query: a fungus that lives as a single cell and does not form a hyphae is called

pos: Fungus Fungus A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesise. Growth

pos: Mold Mold A mold () or mould ( is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called "hyphae". In contrast, fungi that can adopt a single-celled growth habit are called yeasts. Molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single organism. The hyphae are generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine, fluffy white threads over the surface. Cross-walls (septa) may delimit connected compartments along

pos: Mold crevasses she has made, creating a macro-micro portrait. Sam Taylor-Johnson has made a number of time-lapse films capturing the gradual decay of classically arranged still lifes. Mold A mold () or mould ( is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called "hyphae". In contrast, fungi that can adopt a single-celled growth habit are called yeasts. Molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single

pos: Ascomycota more rarely, green or blue. Some ascomyceous fungi, such as "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", grow as single-celled yeasts, which—during sexual reproduction—develop into an ascus, and do not form fruiting bodies. In lichenized species, the thallus of the fungus defines the shape of the symbiotic colony. Some dimorphic species, such as "Candida albicans", can switch between growth as single cells and as filamentous, multicellular hyphae. Other species are pleomorphic, exhibiting asexual (anamorphic) as well as a sexual (teleomorphic) growth forms. Except for lichens, the non-reproductive (vegetative) mycelium of most ascomycetes is usually inconspicuous because it is commonly embedded in the substrate, such as

neg: Mycelium Mycelium Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a homokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible homokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may

neg: Lichen a fungus. Generally, most of a lichen's bulk is made of interwoven fungal filaments, although in filamentous and gelatinous lichens this is not the case. The fungus is called a mycobiont. The photosynthesizing organism is called a photobiont. Algal photobionts are called phycobionts. Cyanobacteria photobionts are called cyanobionts. The part of a lichen that is not involved in reproduction, the "body" or "vegetative tissue" of a lichen, is called the thallus. The thallus form is very different from any form where the fungus or alga are growing separately. The thallus is made up of filaments of the fungus called hyphae.

neg: Arbuscular mycorrhiza to form the appressoria. AM fungi could form appressoria on the cell walls of “ghost” cells in which the protoplast had been removed to eliminate signaling between the fungi and the plant host. However, the hyphae did not further penetrate the cells and grow in toward the root cortex, which indicates that signaling between symbionts is required for further growth once appressoria are formed. Once inside the parenchyma, the fungus forms highly branched structures for nutrient exchange with the plant called "arbuscules". These are the distinguishing structures of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus. Arbuscules are the sites of exchange for phosphorus, carbon,

neg: Entomopathogenic fungus Entomopathogenic fungus An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can act as a parasite of insects and kills or seriously disables them. These fungi usually attach to the external body surface of insects in the form of microscopic spores (usually asexual, mitosporic spores also called conidia). Under the right conditions of temperature and (usually high) humidity, these spores germinate, grow as hyphae and colonize the insect's cuticle; which they bore through by way of enzymatic hydrolysis reaching the insects' body cavity (hemocoel). Then, the fungal cells proliferate in the host body cavity, usually as walled hyphae or in the form

neg: Fungus µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called "branching", or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastamosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that

neg: Fungus meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section). In glomeromycetes (formerly zygomycetes), haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia. Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively

neg: Polyozellus and grey to black colors. A closely related species, the fragrant chanterelle ("Cantharellus odoratus"), also tends to grow in dense clusters, but it is orange rather than blue. "Craterellus caeruleofuscus" does not form compound clusters, and is not restricted to coniferous forests. The pig's ear Gomphus, species "Gomphus clavatus", is similar in shape and form but fleshier, and light violet to pink. "Polyozellus multiplex" is an ectomycorrhizal species, meaning that the hyphae of the fungus grow in a mutualistic association with the roots of plants, but the fungal hyphae generally do not penetrate the cells of the plant's roots. The

neg: Lactarius repraesentaneus milk turns reddish-orange while that of "L. representaneus" does not change color. "Lactarius uvidus" also has a violet reaction but it has a different color and is not hairy at the margin of the cap. "L. flavidus" has a yellowish cap but does not have a hairy margin. Like other "Lactarius" species, "L. repraesentaneus" is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, forming a sheath of tissue. This enables the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and

neg: Hypha Hypha A hypha (plural hyphae, from Greek ὑφή, "huphḗ", "web") is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium. A hypha consists of one or more cells surrounded by a tubular cell wall. In most fungi, hyphae are divided into cells by internal cross-walls called "septa" (singular septum). Septa are usually perforated by pores large enough for ribosomes, mitochondria and sometimes nuclei to flow between cells. The major structural polymer in fungal cell walls is typically chitin, in contrast to

neg: Phospholipid-derived fatty acids are not significantly present in routine PLFA sample preparation which is designed to cleave ester-linked fatty acids. Arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi (AMF) penetrate the walls of cortical cells of about 80% of all vascular plant families, generating a symbiotic relationship. The fungi form membrane structures adjacent to the plant cell membrane allowing exchange of phosphorus, nitrogen compounds and minerals from the fungus and the plant provides the fungus primarily with photosynthesis-derived sugars. As the AMF are obligate symbiotic fungi, they are not free-living in the soil. The AMF hyphae in the root form lipid materials which then are transported to the

neg: Calvatia sculpta of hyphae whereby older "leading" hyphae become enclosed by coiled layers of newer "tendril" hyphae. Mycelial strands provide a conduit for transporting water and nutrients across non-nutrient material, allowing the fungus to reach new sources of food. They are also implicated in the formation of fruit bodies and sclerotia. The mycelia of "C. sculpta" can be induced to form mycelial strands when there is a permeable physical barrier between it and the agar substrate. The wide hyphae in the center of the mycelial strands contain protein-dense structures on their cell walls that are shaped like a torus. Their function is

neg: Lichen than the component fungus, alga, or cyanobacterium growing by itself, naturally or in culture. The body (thallus) of most lichens is different from those of either the fungus or alga growing separately. When grown in the laboratory in the absence of its photobiont, a lichen fungus develops as a structureless, undifferentiated mass of fungal filaments (hyphae). If combined with its photobiont under appropriate conditions, its characteristic form associated with the photobiont emerges, in the process called morphogenesis. In a few remarkable cases, a single lichen fungus can develop into two very different lichen forms when associating with either a green

neg: Fungus basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms. The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including "Magnaporthe grisea", form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by

