query: who is credited with creating the motor and somatosensory homunculi

pos: Cortical homunculus the other dealing with non-erogenous stimulation. Dr. Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the sensory and motor homunculi. They were not the first scientists to attempt to objectify human brain function by means of a homunculus. However, they were the first to differentiate between sensory and motor function and to map the two across the brain separately, resulting in two different homunculi. In addition, their drawings and later drawings derived from theirs became perhaps the most famous conceptual maps in modern neuroscience because they compellingly illustrated the data at

neg: Homunculus their mothers as well as their fathers, though some spermists believed that the growing homunculus assimilated maternal characteristics from the womb environment in which they grew. The homunculus is commonly used today in scientific disciplines such as psychology as a teaching or memory tool to describe the distorted scale model of a human drawn or sculpted to reflect the relative space human body parts occupy on the somatosensory cortex (the "sensory homunculus") and the motor cortex (the "motor homunculus"). Both the motor and sensory homunculi usually appear as small men superimposed over the top of precentral or postcentral gyri for

neg: Somatosensory & Motor Research Somatosensory & Motor Research Somatosensory & Motor Research is a peer-reviewed medical journal that covers all topics relating to the neural bases for somatic sensation, somatic motor function, somatic motor integration, and modeling thereof. The journal has been published quarterly by Informa since 1983. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2016 impact factor of 0.909. The editor in chief of "Somatosensory & Motor Research" is Thomas A. Woolsey (Washington University School of Medicine, USA). "Somatosensory & Motor Research" is abstracted and indexed in Biological Abstracts, Current ContentsEMBASE/Excerpta Medica, Index Medicus/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Science Citation Index, and Scopus.

neg: Aura (symptom) insight into the localization and lateralization of the seizure or migraine. Not everyone experiences an aura with a seizure, but the most common auras include motor, somatosensory, visual, and auditory symptoms. The activation in the brain during an aura can spread through multiple regions continuously or discontinuously, on the same side or to both sides. Auras are particularly common in focal seizures. If the motor cortex is involved in the overstimulation of neurons, motor auras can result. Likewise, somatosensory auras (such as tingling, numbness, and pain) can result if in the somatosensory cortex. When the primary somatosensory cortex is activated,

neg: Cortical remapping between motor and somatosensory cortical remapping after amputation and phantom limb pain. The study assumed that somatosensory cortex reorganization can affect plasticity in the motor system because stimulation of the somatosensory cortex prompts long term potentiation in the motor cortex. The study concluded that reorganization of the motor cortex may only be subsidiary to cortical changes in the somatosensory cortex. This helps support why feedback to the motor system is limited and difficult to determine for cortical remapping. Cortical remapping helps individuals regain function from injury. Phantom limbs are sensations felt by amputees that make it feel like their amputated

neg: Somatosensory disorder into that hand. Evaluation of any suspected disease of the somatosensory system is included in a neurological examination of the peripheral nervous system. Modern techniques for testing somatosensory function are still quite crude compared to testing motor function. Evaluation of somatosensory stimuli are limited by the patient's interpretation of sensation in response to testing. Tactile sensation is tested with a cotton wisp or light touch with a finger. Pain is assessed by pinprick or pinwheel (Wartenberg wheel). A 128 Hz tuning fork is used for testing vibrations. Somatosensory disorder A somatosensory disorder is an impairment of the somatosensory system. Patients

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing (see cerebral cortex). A somatosensory state can be divided in a tactile and proprioceptive state and can be represented by a specific neural activation pattern within the somatosensory state map. This state map is assumed to be located in the somatosensory association cortex (see cerebral cortex, somatosensory system, somatosensory cortex). A motor plan state can be assumed for representing a motor plan, i.e. the planning of speech articulation for a specific syllable or for a longer speech item (e.g. word, short phrase). This state map is assumed to be located in the premotor cortex, while the instantaneous (or lower level)

neg: Precuneus the paracentral lobule, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, somatosensory area (Brodmann area 2), parietal operculum and insula. fMRI Research upon humans finds a connection with the caudalmost part of parahippocampus and superior temporal gyrus. No connections with the inferior parietal lobule, prefrontal cortex nor primary motor cortex. This occurs around the precuneal sulcus (green in figure) and is connected with the inferior parietal lobule particularly the angular gyrus and prefrontal areas 10, 46 and 8. No connections exist with premotor, motor, or somatosensory areas. The areas with which it links are involved in executive functions, working memory and motor planning.

neg: Edward Elric a vengeful Ishbalan targeting State Alchemists for the mass murder of his people during the Ishbal Civil War. This led to the Elrics making a brief return to Resembool with Winry becoming Edward's automail mechanic, the brothers encountering a former State Alchemist named Tim Marcoh who gives them the method of creating a Philosopher's Stone. The brothers, deciding to find another means upon learning human souls are required to create a Philosopher's Stone, get later revelations in the form of immortal beings known as the homunculi. When Edward and Alphonse discover that the homunculi and the Philosopher's Stone are related,

neg: Magnetoencephalography with a precision of several hundred milliseconds. MEG also accurately pinpoints sources in primary auditory, somatosensory, and motor areas. For creating functional maps of human cortex during more complex cognitive tasks, MEG is most often combined with fMRI, as the methods complement each other. Neuronal (MEG) and hemodynamic (fMRI) data do not necessarily agree, in spite of the tight relationship between local field potentials (LFP) and blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signals. MEG and BOLD signals may originate from the same source (though the BOLD signals are filtered through the hemodynamic response). MEG is also being used to better localize responses

neg: Akio Mori "Low-threshold motor effects produced by stimulation of the facial area of the fifth somatosensory cortex in the cat" released in 1993, the collaborative work "The ipsilateral and contralateral connections of the fifth somatosensory area (SV) in the cat cerebral cortex" released in 1996, and his solo work "Cortico-cortical connections from somatosensory areas to the motor area of the cortex following peripheral nerve lesion in the cat" released in 1997. On March 26, 2000, Mori was awarded the commendation certificate by the Nihon University for working with the University for 30 years. He also researched the human actions of sports such

neg: Nic Radford capable of operating deeper than 3,000 m in December 2017. Radford is the founder of Jacobi Motor LLC. which he started in 2018 after securing $3M in venture capital funding. After negotiating a technology transfer from Houston Mechatronics, Jacobi Motor spun off from HMI to encapsulate and further develop his ideas regarding variable flue technology, the subject of his graduate work. The company is named after Moritz Von Jacobi who in 1834 is credited with creating the world's first rotating electric motor. Jacobi Motor is focused on developing variable flux electric machines for the automotive sector. In 2014, Radford was

neg: Sensory nervous system cortex is the primary receptive area for the sense of touch and proprioception in the somatosensory system. This cortex is further divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3. Brodmann area 3 is considered the primary processing center of the somatosensory cortex as it receives significantly more input from the thalamus, has neurons highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli, and can evoke somatic sensations through electrical stimulation. Areas 1 and 2 receive most of their input from area 3. There are also pathways for proprioception (via the cerebellum), and motor control (via Brodmann area 4). See also: S2 Secondary somatosensory cortex.

