query: who came up with the idea of nuclear bombs

pos: History of nuclear weapons atomic weapons in a 1914 novel, "The World Set Free", which appeared shortly before the First World War. In a 1924 article, Winston Churchill speculated about the possible military implications: "Might not a bomb no bigger than an orange be found to possess a secret power to destroy a whole block of buildings—nay to concentrate the force of a thousand tons of cordite and blast a township at a stroke?" In January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and it quickly became unsafe for Jewish scientists to remain in the country. Leó Szilárd fled to London where he

neg: Nuclear weapon design are actually two-stage thermonuclears, scaled up to the desired yield, with uranium fission, as usual, providing most of their energy. The idea of the hydrogen bomb first came to public attention in 1949, when prominent scientists openly recommended against building nuclear bombs more powerful than the standard pure-fission model, on both moral and practical grounds. Their assumption was that critical mass considerations would limit the potential size of fission explosions, but that a fusion explosion could be as large as its supply of fuel, which has no critical mass limit. In 1949, the Soviets exploded their first fission bomb, and

neg: 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash The 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash was an accident that occurred near Goldsboro, North Carolina on January 24, 1961. A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two 3–4-megaton Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process. The pilot in command ordered the crew to eject at . Five men successfully ejected or bailed out of the aircraft and landed safely. Another ejected but did not survive the landing, and two died in the crash. Information newly declassified in 2013 showed that one of the bombs came very close to detonating. The aircraft, a

neg: Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom English Electric Canberra bombers based in Germany were equipped with US Mark 7 nuclear bombs stored at RAF Germany bases. There were also four squadrons of nuclear-armed Canberras based in the UK, which were capable of carrying either the Mark 7 or Red Beard. They too were assigned to the SACEUR in October 1960. The planned V-bomber force was reduced to 144 aircraft, and it was intended to equip half of them with Project E weapons, so 72 Mark 5 nuclear bombs were supplied for the V-bombers. When the MDA came into force, the US agreed to supply the V-bombers

neg: Nuclear pumped laser first successful test of the bomb-powered x-ray laser was conducted. The use of a bomb was initially supported over that of the reactor driven laser because it delivered a more intense beam. Livermore’s research was almost entirely devoted to missile defense using x-ray lasers. The idea was to mount a system of nuclear bombs in space where these bombs would each power approximately 50 lasers. Upon detonation these lasers would fire and theoretically destroy several dozen incoming nuclear missiles at once. Opponents of this plan found many faults in such an approach and questioned aspects such as the power, range,

neg: Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle A Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle (HAIV) is a spacecraft being developed by NASA to deflect dangerous Near Earth objects (NEOs) such as comets and asteroids that threaten colliding with Earth. HAIVs focus on utilizing powerful explosives, such as nuclear bombs, to achieve deflection by detonating on the surface of the NEO to change its trajectory away from Earth. This method of asteroid impact avoidance is intended to be used on dangerous NEOs detected within a short time frame (less than 5 years) before a possible impact event with Earth. The idea came about when asteroid detection

neg: Ernest Marsden fallout from radioactive bombs, Marsden came to oppose testing and the development of nuclear weapons. While Marsden had a significant role in establishing and encouraging nuclear science in New Zealand, this role of speaking out against nuclear weapons development and testing - which he only did after the British nuclear testing program was complete - is less known. In 1966, the same year France began testing nuclear bombs in the Pacific, Marsden suffered a stroke which left him confined to a wheelchair. He later died at his home in Lowry Bay, Lower Hutt on the shores of Wellington Harbour in

neg: Nuclear weapon design compact way to build small nuclear bombs as well as large ones, erasing any meaningful distinction between A-bombs and H-bombs, and between boosters and supers. All preferred techniques for fission and fusion explosions are incorporated into one all-encompassing, fully scalable design principle. Even diameter nuclear artillery shells can be two-stage thermonuclears. In the ensuing fifty years, nobody has come up with a more efficient way to build a nuclear bomb. It is the design of choice for the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, China, and France, the five thermonuclear powers. On 3 September 2017 North Korea carried out what