neg: Xerocomellus zelleri mushroom, meaning that the fungal hyphae form sheaths around the rootlets of certain trees, exchanging nutrients with them in a mutualistic relationship. The fungus associates with alder, poplar and other hardwoods, and has been shown in laboratory culture to form ectomycorrhizae with Western Hemlock ("Tsuga heterophylla"). However, the fungus may have saprobic tendencies, as it has been noted to grow under California Redwood (sometimes in the rotted wood of old trunks), a tree not known to form mycorrizhae. It is known to form long rhizomorphs (aggregations of hyphae that resemble roots), and has been noted to be more abundant in

neg: Lichen morphology of its photobiont, a lichen fungus develops as an undifferentiated mass of hyphae. If combined with its photobiont under appropriate conditions, its characteristic form emerges, in the process called morphogenesis. In a few remarkable cases, a single lichen fungus can develop into two very different lichen forms when associating with either a green algal or a cyanobacterial symbiont. Quite naturally, these alternative forms were at first considered to be different species, until they were found growing in a conjoined manner. There is evidence to suggest that the lichen symbiosis is parasitic or commensalistic, rather than mutualistic. The photosynthetic partner can

neg: Tortotubus fungus. If the case for "Ornatifilum"'s fungal affinity were affirmed, that would make it the oldest known fossil fungus – although, since the fungi form a sister group to the animals, the two lineages must have diverged before the first animal lineages, which are known from fossils as early as the Ediacaran. Tortotubus Tortotubus is an early (Ordovician to Devonian) terrestrial fungus. Its growth trajectory can be ascertained from its fossils, which occur across the globe from the Ordovician to the Devonian. These fossils document foraging activities of slender, cell-wide exploratory hyphae; when these hit a source of food, they

neg: Rust (fungus) which end at the stoma. Inside the stoma, the hyphae tips flatten out to form structures known as appressoria that lock to the cell walls. It is thought that the whole process is mediated by a mechano-sensitive calcium ion channel, located within the germ tube tip, which produces electric currents that stretch the cell membranes, changing gene expression and forming the appresorium. Then a peg grows into the plant's mesophyll cells. The peg produces specialised hyphal tips, known as haustoria. These spread around the plant cells without invading the membranes. The plant cell membranes invaginate around the main haustorial body

neg: Spalting fungi and the ascomycetes. Mold fungi, such as "Trichoderma" spp., are not considered to be spalting fungi, as their hyphae do not colonize the wood internally and they do not produce the enzymes necessary to digest the wood cell wall components. The mottled white pockets and bleaching effect seen in spalted wood is due to white rot fungi. Primarily found on hardwoods, these fungi "bleach" by consuming lignin, which is the slightly pigmented area of a wood cell wall. Some white rotting can also be caused by an effect similar to pigmentation, in which the white hyphae of a fungus,

neg: Stromatinia cepivora soil borne fungus. This is a monocyclic disease meaning it only has one reproductive cycle a season. This is a unique fungus as it does not produce any spores of importance to a normal life cycle. It exists and overwinters as sclerotia (the survival stage). These small black globular structures are resistant to adverse temperatures and can remain dormant in the soil for years even without a host. Sclerotia germinate in response to root exudates. Weather is also a factor of germination and hyphae growth. Mycelium grow through the soil and form an appresoria once a host root is available.

neg: Cericium connections in the generative hyphae. The hyphae in the subiculum are arboriform (tree-like); these are binding-type hyphae. Cystidia feature yellowish incrustations at their bases. The spores produced by the fungus are smooth and thin-walled with an ellipsoid shape, and measure about 5 by 3 μm. The holotype of "Cericium luteoincrustatum" was found in Iguazú National Park, Misiones Province, Argentina. Cericium Cericium is a fungal genus in the family Cystostereaceae. It is a monotypic genus with the single species Cericium luteoincrustatum , a crust fungus. This species was originally described in 1986 by Kurt Hjortstam and Leif Ryvarden, who called it

neg: Piedraia hortae and covered with short aerial hyphae. Microscopically, "P. hortae" produces short, dark hyphae containing thick-walled resting cells. The ascomata consist of irregularly shaped pseudothecia that are black in colour. Each ascoma contains a single ascus containing eight ascospores. The ascospores are dark, curved and become very narrow at the ends forming whip-like appendages. Affected hairs develop stone-like black nodules affixed to the hair shaft that cause weakness of the hair. Infected hairs treated with potassium hydroxide fluoresce under ultraviolet light despite that the fungus itself does not normally fluoresce. Fluorescence of the piedra indicates secondary contamination by bacteria. Identification is

neg: Nidulariaceae mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called hyphae, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood. These hyphae are homokaryotic, containing a single nucleus in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy. Prerequisites

neg: Glomerella graminicola nectrotrophy (lesions appear). This is when secondary hyphae invade cell walls and intercellular spaces. Glomerella graminicola Glomerella graminicola ( "Colletotrichum graminicola") is a fungus in the teleomorphic phase whose anamorphic phase, "Colletotrichum graminicola," causes anthracnose in many cereal species including maize and wheat. Corn is affected in large numbers in the United States by this fungus, especially certain varieties that have been genetically engineered. These engineered varieties are more susceptible to the teleomorph phase of the fungus. It is not until the fungus moves to the teleomorph phase of the lifecycle and begins to produce fruiting bodies that host plants

neg: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum acids from the living host cell to the fungus by use of monosaccharide-H+ symporters. About 48–72 hours after inoculation, depending on the environment, the biotrophic phase ends and the necrotrophic phase begins. It is marked by the development of many thin hyphae, known as secondary or necrotrophic hyphae, which develop off of the primary hyphae and the infection hypha. Unlike the much larger primary hyphae, these secondary hyphae move freely through the host in all directions, penetrating cell walls and membranes alike. In order to more easily ramify throughout the host tissue, the hyphae release enzymes which break down host-specific

neg: Agaricales produced by fruit bodies are usually the result of sexual reproduction. The fruit body is the visible part of the growing fungus. It is supported by and develops from an extensive network of thread-like filaments called hyphae. Hyphae are often collectively termed the mycelium; the food-absorbing part of the fungus—as opposed to the spore-producing fruit body of the fungus—is called the vegetative mycelium. The individual hyphae that compose the mycelium absorb nutrients and water from the substratum in which they are growing. When the nutrient supply is adequate and environmental conditions are favorable, some fungi may grow in the same