neg: Finger that the wrinkled fingertips provided better handling of wet objects but gave no advantage for handling dry objects. However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips. Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b, part of area 1 and a distributed, overlapping representations in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area. The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of

neg: Lateralization of brain function contraction on the opposite side of the body. Furthermore, the functional map of the motor and sensory cortices is fairly consistent from person to person; Penfield and Jasper's famous pictures of the motor and sensory homunculi were the result. Research by Michael Gazzaniga and Roger Wolcott Sperry in the 1960s on split-brain patients led to an even greater understanding of functional laterality. Split-brain patients are patients who have undergone corpus callosotomy (usually as a treatment for severe epilepsy), a severing of a large part of the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows

neg: Digit (anatomy) phalanges, surrounded by soft tissue. Human fingers normally have a nail at the distal phalanx. The phenomenon of polydactyly occurs when extra digits are present; the utility of such a mutation is case-dependent. Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b, part of area 1 and a distributed, overlapping representation in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area. The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed, shortened fingers. However, not only are

neg: Distracted driving month. The parents who disclosed conducting phone calls while driving were 2.6 times likely to have reportedly been involved in a motor vehicle crash. In 2011, Shutko and Tijerina reviewed a large naturalistic study of in field operational tests on cars, heavy product vehicles, and commercial vehicles and buses and concluded that: The somatosensory association, parietal and visual cortices are not significantly activated during simple driving tasks, like driving straight or making a right-hand turn. A left turn with no oncoming traffic presents a little more activation in the premotor cortex, somatosensory area, visual and parietal cortices, as well as

neg: Akio Mori relationships in cat's motor cortex after pyramidal section" released in 1981, the collaborative work "Low threshold motor effects produced by stimulation of area preinsularis (2pr.i) of the secondary sensory cortex in the cat; Input-output relationships" released in 1983, the collaborative work "Physiological properties and patterns of projection in the cortico-cortical connections from the second somatosensory cortex to the motor cortex, area 4 gamma, in the cat" released in 1989, the collaborative work "Fifth somatosensory cortex (SV) representation of the whole body surface in the medial bank of the anterior suprasylvian sulcus of the cat" released in 1991, the collaborative work

neg: Motor adaptation tasks. Using optogenetics the study using mice could also show that somatosensory cortex is involved in updating the internal model. Motor learning Motor control Motor adaptation Motor adaptation is a form of motor learning, described as a process of acquiring and restoring movement skills. The Central nervous system adapt to environmental forces, in order to eliminate kinematic errors. Acquiring motor patterns is the most primal learning process in animal development – in evolution and maturation. The primacy of the learning process led to the development of instincts. The primary instinct in any encounter with a new environment of forces is

neg: Fullmetal Alchemist The events that follow result in the death of the homunculi Lust, revealing that a Philosopher's Stone forms a Homunculus's core along with an upcoming event the Homunculi are working towards. Meanwhile, Scar forms a small band with the Xingese princess May Chang, who also seeks the stone, and a former military officer named Yoki whom the Elrics exposed as a corrupt official. Following an attempt to capture the homonculi Gluttony using Lin's sensory skills, the Homunculus end up accidentally swallowing Edward, Lin, and Envy into his void-like stomach, with the two humans learning the Homunculi orchestrated Ametris's history over

neg: Human brain a sensory cortex. The primary motor cortex, which sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord, occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe, directly in front of the somatosensory area. The primary sensory areas receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts by way of relay nuclei in the thalamus. Primary sensory areas include the visual cortex of the occipital lobe, the auditory cortex in parts of the temporal lobe and insular cortex, and the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. The remaining parts of the cortex, are called the association areas. These areas receive

neg: Monoplegia the primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, secondary sensorimotor cortex, sensorimotor cortical areas, subcortical structures, and/or the corticospinal tract. It is often found that impairments following stroke are either caused by damage to the same or adjacent neurological structures. A combination of these impairments is more likely than just one in isolation. Damage to the corticospinal system results in an inability to activate muscles with enough force or in a coordinated manner, which can lead to paresis, loss of fractional movement, and abnormal muscle tone. Damage to the somatosensory cortical areas causes loss of somatosensation which results in an impaired

neg: Cortical homunculus actually significant overlap between neighboring regions. The simplification suggests that lesions of the motor cortex will give rise to specific deficits in specific muscles. However, this is a misconception, as lesions produce deficits in groups of synergistic muscles. This finding suggests that the motor cortex functions in terms of overall movements as coordinated groups of individual motions. The sensorimotor homunculi can also be represented as 3-D figures (such as the sensory homunculus sculpted by Sharon Price-James shown from different angles below), which can make it easier for laymen to understand the ratios between the different body regions' levels of motor

neg: Supernumerary phantom limb was increased activity in the motor cortex of her brain in the area roughly corresponding to the left arm. When she announced that she had touched the phantom limb to her cheek, activity was monitored in the area of the somatosensory cortex that corresponded to the right cheek. At times during the experiment, the subject was asked to move the phantom limb to a location that was obstructed or otherwise unfeasible. In these instances, there was similar activation of the motor cortex but no such activity in the somatosensory cortex. McGeoch, P.D. et al. (2009). Apotemnophilia – the neurological basis

neg: Alien hand syndrome the posterior parietal cortex, possibly related to the receipt of recurrent or "re-afferent" somatosensory feedback generated from the periphery by the movement which would normally interact with the efference copy transmitted from primary motor cortex to permit the movement to be recognized as self-generated rather than imposed by an external force. That is, the efference copy allows the recurrent afferent somatosensory flow from the periphery associated with the self-generated movement to be recognized as "re-afference" as distinct from "ex-afference". Failure of this mechanism may lead to a failure to distinguish between self-generated and externally generated movement of the limb. This

neg: Muscle memory and susceptible to damage, and a long-term memory consolidation stage, which is more stable. The memory encoding stage is often referred to as motor learning, and requires an increase in brain activity in motor areas as well as an increase in attention. Brain areas active during motor learning include the motor and somatosensory cortices; however, these areas of activation decrease once the motor skill is learned. The prefrontal and frontal cortices are also active during this stage due to the need for increased attention on the task being learned. The main area involved in motor learning is the cerebellum. Some

neg: Doctor Septimus Pretorius similar to Henry's. He unveils to Henry a group of various homunculi—miniature living humans which he has kept in bottles and claims to have grown from "seed" like cultures. Each figure represents a different character: He has been unsuccessful in creating a full-sized human. He proposes to Henry that together they create a mate for his monster, with Henry building the body and Pretorius supplying an artificially-grown brain. Henry initially balks at the idea, but Pretorius reminds him that he is capable of exposing him to the authorities as the creator of the Monster who has done so much damage.

