query: who created the idea that reciprocity is important for maintaining relationships

pos: Reciprocity (social psychology) the unconditional act of social gift-giving without any hope or expectation of future positive responses. Some distinguish between ideal altruism (giving with no expectation of future reward) and reciprocal altruism (giving with limited expectation or the potential for expectation of future reward). For more information on this idea, see altruism or altruism (ethics). Reciprocity dates as far back as the time of Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 BC). Hammurabi's code, a collection of 282 laws and standards, lists crimes and their various punishments as well as guidelines for citizens' conduct. The code was formalized example that demanded the individual act in terms

neg: Self-disclosure them because they disclosed personal information. Those who engage in extended reciprocity are affected by the social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity which can account for the lower degree of liking. Since extended reciprocity limits reciprocating disclosure it creates an imbalance in disclosure which violates both of these theories. That said, people usually report that they themselves are disclosing more than is the other partner. This is called perceived partner reciprocity, and it is critical to the self-disclosure process in developing relationships. Two key components for intimacy are disclosure and partner responsiveness. It is extremely important that when

neg: Social penetration theory As social penetration theory suggests, disclosure reciprocity induces positive emotion which is essential for retaining close and enduring relationships. In service industry, compared with securing new customers, maintaining long-term relationships with existing customers is more cost-effective. Therefore, engaging with current customers is a crucial topic in restaurant industry. Hwang "et al." indicates that mutual disclosure is the vital factor for establishing trust between customers and servers. Effective server disclosure, such as sincere advice about menu choices and personal favorite dishes, can elicit reciprocity of information exchange between servers and customers. The received information regarding to the taste and preference of

neg: Social capital relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms. In Coleman's conception, social capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which it is put. According to Robert Putnam, social capital refers to "connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them." According to Putnam and his followers, social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy. Putnam says that social capital is declining in the United States. This is seen in lower levels

neg: Structural anthropology giver and recipient are engaged. Social relationships are therefore based on exchange; Durkheimian solidarity, according to Mauss, is best achieved through structures of reciprocity and related systems of exchange. Lévi-Strauss took this idea and postulated three fundamental properties of the human mind: a) people follow rules; b) reciprocity is the simplest way to create social relationships; c) a gift binds both giver and recipient in a continuing social relationship Structures are universal; their realization is culturally specific. Lévi-Strauss argued that exchange is the universal basis of kinship systems, the structures of which depend on the type of marriage rules that

neg: Memory and social interactions associating feelings or experiences with a stimulus. Memory for previous interactions is critical for successful long-term social relationships. This is largely due to a human expectation of reciprocity, which requires humans to have a better memory for favours or debts owed. These memories play an important role in deciding whether or not a human interacts with another in the future, as they contribute to the construction of a person's reputation. Milinski, Semmann & Krambeck (2002) have demonstrated, through the use of public goods games and indirect reciprocity games, that humans are less likely to interact with those who have a

neg: Social exchange theory According to the study, the amount one person rewards another and the comparison levels for alternatives become the most important factors in determining liking and satisfaction. Auld, C. and Alan C. conducted a study to discover what processes occur and what is experienced during social leisure relationships. They use the concept of reciprocity to understand their findings. The study concluded that meeting new people is often given as a major reason for participation in leisure activities, and meeting new people may be conceptualized as an exercise of reciprocity. In this case, reciprocity is perceived as a starting mechanism for new

neg: Reciprocity (cultural anthropology) human relationships are based on the norm of reciprocity. This claim has been disputed by anthropologists Jonathan Parry, Annette Weiner, and David Graeber amongst others. Marshall Sahlins has emphasized that non-market exchange is constrained by social relationships. That is, exchange in non-market societies is less about acquiring the means of production (whether land or tools) and more about the redistribution of finished goods throughout a community. These social relationships are largely kinship based. His discussion of types of reciprocity is located within what he calls the "domestic mode of production." His typology of reciprocity thus refers to "cultures lacking a

neg: Sándor Ferenczi the analysand to become a co-participant in an encounter created by the therapeutic dyad. This emphasis on empathic reciprocity during the therapeutic encounter was an important contribution to the evolution of psychoanalysis. Ferenczi also believed that self-disclosure of the analyst is an important therapeutic reparative force. The practice of including the therapist's personality in therapy resulted in the development of the idea of mutual encounter: the therapist is allowed to discuss some content from his/her own life and thoughts, as long as it is relevant to the therapy. This is in contrast to the Freudian therapeutic abstinence according to which

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) What is the relation between reciprocity and love, friendship or family relationships? If such relationships are ideally ones in which the parties are connected by mutual affection and benevolence, shouldn’t justice and reciprocity stay out of their way? Isn’t impartiality inconsistent with love? Doesn’t acting on principle take the affection out of friendship or family relationships? Doesn’t following the norm of reciprocity eliminate unconditional love or loyalty? Some contemporary philosophers have criticized major figures in the history of Western philosophy, including John Rawls’ early work, for making familial relationships more or less opaque in theories of justice. (See the reference

neg: Reciprocity (social psychology) or "haggling" (see reciprocity (cultural anthropology) for more information). There are more subtle ways of initiating the reciprocity rule than merely doing something nice for someone so you may expect something in return. One form of this more subtle form of reciprocity is the idea of reciprocal concessions in which the requester lowers his/her initial request, making the respondent more likely to agree to a second request. Under the rule of reciprocity, we are obligated to concede to someone who has made a concession to us. That is, if an individual starts off by requesting something large and you refuse,

neg: Social exchange theory the social exchange. Mauss argues the exchange found in the society is influenced by social behaviors, while morality and religion influence all aspects of life. Bohannan focuses his theory on economic problems such as multicentrism, and modes of exchange. He contributed to the social exchange theory finding the role and function of markets in tribal subsistence economies, makes a distinction of economic redistribution and market exchange from social relationships. He proposes three principles to create a new idea for socioeconomic change, transforming traditional economies, and political economic development. These principles are: reciprocity, redistribution and marketing. He presents the idea that

neg: Inalienable possessions the sum of alienable and inalienable goods, but is brought into existence by the difference and inter-dependence of these two spheres of exchange. Maintaining society thus requires not "keeping-while-giving", but ""keeping-for-giving and giving-for-keeping"." Economists have often shunned the idea of pondering exactly why people want goods. Goods serve many purposes beyond what classical economists might theorize. Goods can serve as systems of social communication according to Mary Douglas, a prominent anthropologist. In fact, anthropology in general is important to economics because it talks about the socio-cultural relationships in economy and economy itself as a cultural system that is not just