neg: Spalting in white rotting fungi. Brown rots are more common to conifers, although one brown rot, "Fistulina hepatica" (beefsteak fungus), is known to cause spalting. Pigmentation is caused when fungi produce extracellular pigments "inside" wood. Bluestain is also a form of pigmentation, however generally bluestain pigments are bound within the hyphae cell walls. A visible color change can be seen if enough hyphae are concentrated in an area. Pigmenting fungi classified as spalting fungi do decay wood, they simply do so at a slower rate (soft rotting) than white rotting fungi. The most common groups of pigmentation fungi are the imperfect

neg: Haustorium The largest are complex formations adding significant mass to a cell, expanding between the cell wall and cell membrane. In the "Chytridiomycota", the entire fungus may become enclosed in the cell, and it is arguable whether this should be considered analogous to a haustorium. Haustoria arise from intercellular hyphae, appressoria, or external hyphae. The hypha narrows as it passes through the of cell and then expands on invaginating the cell. A thickened, electron-dense collar of material is deposited around the hypha at the point of invagination. Further, the host cell wall becomes highly modified in the invaginated zone. Inclusions normally

neg: Fungal-bacterial endosymbiosis of about 6 months, coinciding with the life span of Geosiphon. Ca. G. sporarum, in contrast, is an obligate endosymbiont in the AM fungus G. margarita. They have been observed replicating within vacuoles and have been found in all stages of the life of the fungus including the spores, vegetative hyphae, and plant cell-associated hyphae. It is thought that the bacteria are transmitted vertically from parent to offspring in the fungi as permanent residents. Thus, bacterial endosymbionts are typically incorporated into growing fungi either through phagocytosis during some point in the life cycle of the fungus or passed on vertically

neg: Sporidiobolus salmonicolor yeast cells to form dikaryotic hyphae with clamp connections. Hyphae have “simple” septal pores that allow continuity of the cytoplasm between cells. At the terminal end of the hypha, thick-walled, resting spores called teliospores form. These germinate to form a transversely-septate basidia that bears two large basidiospores. The optimum temperature for growth of "Sporobolomyces salmonicolor" is between , being the highest tolerable temperature. Growth does not occur at . This species does not undergo fermentation. Additionally, "Sporobolomyces salmonicolor" shows positive urease activity and a positive staining response when stained with diazonium blue B. Diazonium blue B is a technique used

neg: Ectomycorrhiza across the root interface, following the assimilation of ammonium by the fungus. However, the pathways responsible for this conversion are largely unknown, though there are several plausible hypotheses. It is also important to note that the net transfer of nutrients to plants requires three transport components: 1) the soil-fungus interface, 2) the fungus-apoplast interface, and 3) the apoplast-root cell interface. As the hyphae of the Hartig net region become more densely packed, they press against the cell walls of the phytobiont’s root cells. Often the fungal and plant cell walls become almost indistinguishable where they meet, thus forming a homogenous

neg: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum in contact with the cell wall at all times. The primary hyphae do not penetrate the host cell's plasma membranes, but instead grows between it and the cell wall. As such, these hyphae do not intentionally kill any cells. In these early stages of infection, proteins are released by the infection vesicle which suppress the host's defense responses. One such protein is formed by the nitrogen starvation-induced gene "CgDN3". The proteins suppress any hypersensitivity responses from the host to allow unhindered growth and development of the fungus. During the biotrophic phase, the pathogen gains nutrients by transferring hexoses and amino

neg: Laboulbeniales Laboulbeniales The Laboulbeniales is an order of Fungi within the class Laboulbeniomycetes. They are also known by the colloquial name, labouls. The labouls include over 2000 species of obligate insect ectoparasites, with cellular thalli. They typically do not kill their hosts, although they may impair host fitness if the level of infestation is high. Laboulbeniales form individual thalli, and lack vegetative hyphae. A thallus is attached to its host by a dark-colored foot cell, through which the fungus penetrates the exoskeleton of its host to draw nutrition from the hemolymph. The external part of the thallus may form male structures

neg: Suillus americanus be found in drier weather when other species are not abundant. "Suillus americanus" is a mycorrhizal species, a mutualistic relationship where the fungus forms a sheath on the surface of the root from which hyphae extend outward into the soil, and inwards between the cortical cells with which they interface to form a Hartig net. The main benefit for the fungus is constant access to a supply of carbohydrates produced by the plant's photosynthesis, while the plant benefits from an enhanced supply of mineral nutrients from the soil, taken up by the hyphae of the fungus. It grows in association

neg: Ascomycota tip can be very similar to the normal hyphal tip, or it can be differentiated. The most common differentiation is the formation of a bottle shaped cell called a phialide, from which the spores are produced. Not all of these asexual structures are a single hypha. In some groups, the conidiophores (the structures that bear the conidia) are aggregated to form a thick structure. E.g. In the order "Moniliales," all of them are single hyphae with the exception of the aggregations, termed as coremia or synnema. These produce structures rather like corn-stokes, with many conidia being produced in a mass

neg: Gametangium the gametes look alike and cannot be classified into "male" or "female." For example, in zygomycetes, two gametangia (single multinucleate cells at the end of hyphae) form good contact with each other and fuse into a zygosporangium. Inside the zygosporangium, the nuclei from each of the original two gametangia pair up. Gametangium A gametangium (plural: gametangia) is an organ or cell in which gametes are produced that is found in many multicellular protists, algae, fungi, and the gametophytes of plants. In contrast to gametogenesis in animals, a gametangium is a haploid structure and formation of gametes does not involve meiosis.

neg: Nothoclavulina Nothoclavulina Nothoclavulina is a genus of fungus in the Tricholomataceae family. The genus is monotypic, containing the single species Nothoclavulina ditopa, described by American mycologist Rolf Singer in 1970. The species, found in Argentina, is an anamorphic version of the genus "Arthrosporella". The generic name "Nothoclavulina" is Latin for "false "Clavulina"". The fungus white sporocarps measure by , and have a central strand of filamentous hyphae. The surface is pulverulent—as if covered with a fine white powder. There are no basidia, basidiospores, nor clamp connections present in the hyphae. The fungus produces arthrospores, specialized uninucleate cells that function like a

neg: Isogamy mating types come close together, the cells form conjugation tubes between the filaments. Once the tubes are formed, one cell balls up and crawls through the tube into the other cell to fuse with it, forming a zygote. In ciliates, cell fission may follow self-fertilization (autogamy), or it may follow conjugation (exchange of nuclei). In zygomycetes fungi, two hyphae of opposing mating types form special structures called gametangia where the hyphae touch. The gametangia then fuse into a zygosporangium. In other fungi, cells from two hyphae with opposing mating types fuse, but only the cytoplasm is fused (plasmogamy). The two