neg: Primary motor cortex human primary motor cortex is located on the anterior wall of the central sulcus. It also extends anteriorly out of the sulcus partly onto the precentral gyrus. Anteriorly, the primary motor cortex is bordered by a set of areas that lie on the precentral gyrus and that are generally considered to compose the lateral premotor cortex. Posteriorly, the primary motor cortex is bordered by the primary somatosensory cortex, which lies on the posterior wall of the central sulcus. Ventrally the primary motor cortex is bordered by the insular cortex in the lateral sulcus. The primary motor cortex extends dorsally to

neg: Sensory cortex visual, olfactory, and somatosensory (touch, proprioception) sensations, which are located lateral to the lateral fissure and posterior to the central sulcus, that is, more toward the back of the brain. The cortical region related to gustatory sensation is located anterior to the central sulcus. Note that the central sulcus (sometimes referred to as the central fissure) divides the primary motor cortex (on the precentral gyrus of the posterior frontal lobe) from the primary somatosensory cortex (on the postcentral gyrus of the anterior parietal lobe). The sensory cortex is involved in somatic sensation, visual stimuli, and movement planning. Sensory cortex The

neg: Preferential motor reinnervation Preferential motor reinnervation Preferential motor reinnervation (PMR) refers to the tendency of a regenerating axon in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to reinnervate a motor pathway as opposed to a somatosensory pathway. PMR affects how nerves regenerate and reinnervate within the PNS after surgical procedures or traumatic injuries. It is important to understand in order to further develop axonal regrowth surgical techniques. Further research of preferential motor reinnervation will lead to a better understanding of peripheral nervous system function in the human body regarding cell roles and abilities. The peripheral nervous system has the ability to regrow cut nerves. Motor

neg: Pain empathy a stranger. These results show that the somatosensory cortex is involved in the pain empathy response even though the activity could not be detected using fMRI techniques. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been used to stimulate the motor cortex of a person observing another person’s actions, and this has been shown to increase the corticospinal excitability of associated with their motor resonance. TMS studies have shown that frontal structures of the motor resonance system are used to process information about other people’s physical actions. Sensorimotor contagion is an automatic reduction in corticospinal excitability due observing another person experiencing pain.

neg: Somatosensory amplification Somatosensory amplification Somatosensory amplification (SA) is a tendency to perceive normal somatic and visceral sensations as being relatively intense, disturbing and noxious. It is a common feature of hypochondriasis and is commonly found with fibromyalgia, major depressive disorder, some anxiety disorders, Asperger syndrome, and alexithymia. One common clinical measure of SA is the Somatosensory Amplification Scale (SSAS). It is unclear whether persons with SA have a truly increased physiological sensitivity to bodily sensations. One study paradoxically found "lower" levels of SA in hypochondriacs who reported being constantly aware of their own heartbeats. Tentative electroencephalography results tend to indicate SA is

neg: Cerebrum neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas of cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis. It functions as the center of sensory perception, memory, thoughts and judgement; the cerebrum also functions as the center of voluntary motor activities The primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex receive and process visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory information. Together with

neg: Fullmetal Alchemist by Amestris' leader King Bradley, revealed to be the homunculus Wrath. When Greed refuses to rejoin his fellow Homunculi, he is consequently melted down by and reabsorbed within the Homunculi's creator, Father. After running into the Xingese prince Lin Yao, who is also after a Philosopher's Stone to cement his position as heir to his country's throne, the Elrics and Winry return to Central City where they learn of Hughes's death with Lieutenant Maria Ross framed for the murder. Mustang fakes Maria's death and smuggles her out of the country with Lin's help so he can focus on the Homunculi.

neg: Electrocorticography 4 mA for somatosensory stimulation, and near 15 mA for cognitive stimulation. The functions most commonly mapped through DCES are primary motor, primary sensory, and language. The patient must be alert and interactive for mapping procedures, though patient involvement varies with each mapping procedure. Language mapping may involve naming, reading aloud, repetition, and oral comprehension; somatosensory mapping requires that the patient describe sensations experienced across the face and extremities as the surgeon stimulates different cortical regions. Since its development in the 1950s, ECoG has been used to localize epileptogenic zones during presurgical planning, map out cortical functions, and to predict

neg: Somatosensory system cortex of blind individuals. Perhaps also due to cortical plasticity, individuals who have been blind since birth reportedly consolidate tactile information more rapidly than sighted people. A somatosensory deficiency may be caused by a peripheral neuropathy involving peripheral nerves of the somatosensory system. This may present as numbness or paresthesia. Haptic technology can provide touch sensation in virtual and real environments. In the field of speech therapy, tactile feedback can be used to treat speech disorders.(citation?) Somatosensory system The somatosensory system is a part of the sensory nervous system. The somatosensory system is a complex system of sensory neurons and

neg: Primary motor cortex old, dating back at least to Campbell in 1905. Yet the Betz cells compose only about 2-3% of the neurons that project from the cortex to the spinal cord, and only about 10% of the neurons that project specifically from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord. A range of cortical areas including the premotor cortex, the supplementary motor area, and even the primary somatosensory cortex, project to the spinal cord. Even when the Betz cells are damaged, the cortex can still communicate to subcortical motor structures and control movement. If the primary motor cortex with its Betz cells

neg: Neuroscience of free will motor preparation/readiness potential (preSMA and SMA), and motor execution (primary motor cortex, spinal cord and muscles). The second involving the parietal-pre-motor circuit for object-guided actions, for example grasping (premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, parietal cortex, and back to the premotor cortex). He proposed that voluntary action involves external environment input ('when decision'), motivations/reasons for actions (early 'whether decision'), task and action selection ('what decision'), a final predictive check (late 'whether decision') and action execution. Another neural model for voluntary action also involves what, when, and whether (WWW) based decisions. The 'what' component of decisions is considered a