neg: Structural anthropology most significant influence on structuralism came from Mauss' "The Gift". Mauss argued that gifts are not free, but rather oblige the recipient to reciprocate. Through the gift, the givers give part of themselves, imbuing the gift a certain power that compels a response. Gift exchanges, therefore play a crucial role in creating and maintaining social relationships by establishing bonds of obligations. Gifts are not merely physical, incidental objects; they possess cultural and spiritual properties. It is a "total prestation" as Mauss called it, as it carries the power to create a system of reciprocity in which the honour of both

neg: Vezo people who do not own a blackboard are allowed to play in the burning heat outside. Family ties are extremely important among the Vezo and elders are greatly respected in the community. Families often provide for each other with younger members building boats for the elderly to use. Maintaining family ties is important to ensure that one is looked after in old age, or after an accident or ill health. Family relationships are particularly important to Vezo fishers because they determine access to marine resources and fishing gear. The Hazomanga is an elder in a family or clan who acts as

neg: Yamazaki Ansai relationships (and virtues): "study wisely, question thoroughly, deliberate carefully, analyze clearly, and act conscientiously." For Ansai, learning was the means to the ends of morality. However, of all of the relationships (and virtues) that Ansai emphasized, the relationship between the lord and vassal (duty) was the most important. Departing from Zhu Xi (who saw humaneness as the most important virtue), Ansai believed that maintaining the social order (through duty to one's lord) was the highest responsibility that one had to fulfill. To achieve reverence (the means toward personal cultivation) Ansai proposed quiet sitting. Through quiet sitting, Ansai believed that an

neg: Egoist anarchism who do not consent. The egoist comes to self-consciousness, not for the God's sake, not for humanity's sake, but for his or her own sake. For him, "[c]ooperation and reciprocity are possible only among those who are unwilling to appeal to fixed patterns of justice in human relationships and instead focus on a form of reciprocity, a union of egoists, in which person each finds pleasure and fulfillment in doing things for others". Walker thought that "what really defines egoism is not mere self-interest, pleasure, or greed; it is the sovereignty of the individual, the full expression of the subjectivity

neg: Behavioral game theory behavior, as a strong reciprocator is willing to reduce their payoff in order to encourage cooperation from others. Dufwenberg and Kirchsteiger (2004) developed a model based on reciprocity called the sequential reciprocity equilibrium. This model adapts traditional game theory logic to the idea that players reciprocate actions in order to cooperate. The model had been used to more accurately predict experimental outcomes of classic games such as the prisoner's dilemma and the centipede game. Rabin (1993) also created a fairness equilibrium that measures altruism's effect on choices. He found that when a player is altruistic to another player the second

neg: Etiquette in Indonesia is nurtured, as embodied in the tradition of decision by consensus ("musyawarah-mufakat"), and the long-established pattern of mutual assistance ("gotong-royong"). Senior is expected to make group decisions, although Indonesians are advocates of group discussion and consensus. This ties back to the idea of maintaining strong group cohesiveness and harmonious relationships. Individualism, especially among traditional community is considered arrogance and shunned upon. Politeness as well as respect, modesty and loyalty, is prevalent in the culture. As with most group-oriented cultures, hierarchy plays a great role in Indonesian culture. It is important to observe that in Indonesia everyone has a status, no

neg: Reciprocity (social psychology) Reciprocity (social psychology) In social psychology, reciprocity is a social norm of responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions. As a social construct, reciprocity means that in response to friendly actions, people are frequently much nicer and much more cooperative than predicted by the self-interest model; conversely, in response to hostile actions they are frequently much more nasty and even brutal. Reciprocity makes it possible to build continuing relationships and exchanges. Fukiyama states that “If the institutions of democracy and capitalism are to work properly, they must coexist within certain premodern cultural habits that ensure

neg: Intimate relationship unemployment, prolonged separation) that negatively impacted intimate relationships for many couples, though other couples' relationships grew stronger as a result of new employment opportunities, a greater sense of perspective, and higher levels of communication and support. As a result, environmental factors are also understood to contribute heavily to the strength of intimate relationships. One team of researcher from Northwestern University who summarised the literature in 2013, found that 'negative-affect reciprocity', which is retaliatory negativity between partners during a conflict, is arguably the most robust predictor of poor marital quality. However, this degradation can be softened, according to their 120 heterosexual

neg: Interpersonal relationship emotional support, self-exploration, and separation distress when parted from the loved one. Other components commonly agreed to be necessary for love are physical attraction, similarity, reciprocity, and self-disclosure. An intimate but non-romantic relationship is known as a platonic relationship. Early adolescent relationships are characterized by companionship, reciprocity, and sexual experiences. As emerging adults mature, they begin to develop attachment and caring qualities in their relationships, including love, bonding, security, and support for partners. Earlier relationships also tend to be shorter and exhibit greater involvement with social networks. Later relationships are often marked by shrinking social networks, as the couple dedicates

neg: Compliance (psychology) some important information. The need to be accurate—and the belief that others know something they do not—often supersedes the individual's personal opinion. Humans are fundamentally motivated by the need to belong—the need for social approval through the maintenance of meaningful social relationships. This need motivates people to engage in behavior that will induce the approval of their peers. People are more likely to take actions to cultivate relationships with individuals they like and/or wish to gain approval from. By complying with others' requests and abiding by norms of social exchange (i.e., the norm of reciprocity), individuals adhere to normative social

neg: Reciprocity (Canadian politics) temporarily shelved the concept. When reciprocity came up again, in 1896, it was the Americans who proposed it to Wilfrid Laurier's Liberals. The idea still excited them, and they immediately began to campaign for it. Despite their general belief it would benefit Canada, the Conservatives campaigned against it. The Liberals went on to win the 1896 election and negotiated an elaborate reciprocity agreement with the United States in 1911. However, in the 1911 election reciprocity again became a major issue, with the Conservatives saying that it would be a "sellout" to the United States. The Liberals were defeated by the

neg: Online participation principles of open publishing and maintaining standards of quality. These systems, like eBay's, promote the idea of trust that relates to expectations of reciprocity which can help increase the sense of reputation for each member. With eBay, you have the opportunity to rate your experience with someone and they, likewise, can rate you. This has an effect on the reputation score. The participants may therefore be encouraged to manage their online identity in order to make a good impression on the other members of the community. Other successful online communities have reputation systems that do not exactly provide any concrete

neg: Hermeneutics the author. The reciprocity between text and context is part of what Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle. Among the key thinkers who elaborated this idea was the sociologist Max Weber. Hans-Georg Gadamer's hermeneutics is a development of the hermeneutics of his teacher, Heidegger. Gadamer asserted that methodical contemplation is opposite to experience and reflection. We can reach the truth only by understanding or mastering our experience. According to Gadamer, our understanding is not fixed but rather is changing and always indicating new perspectives. The most important thing is to unfold the nature of individual understanding. Gadamer pointed out that prejudice