neg: Nuclear weapons delivery second strike, and thus increases a nation's nuclear deterrence. Historically, the first method of delivery, and the method used in the only two nuclear weapons actually used in warfare, was a gravity bomb dropped by a plane. In the years leading up to the development and deployment of nuclear-armed missiles, nuclear bombs represented the most practical means of nuclear weapons delivery; even today, and especially with the decommissioning of nuclear missiles, aerial bombing remains the primary means of offensive nuclear weapons delivery, and the majority of US nuclear warheads are represented in bombs, although some are in the form of

neg: V bomber of the Mark 5, in the form of Mark 15 and Mark 39 nuclear bombs. The Treasury immediately inquired as to whether this meant that the British megaton bomb programme could be terminated. The answer was no; the operational restrictions imposed by Project E "effectively handed the US government a veto over the use of half of Britain's nuclear deterrent". With sufficient British bombs on hand, operational issues, and the concept of an independent nuclear deterrent came to the fore. The Air Council decided on 7 July 1960 that Project E weapons would be phased out by December 1962, by

neg: Null-O this state. This is to be done by the construction of successively more powerful bombs, ultimately resulting in the rather improbable 'U-bomb' that will homogenise the whole universe. The Null-O plan is halted, however, when the 'ordinary' people of the world, who have survived the nuclear destruction of Earth's surface in the shelters built by their employers, rise up in drilling machines to stop the construction of an 'E-Bomb' designed to destroy Earth, and succeed in destroying both the E-Bomb prototype and the Null-O's themselves. The idea of humans without empathy is central in Dick's later works, such as "

neg: Greenpeace Dorothy Stowe, who had recently become Quakers. As members of the Sierra Club Canada, they were frustrated by the lack of action by the organization. From Irving Stowe, Jim Bohlen learned of a form of passive resistance, "bearing witness", where objectionable activity is protested simply by mere presence. Jim Bohlen's wife Marie came up with the idea to sail to Amchitka, inspired by the anti-nuclear voyages of Albert Bigelow in 1958. The idea ended up in the press and was linked to The Sierra Club. The Sierra Club did not like this connection and in 1970 The Don't Make a

neg: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty on-the-ground inspections. Eisenhower initially saw the deal as favorable, but eventually came to see otherwise. In particular, Strauss and Teller, as well as Ernest Lawrence and Mark Muir Mills, protested the offer. At a meeting with Eisenhower in the White House, the group argued that testing was necessary for the US to eventually develop bombs that produced no fallout ("clean bombs"). The group repeated the oft-cited fact, which was supported by Freeman Dyson, that the Soviet Union could conduct secret nuclear tests. In 1958, at the request of Igor Kurchatov, Soviet nuclear physicist and weapons designer Andrei Sakharov published a

neg: Danube Program the International Atomic Energy Agency voluntarily, who then reported it to the UN Security Council. The Danube Program acquired Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) from multiple sources, most notably America's Atoms for Peace program, which gave highly enriched uranium to many countries. The project made use of a nuclear reactor, that had been given to them by the United States, to create plutonium from the HEU. Although the project succeeded in creating plutonium, it did not actually construct any nuclear bombs, although it is estimated that with the materials the project had, they could have made up to 240 plutonium bombs,

neg: History of the Teller–Ulam design History of the Teller–Ulam design This article chronicles the history and origins of the Teller–Ulam design, the technical concept behind modern thermonuclear weapons, also known as hydrogen bombs. This design, the details of which are military secrets known to only a handful of major nations, is believed to be used in virtually all modern nuclear weapons which make up the arsenals of the major nuclear powers. The idea of using the energy from a fission device to begin a fusion reaction was first proposed by the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi to his colleague Edward Teller in the fall of 1941

neg: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) Project Orion was a study of a spacecraft intended to be directly propelled by a series of explosions of atomic bombs behind the craft (nuclear pulse propulsion). Early versions of this vehicle were proposed to take off from the ground with significant associated nuclear fallout; later versions were presented for use only in space. Six tests were launched. The idea of rocket propulsion by combustion of explosive substance was first proposed by Russian explosives expert Nikolai Kibalchich in 1881, and in 1891 similar ideas were developed independently by German engineer Hermann Ganswindt. General proposals of nuclear