neg: Auxiliary cell Auxiliary cell The auxiliary cell is a spore-like structure that form within the fungal family Gigasporaceae (order Diversisporales). Auxiliary cells have thin cell walls, echinulate (spiny), papillate, knobby or sometimes smooth surfaces, and are formed from hyphae after spore germination before the formation of mycorrhizae, and then on the extraradical hyphae in the soil. They may not be 'cells' in the biological sense of the word, as they are structures found with coenocytic hyphae belonging to members of the phylum (division) Glomeromycota. Mostly they are known from members of the Gigasporaceae. Currently this family contains "Gigaspora", "Scutellospora" and "Racocetra", but

neg: Auriscalpium barbatum with sterigmata up to 4.5 µm long, and have dimensions of 22–25 by 5.5–7 µm. The cap tissue consists of generative hyphae, thick-walled skeletal hyphae, and some oleiferous (lipid-containing) hyphae. The fungus is only known from the type collection, a single specimen that was found growing on pieces of humus in sandy soil in an open area. "Eucalyptus tetragona" trees were growing nearby. Auriscalpium barbatum Auriscalpium barbatum is a species of spine fungus in the family Auriscalpiaceae of the Russulales order. Found in Western Australia in 1977 embedded on fragments of humus in sandy soil, it was described as new

neg: Mycetophagites turn host to a hypermycoparasitic necrotrophic fungus species "Entropezites patricii". Hyphae of "Entropezites" are preserved penetrating the "Mycetophagites" hyphae forming areas of decomposing tissues. "Entropezites" also displays a range of growth stages for probable zygospores. The combined distinguishable characters of "Mycetophagites" were not enough for Poinar and Buckley to place the genus further than Hypocreales "incertae sedis". Where the hyphae of "Mycetophagites" penetrate into the "Palaeoagaracites" cap, distinct areas of cell lysis appear to be present. The necrotrophic nature of the interaction is similar to the modern genus "Sepedonium". However the details of the condia and mycelium are distinct from

neg: Auxiliary cell there are other generic names that have not been widely accepted ("Dentiscutata", "Cetraspora", "Fuscutata" and "Quatunica") — all of these form auxiliary cells. Members of the genus "Pacispora" (another genus in the Diversisporales) are also said to produce a kind of auxiliary cell but this requires further confirmation. Auxiliary cell The auxiliary cell is a spore-like structure that form within the fungal family Gigasporaceae (order Diversisporales). Auxiliary cells have thin cell walls, echinulate (spiny), papillate, knobby or sometimes smooth surfaces, and are formed from hyphae after spore germination before the formation of mycorrhizae, and then on the extraradical hyphae in

neg: Fungus cells (see heterokaryosis). In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic "hook" at the hyphal septum. During cell division, formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural "asci") is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium. Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that

neg: Spiranthes spiralis at the beginning of flowering time, though the outer cell layer of the tuber may still contain living hyphae. New tubers are colonized when they have reached their maximum size. Infiltrated cells contain coils of hyphae of Rhizoctonia-type. Autumn lady's tresses can accommodate at least types of fungus in its roots. Some of these mycorrhizal fungi are from genera that also occur in other orchids, such as "Ceratobasidium" and "Rhizoctonia". But there are also fungi present in the tubers that were not known to enter into an endophytic relationship, such as the ascomycete genera "Davidiella", "Leptosphaeria" and "Alternaria" and the

neg: Amylocystis lapponica contain the fungus. "Polyporus ursinus", proposed by Curtis Gates Lloyd in 1915, is now considered a synonym of "Amylocystis lapponica". The fungus has fruit bodies that range in form from crust-like to effused-reflexed (mostly crust-like, with edges curling out to form rudimentary caps). Individual fruit bodies measure up to wide, and have a dirty whitish to light buff surface colour that becomes reddish brown when dry or if bruised. "Amylocystis lapponica" has a monomitic hyphal system, containing only generative hyphae. These hyphae are mostly thick-walled and measure 4–10.5 µm thick. The spores are cylindrical, hyaline, and smooth, measuring 8–11 by

neg: Ungulidaedalea the cap underside. Microscopic characteristics include its densely septated skeletal hyphae, and oblong-ellipsoid spores that measure 4–5.2 by 2.2–2.8 μm. Ungulidaedalea Ungulidaedalea is a fungal genus in the family Fomitopsidaceae. The genus was circumscribed by Chinese mycologists in 2016 to contain the single species Ungulidaedalea fragilis, a fungus that was described as new in 2014 with the name "Fomitopsis fragilis". The holotype of this fungus was collected in Jianfengling Nature Reserve, in Ledong County (Hainan). The generic name "Ungulidaedalea" refers to the resemblance between this species and "Daedalea", and also to the hoof-shaped (ungulate) form of the fruit body. "Ungulidaedalea

neg: Tortotubus Tortotubus Tortotubus is an early (Ordovician to Devonian) terrestrial fungus. Its growth trajectory can be ascertained from its fossils, which occur across the globe from the Ordovician to the Devonian. These fossils document foraging activities of slender, cell-wide exploratory hyphae; when these hit a source of food, they produced secondary branches that grew back down the original filament, covered themselves with an envelope, and served as pipes to shuttle nutrients to other parts of the organism. Today, mycelium with this growth pattern is observed in the mushroom-forming fungi. The form genus "Ornatifilum" was erected by Burgess and Edwards in 1991

neg: Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus not amyloid; their surface is smooth. They are yellow in Melzer's reagent. The basidia have dimension of 46–62 × 7–10 µm, and are tetrasporic with short, stubby sterigmata. They have neither pleurocystidia nor cheilocystidia. The cap cuticle has a width of 250 to 450 µm and consists of loopshaped, dark hyphae with a width from 2 to 3 µm, which form an ixocutis (a horizontal layer of hyphae embedded in slime) and possess clamp connections; the fungus has no hypocutis. The gill trama consists of hyphae about 3 to 8 µm thick; the cap tissue comprises radial hyphae. The mycorrhiza,

neg: Ascocarp Ascocarp An ascocarp, or ascoma (plural: ascomata), is the fruiting body (sporocarp) of an ascomycete phylum fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of asci, each of which typically contains four to eight ascospores. Ascocarps are most commonly bowl-shaped (apothecia) but may take a spherical (cleistothecia) or flask-like (perithecia) form. The ascocarp is classified according to its placement (in ways not fundamental to the basic taxonomy). It is called "epigeous" if it grows above ground, as with the morels, while underground ascocarps, such as truffles, are termed "hypogeous". The form of the hymenium is divided