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) personal benefits, such as the love of a parent. The norm of reciprocity varies widely in its details from situation to situation, and from society to society. Anthropologists and sociologists have often claimed, however, that having some version of the norm appears to be a social inevitability. Reciprocity figures prominently in social exchange theory, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, cultural anthropology and rational choice theory. One-to-one reciprocity.Some reciprocal relationships are direct one-to-one arrangements between individuals, or between institutions, or between governments. Some of these are one-time arrangements, and others are embedded in long-term relationships. Families often have expectations that children will

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) reciprocate for the care they receive as infants by caring for their elderly parents; businesses may have long-term contractual obligations with each other: governments make treaties with each other. There are also one-to-one reciprocal relationships that are indirect. For example, there are sometimes long chains of exchanges, in which A gives a benefit to B, who passes on a similar benefit to C, and so on, in which each party in the chain expects that what goes around will eventually come back around. The classic anthropological example is the Kula exchange in the Trobriand Islands. One-to-many and many-to-one reciprocity often

neg: Reciprocity (social psychology) out as gifts to individual donors. In Rome, wealthy elite were linked with their dependents in a cycle of reciprocal gift giving. As these examples suggest, reciprocity enjoyed a cultural prestige among ancient aristocracies for whom it was advantageous. Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin attribute the very nature of humans to reciprocity. They claim humans survived because our ancestors learned to share goods and services "in an honored network of obligation". Thus, the idea that humans are indebted to repay gifts and favors is a unique aspect of human culture. Cultural anthropologists support this idea in what they call the

neg: Justice in the Quran Islamic words: Huquq (rights) or obligations one owes and Hsan (generosity beyond obligation). These words created a guideline for Muslims to abide by. “Central to the prophetic conception of justice are three features: relationships among men and toward God are reciprocal in nature, and justice exists where this reciprocity guides all interaction; justice is both a process and a result of equating otherwise dissimilar entities; and because relationships are highly contextual, justice is to be grasped through its multifarious enactments rather than as a single abstract principle.” The Qur'an places great emphasis on knowledge, and the pursuit thereof, as valuable

neg: Guanxi relationships. In particular, there is a focus on tacit mutual commitments, reciprocity, and trust, which are the grounds of "guanxi" and "guanxi" networks. "Guanxi" also has a major influence on the management of businesses based in Mainland China, and businesses owned by Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (the latter is known as the bamboo network). Closely related concepts include that of "ganqing", a measure which reflects the depth of feeling within an interpersonal relationship, "renqing" ( "rénqíng"/"jen-ch'ing"), the moral obligation to maintain a relationship, and the idea of "face" (, "miànzi"/"mien-tzu"), which refers to social status, propriety, prestige, or a

neg: Altruism (biology) decide to whom to return favors. This mechanism is typical of chimpanzees and very common among human relationships. Yet some opposing experimental research suggests that calculated or contingent reciprocity does not spontaneously arise in laboratory experimental settings, despite patterns of behavior. Biological market theory is an extension of the idea of reciprocal altruism, as a mechanism to explain altruistic acts between unrelated individuals in a more flexible system of exchanging commodities. The term 'biological market' was first used by Ronald Noe and Hammerstein in 1994 to refer to all the interactions between organisms in which different organisms function as 'traders'

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) of friendship involves a relationship between equals – one in which a genuinely reciprocal relationship is possible. This thread appears throughout the history of Western ethics in discussions of personal and social relationships of many sorts: between children and parents, spouses, humans and other animals, and humans and god(s). The question is the extent to which the kind of reciprocity possible in various relationships determines the kind of mutual affection and benevolence possible in those relationships. This said, reciprocation in personal relationships rarely follows a mathematical formula and the level of reciprocation, i.e. the give and take, will vary depending

neg: James L. Walker the oppressed whose consent to their oppression enslaves not only them, but those who do not consent. The egoist comes to self-consciousness, not for the God's sake, not for humanity's sake, but for his or her own sake. For him "Cooperation and reciprocity are possible only among those who are unwilling to appeal to fixed patterns of justice in human relationships and instead focus on a form of reciprocity, a union of egoists, in which person each finds pleasure and fulfillment in doing things for others." Walker is most interested in the relationship of the person to the social world

neg: Individualist anarchism in the United States the egoist rejects notions of duty and is indifferent to the hardships of the oppressed whose consent to their oppression enslaves not only them, but those who do not consent. The egoist comes to self-consciousness, not for the God's sake, not for humanity's sake, but for his or her own sake. For him "Cooperation and reciprocity are possible only among those who are unwilling to appeal to fixed patterns of justice in human relationships and instead focus on a form of reciprocity, a union of egoists, in which person each finds pleasure and fulfillment in doing things for others." Walker

neg: Reciprocity (network science) and antireciprocal (formula_12) networks, with mutual links occurring more and less often than random respectively. If all the links occur in reciprocal pairs, formula_13; if r=0, formula_14. formula_15 This is another advantage of using formula_16, because it incorporates the idea that complete antireciprocal is more statistical significant in the networks with larger density, while it has to be regarded as a less pronounced effect in sparser networks. The reciprocity was analyzed in some real social networks by Gallos . It seems that females tend to have higher reciprocity compared to males. Reciprocity (network science) In network science, reciprocity is a

