperidone, risperidone, and ziprasidone) have emerged as effective mood stabilizers. The evidence for this is fairly recent, as in 2003 the American Psychiatric Press noted that atypical anti-psychotics should be

neg: Thymidine kinase will help comparison of clinical studies has been suggested. Hybridomas are cells obtained by fusing tumor cells (which can divide infinitely) and immunoglobulin-producing lymphocytes (plasma cells). Hybridomas can be expanded to produce large quantities of immunoglobulins with a given unique specificity (monoclonal antibodies). One problem is to single out the hybridomas from the large excess of unfused cells after the cell fusion. One common way to solve this is to use thymidine kinase negative (TK−) tumor cell lines for the fusion. The thymidine kinase negative cells are obtained by growing the tumor cell line in the presence of thymidine analogs,

neg: Neoplastic meningitis cell deposits on neuroimaging, or both. CSF examination is the most useful diagnostic tool for NM. Patients with suspected NM should undergo one or two lumbar punctures, cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), spinal MRI, and a radioisotope CSF flow study to rule out sites of CSF block. If the cytology remains negative and radiological studies are not definitive, consideration may be given to ventricular or lateral cervical spine CSF analysis based on the suspected site of predominant disease. Consideration of signs, symptoms, and neuroimaging can help with the placement to where CSF is drawn. Median time of diagnosis from initial

neg: Nerve guidance conduit be done in order to standardize the yield with transdifferentiation. Transdifferentiation of multipotent stem cells is a potential means for obtaining stem cells that are not available or not easily obtained in the adult. Mesenchymal stem cells are adult stem cells that are located in the bone marrow; they are able to differentiate into lineages of mesodermal origin. Some examples of tissue they form are bone, cartilage, fat, and tendon. MSCs are obtained by aspiration of bone marrow. Many factors promote the growth of MSCs including: platelet-derived growth factor, epidermal growth factor β, and insulin-like growth factor-1. In addition to

neg: Erythroderma Erythroderma Erythroderma (also known as "Exfoliative dermatitis," "Dermatitis exfoliativa") is an inflammatory skin disease with redness and scaling that affects nearly the entire cutaneous surface. This term applies when 90% or more of the skin is affected. In ICD-10, a distinction is made between "exfoliative dermatitis" at L26, and "erythroderma" at L53.9. Erythroderma is generalized exfoliative dermatitis, which involves 90% or more of the patient's skin. The most common cause of erythroderma is exacerbation of an underlying skin disease, such as psoriasis, contact dermatitis, seborrheic dermatitis, lichen planus, pityriasis rubra pilaris or a drug reaction, such as the use of

neg: Pap test the speculum. This may result in unnecessary discomfort. A number of studies have shown that using a small amount of water-based gel lubricant does not interfere with, obscure, or distort the PAP smear. Further, cytology is not affected, nor are some STD testing. The health care worker begins by inserting a speculum into the woman's vagina, which spreads the vagina open and allows access to the cervix. The health care provider then collects a sample of cells from the outer opening or os of the cervix by scraping it with an Aylesbury spatula. An endocervical brush is rotated in the

neg: Lowell Fitz Randolph including Randolph. He also became a member of the Gamma Alpha Graduate Scientific Fraternity and of the Cornell Biological Society. In 1921, he obtained his Ph.D. degree, in the Botany department. In May 1922, he published 'Cytology of Chlorophyll Types of Maize' in the Botanical Gazette, Vol. 73, No. 5, pp. 337–375. Then he started working as Prof. Sharp's teaching assistant in the winter term of 1922. He also was an instructor in botany, until 1923, when Prof. Emerson recommended Randolph to get a United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) appointment at Cornell to investigate corn chromosome cytology. He started

neg: Eye examination (fundus examination) is an important part of the general eye examination. Dilating the pupil using special eye drops greatly enhances the view and permits an extensive examination of peripheral retina. A limited view can be obtained through an undilated pupil, in which case best results are obtained with the room darkened and the patient looking towards the far corner. The appearance of the optic disc and retinal vasculature are also recorded during fundus examination. A red reflex can be seen when looking at a patient's pupil through a direct ophthalmoscope. This part of the examination is done from a distance