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing al. 2011). The motor plan or vocal tract action score comprises temporally overlapping vocal tract actions, which are programmed and subsequently executed by the motor programming, execution, and control module. This module gets real-time somatosensory feedback information for controlling the correct execution of the (intended) motor plan. Motor programing leads to activation pattern at the level lof the primary motor map and subsequently activates neuromuscular processing. Motoneuron activation patterns generate muscle forces and subsequently movement patterns of all model articulators (lips, tongue, velum, glottis). The Birkholz 3D articulatory synthesizer is used in order to generate the acoustic speech signal. Articulatory

neg: Spike-and-wave occurring absence seizures that consist of typical spike-and-wave activity seen on an EEG. Rat genetic models have given data showing that the expression of absence seizures involves both the thalamic and cortical networks. In both models, electrophysiological data showed that spike-and-waves are initiated in the somatosensory cortex and then spread rapidly to the motor cortex and thalamic nuclei. Using in vivo intracellular recordings, it was found in the GAERS that spike-and-wave are initiated in layer 5/6 neurons of the somatosensory cortex. These neurons, show a distinctive hyperactivity associated with a membrane depolarization. They are suggested to lead the firing of

neg: Laminoplasty relief to patients who may suffer from symptoms of numbness, pain, or weakness in arm movement. Patients may also experience difficulty with hand and finger movement, along with balance and walking difficulty. This surgical procedure is also commonly performed in order to remove pressure from the spinal cord in the neck, which may be due to various reasons. These include: tumors, fractures, arthritis, bone spurs, disc herniations, or degenerative problems. In the positioning of the patient, neuromonitoring is performed. The two forms of neuromonitoring implemented are somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) and transcranial motor evoked potentials (tcMEP). After monitoring the patient

neg: Corticospinal tract the neurons originate in the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus, Brodmann area 4) or the premotor frontal areas. About 30% of corticospinal neurons originate in the primary motor cortex, 30% more in premotor cortex and supplementary motor areas, with the remaining 40% distributed between the somatosensory cortex, the parietal lobe, and cingulate gyrus. These upper motor neurons originate in layer V pyramidal cells of the neocortex, and travel through the posterior limb of the internal capsule in the forebrain, to enter the cerebral crus at the base of the midbrain. Then both tracts pass through the brain stem, from the

neg: Sensory-motor coupling studies on somatosensory evoked potentials have evidenced that the motor problems are likely related to an inability to properly process the sensory information and not in the generation of the information. Huntington's patients often have trouble with motor control. In both quinolinic models and patients, it has been shown that people with Huntington's have abnormal sensory input. Additionally, patients have been shown to have a decrease in the inhibition of the startle reflex. This decrease indicates a problem with proper sensorimotor integration. The " various problems in integrating sensory information explain why patients with HD are unable to control voluntary

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing state following the articulation of that attempt) with the already learned auditory target region ("intended" sensory state) for that speech item. Then the model updates the current feedforward motor command by the current feedback motor command generated from the auditory error map of the auditory feedback system. This process may be repeated several times (several attempts). The DIVA model is capable of producing the speech item with a decreasing auditory difference between current and intended auditory state from attempt to attempt. During imitation the DIVA model is also capable of tuning the synaptic projections from speech sound map to somatosensory

neg: Vittorio Gallese several decades and has recently done so in response to criticisms from de Bruin and Gallagher, who argue that one of simulation theories central theoretical notions, reuse in bodily format – underpinned by the MNS, lacks explanatory power. Gallese argued in response that "the notion of reuse of mental states represented with a bodily format provides a convincing simulational account of the mirroring mechanism (MM) and its role in mind-reading." Observing the world is more complex than the mere activation of the visual brain. Vision is multimodal: it encompasses the activation of motor, somatosensory and emotion-related brain networks. Any intentional

neg: Sensory maps is the most common, possibly because it allows for physically neighboring areas of the brain to react to physically similar stimuli in the periphery or because it allows for greater motor control. The somatosensory cortex is adjacent to the primary motor cortex which is similarly mapped. Sensory maps may play an important role in facilitating motor responses. Other examples of sensory map organization may be that adjacent brain regions are related through proximity of the receptors that they process as in the map of the cochlea in the brain, or that similar features are processed as in the map of

neg: Corticospinal tract Corticospinal tract The corticospinal tract is a white matter motor pathway starting at the cerebral cortex that terminates on lower motor neurons and interneurons in the spinal cord, controlling movements of the limbs and trunk. There are more than one million neurons in the corticospinal tract, and they become myelinated usually in the first two years of life. The corticospinal tract is one of the pyramidal tracts, the other being the corticobulbar tract. The corticospinal tract originates in several parts of the brain, including not just the motor areas, but also the primary somatosensory cortex and premotor areas. Most of

neg: Sensory-motor coupling trick. More research is necessary on sensorimotor integration dysfunction as it relates to non-focal dystonia. Restless leg syndrome (RLS) is a sensorimotor disorder. People with RLS are plagued with feelings of discomfort and the urge to move in the legs. These symptoms occur most frequently at rest. Research has shown that the motor cortex has increased excitability in RLS patients compared to healthy people. Somatosensory evoked potentials from the stimulation of both posterior nerve and median nerve are normal. The normal SEPs indicate that the RLS is related to abnormal sensorimotor integration. In 2010, Vincenzo Rizzo et al. provided evidence

neg: Dance and health complex mental coordination involved with dancing activates both sensory and motor circuits. Therefore, when one dances, one's brain is both stimulated by the sound of the music and by the dance movements themselves. PET imaging has shown brain regions that become activated during dance learning and performance, including the motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. The benefits of dancing on the brain includes memory improvement and strengthened neural connections. Consequently, not only can dance help to reduce symptoms experienced by those with dementia, but it can also reduce the risk of developing dementia in the first place, as

neg: Secondary somatosensory cortex Secondary somatosensory cortex The human secondary somatosensory cortex (S2, SII) is a region of cortex in the parietal operculum on the ceiling of the lateral sulcus. Region S2 was first described by Adrian in 1940, who found that feeling in cats' feet was not only represented in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) but also in a second region adjacent to S1. In 1954, Penfield and Jasper evoked somatosensory sensations in human patients during neurosurgery by electrically stimulating the ceiling of the lateral sulcus, which lies adjacent to S1, and their findings were confirmed in 1979 by Woolsey et al. using