neg: Fungus are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are

neg: Myriothele the numerous hyphal pegs. The specific epithet "philippiae" refers to the host plant "Philippia". Although Nakasone refers to the fungus as "clearly not related to "Epithele" or the Polyporales", Index Fungorum classifies the species as a member of the family Polyporaceae. The fruit body of a "Myriothele" fungus is in the form of thick, soft crust. The fertile, spore-bearing part of the crust surface, or hymenium, features "teeth" that originate from hyphal pegs. Hyphal pegs are bundles of hyphae that originate in the trama and project into the hymenium. The hyphal system is monomitic, meaning that there are only generative

neg: Peniophora incarnata or red. The base of the fruit body is composed of brown hyphae, with clamp connections, and moderately thick cell walls, measuring 3.2 to 4.5 μm in width. The basidiospores are cylindrical. "P. incarnata" is sometimes parasitised by the yellow brain fungus ("Tremella mesenterica"). Peniophora incarnata Peniophora incarnata, the rosy crust fungus, is a species of Basidiomycotal fungus in the order Russulales and family Peniophoraceae. It is a resupinate, or crust-like species, that grows on the surface of bark. In Scandinavia it grows on a range of deciduous hosts and less often on coniferous trees. The fruit bodies of "P.

neg: Mycelium components such as lignin, which many other composting microorganisms cannot. Turning a backyard compost pile will commonly expose visible networks of mycelia that have formed on the decaying organic material within. Compost is an essential soil amendment and fertilizer for organic farming and gardening. Composting can divert a substantial fraction of municipal solid waste from landfills. Mycelium Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and

neg: Amanita abrupta common in the Southeastern United States; in Texas, it has been called both infrequent, and common in the Big Thicket National Preserve. Like most other "Amanita" species, "A. abrupta" is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, enabling the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients. "Amanita abrupta" is widely distributed throughout eastern North America, where it has been found as far north as Quebec, Canada, and as far

neg: Glomerella graminicola then uses to push a hyphae through the corn cell wall. This is called the penetration peg. The penetration peg then grows, extends through the cell extracting nutrients and the host cell wall dies. Hyphae migrate from epidermal cells to mesophyll cells. As a defense response, the cells produce papillae to prevent cell entry but is typically not seen successful. It is believed C. graminicola has a biotrophic phase because the plasma membrane of the epidermal cells is not immediately penetrated after invasion into the epidermal cell wall. Between 48–72 hours after infection, "C. graminicola" shifted from biotrophic growth to

neg: Actinomycetales can form spores on aerial hyphae. Actinomycetales bacteria can be infected by bacteriophages, which are called actinophages. Actinomycetales can range from harmless bacteria to pathogens with resistance to antibiotics. Actinomycetales are Gram-positive, but several species have complex cell wall structures that make the Gram staining unsuitable (e.g. Mycobacteriaceae). They are also considered a transitional group between bacteria and fungi because Actinomycetales share characteristics with both these groups. Actinomycetales have prokaryotic nuclei, are susceptible to antibiotics, and have cell walls that contain muramic acid much like bacteria. However, Actinomycetales also form filaments or hyphae, similar to many forms of hyphal fungi.

neg: Hydnellum ferrugineum fruit body matures. In the stipe, the flesh can become blackish in age. Like other "Hydnellum" species, fruit body tissue is made of generative hyphae that do not expand. This slows the growth of the fruit body, often enabling it to persist for several months. The fungus employs an indeterminate growth pattern, in which the fruit body formation begins from a vertical column of hyphae that eventually expand at the top to form the cap. Any solid objects encountered during growth, such as grass or twigs, can be enveloped by the expanding fruit body. Similarly, closely neighboring caps can fuse

neg: Fertilisation a queen may mate with eight or more drones. She then stores the sperm for the rest of her life, perhaps for five years or more. In many fungi (except chytrids), as in some protists, fertilisation is a two step process. First, the cytoplasms of the two gamete cells fuse (called plasmogamy), producing a dikaryotic or heterokaryotic cell with multiple nuclei. This cell may then divide to produce dikaryotic or heterokaryotic hyphae. The second step of fertilisation is karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei to form a diploid zygote. In chytrid fungi, fertilisation occurs in a single step with the

neg: Xylobolus frustulatus smooth. The hymenial surface is smooth to the naked eye, although long soft hairs can be seen when viewed with a microscope. These 'hairs' are protruding acanthocystidia (cystidia bearing a few projections near the tip) and hyphae. Young layers are pale ochraceous, while older ones dull to deep brown. The fungus is inedible, and lacks any distinctive taste or odor. The hyphal system is monomitic, meaning that there are only generative hyphae (relatively undifferentiated hyphae that can develop reproductive structures) are present. These vertically arranged, short-celled hyphae form transitions to acanthocystidia, and have a diameter of about 3.5–5 µm. They

neg: Hülle cell a single perforate septum where woronin bodies can be observed and represents a typical ascomycetous septum. The second septum which separates Hülle cells from the subtending hyphae is unique and named basal septum. At the basal septum vesicle fusion is observable. Consequently, to this fusion so called lomasome-like accumulations are visible. These lomasome-like structures are membrane-invaginations. In Hülle cells several nuclei, mitochondria, lipid bodies and storage products can be observed (Ellis et al., 1973). During initial Hülle cell formation, it was shown that several nuclei fuse to form a marcronucleus (Carvalho et al., 2002). Different species of the Aspergillus genus

neg: Spruce broom rust and fertilize receptive hyphae, forming dikaryotic mycelium and in turn dikaryotic aeciospores. From here the disease cycle repeats, and symptoms similar to last season arise on the spruce by midsummer. A feature unique to the "Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli" disease cycle is the fact that the fungus does not produce urediospores, and thus spruce broom rust is not a truly macrocyclic disease. The lack of urediospores prevents reinfection of the primary host within the same year. The intense odor given off from the spermogonia on the needles in the spring attract insects, which cross-fertilize the fungus. This fertilization allows for aecia to

neg: Athelia rolfsii in the strict sense. In 1932, Mario Curzi discovered that the teleomorph (spore-bearing state) was a corticioid fungus and accordingly placed the species in the form genus "Corticium". With a move to a more natural classification of fungi, "Corticium rolfsii" was transferred to "Athelia" in 1978. The fungus produces effused basidiocarps (fruit bodies) that are smooth and white. Microscopically, they consist of ribbon-like hyphae with clamp connections. Basidia are club-shaped, bearing four smooth, ellipsoid basidiospores, measuring 4–7 by 3–5 μm. Small, brownish sclerotia (hyphal propagules) are also formed, arising from the hyphae. "Athelia rolfsii" occurs in soil as a saprotroph,