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) of reciprocity thus requires that we make fitting and proportional responses to both the benefits and harms we receive – whether they come from people who have been benevolent or malicious. Working out the conceptual details of this idea presents interesting questions of its own. The following matters are all considered at length in many of the sources listed below under References, and those authors typically defend particular proposals about how best to define the conceptual details of reciprocity. What follows here is simply an outline of the topics that are under philosophical scrutiny. Qualitative similarity. What counts as making

neg: The formalist vs substantivist debate this assumption does not hold. Unlike their Western capitalist counterparts, their livelihoods are not based on market exchange but on redistribution and reciprocity. Reciprocity is defined as the mutual exchange of goods or services as part of long-term relationships. Redistribution implies the existence of a strong political centre such as kinship-based leadership, which receives and then redistributes subsistence goods according to culturally specific principles. In societies that are not market-based, reciprocity and redistribution usually occur together. Conversely, market exchange is seen as the dominant mode of integration in modern industrial societies, while reciprocity may continue in family and inter-household relations,

neg: Self-disclosure in these relationships can develop only if the persons involved reciprocate disclosures. Intimacy will not develop if only one partner discloses and the other continues to reveal only superficial information. Reciprocity must be gradual and match the intimacy of the other's disclosures. Too rapid, too personal disclosure creates an imbalance in a relationship that can be discomfiting. This gradual process varies from relationship to relationship and can depend on the specific partner with whom one is communicating. Reciprocity is a positive response from the person with whom one is sharing information, whereby the person who received the disclosure self-discloses in

neg: Homo reciprocans unemployment, and negative reciprocity strongly correlates with unemployment. High levels of positive reciprocity correlate with higher income, but no correlation appears to exist between negative reciprocity and income. Homo reciprocans Homo reciprocans, or reciprocating human, is the concept in some economic theories of humans as cooperative actors who are motivated by improving their environment. This concept stands in contrast to the idea of "homo economicus", which states the opposite theory that human beings are exclusively motivated by self-interest. Russian theorist Peter Kropotkin wrote about the concept of "mutual aid" in the early part of the 20th century. The "homo reciprocans"

neg: Organ gifting person they are exchanging with and the social distance involved. Sahlins' (1972) work has pointed to the need to examine the different types of relationships behind gift-giving and the characteristics of the transaction. In the case of generalized reciprocity, altruistic relationships are present and the expectation of reciprocity is indefinite. The value of the object can be increased by the way in which it is given and several authors have pointed to the fact that organs given in altruistic manner acquire greater social worth. Organs given in altruistic manner are thought to say something about the moral character of the

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) or ethical principles that are modeled on the mutuality and mutual benevolence that come out of the face-to-face relations envisaged by Emmanuel Levinas or the I-Thou relationships described by Martin Buber. Like gratitude, these other ideas have things in common with the norm of reciprocity, but are quite distinct from it. Gratitude, in its ordinary sense, is as much about having warm and benevolent feelings toward one’s benefactors as it is about having obligations to them. Reciprocity, in its ordinary dictionary sense, is broader than that, and broader than all discussions that begin with a sense of mutuality and mutual

neg: Salience (language) to develop long-term relationships with consumers on an individual basis. We argue that in contexts in which one partner is an individual, for example, business-to consumer marketing, identity salience may be an important construct that mediates relationship-inducing factors, such as reciprocity and satisfaction, and relationship marketing success." Identity gets tied to brands, products and places for some people. There are generations of family sports team supporters, airline users, vacation goings and even restaurant patrons. These key items become a foundation block of self-identification and perception. The vehicle industry uses certain symbols as part of its marketing campaign. Most of these

neg: Henry M. Hart Jr. 'legislative'" and that the adjudication must be neutral, "thereby claiming the allegiance of litigants through a tacit arrangement of reciprocity..." Heavily influenced by Justice Benjamin Cardozo's approach to adjudication, "principled" decisionmaking thus transcends the immediate outcome of the case at the bar, and through appeal to neutral adjudication principles, "thereby claim[s] the allegiance of litigants through a tacit arrangement of reciprocity." Principled decisionmaking as an idea would later be fleshed out more fully by Wechsler, in Judge Learned Hand's criticism of the activist Warren Court, and which remains an important and debated concept in modern jurisprudence. Other scholars have tied

neg: Presidency of William McKinley international monetary agreement grew, the Senate inserted a provision that authorized the president to reach bilateral treaties providing for the mutual reduction of tariff duties. The Senate passed its version of the bill in July 1897, and the House and Senate used a conference committee to produce a single version of the bill. The final bill contained the reciprocity provision but generally adhered to the higher tariff rates set by the original House bill. McKinley, who strongly supported the idea of reciprocity, signed the bill into law in late July. The McKinley administration reached reciprocity treaties with France and other

neg: Embeddedness modeling. Polanyi's ideas were widely adopted and discussed in anthropology in what has been called "The formalist vs substantivist debate". Subsequently, the term "embeddedness" was further developed by economic sociologist Mark Granovetter, who argued that even in market societies, economic activity is not as disembedded from society as economic models would suggest. According to Polanyi, in non-Capitalist, pre-industrial economies livelihoods are not based on market exchange but on redistribution and reciprocity. Reciprocity is defined as the mutual exchange of goods or services as part of long-term relationships. Redistribution implies the existence of a strong political centre such as kinship-based leadership,

neg: Reciprocity (cultural anthropology) Sahlins, a well-known American cultural anthropologist, identified three main types of reciprocity (generalized, balanced and negative) in the book "Stone Age Economics" (1972). Reciprocity was also the general principal used by Claude Lévi-Strauss to explain the "Elementary Structures of Kinship" (1949), in one of the most influential works on kinship theory in the post-war period. Annette Weiner argued that the "norm of reciprocity" is deeply implicated in the development of Western economic theory. Both John Locke and Adam Smith used the idea of reciprocity to justify a free market without state intervention. Reciprocity was used, on the one hand, to

neg: New relationship energy 1979. While the dynamics described by NRE apply to all relationships, the term is particularly prevalent in the polyamorous community, as people with multiple concurrent intimate relationships experience new relationship energy alongside more settled ongoing relationships. Adjusting to and compensating for the contrast in effect and excitement between the new and old relationships is considered an important factor in successfully balancing those relationships. Describing the process in a positive way can help old partners deal with feelings of jealousy towards the new partner, as well as helping the person with a new partner be more understanding and conscious of maintaining

neg: Valene Ewing But we created her within those two episodes. I remember going to wardrobe and getting a peachy pink waitress uniform, and the shoes. And then I was trying to get that Texas sound, her all important accent. And so we created her layer by layer." During the second season of "Dallas", David Jacobs decided to create a spin-off for the quickly growing franchise. He wanted to create a television show based on "family issues and examining relationships at the middle class level". The production company, CBS, turned down this idea, as they wanted something more "glitzy" to put on the

neg: Norm of reciprocity the behavior of others and begin to have their own relationships with peers. One way that psychologists have been able to study the norm of reciprocity in children is by observing and experimenting on their toy sharing behaviour. Kristina R. Olson and Elizabeth S. Spelke (2007) conducted an experiment is which they used dolls to represent family members and friends and gave the child various items to distribute to the dolls after a series of situations were explained to the child. These situations represented private and public reciprocity and gave the child the choice of which dolls to share the