neg: Cerebral cortex sensory, motor, and association areas. The sensory areas are the cortical areas that receive and process information from the senses. Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the thalamus are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex and primary somatosensory cortex respectively. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual field. The organization

neg: Claustrum will receive whisker motor innervations. They then project back to the whisker motor and somatosensory cortex. This cortical-claustral-cortical circuit plays a role in whisker movements for orientation and palpation. In rats, motor whisker areas receive input from the ipsilateral claustrum but will then project to the contralateral claustrum. The sensory barrel cortex and primary visual cortex also receive input from the ipsilateral claustrum but send very few projection back to the claustrum. Studies therefore indicate distinct patterning of connectivity of claustrum with different cortical areas. These suggest, rather than a diffuse role, they play specialized roles in cortical processing. In

neg: Corpus callosum of the sensory-motor – purple, of the parietal – pink, of the temporal – yellow, and of the splenium – blue. Thinner axons in the genu connect the prefrontal cortex between the two halves of the brain; these fibres arise from a fork-like bundle of fibers from the tapetum, the forceps minor. Thicker axons in the trunk of the corpus callosum, interconnect areas of the motor cortex, with proportionately more of the corpus callosum dedicated to supplementary motor regions including Broca's area. The splenium, communicates somatosensory information between the two halves of the parietal lobe and the visual cortex at

neg: Pyramidal tracts of the spinal cord until they synapse with interneurons in the grey column of the spinal cord. There is some variation in terminology. The "pyramidal tracts" definitively encompass the corticospinal tracts, and many authors also include the corticobulbar tracts. Nerve fibres in the corticospinal tract originate from pyramidal cells in layer V of the cerebral cortex. Fibres arise from the primary motor cortex (about 30%), supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex (together also about 30%), and the somatosensory cortex, parietal lobe, and cingulate gyrus supplies the rest. The cells have their bodies in the cerebral cortex, and the axons

neg: Pedunculopontine nucleus brain, particularly parts of the basal ganglia such as the subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra pars compacta, and globus pallidus internus. It also sends them to targets in the thalamus, cerebellum, basal forebrain, and lower brainstem, and in the cerebral cortex, the supplementary motor area and somatosensory and motor cortices. It receives inputs from many areas of the brain, including the basal ganglia to which it projects with the exception of the substantia nigra pars compacta to which it projects but does not receive, while it receives but does not project to the substantia nigra pars reticulata. The pedunculopontine nucleus is

neg: Embodied language processing theory assumes that individuals must possess a body to understand English. The overlap between various semantic categories with sensory motor areas suggests that a common mechanism is used by neurons to process action, perception, and semantics. The correlation principle states that neurons that fire together, wire together. Also, neurons out of sync, delink. When an individual pronounces a word, the activation pattern for articulatory motor systems of the speaker leads to activation of auditory and somatosensory systems due to self-perceived sounds and movements. If a word meaning is grounded in the visual shapes of the objects, the word form circuit

neg: Homunculus as "Bureau for Paranormal Research and Defense") and manga (such as "Homunculus", "Fullmetal Alchemist", Fate/Zero, and "Gosick"). Homunculus A homunculus (English: ; Latin: ; Latin for "little person") is a representation of a small human being. Popularized in sixteenth-century alchemy and nineteenth-century fiction, it has historically referred to the creation of a miniature, fully formed human. The concept has roots in preformationism as well as earlier folklore and alchemic traditions. The homunculus first appears by name in alchemical writings attributed to Paracelsus (1493–1541). "De natura rerum" (1537) outlines his method for creating homunculi: Comparisons have been made with several similar

neg: Language of thought hypothesis sentences getting their meaning. Sentences in natural languages get their meaning from their users (speakers, writers). Therefore, sentences in mentalese must get their meaning from the way in which they are used by thinkers and so on "ad infinitum". This regress is often called the homunculus regress. Daniel Dennett accepts that homunculi may be explained by other homunculi and denies that this would yield an infinite regress of homunculi. Each explanatory homunculus is “stupider” or more basic than the homunculus it explains, but this regress is not infinite but bottoms out at a basic level that is so simple that

neg: Homunculus Homunculus A homunculus (English: ; Latin: ; Latin for "little person") is a representation of a small human being. Popularized in sixteenth-century alchemy and nineteenth-century fiction, it has historically referred to the creation of a miniature, fully formed human. The concept has roots in preformationism as well as earlier folklore and alchemic traditions. The homunculus first appears by name in alchemical writings attributed to Paracelsus (1493–1541). "De natura rerum" (1537) outlines his method for creating homunculi: Comparisons have been made with several similar concepts in the writings of earlier alchemists. Although the actual word "homunculus" was never used, Carl Jung

neg: Neuronal tuning the gustatory system, different neurons may respond selectively to different components of food: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. In the somatosensory system, neurons may be selectively tuned to different types of pressure, temperature, bodily position, and pain. This tuning in the somatosensory system also provides feedback to the motor system so that it may selectively tune neurons to respond in specific ways to given stimuli. Finally, the encoding and storage of information in both short-term and long-term memory requires the tuning of neurons in complex ways such that information may be later retrieved. Neuronal tuning Neuronal tuning refers to the

neg: Fullmetal Alchemist (TV series) to make the Stone and left Dante. Although Dante can still jump from body to body with the last stone she and Hohenheim created, she is not willing to risk the rebound of creating one herself. She thus uses the homunculi to encourage Edward and Alphonse, along with other equally desperate Alchemists to create another complete Philosopher's Stone for her. When Scar creates the Philosopher's Stone, at the cost of his life as well as the lives of 7,000 soldiers, he infuses it into Alphonse's metal body, which leads to Alphonse's kidnapping. Edward goes and tries to rescue him, but

neg: Motor cortex and mice. Mammals evolved from mammal-like reptiles over 200 million years ago. These early mammals developed several novel brain functions most likely due to the novel sensory processes that were necessary for the nocturnal niche that these mammals occupied. These animals most likely had a somatomotor cortex, where somatosensory information and motor information were processed in the same cortical region. This allowed for the acquisition of only simple motor skills, such as quadrupedal locomotion and striking of predators or prey. Placental mammals evolved a discrete motor cortex about 100 mya. According to the principle of proper mass, “the mass of