neg: Cyathus striatus haploid nucleus. After the spores have been dispersed into a suitable growing environment, they germinate and develop into homokaryotic hyphae, with a single nucleus in each cell compartment. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy. After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions, fruiting bodies may be formed from the dikaryotic mycelia. These fruiting bodies produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new spores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting

neg: Yuchengia Yuchengia Yuchengia is a fungal genus in the family Polyporaceae. It is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Yuchengia narymica, a crust fungus formerly placed in the genus "Perenniporia" and originally described as "Trametes narymica" by Czech mycologist Albert Pilát. "Yuchengia narymica" has a cream to yellowish buff pore surface with angular pores. The hyphal system is dimitic (containing both generative and skeletal hyphae), and the generative hyphae have clamp connections. Similar to "Perenniporia", "Yuchengia" has thick-walled and cyanophilous spores. "Yuchengia" is distinguished from "Perenniporia" in its acyanophilous and amyloid skeletal hyphae that dissolve in KOH, and non-dextrinoid spores.

neg: Mycorrhiza the next section. The most common is the arbuscular type that is present in 70% of plant species, including many crop plants such as wheat and rice. Mycorrhizas are commonly divided into "ectomycorrhizas" and "endomycorrhizas". The two types are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate individual cells within the root, while the hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall and invaginate the cell membrane. Endomycorrhiza includes "arbuscular", "ericoid", and "orchid mycorrhiza", while "arbutoid mycorrhizas" can be classified as "ectoendomycorrhizas". "Monotropoid" mycorrhizas form a special category. Endomycorrhizas are variable and have been further

neg: Actinomyces Actinomyces Actinomyces is a genus of the Actinobacteria class of bacteria. They are all gram-positive. "Actinomyces" species are facultatively anaerobic (except "A. meyeri" and "A. israelii" both obligate anaerobe), and they grow best under anaerobic conditions. "Actinomyces" species may form endospores, and, while individual bacteria are rod-shaped, "Actinomyces" colonies form fungus-like branched networks of hyphae. The aspect of these colonies initially led to the incorrect assumption that the organism was a fungus and to the name "Actinomyces", "ray fungus" (from Greek "actis", ray, beam and "mykes", fungus). "Actinomyces" species are ubiquitous, occurring in soil and in the microbiota of animals,

neg: Fungus of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and

neg: Ectomycorrhiza interfacial matrix through which nutrients can easily disperse. The tips of the branched hyphae contain dense cytoplasm with a high concentration of mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum. This arrangement is stretched in the direction of hyphal growth indicating that the transfer of nutrients between fungus and plant is localized in this area of contact. ATPase activity in both fungal and plant plasma membranes at the Hartig net indicate a cooperatively bidirectional nutrient exchange. Due to a lack of septate hyphae, a coenocytic, transfer cell-like structure characterizes the Hartig net of many ectomycorrhizas, which facilitates interhyphal transport. Wall ingrowths in "Pisonia",

neg: Candida parapsilosis 1940. It is now considered an important, emerging nosocomial pathogen. "C. parapsilosis" is the most common non-"C. albicans" species of "Candida" and the second most common pathogen in superficial candidiasis after "C. albicans". "Candida parapsilosis" does not form true hyphae; it exists in either a yeast phase or pseudohyphal form. It is white, creamy, and shiny in dextrose agar and its cell shape is oval, round, or cylindrical. When "C. parapsilosis" is in yeast form, its phenotype is smooth or cratered. In contrast, the phenotype of the pseudohyphae form is wrinkled or concentric. Recently found the formation of pseudohyphae is

neg: Parasexual cycle Parasexual cycle The parasexual cycle, a process peculiar to fungi and single-celled organisms, is a nonsexual mechanism of parasexuality for transferring genetic material without meiosis or the development of sexual structures. It was first described by Italian geneticist Guido Pontecorvo in 1956 during studies on "Aspergillus nidulans" (also called "Emericella nidulans" when referring to its sexual form, or teleomorph). A parasexual cycle is initiated by the fusion of hyphae (anastomosis) during which nuclei and other cytoplasmic components occupy the same cell (heterokaryosis and plasmogamy). Fusion of the unlike nuclei in the cell of the heterokaryon results in formation of a

neg: Entropezites not enough for Poinar and Buckley to place the genus further than Hypocreales "incertae sedis". Where the hyphae of "Entropezites" penetrate into the "Mycetophagites" hyphae, distinct areas of necrotic tissue appear to be present. The necrotrophic nature of the interaction is similar to the modern genera "Penicillium", "Schizophyllum" and "Trichoderma". However the extensive intergrowth of the host and parasite hyphae is distinct from those found in the modern genera. Entropezites Entropezites is an extinct monotypic genus of hypermycoparasitic fungus in the order Hypocreales. At present it contains the single species Entropezites patricii. The genus is solely known from the Lower

neg: Ant–fungus mutualism switching among ant species is not a highly uncommon practice. Given the exclusive New World distribution of the over 200 fungus-growing ant species, this mutualism is thought to have originated in the basin of the Amazon rainforest some 50–66 million years ago. The species "Cyatta abscondita" is considered the most recent ancestor of all leaf-cutting ants. Though the ants are monophyletic, their symbionts are not. They fall roughly into three major groups, only G1 having evolved gongylidia. Some G2 species grow long hyphae that form a protective cover over the nest. Those in G3 are paraphyletic, the most heteregenous, and

neg: Mushroom of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covers

neg: Dendrocollybia tissue layer) of the sclerotium can be used as a diagnostic character to distinguish between "D. racemosa" and small white specimens of "Collybia". The hyphae of the cortex of "D. racemosa" are "markedly angular", in comparison with "C. cookei" (rounded hyphae) and "C. tuberosa" (elongated hyphae). The cortical layer in "D. racemosa" has an arrangement that is known as "textura epidermoidea"—with the hyphae arranged like a jigsaw puzzle. Heavy deposits of dark reddish-brown pigment are evident throughout the cortical tissue in or on the walls and the tips of hyphae. The remaining "Collybia" species, "C. cirrhata", does not form sclerotia.