neg: Adventure education metaphoric model, activities are consciously framed so that they become experiential metaphors that can be applied to challenges in participants' daily lives. Several characteristics of the group also contribute to achieving program outcomes. In terms of the size of the group, small groups of seven to fifteen individuals are usually more conducive to achieving desired outcomes. Reciprocity within the group is also important. This refers to group members learning to cooperate with one another and capitalize on the strengths of each individual. Autonomy of individuals and personal relationships are other aspects of the group that contribute to achievement. Certain aspects

neg: Cultural remittances kinship bonds between the families that remain behind and their members who migrate. Through greater forms of telecommunications relationships between family members are easier to keep up and through this communications cultural remittances get easily transferred. According to Teófilo Altamirano Rua in "Migration, Remittances, and Development In Times of Crisis", remittances are rooted in internal migration from the countryside to cities and vice versa. Their origin lies in the reciprocity, interchange and bonds of kinship that lie between family members. Kinship will grow stronger and affect the nation because practices of reciprocity will continue as a form of cultural remittances.

neg: Na'im Akbar is the core context of the self, and 2) the model fails to account for the centrality of spirituality in conceptualization of the Black personality, a crucial element in the Afro-centric perspective. Akbar also takes issue with the idea that a secure Black identity was realized when the African American became comfortable forging relationships with members of other ethnic groups and cultures. According to Akbar, it makes more sense if a secure Black identity was evident when one was comfortable establishing and maintaining relationships with one’s own racial/cultural group members. He likened Cross’ reasoning to an adoption of the alien-self

neg: Evolutionary psychology indirect if information about previous interactions is shared. Reputation allows evolution of cooperation by indirect reciprocity. Natural selection favors strategies that base the decision to help on the reputation of the recipient: studies show that people who are more helpful are more likely to receive help. The calculations of indirect reciprocity are complicated and only a tiny fraction of this universe has been uncovered, but again a simple rule has emerged. Indirect reciprocity can only promote cooperation if the probability, q, of knowing someone’s reputation exceeds the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act: One important problem with this explanation is

neg: Izzat (honour) idea of reciprocity, in both friendship and enmity, is deeply embedded in "izzat". It is required that a person come to the assistance of those who have helped that person earlier. To not do so is to dishonour one's debt and lose "izzat". Violations or perceived violations of "izzat" are key to the development of both personal and family enmities ("dushmani", दुश्मनी, দুশমনি or دشمنی) as the wronged party seeks revenge ("badla", बदला, বদলা or بدلا), which could result in cycles of counter-revenge, sometimes spanning generations. The concept of reciprocity applies to "badla" as well. The nature and intensity of

neg: Karl Widerquist any other means). What is critical is that anyone’s ownership of resources must not be part of a system that imposes propertylessness on others. The absence of propertylessness is important not only to ensure that the privatization of resources is consistent with reciprocity but also to protect all workers from vulnerability to exploitation by their employers. This view of property rights as something that both protects owners from interference and imposes interference on non-owners is a running theme throughout much of Widerquist’s writing and his arguments for basic income. This idea is closely related to left-libertarian or Georgist views of

neg: Childhood trauma appear to be equally important in fostering and maintaining resilience. Secure attachment to one’s peers throughout adolescence is a particularly strong predictor of resilience. Within the context of abuse, it is thought that these secure attachments decrease the extent to which children who are abused perceive others as being untrustworthy. In other words, while some children who are abused might begin to view other people as being unsafe and unable to be trusted, children who are able to develop and maintain healthy relationships are less likely to hold these views. Children who experience trauma but also experience healthy attachment with

neg: Henry I of England of important ducal castles along the borders. Alliances and relationships with neighbouring counties along the Norman border were particularly important to maintaining the stability of the Duchy. Henry ruled through the various barons and lords in England and Normandy, whom he manipulated skilfully for political effect. Political friendships, termed "amicitia" in Latin, were important during the 12th century, and Henry maintained a wide range of these, mediating between his friends in various factions across his realm when necessary, and rewarding those who were loyal to him. Henry also had a reputation for punishing those barons who stood against him, and

neg: Self-disclosure shown to begin occurring for children in sixth grade. Sixth graders are able to understand the norm of reciprocity because they realize that relationships require both partners to cooperate and to mutually exchange secrets. They realize this because they possess the cognitive ability to take another person's perspective into account and are able to understand a third person's views which allows them to view friendships as an ongoing systematic relationship. Children in sixth grade are also shown to understand equivalent reciprocity. Equivalent reciprocity requires matching the level of intimacy a partner discloses, therefore, a high-intimacy disclosure would be matched with

neg: Norm of reciprocity and the following repayment always unfolds in a public way. The social rewards of sticking to the norm and the costs of breaching it are profound. People deny continued group membership to others who conveniently breach the norm. The norm of reciprocity stipulates that the amount of the return to a favour is “roughly the same” as what had been received. Such idea of equivalence takes two forms; However, Mark A. Whatley and colleagues (1999) found that people will give more favors, like a higher donation, if it is a public condition. Favours given are not immediately repaid and returning

neg: Lie algebra representation it was realized that a smaller subcategory category O is a better place for the representation theory in the semisimple case in zero characteristic. For instance, the category O turned out to be of a right size to formulate the celebrated BGG reciprocity. One of the most important applications of Lie algebra representations is to the representation theory of real reductive Lie group. The application is based on the idea that if formula_123 is a Hilbert-space representation of, say, a connected real semisimple linear Lie group "G", then it has two natural actions: the complexification formula_24 and the connected maximal

neg: Most favoured nation legal circles whether MFN clauses in bilateral investment treaties include only substantive rules or also procedural protections. The members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) agree to accord MFN status to each other. Exceptions allow for preferential treatment of developing countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions. Together with the principle of national treatment, MFN is one of the cornerstones of WTO trade law. "Most favoured nation" relationships extend "reciprocal" bilateral relationships following both GATT and WTO norms of reciprocity and non-discrimination. In bilateral reciprocal relationships a particular privilege granted by one party only extends to other parties who

neg: Strong reciprocity argue that both a demonstration of costly third party punishment as well as a lack of costly third party punishment are both evidence of its existence. They also question whether the ethnographic evidence presented is costly third party punishment, and call for additional analysis of the costs and benefits of the punishment. Other research has shown that different types of strong reciprocity do not predict other types of strong reciprocity within individuals. The existence of strong reciprocity implies that systems developed based purely on material self-interest may be missing important motivators in the marketplace. This section gives two examples of