neg: Buso Renkin . The kakugane is an alchemical device which, when activated, takes a weapon form based on its user's personality, forming a buso renkinthe only thing that can destroy a homunculus. Kazuki creates his own buso renkin and joins Tokiko in the fight against the homunculi and their master, Koushaku Chouno. Chouno, who has renamed himself "Papillon", is killed by Kazuki, but is later resurrected by the L.X.E., a humanoid homunculi group led by Chouno's great-great-grandfather Bakushaku Chouno, now calling himself Dr. Butterfly. In various battles, Kazuki, Tokiko and Captain Bravo (their team leader) destroy most of the L.X.E.'s members. After

neg: Group C nerve fiber areas activated by the TSSP responses which include contralateral thalamus (THAL), S1, bilateral S2, anterior and posterior insula (INS), mid-anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and supplemental motor areas (SMA). TSSP events are also associated with other regions of the brain that process functions such as somatosensory processing, pain perception and modulation, cognition, pre-motor activity in the cortex. Currently, the availability of drugs proven to treat neuropathic pain is limited and varies widely from patient to patient. Many developed drugs have either been discovered by accident or by observation. Some past treatments include opiates like poppy extract, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like salicylic

neg: Righting reflex be correcting for the shift. The egocentric reference frame refers to a proprioceptive reference frame using the position of an organism's body in a space. This reference frame relies heavily on somatosensory information, or feedback from the body's sensory system. Muscle vibrations can be used to alter a subject's perception of the location of their bodies by creating an abnormal somatosensory signal. The geocentric reference frame involves visual inputs to help detect the verticality of an environment through gravitational pull. The sole of the foot contains receptors in the skin to detect the force of gravity, and plays a large

neg: Primary somatosensory cortex Primary somatosensory cortex The primary somatosensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus, and is part of the somatosensory system. It was initially defined from surface stimulation studies of Wilder Penfield, and parallel surface potential studies of Bard, Woolsey, and Marshall. Although initially defined to be roughly the same as Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2, more recent work by Kaas has suggested that for homogeny with other sensory fields only area 3 should be referred to as "primary somatosensory cortex", as it receives the bulk of the thalamocortical projections from the sensory input fields. At the primary somatosensory cortex,

neg: Cortical homunculus a single glance. Penfield first conceived of his homunculi as a thought experiment, and went so far as to envision an imaginary world in which the homunculi lived, which he referred to as "if". He and his colleagues went on to experiment with electrical stimulation of different brain areas of patients undergoing open brain surgery to control epilepsy, and were thus able to produce the topographical brain maps and their corresponding homunculi. More recent studies have improved this understanding of somatotopic arrangement using techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Penfield referred to his creations as "grotesque creatures" due

neg: Posterior parietal cortex in space: the visual system, the auditory system, and the somatosensory system. In turn, much of the output of the posterior parietal cortex goes to areas of frontal motor cortex: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, various areas of the secondary motor cortex, and the frontal eye field. The posterior parietal cortex is divided by the intraparietal sulcus to form the dorsal superior parietal lobule and the ventral inferior parietal lobule. Brodmann area 7 is part of the superior parietal lobule, but some sources include Brodmann area 5. The inferior parietal lobule is further subdivided into the supramarginal gyrus, the temporoparietal junction,

neg: Pallesthesia carries the information to the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus and then the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. Immediately, the posterior parietal lobe synthesizes the information into a recognizable pattern. The coded information is then sent to the prefrontal cortex to devise a motor response to the stimulation. The motor information is sent through efferent neurons. Routine clinical tests include quantitative vibratory testing and the Rydel-Sheiffer tuning fork test. The typical frequency used for the tuning fork is 128 Hz. Some common areas for testing in the bones are the metatarsals, the tibia, the malleoli, the anterior superior

neg: Efference copy be attenuated. If the predicted sensory feedback does not match the actual sensory feedback, whether caused by a delay (as in the mediation by the robotic arm) or by external influences from the environment, the brain cannot predict the tickling motion on the body and a more intense tickling sensation is perceived. This is the reason why one cannot tickle oneself. It has been argued that motor efference copies play an important role in speech production. Tian and Poeppel propose that a motor efference copy is used to produce a forward model of somatosensory estimation, which entails an estimation of

neg: Sensory loss pain, are most commonly a result of a more general physical impairment associated with paralysis. Damage to the spinal cord or other major nerve fiber may lead to a termination of both afferent and efferent signals to varying areas of the body, causing both a loss of touch and a loss of motor coordination. Other types of somatosensory loss include hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy, which consists of ineffective afferent neurons with fully functioning efferent neurons; essentially, motor movement without somatosensation. Sensory loss can occur due to a minor nick or lesion on the spinal cord which creates a problem

neg: Cortical stimulation mapping the development of a homunculus for the motor and sensory cortices, which is a diagram showing the brain's connections to different areas of the body. An example is the cortical homunculus of the primary motor cortex and the somatosensory cortex, which are separated by the central sulcus. The diagram starts in the longitudinal fissure and continues out laterally from the center of the brain, representing the general pattern from lower extremities and genitals in the fissure up to the hands and face on outer edges of the brain. Functional testing of movement during cortical stimulation includes looking for active movement

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing error maps, i.e. to an auditory error map which is assumed to be located in the superior temporal cortex (like the auditory state map) and to a somatosensosry error map which is assumed to be located in the inferior parietal cortex (like the somatosensory state map) (see Fig. 4). If the current sensory state deviates from the intended sensory state, both error maps are generating feedback commands which are projected towards the motor map and which are capable to correct the motor activation pattern and subsequently the articulation of a speech unit under production. Thus, in total, the activation pattern

neg: Dysarthria result in dysfunction, or failure of: the motor or somatosensory cortex of the brain, corticobulbar pathways, the cerebellum, basal nuclei (consisting of the putamen, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, substantia nigra etc.), brainstem (from which the cranial nerves originate), or the neuro-muscular junction (in diseases such as myasthenia gravis) which block the nervous system's ability to activate motor units and effect correct range and strength of movements. Causes: Dysarthrias are classified in multiple ways based on the presentation of symptoms. Specific dysarthrias include spastic (resulting from bilateral damage to the upper motor neuron), flaccid (resulting from bilateral or unilateral damage to