neg: Tree such as potassium in solution. The roots require oxygen to respire and only a few species such as the mangrove and the pond cypress ("Taxodium ascendens") can live in permanently waterlogged soil. In the soil, the roots encounter the hyphae of fungi. Many of these are known as mycorrhiza and form a mutualistic relationship with the tree roots. Some are specific to a single tree species, which will not flourish in the absence of its mycorrhizal associate. Others are generalists and associate with many species. The tree acquires minerals such as phosphorus from the fungus while it obtains the carbohydrate

neg: Candida tropicalis – 10 micrometers. A mould exhibits dimorphism forming a single-celled yeast or so-called blastoconidia which reproduces by simple buddingㄡ Conidia is the asexual unit that are produced by budding of the tips or walls of the hyphae. Conidia is a type of simple and unicellular body that could take the form of multicellular cell with different shapes, sizes, and colors. Microconidia is used to refer to small and unicellular conidia whereas macroconidia refers to large and multicellular conidia. There are different media on which "C. tropicalis" can grow effectively. A common medium used is the Sabouraud’s agar which contains peptone

neg: Arthrobotrys oligospora by the fungus which means it is possible an antibiotic is released inside the nematode. In 1993, secondary metabolites (oligosporon, oligosporol A, and oligosporal B) which can act as antibiotics were found in the fungus. Oligosporon, oligosporol A, oligosporal B have hemolytic effects and are cytotoxic to nematodes, however they are not toxic to the "C. elegans". Other oligosporon-type secondary metabolites also found in "A. oligospora" include (4S,5R,6R)-4′,5′- dihydrooligosporon, (4S,5R,6R)-hydroxyoligosporon, and (4S,5R,6R)-10′11 ′-epoxyoligosporon. A branch of hyphae grows out of a vegetative hyphae eventually arching back to the parent hyphae and fuses with it to make a loop. This process

neg: Neolentinus "Heliocybe" had been placed in synonymy but it differs phylogenetically and anatomically by the lack of clamp connections that all "Neolentinus" produce on their generative hyphae. The best known species in this genus is "Neolentinus lepideus", sometimes known as the "train wrecker", a name coined because the fungus is one of the few decay fungi that can grow on creosote-treated railroad ties. "Neolentinus lepideus" also grows on timbers in old mines, but because it requires light to form its cap, the fungus forms bizarre growth forms when fruit bodies start to form in dark mine shafts or cellars. "Neolentinus lepideus"

neg: Antrodiella nanospora pores, and does not have cystidioles in the hymenium. Antrodiella nanospora Antrodiella nanospora is a species of crust fungus in the family Steccherinaceae. Found in China, it was described as new to science in 2018 by mycologist Hai-Sheng Yuan. The type collection was made in Maoershan Nature Reserve (Xing'an County, Guangxi), where it was found growing on a fallen angiosperm branch. The specific epithet "nanospora" refers to its small spores, which measure 2.9–3.2 by 1.8–2.1 μm. The fungus has a dimitic hyphal system, and its generative hyphae have clamp connections. It is similar in appearance to "Antrodiella minutispora", but this

neg: Entoloma haastii basidia (spore-bearing cells in the hymenium) are four-spored, with dimensions of 30–35 by 10 µm. There are no cheilocystidia nor pleurocystidia on the gills (cystidia on the edge and face of gills, respectively). The cuticle is a trichoderm observed on not weathered specimens, or a cutis with suberect to cylindrical hyphae (5–12 µm diameter), terminal cells fusoid, membrane thin-walled, not gelatinized, with blue-brownish pigment in the cytoplasm. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae. This fungus is similar to "Entoloma nitidum" (called "Rhodophyllus nitidus" Quel. by some authors) as described by Lange, but it is smaller with a less attenuated

neg: Lichen in different climates, this might indicate having more than one photosynthetic partner at the same time might enable the lichen to exist in a wider range of habitats and geographic locations. Phycobionts can have a net output of sugars with only water vapor. The thallus must be saturated with liquid water for cyanobionts to photosynthesize. Algae produce sugars that are absorbed by the fungus by diffusion into special fungal hyphae called appressoria or haustoria in contact with the wall of the algal cells. The appressoria or haustoria may produce a substance that increases permeability of the algal cell walls, and

neg: Mold their presence is visible to the unaided eye only when they form large colonies. A mold colony does not consist of discrete organisms but is an interconnected network of hyphae called a mycelium. All growth occurs at hyphal tips, with cytoplasm and organelles flowing forwards as the hyphae advance over or through new food sources. Nutrients are absorbed at the hyphal tip. In artificial environments such as buildings, humidity and temperature are often stable enough to foster the growth of mold colonies, commonly seen as a downy or furry coating growing on food or other surfaces. Few molds can begin

neg: Rhodonia thick, juicy and soft, with a pale rose or white colouring. It has a monomitic hyphal system (containing only generative hyphae), and the hyphae have clamp connections. These hyphae are initially thin-walled but become thick-walled in mature fruit bodies. The spores are cylindric. "Rhodonia placenta" had its sequenced genome published in 2009. It has an "unusual repertoire" of extracellular glycoside hydrolases—secreted enzymes that break down the complex sugars found in lignocellulose. Rhodonia Rhodonia is a fungal genus in the family Fomitopsidaceae. It is a monotypic genus, containing the single crust fungus Rhodonia placenta. A brown rot species, "R. placenta" is

neg: Emmonsia parva the beaver, mink, weasel, wood rat, pine marten, pine squirrel, cottontail rabbit, muskrat, skunk, white-tailed mouse and the rock rabbit. The fungus is closely related to the genus "Blastomyces". The fungus is dimorphic growing in two distinct forms. It grows as hyphae at room temperature, but when conidia are transferred to 40 °C they convert to larger adiaspores. It has no teleomorphs and no sexual stage. It does not have any particular growth requirements in terms of culture media, but it is known to grow well on pablum cereal agar, potato dextrose agar (PDA) and phytone yeast extract agar. They

neg: Entropezites preserved "Palaeoagaracites antiquus" cap is host to both a mycoparasitic fungus and a hypermycoparasitic fungus. The surface of the gilled fungus "Palaeoagaracites" specimen hosts the "Mycetophagites atrebora" mycelia. The mycelia of "Mycetophagites" are found across the surface of the "P. antiquus" pileus, and the hyphae penetrate into the "P. antiquus" tissues themselves, forming necrotic areas. "Mycetophagites" is in turn host to a hypermycoparasitic necrotrophic fungus species "Entropezites patricii". Hyphae of "Entropezites" are preserved, penetrating the "Mycetophagites" hyphae forming areas of decomposing tissues. "Entropezites" also displays a range of growth stages for probable zygospores. The combined distinguishable characters of "Entropezites" were

neg: Rhizoctonia leguminicola Rhizoctonia leguminicola Slafractonia leguminicola (formerly "Rhizoctonia leguminicola") is a fungus that is a plant pathogen that most often attaches itself to the "Trifolium pratense" or red clover. It is also called Black Patch Disease. The infection is first seen as small black patches on the leaves of red clover (often on the bottom of the leaves first) and spreads to cover the entire plant, killing it. The hyphae of this fungus are white and web-like in appearance, just like those of other fungi. The consumption of the fungus can be harmful to any grazing animals, especially to horses and cows.