neg: Social exchange theory of the rewards that a party gains from an exchange relationship is judged relative to some standard, which may vary from party to party. Summarized by Gouldner, the reciprocity norm states that a benefit should be returned and the one who gives the benefit should not be harmed. This is used to stabilize relationships and to identify the egoism. This norm suggests the independence in relationships and invite the individual to consider more than one’s self-interest. I. Altman and D. Taylor’s: They introduce the social penetration theory, which states the nature and quality of social exchange and close bonds. It

neg: Self-confidence of smooth interpersonal relationships are more important, and therefore self-criticism and a concern to save face is more adaptive. For example, Suh et al. (1998) argue that East Asians are not as concerned as maintaining self-confidence as Americans and many even find Asians perform better when they "lack" confidence. Many sports psychologists have noted the importance of self-confidence in winning athletic competitions. Amongst athletes, gymnasts who tend to talk to themselves in an instructional format tended to be more self-confident than gymnasts that did not. Researchers have found that self-confidence is also one of the most influential factors in how

neg: Mary Musgrove The Creeks, like many kinship based societies, did not know how to behave or respond to people who were not connected by lines of kinship. Therefore, Creeks created kinship ties by adoption or marriage, but also through rituals fashioned to signify simulated kinship relationships. Mary Musgrove’s first marriage was one such example of using marriage to create kinship ties with whites. Tomochichi’s initial encounters with James Oglethorpe were designed to create fictitious lines of kinship to facilitate reciprocity. Creek women could own land and possessions separate from their husbands. Mothers had control over their children and supervised their upbringing. Benjamin

neg: The Suffering of God an unbiased view will be more pluralistic and more willing to incorporate the relational aspects of the Old Testament God. The first traditional view that Fretheim seeks to undermine, or perhaps more accurately to bring balance to, is the idea of divine transcendence. He argues that both the monarchical and organismic views are present in scripture, but that the organismic, immanent image is dominant. This “relationship of reciprocity” (p. 35) between God and the world is the foundation for all of Fretheim's conclusions. God affects and is affected by the world He has created, and this relationship is key to

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) people (e.g., masochists) who have unusual motivational structures. Finally, the idea of enforcing, or carrying out a duty of gratitude, as well as calibrating the extent one’s gratitude, seems inconsistent with the warm and benevolent feelings of “being grateful.” There is a similar inconsistency in the idea of enforcing a duty to love. Reciprocity, by contrast, because it does not necessarily involve having special feelings of love or benevolence, fits more comfortably into discussions of duties and obligations. Further, its requirement of an in-kind response invites us to calibrate both the quality and the quantity of the response. The norm

neg: James Tully (philosopher) "practitioners and social scientists [who] are beginning to appreciate the transformative power of participatory non-violence and the futility of war in comparison." Tully’s approach to nonviolent citizenship practices includes relations with the non-human world. Tully argues that Homo Sapiens should see themselves as interdependent civic citizens of the ecological relationships in which they live and breathe and have their being. As such, they have responsibilities to care for and sustain these relationships that, in reciprocity, sustain them and all the other life forms that are interdependent on them. Tully’s "Gaia citizenship" draws on earth sciences and life sciences as well

neg: Gifting remittances Societies", Mary Douglas summarizes Marcel Mauss’s argument succinctly: “no free gift” as gifts entail maintenance of mutual ties. In terms of potlatch in North America, this meant that each gift is “part of a system of reciprocity in which the honor of giver and recipient are engaged” and failing to return means losing the competition for honor.” A Maussian approach to giving and reciprocity provides useful insight into the analysis of “gifting remittances” precisely because of the focus on constructing and maintaining ties through the giving and receiving of such funds, goods, and services. Since Mauss discussed the ability of

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) will involve a system of reciprocal exchanges of this generalized sort, as a way of sustaining social norms. All of these patterns of reciprocity, along with related ideas such as gratitude, have been central to social and political philosophy from Plato onward. These philosophical discussions concern the ways in which patterns and norms of reciprocity might have a role in theories of justice, stable and productive social systems, healthy personal relationships, and ideals for human social life generally. Philosophical work on reciprocity often pays considerable attention, directly or indirectly, to the proper interpretation of one or more of the following

neg: Culture of Thailand no conflict or shame involved. Respect for hierarchy is a very important value for Thai people. The custom of "bun khun" emphasizes the indebtedness towards parents, as well as towards guardians, teachers, and caretakers. It describes the feelings and practices involved in certain relationships organized around generalized reciprocity, the slow-acting accounting of an exchange calculated according to locally interpreted scales and measures. It is also considered rude to step on any type of Thai currency (Thai coin or banknote) as they include a likeness of the King of Thailand. There are a number of Thai customs relating to the special

neg: RocknRollDating on his off-hours over the course of a year and a half. The site was officially launched on Valentine's Day 2008. RocknRollDating RocknRollDating is a free online dating website in the United States and Canada focused around the idea that musical compatibility is important to relationship matches. The site generates revenue through advertising. RocknRollDating is a free niche dating website launched in 2008 and is focused around the idea that musical compatibility is an important factor in successful relationship matches. It facilitates heterosexual, same sex and polyamorous relationships. The service allows members of the site to search for matches by

neg: RocknRollDating RocknRollDating RocknRollDating is a free online dating website in the United States and Canada focused around the idea that musical compatibility is important to relationship matches. The site generates revenue through advertising. RocknRollDating is a free niche dating website launched in 2008 and is focused around the idea that musical compatibility is an important factor in successful relationship matches. It facilitates heterosexual, same sex and polyamorous relationships. The service allows members of the site to search for matches by lifestyle interests, music genre preferences, or by specific favorite band preferences in addition to the traditional gender, age and distance criteria.