neg: Iran and weapons of mass destruction material is required to achieve a sustained nuclear chain reaction. HEU enriched to 90% and above is most typically used in a weapons development program. In an interview in October 2011, President Ahmadinejad of Iran said: "We have already expressed our views about nuclear bombs. We said those who are seeking to build nuclear bombs or those who stockpile, they are politically and mentally retarded. We think they are stupid because the era of nuclear bombs is over. [Why] for example, should Iran continue its efforts and tolerate all international treasures only to build a nuclear bomb, or a few

neg: RAF Barnham bombs and Barnham was able to supply the bomber squadrons at Honington, Marham, Watton, Wyton, Upwood and Bassingbourn. Barnham came under the control of the RAF's No. 94 Maintenance Unit. The operational life of Barnham was relatively short. By the early 1960s this type of storage facility became obsolete as free-fall nuclear bombs were superseded as the weapon of choice, for the British Nuclear Deterrent, by the Blue Steel stand-off missile. The storage and maintenance of nuclear weapons moved to the V bomber airfields. The last nuclear weapons were probably removed from the site by April 1963. The site was

neg: Sardar Sarovar Dam cemented in 1989, and received the Right Livelihood Award in 1991. In an opinion piece in "The Guardian", the campaign led by the NBA activists was accused of holding up the project's completion and of even physically attacking local people who accepted compensation for moving. Support for the protests also came from Indian author Arundhati Roy, who wrote "The Greater Common Good", an essay reprinted in her book "The Cost of Living", in protest of the Narmada Dam Project. In the essay, Roy states:Big Dams are to a Nation's "Development" what Nuclear Bombs are to its Military Arsenal. They are

neg: One World or None benefit of humanity. In early 1946, rebranded as the Federation of American Scientists, the organization took efforts to broaden and diversify its network of supporters to include all who want to reduce nuclear dangers and ultimately prevent global catastrophe. In 1946, just months after atom bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the scientists who had developed nuclear technology came together to express their concerns and thoughts about the nuclear age they had unleashed through the release of a book, "One World or None". The anthology of essays included contributions from Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, and Robert Oppenheimer, among others.

neg: Space colonization elimination of greenhouse gases and nuclear waste from electricity generation. Transmitting solar energy wirelessly from the Earth to the Moon and back is also an idea proposed for the benefit of space colonization and energy resources. Physicist Dr. David Criswell, who worked for NASA during the Apollo missions, came up with the idea of using power beams to transfer energy from space. These beams, microwaves with a wavelength of about 12 cm, will be almost untouched as they travel through the atmosphere. They can also be aimed at more industrial areas to keep away from humans or animal activities. This

neg: Nuclear weapons in popular culture had the technological sophistication to do so long before Pakistan or North Korea, has built nuclear blast shelters that would protect most of its population from a nuclear war.) After the development of hydrogen bombs in the 1950s, and especially after the massive and widely publicized Castle Bravo test accident by the United States in 1954, which spread nuclear fallout over a large area and resulted in the death of at least one Japanese fisherman, the idea of a "limited" or "survivable" nuclear war became increasingly replaced by a perception that nuclear war meant the potentially instant end of all

neg: RX12874 1973. By that time any plans to expand Linesman had been abandoned. The central site, known as L1, was not hardened. When Linesman was designed in the late 1950s, it was assumed that any war would quickly turn nuclear, and if H-bombs were going off there was no point in trying to prevent L1's destruction. However, as the USSR began to reach strategic parity with NATO in the late 1960s, this thinking changed. Now the idea of nuclear exchanges early in the war was no longer credible. It appeared that a lengthy conventional war would precede any nuclear one, or