neg: Lactarius indigo subtropical forests of Xalapa, Mexico, confirmed that maximal production coincided with the rainy season between June and September. "L. indigo" is a mycorrhizal fungus, and as such, establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ("hosts"), in which the fungi exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host. The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species, forming so-called ectomycorrhizae—an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host, as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and

neg: Hwp1 Hwp1 Hwp1 (Hyphal wall protein 1) is a protein (glycoprotein) located on the surface of an opportunistic diploid fungus called "Candida albicans". This "hyphal" denomination is due to Hwp1 appears exclusively on the surface of a projection called hyphae that emerges from the surface of this fungus. Hwp1 is particularly important because it is a substrate of mammalian transglutaminase. This transglutaminase ability has two implications, one (in fungus pathogenicity) proved, and the other (in food proteins potential pathogenicity) hypothetical. Hwp1 has been proven to be involved in oral candidiasis. Candida albicans Hwp1 allows through the use of transglutaminase from the

neg: Microsporum gypseum the fungus is a globose, appendaged gymnothecium that is pale buff in colour and 500–1250 μm in diameter. The peridial hyphae are hyaline, pale buff, septate, and are branched with thinly but have densely verrucose walls. Microconidia are drop shaped, clavate, (1.7–3.5 x 3.3–8.3 μm), unicellular, smooth-walled or can be slightly roughened and are created laterally on the hyphae. The abundance of microconidia is characteristic of the fungus. The hyphae or appendages are of three kinds in the fungi, the first being straight, slender, smooth walled hyphae that can grow up to 250 μm long; they taper at 2.5–4.0 μm

neg: Mycorrhiza of bacterial and microfauna polysaccharides and proteins. This genome analysis revealed the dual saprotrophic and biotrophic lifestyle of the mycorrhizal fungus that enables it to grow within both soil and living plant roots. Ericoid mycorrhizas are the third of the three more ecologically important types. They have a simple intraradical (grow in cells) phase, consisting of dense coils of hyphae in the outermost layer of root cells. There is no periradical phase and the extraradical phase consists of sparse hyphae that don't extend very far into the surrounding soil. They might form sporocarps (probably in the form of small cups),

neg: Arthrobotrys dactyloides and absorb the soft tissues. Within a few hours the nutrients from these are available to the mycelium of the fungus. Unlike some other species of nematophagous fungi which create sticky nets, "A. dactyloides" is able to form constricting ring-traps immediately after emerging from the conidia. These are known as conidial traps and may constitute a survival mechanism under adverse conditions. Under normal conditions, a hypha is formed on germination of the conidia; this grows and branches to form a mycelium, and loop traps form on the hyphae in the mycelium. The fungus is being researched for use in biological

neg: Rhopalomyces elegans material and animal debris, as well as dung associated with soil. The fungus is a parasite of nematode eggs. When it encounters an egg, it produces hyphae that form a structure on the egg surface similar to an appressorium. This structure produces a narrow infection tube that penetrates the egg shell. Once inside, fungal hyphae proliferate by branching and expanding, eventually filling the interior of the egg and absorbing the nutrients within." R. elegans" may be able to attack the larval and adult stages of some nematode species. "Rhopalomyces elegans" can itself be parasitized by the fungi "Mycogone perniciosa" and

neg: Skeletocutis bicolor edges sticking out to form small caps up to 4 mm wide. It has a smooth, pale brown surface. The pore surface, or hymenium, comprises tiny angular pores that number 6–7 per mm. "Skeletocutis bicolor" has a dimitic hyphal system, meaning it has both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. The skeletal hyphae are covered with spiny crystals, especially in the dissepiments (the tissue between the pores)—a characteristic feature of the genus "Skeletocutis". The spores are spherical, hyaline (translucent), and measure 2.5–3 μm in diameter. Skeletocutis bicolor Skeletocutis bicolor is a species of poroid crust fungus in the family Polyporaceae. It

neg: Common bunt soil. The spores persist on the contaminated kernels or in the soil. The disease is initiated when soil-borne, or in particular seed-borne, teliospores germinate in response to moisture and produce hyphae that infect germinating seeds by penetrating the coleoptile before plants emerge. Cool soil temperatures (5° to 10°C) favor infection. The intercellular hyphae become established in the apical meristem and are maintained systemically within the plant. After initial infection, hyphae are sparse in plants. The fungus proliferates in the spikes when ovaries begin to form. Sporulation occurs in endosperm tissue until the entire kernel is converted into a sorus consisting

neg: Hydnellum peckii fungus exchanges minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host. The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species, in an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host (termed ectomycorrhizal), as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree. The ectomycorrhizal structures of "H. peckii" are among a few in the Bankeraceae that have been studied in detail. They are characterized by a plectenchymatous mantle—a layer of tissue made of hyphae

neg: Glomus (fungus) may often be parasitic, with a detrimental effect on plant growth. Rarely, some plant species can parasitise the fungi. "Glomus" species were considered to be entirely asexual until recently (see Meiosis section below). Spores are produced at the tips of hyphae either within the host root or outside the root in the soil. Thought to be chlamydospores, these spores germinate and the germination tube that is produced grows through the soil until it comes into contact with roots. The fungus then penetrates the root and grows between root cells, or it may penetrate the cell wall and grow within root

neg: Pseudallescheria boydii skin. Infection can lead to arthritis, otitis, endocarditis, sinusitis, and other manifestations. Masses of hyphae can form "fungus balls" in the lungs. While "fungus balls" can also form in other organs, they are commonly derived from host necrotic tissue resulting from nodular infarction and thrombosis of lung vessels following infection. This species is second in prevalence after "Aspergillus fumigatus" as a fungal pathogen in cystic fibrosis lung. It causes allergic bronchopulmonary disease and chronic lung lesions that resemble aspergillosis. Infections can also occur in immunocompetent individuals, usually in the lungs and upper respiratory tract. Infections in the CNS, which are