neg: Open marriage relationship are many strategies for maintaining healthy and happy relationships other than the ones mentioned here. Gottman identified a particularly harmful pattern of communication that begins with criticism and ends with stonewalling. The steps of the pattern include: Couples who exhibit this cascade of destructive communication usually get divorced. Markman, Stanley, and Blumberg proposed their "Speaker-Listener technhnique" for managing conflict and maintaining good marital relationships, applied on the basis of six ground rules: Gottman and colleagues discovered that the ratio of positive interactions to negative interactions strongly predicts divorce. Couples who maintain a ratio of five positive interactions for every negative

neg: Guerrilla marketing than ignoring customers after their purchase. Focusing on customer follow-up is a cheaper strategy because the cost of selling to a new customer is six times higher than selling to an existing customer. During a tough economy, it is important to focus on building relationships rather than sales, and aiming at individuals instead of groups. This promotes repeat sales, referrals and increased size of purchase. The use of telephone as a follow-up tool is helpful in improving customer relationships. Email is also another inexpensive tool for maintaining relationships. Emails can be used to direct people to the company website. The

neg: Norm of reciprocity examples include gifts of stickers and pens distributed by charities and flowers handed out by members of the Hare Krishna group. Two key elements of the norm of reciprocity are positive and negative aspects to the term. A positive norm of reciprocity is "the embedded obligations created by exchanges of benefits or favours among individuals. The recipient feels indebted to the favour or benefit giver until he/she repays" (Chen, 2009). The positive reciprocity norm is a common social expectation where a person who helps another person can expect positive feedback whether it's in the form of a gift, a compliment,

neg: Intimate relationship sexual attraction, sexual relationships, or emotional and personal support between the members. Intimate relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments. "Intimacy" generally refers to the feeling of being in a close personal association and belonging together. It is a familiar and very close affective connection with another as a result of a bond that is formed through knowledge and experience of the other. Genuine intimacy in human relationships requires dialogue, transparency, vulnerability, and reciprocity. The verb "intimate" means "to state or make known". The activity of intimating (making known) underpins the meanings of "intimate" when

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) below to Okin.) The argument is that families can be grossly unjust, and have often been so. Since the family is “the school of justice,” if it is unjust the moral education of children is distorted, and the injustice tends to spread to the society at large, and to be perpetuated in following generations. If that is right, then justice and reciprocity must define the boundaries within which we pursue even the most intimate relationships. A somewhat different thread on these matters begins with Aristotle’s discussion of friendship, in "Nicomachean Ethics" 1155-1172a. He proposes that the highest or best form

neg: Social emotional development Adolescence is a time in which peer relationships become increasingly important and frequent. In this period, adolescents reliably spend approximately twice as much time with their peers than with their parents. At the same time, there is a developmental shift occurring in the quality and nature of friendships in this period. Adolescents' friendships are characterized by increased emotional support, intimacy, closeness, and loyalty. This is contrasted to friendships in early childhood, which is built upon time spent in joint activities, and middle childhood, which is defined by reciprocity and helping behavior. Close friendships in adolescence can act as a buffer

neg: Reciprocity (photography) total exposure) for a photographic emulsion. Total exposure of the film or sensor, the product of focal-plane illuminance times exposure time, is measured in lux seconds. The idea of reciprocity, once known as Bunsen–Roscoe reciprocity, originated from the work of Robert Bunsen and Henry Roscoe in 1862. Deviations from the reciprocity law were reported by Captain William de Wiveleslie Abney in 1893, and extensively studied by Karl Schwarzschild in 1899. Schwarzschild's model was found wanting by Abney and by Englisch, and better models have been proposed in subsequent decades of the early twentieth century. In 1913, Kron formulated an equation

neg: White Racial Identity Development White Racial Identity Development The White Racial Identity Model was developed by psychologist Janet Helms in 1990. It is a racial and ethnic identity model created specifically for people who identify as White. This theory, heavily influenced by William Cross, has become a widely referenced and studied theory on white racial identity development. This model was created “to raise the awareness of White people about their role in creating and maintaining a racist society, and the need for them to act responsibly by dismantling systemic racism through a framework of power and privilege,”. In addition, Helms presented the idea that

neg: Online participation the expectation of reciprocity, the greater the chance of there being high knowledge contribution intent in an online community. Reciprocity represents a sense of fairness where individuals usually reciprocate the positive feedback they receive from others so that they can in return get more useful knowledge from others in the future. Research has shown that self esteem needs of recognition from others lead to expectations of reciprocity. Self-esteem plays such an important role in the need for reciprocity because contributing to online communities can be an ego booster for many types of users. The more positive feedback contributors get from

neg: Kalākaua's 1874–75 state visit to the United States Congress, but was defeated in the Senate. An aborted 1873 effort to offer Pearl Harbor in return for tariff reciprocity was heavily favored by plantation owners from the United States. Strong opposition came from Kalākaua and other leaders among the Hawaiian people. On August 1, 1874, Hawaii's legislature authorized Kalākaua to ratify a reciprocity treaty in Washington, D.C. There was speculation that he was lukewarm on the idea. Diplomat Henry A. Peirce, who was serving as the United States Minister to Hawaii, stated, "I don't think the King cares much about the Treaty, but he hopes, as we Americans say,

neg: Racial steering neighborhoods have strong social networks. These networks have been shown to create social capital, which has been linked to having positive effects on minority residents. First, Portes argues that an individual will gain access to power and political positions through the direct and indirect employment of social connections. He continues by stating that this access to power and political positions, allows for social mobility. Second, Portes states that social capital is generated by social networks of relationships and without the reciprocity, trust, and social norms that come with these networks, a resident who is in need would not be given

neg: Internet influences on communities “research has found that the relative anonymity aspect encourages self-expression, and the relative absence of physical and nonverbal interaction cues (e.g., attractiveness) facilitates the formation of relationships on other, deeper bases such as shared values and beliefs.” Pigg and Crank (2004) suggest how Internet can facilitate interaction within members of community. They suggest a concept of “reciprocity transaction”, that implies that “one person provides something of value to another in expectation that, at some point in time, the other person will act similarly”. It is suggested that ICT supports reciprocity transaction by providing social support or valuable information not available

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) reciprocity. Justice includes the idea of fairness, and that in turn includes treating similar cases similarly, giving people what they deserve, and apportioning all other benefits and burdens in an equitable way. Those things, further, involve acting in a principled, impartial way that forbids playing favorites and may require sacrifices. All of those things are certainly in the neighborhood of the elements of reciprocity (e.g., fittingness, proportionality), but it is challenging to explain the precise connections. Discussions of merit, desert, blame, and punishment inevitably involve questions about the fittingness and proportionality of our responses to others, and retributive theories of

neg: Reciprocal liking much more than when they had read that their partners didn’t like them. Reciprocal liking can have an effect on who we choose to have relationships with, either it being intimate or friendships. According to the reciprocity principle, people tend to favor others who like them back. There have been years of research that have established many principles of attraction, an experiment by Aron and his colleagues (1989) found that most people repeatedly mentioned reciprocal liking, personality, and appearance as factors that influenced them to falling in love. People are naturally attracted to people who express liking for them; simply