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing Neural mappings (in contrast to neural pathways) store training information by adjusting their neural link weights (see artificial neuron, artificial neural networks). Neural mappings are capable of generating or activating a distributed representation (see above) of a sensory or motor state within a sensory or motor map from a punctual or local activation within the other map (see for example the synaptic projection from speech sound map to motor map, to auditory target region map, or to somatosensory target region map in the DIVA model, explained below; or see for example the neural mapping from phonetic map to auditory state

neg: Albert Einstein's brain 2012, in the journal "Brain". Dean Falk, an evolutionary anthropologist at Florida State University, led the study - which analyzed 14 recently discovered photographs - and described the brain: "Although the overall size and asymmetrical shape of Einstein's brain were normal, the prefrontal, somatosensory, primary motor, parietal, temporal and occipital cortices were extraordinary." There was a fourth ridge (apart from the three normal people have) in Einstein's mid-frontal lobe involved in making plans and working memory. The parietal lobes were markedly asymmetrical and a feature in Einstein's primary motor cortex may have been associated with his musical ability. Another study

neg: Cerebellar vermis and is separated from the nodule by the posterolateral fissure. The spinocerebellum receives proprioception input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord (including the spinocerebellar tract) and from the trigeminal nerve, as well as from visual and auditory systems. It sends fibers to deep cerebellar nuclei that, in turn, project to both the cerebral cortex and the brain stem, thus providing modulation of descending motor systems. This region comprises the vermis and intermediate parts of the cerebellar hemispheres. Sensory information from the periphery and from the primary motor and somatosensory cortex terminate in this region. Purkinje cells of the

neg: Somatosensory disorder Somatosensory disorder A somatosensory disorder is an impairment of the somatosensory system. Patients may experience numbness, prickling or tingling sensations (paresthesias), or the feeling a limb has "fallen asleep" (an indicator of nerve compression), burning, cutting or other sensations. Certain types of seizures are associated with the somatosensory system. Cortical injury may lead to loss of thermal sensation or the ability to discriminate pain. An aura involving thermal and painful sensations is a phenomenon known to precede the onset of an epileptic seizure or focal seizure. Another type of seizure, called a sensory Jacksonian seizure involves an abnormal, localizable, cutaneous

neg: Audio-visual entrainment nerve pathways from the eyes and ears carry the elicited electrical potentials into the thalamus. From there, the entrained electrical activity within the thalamus is "amplified" and distributed throughout other limbic areas and the cerebral cortexes via the "cortical thalamic loop". AVE involves the continuous electrical response of the brain in relation to the stimulus frequency plus the mathematical representation (harmonics) of the stimulus wave shape. AVE effects on the EEG are found primarily over the sensory-motor strip, frontally, and in the parietal lobe (somatosensory) regions and slightly less within the prefrontal cortex. It is within these areas where motor

neg: Anatomy of the cerebellum pathway transmits signals that inform the cerebellum about the movement in progress and the upcoming movement. This helps the continuous adjustment of motor activity. The initiation of the movement is relayed to cerebellum via the corticoreticulocerebellar pathway. Those synapse ipsilaterally in the reticular formation, then via the inferior and middle peduncles into the cerebellar vermis. The motor cortex and somatosensory cortex projects onto the ipsilateral inferior and accessory olivary nuclei, then forming the olivocerebellar tract. Cortico-olivary fibers synapse bilaterally in the inferior olivary nucleus. The order is preserved in the olivocerebellar tract projections onto the ‘body maps’ in the contralateral

neg: Somatosensory system Region S2 (secondary somatosensory cortex) divides into Area S2 and parietal ventral area. Area S2 is involved with specific touch perception and is thus integrally linked with the amygdala and hippocampus to encode and reinforce memories. Parietal ventral area is the somatosensory relay to the premotor cortex and somatosensory memory hub, BA5. BA5 is the topographically organized somato memory field and association area. BA1 processes texture info while BA2 processes size + shape info. Area S2 processes light touch, pain, visceral sensation, and tactile attention. S1 processes the remaining info (crude touch, pain, temperature). BA7 integrates visual and proprioceptive info

neg: Lateralization of brain function on the research findings. New methods permit the "in vivo" comparison of the hemispheres in healthy subjects. Particularly, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are important because of their high spatial resolution and ability to image subcortical brain structures. In the 1940s, neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield and his neurologist colleague Herbert Jasper developed a technique of brain mapping to help reduce side effects caused by surgery to treat epilepsy. They stimulated motor and somatosensory cortices of the brain with small electrical currents to activate discrete brain regions. They found that stimulation of one hemisphere's motor cortex produces muscle

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing The light green area in Fig. 5 indicates those neural maps and processing modules, which process a syllable as a whole unit (specific processing time window around 100 ms and more). This processing comprises the phonetic map and the directly connected sensory state maps within the sensory-phonetic processing modules and the directly connected motor plan state map, while the primary motor map as well as the (primary) auditory and (primary) somatosensory map process smaller time windows (around 10 ms in the ACT model). The hypothetical cortical location of neural maps within the ACT model is shown in Fig. 6. The

neg: Somatosensory rehabilitation of pain Textbook about the testing after nerve injury and repair and was the first to propose a re-education of sensibility. In 1997, he made his concept more clear by proposing a new title for his Textbook: Somatosensory Testing and Rehabilitation. In 1998, Birgit Rosen and Göran Lundborg created a new tool to test altered sensibility. They proposed a multisensory treatment (auditive and somatosensory sense) and published their papers as sensory relearning. Somatosensory testing is simultaneously testing and rehabilitation. To make the concept more clear, Claude J. Spicher proposed, in 2006, the concept of somatosensory rehabilitation. As the somatosensory system is considered

neg: Somatosensory evoked potential to non-athletes. The authors concluded that plastic changes in somatosensory processing might be induced by performing physical exercises that require attention and skilled movements. Somatosensory evoked potential Somatosensory evoked potential (SEP or SSEP) is the electrical activity of the brain that results from the stimulation of touch. SEP tests measure that activity and are a useful, noninvasive means of assessing somatosensory system functioning. By combining SEP recordings at different levels of the somatosensory pathways, it is possible to assess the transmission of the afferent volley from the periphery up to the cortex. SEP components include a series of positive and

neg: Speedometer Speedometer A speedometer or a speed meter is a gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a vehicle. Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the 1900s, and as standard equipment from about 1910 onwards. Speedometers for other vehicles have specific names and use other means of sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is an airspeed indicator. Charles Babbage is credited with creating an early type of a speedometer, which was usually fitted to locomotives. The electric speedometer was invented by the Croatian