neg: Arthur Paul Pedrick and a black cat. He came up with this idea because a black cat named "Blackie" from next door kept trying to steal his own cat's food. However, with Pedrick's new catflap design, if Blackie attempted to use the cat-flap he would not be allowed in. Ginger was impressed with the idea, and further suggested that the concept could be applied as a nuclear deterrent. Ginger's concern over the Cold War and the nuclear arsenals threatening the world was a regular motivator for Pedrick's inventions. Pedrick was also concerned with the safety of his fellow man and thus described, in

neg: No. 20 Squadron RAF strike aircraft, various weapons for the squadron's conventional strike role of support for ground forces in repelling a Soviet attack in Europe, and eight WE.177 tactical nuclear bombs for use if a conflict escalated to the nuclear phase. The apparent mismatch between eight nuclear bombs and twelve aircraft was because RAF staff planners expected up to one third attrition in the conventional phase, with sufficient aircraft held back in reserve to deliver the full stock of nuclear weapons to targets beyond the forward edge of the battlefield, deep into the enemy's rear areas. The squadron was assigned to SACEUR for

neg: V bomber exceeded the number of available British nuclear weapons. Britain had only ten nuclear bombs in 1955, and just 14 in 1956. To make up the difference, American nuclear weapons were obtained through Project E. Since they were in American custody, they were not available for the RAF to use as part of the UK's independent national nuclear deterrent; only British-owned weapons could be used for that purpose. The Vulcan and Victor were armed with British-built bombs Blue Danube, Red Beard, Violet Club, and Yellow Sun of both the Mk 1 and Mk 2 versions. Project E modifications to Valiants commenced

neg: Nuclear sharing USAF Munitions Support Squadrons co-located on NATO main operating bases who work together with the host nation forces. , 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs of the 480 U.S. nuclear weapons believed to be deployed in Europe fall under the nuclear sharing arrangement. The weapons are stored within a vault in hardened aircraft shelters, using the USAF WS3 Weapon Storage and Security System. The delivery warplanes used are F-16s and Panavia Tornados. Historically, the shared nuclear weapon delivery systems were not restricted to bombs. Greece used Nike-Hercules Missiles as well as A-7 Corsair II attack aircraft. Canada had Bomarc nuclear-armed anti-aircraft

neg: Time Bombs Time Bombs Time Bombs is a 2008 Canadian film directed by Guylaine Maroist and Éric Ruel. It was produced by "Productions de la ruelle". In the spring of 1957, 40 young Canadian soldiers were sent to Nevada on a top secret mission. These young men did not know they would be used as guinea pigs in the most important nuclear testing program of the Cold War. The American military wanted to know how the average soldier would hold up on a nuclear battlefield. With absolutely no knowledge of the effects of radiation, the young men played war games, sometimes less

neg: Canadair CF-104 Starfighter RCAF. Eight CF-104 squadrons were originally stationed in Europe as part of Canada's NATO commitment. This was reduced to six in 1967, with a further reduction to three squadrons in 1970. Up to 1971, this included a nuclear strike role that would see Canadian aircraft armed with US-supplied nuclear weapons in the event of a conflict with Warsaw Pact forces. During its service life the CF-104 carried the B28, B43 and B57 nuclear weapons. When the CAF later discontinued the strike/reconnaissance role for conventional attack, the M61A1 was refitted, along with U.S. Snakeye "iron" bombs, British BL755 cluster bombs and

neg: Nuclear weapon design built. Most known innovations in nuclear weapon design originated in the United States, although some were later developed independently by other states. In early news accounts, pure fission weapons were called atomic bombs or A-bombs and weapons involving fusion were called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs. Practitioners however favor the terms nuclear and thermonuclear, respectively. Nuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion combines together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which

neg: Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) appeared in one frame indicating a very high lower bound for the speed of the plate. As discussed by Arthur C. Clarke in his recollections of the making of "" in "The Lost Worlds of 2001", a nuclear pulse version of the "Discovery" was considered. However the "Discovery" in the movie did not use this idea as Stanley Kubrick thought it might be considered parody after making "". Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) Project Orion was a study of a spacecraft intended to be directly propelled by a series of explosions of atomic bombs behind the craft (nuclear pulse propulsion). Early