neg: Born reciprocity to an invariant metric on phase space coordinates. The metric is invariant under the group of quaplectic transformations. Such a reciprocity as called for by Born can be observed in much, but not all, of the formalism of classical and quantum physics. Born's reciprocity theory was not developed much further for reason of difficulties in the mathematical foundations of the theory. However Born's idea of a quantum metric operator was later taken up by Hideki Yukawa when developing his nonlocal quantum theory in the 1950s. In 1981, Eduardo R. Caianiello proposed a "maximal acceleration", similarly as there is a minimal

neg: Kim Possible (character) normal teenager, Kim insists that she is just a "basic average girl" and must nonetheless cope with usual adolescent affairs, such as maintaining good grades in school, pleasing her parents, learning how to drive, dating and relationships, and attending cheerleading practice. Long-time co-workers and writing partners, Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle explained that the idea for "Kim Possible" arrived from "out of the blue" when they realized that there were few animated shows starring strong female characters in lead roles. Both McCorkle and Schooley had worked as writers on the male-led animated series "Aladdin" and "" for several years but

neg: Reciprocity (evolution) of knowing someone’s reputation exceeds the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act: One important problem with this explanation is that individuals may be able to evolve the capacity to obscure their reputation, reducing the probability, q, that it will be known. Individual acts of indirect reciprocity may be classified as "upstream" or "downstream": Real populations are not well mixed, but have spatial structures or social networks which imply that some individuals interact more often than others. One approach of capturing this effect is evolutionary graph theory, in which individuals occupy the vertices of a graph. The edges determine who interacts

neg: Reciprocity (social and political philosophy) to be gained, philosophically, from considering what obligations of generalized reciprocity present generations of human beings may have to future ones. Rawls considers (briefly) the problem of defining a “just savings principle” for future generations, and treats it as a consequence of the interests people typically have in the welfare of their descendents, and the agreements fully reciprocal members of society would come to among themselves about such matters. Others (e.g., Lawrence Becker) have explored the intuitive idea that acting on behalf of future generations may be required as a generalized form of reciprocity for benefits received from previous generations.

neg: KKSF (AM) and Eddie Alexander.) In 1972, KNEW general manager Ken Gaines and program director John Hawkins devised a "relationships" talk show that candidly focused on issues important to, and only accepted calls from, women. Hawkins named the show "California Girls" and created a special edit of the Beach Boys song as the theme. They launched the idea as a variation on a Sunday morning public affairs show already hosted by Don Chamberlain, a part-time/weekend KNEW newscaster. Word spread rapidly that KNEW had "sex talk" on the radio, and the show was soon moved to weekdays 9AM - Noon where it became

neg: Workplace relationships as it is often linked to low affiliation and organizational identification. Lonely workers tend to become overly self-conscious and they may begin view their co-workers as untrustworthy members of the organization. This then hinders them from forming and maintaining important relationships as work, such as friendships or camaraderie. The Hawthorne effect grew out of a series of studies. The theory states that an individual will act differently than they normally would due to the individual's awareness of being watched. Specifically in McGregor's X and Y theory, it states that the manager's approach has effects on the outcome of the worker.

neg: Religious orientation & Jackson did a review of studies on religious orientation that had taken place since 1990 (2005). Links have been made between prejudice and religious orientation but there have been no agreement on the relationship with intolerance. This is because there are many targets of prejudice, such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and age. Hunsberger and Jackson have found support for the idea that the target of prejudice is important when looking at prejudice and religious orientation relationships. After careful analysis, they have found that extrinsic orientation is positively related to racial/ethnic and gay/lesbian intolerance. People who measure high

neg: Yuanfen beyond personal control, people tend to maintain good relationships, avoid conflict, and promote social harmony; likewise, when positive events are seen as result of "yuanfen", personal credit is not directly assigned, which reduces pride on one side of the relationship and envy and resentment on the other. Yang Kuo-shu and David Ho trace the origins of the term to traditional Buddhism and observe that "yuan " or "yuanfen" are important concepts in maintaining social harmony in personal relationships and group solidarity because they attribute cause or "fateful coincidence" to an outside factor beyond the control or responsibility of individuals. Yang

neg: Reciprocal altruism in humans reciprocity″ and ″Downstream reciprocity″: Upstream reciprocity is based on a recent positive experience. A person who has been at the receiving end of a donation may feel motivated to donate in turn. Individual B, who has just received help from A, goes on to help C. ‘Downstream reciprocity’ is built on reputation. Individual A has helped B and therefore receives help from C. Mathematical investigations of indirect reciprocity have shown that natural selection can favor strategies that help others based on their reputation. Upstream reciprocity is harder to understand but is observed in economic experiments. In both cases, the decision

neg: Organ gifting object reaches extreme proportions because the gift is actually a piece of the giver's body. Reciprocity tends to be discouraged in contemporary organ gifting, thus creating an irresoluble sense of debt in the receiver. This separation of the donor from the object being given was not always implemented, and in earlier cases of organ transplantation the receiver could obtain information from the donor and even meet. As Holtkamp (2002) has argued, this arrangement created a feeling of debt in the receiver (and close kin) and led to the creation of obligations. The discouragement of reciprocal relationships between giver and receiver

neg: Strain theory (sociology) to fulfill. In order for the society to continue existing, these obligations must be fulfilled at the volition of the individuals in it, which the theory states is what most people are inclined to do. Due to the fact that there is no force involved in maintaining these role relationships, there will be individuals who can not, or will not, conform to these societal expectations. In addition, the individuals within the society are not bound to one role relationship. In fact, all individuals will be part of multiple role relationships. Possession of multiple relationships can account for the conflicts of

neg: Criticism into "what one can say and cannot say" in the given situation. One style of constructive criticism employs the "hamburger method", in which each potentially harsh criticism (the "meat") is surrounded by compliments (the "buns"). The idea is to help the person being criticized feel more comfortable, and assure the person that the critic's perspective is not entirely negative. This is a specific application of the more general principle that criticism should be focused on maintaining healthy relationships, and be mindful of the positive as well as the negative. The psychopathology of criticism refers to the study of unhealthy forms

neg: Interpersonal relationship exchange. This theory is based on the idea that relationships develop as a result of cost-benefit analysis. Individuals seek out rewards in interactions with others and are willing to pay a cost for said rewards. In the best-case scenario, rewards will exceed costs, producing a net gain. This can lead to "shopping around" or constantly comparing alternatives to maximize the benefits or rewards while minimizing costs. Relationships are also important for their ability to help individuals develop a sense of self. The relational self is the part of an individual's self-concept that consists of the feelings and beliefs that one