neg: Speedometer they existed. Speedometer A speedometer or a speed meter is a gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a vehicle. Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the 1900s, and as standard equipment from about 1910 onwards. Speedometers for other vehicles have specific names and use other means of sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is an airspeed indicator. Charles Babbage is credited with creating an early type of a speedometer, which was usually fitted to locomotives. The electric speedometer was invented by

neg: Homunculus notable one being Jābir ibn Hayyān. In the alchemical context, "Takwin" refers to the artificial creation of life in the laboratory, up to and including human life. The homunculus continued to appear in alchemical writings after Paracelsus' time. The "Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz" (1616) for example, concludes with the creation of a male and female form identified as "Homunculi duo". The allegorical text suggests to the reader that the ultimate goal of alchemy is not chrysopoeia, but it is instead the artificial generation of humans. Here, the creation of homunculi symbolically represents spiritual regeneration and Christian soteriology. In 1775,

neg: Neuroplasticity went on to use cortical implants to study the evolution of plasticity in both the somatosensory and auditory systems. Both systems show similar changes with respect to behavior. When a stimulus becomes cognitively associated with reinforcement, its cortical representation is strengthened and enlarged. In some cases, cortical representations can increase two to threefold in 1 to 2 days when a new sensory-motor behavior is first acquired, and changes are largely finalised within at most a few weeks. Control studies show that these changes are not caused by sensory experience alone: they require learning about the sensory experience, they are strongest

neg: Distracted driving the cerebellum. When oncoming traffic is introduced while trying to make a left-hand turn, there is a significant activation multiple bilateral regions in the mid-posterior braid, which includes motor and premotor areas, visual, parietal, and somatosensory regions, and the cerebellum. When something as simple as answering general knowledge true-or-false questions are introduced as a distraction to the driver, the brain activity is increased during both straight driving and when turning left with the presence of oncoming traffic. When just driving straight, which showed very little brain activation without distraction, is paired with answering simple questions, there is a significant increase

neg: N100 balance, respiration blocking, and somatosensory stimuli. The auditory N100 is generated by a network of neural populations in the primary and association auditory cortices in the superior temporal gyrus in Heschl's gyrus and planum temporale. It also could be generated in the frontal and motor areas. The area generating it is larger in the right hemisphere than the left. The N100 is preattentive and involved in perception because its amplitude is strongly dependent upon such things as the rise time of the onset of a sound, its loudness, interstimulus interval with other sounds, and the comparative frequency of a sound

neg: Secondary somatosensory cortex with "region S2" which designates the entire secondary somatosensory cortex, of which area S2 is a part). Deeper in the lateral sulcus lies the ventral somatosensory (VS) area, whose outer edge adjoins areas PV and S2 and inner edge adjoins the insular cortex. In humans, the secondary somatosensory cortex includes parts of Brodmann area (BA) 40 and 43. Areas PV and S2 both map the body surface. Functional neuroimaging in humans has revealed that in areas PV and S2 the face is represented near the entrance to the lateral sulcus, and the hands and feet deeper in the fissure. Individual

neg: Somatosensory system Somatosensory system The somatosensory system is a part of the sensory nervous system. The somatosensory system is a complex system of sensory neurons and pathways that responds to changes at the surface or inside the body. The axons (as afferent nerve fibers), of sensory neurons connect with, or respond to, various receptor cells. These sensory receptor cells are activated by different stimuli such as heat and nociception, giving a functional name to the responding sensory neuron, such as a thermoreceptor which carries information about temperature changes. Other types include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and nociceptors and they send signals along a sensory

neg: Airsoft gun widely available type of airsoft gun. The AEGs were developed in Japan and the Japanese company Tokyo Marui is credited with creating the original gearbox system. In a Tokyo Marui AEG, the motor drives a train of three gears mounted inside a gearbox, which then loads a pump piston against a spring. Once the spring is released, it pushes the piston plunger forward through the pump cylinder to propel a pellet resting within the chamber forward through the barrel and out of the muzzle. Many manufacturers have now more or less replicated this basic model, adding reinforced parts or minor

neg: Efference copy the articulatory movement and position of the articulators as a result of planned motor action. A second (subsequent) auditory efference copy entails the estimation of auditory information as produced by the articulatory system in a second forward model. Both of these forward models can produce respective predictions and corollary discharge, which can in turn be used in comparisons with somatosensory and auditory feedback. Moreover, this system is thought by some to be the basis for inner speech, especially in relation to auditory verbal hallucinations. In the case of inner speech, the efference signal is not sent or is inhibited before

neg: Bálint's syndrome moving their eyes in the desired direction. In other words, the saccades (rapid eye movements) are abnormal. Because of this, most patients with Oculomotor apraxia have to turn their heads in order to follow objects coming from their peripherals. Optic ataxia is the inability to guide the hand toward an object using visual information where the inability cannot be explained by motor, somatosensory, visual field deficits or acuity deficits. Optic ataxia is seen in Bálint's syndrome where it is characterized by an impaired visual control of the direction of arm-reaching to a visual target, accompanied by defective hand orientation and

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing target region map, since each new imitation attempt produces a new articulation of the speech item and thus produces a somatosensory state pattern which is associated with the phonemic representation of that speech item. While auditory feedback is most important during speech acquisition, it may be activated less if the model has learned a proper feedforward motor command for each speech unit. But it has been shown that auditory feedback needs to be strongly coactivated in the case of auditory perturbation (e.g. shifting a formant frequency, Tourville et al. 2005). This is comparable to the strong influence of visual feedback

neg: Neurocomputational speech processing and acoustic feedback signals are used for generating somatosensory and auditory feedback information via the sensory preprocessing modules, which is forwarded towards the auditory and somatosensory map. At the level of the sensory-phonetic processing modules, auditory and somatosensory information is stored in short-term memory and the external sensory signal (ES, Fig. 5, which are activated via the sensory feedback loop) can be compared with the already trained sensory signals (TS, Fig. 5, which are activated via the phonetic map). Auditory and somatosensory error signals can be generated if external and intended (trained) sensory signals are noticeably different (cf. DIVA model).

neg: Samaritan (comics) him and Samaritan; during the latter she was kidnapped to an alternate reality and reduced to little more than a pet for Infidel before being rescued. To continue his jaded amusements, Infidel created homunculi in the form of Ms. A. Samaritan raises doubts about the morality of this, as the homunculi appear human. Infidel counters that Samaritan would be unlikely to have such concerns if they were "Robots built with science you understand." Due to exposure to the energies that make up the timestream, Samaritan has a number of superhuman abilities. He is capable of hypersonic flight, as evidenced in