neg: African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty The African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Pelindaba (named after South Africa's main Nuclear Research Centre, run by The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation and was the location where South Africa's atomic bombs of the 1970s were developed, constructed and subsequently stored), establishes a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Africa. The treaty was signed in 1996 and came into effect with the 28th ratification on 15 July 2009. The Treaty prohibits the research, development, manufacture, stockpiling, acquisition, testing, possession, control or stationing of nuclear explosive devices in the territory of parties to

neg: African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty establishment of AFCONE would also: encourage African states to take responsibility for their natural resources, and in particular nuclear material; and protect against the dumping of toxic waste. African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty The African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Pelindaba (named after South Africa's main Nuclear Research Centre, run by The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation and was the location where South Africa's atomic bombs of the 1970s were developed, constructed and subsequently stored), establishes a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Africa. The treaty was signed in 1996 and came into effect with the 28th ratification

neg: Peter Dreyer oil from shale in the Karoo region by detonating nuclear bombs in the shale bed. This was not just science fiction: the idea was based on an actual proposal by the Continental Oil Company to the United States Atomic Energy Commission, "Project Dragon Trail: The Stimulation of a Natural Gas Reservoir by a Contained Nuclear Explosion," which envisioned setting off a 40-kiloton device in Rio Blanco County, Colorado, with the assistance of the CER Geonuclear Corporation (three 33-kiloton nuclear devices were eventually detonated as a test in 1973 under the rubric Project Rio Blanco). Continental Oil was not alone in

neg: 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement liaison officers were complaining of slow response to their questions. Rickover proposed that Westinghouse be permitted to sell the Royal Navy a nuclear submarine reactor, which would allow it to immediately proceed with building its own nuclear-powered submarine. The British government endorsed this idea, as it would save it a great deal of money. For their part, the British wanted the McMahon Act's restrictions on nuclear cooperation to be relaxed. They wanted to know the weight and dimensions, fusing and firing sequences, safety features, and in-flight procedures; the information that would allow American bombs to be carried in British V-bombers,

neg: Nuclear fission fissile isotope was separated). In December, Werner Heisenberg delivered a report to the German Ministry of War on the possibility of a uranium bomb. Most of these models were still under the assumption that the bombs would be powered by slow neutron reactions—and thus be similar to a reactor undergoing a meltdown. In Birmingham, England, Frisch teamed up with Peierls, a fellow German-Jewish refugee. They had the idea of using a purified mass of the uranium isotope U, which had a cross section just determined, and which was much larger than that of U or natural uranium (which is 99.3%

neg: Technology during World War II being the first country to do so. However, due the potential radioactive fallout, the British considered the idea morally unacceptable and put it on hold. In 1947 the project was restarted and the first successful nuclear weapons test carried out on 3 October 1952 in Operation Hurricane and came info full service by 1955. Britain was also the first to come up with the idea of nuclear energy and hint at a potential for atomic weapons in 1933. It was patented in 1934, (British patent 630,726), which help to lead the way into the further research and later, the successful

neg: Kenny Clarke group, before Gillespie gave Clarke an opening to join him in the Teddy Hill band in the Savoy Ballroom in 1939. While playing for this group on a fast tune, he came upon the idea of using the Ride cymbal on his right hand to keep time rather than the hi-hat, an approach that freed up his left hand to play more syncopated figures. On the bass drum he played irregular accents (dropping bombs), while using the hi-hat on the backbeats, adding more color to his drumming. With Gillespie, who encouraged this new approach to time keeping, Clarke wrote a

neg: Ted Taylor (physicist) could then be retrieved. While his idea had merit, he ultimately received little support for this concept and the project never came to fruition. Ted Taylor was an accomplished author in the latter part of his career. He worked in cooperation with many specialists in other fields to publish his work on anti-nuclear proliferation and sustainable nuclear energy. Perhaps the greatest fear that propelled him to work so fervently in these areas was the realization that the consequences of nuclear material ending up in the wrong hands could be severe. "Nuclear Theft: Risks and Safeguards" is a book that Theodore

neg: Véronique Morin to 17 February 2016 in Washington DC. Véronique Morin was awarded one of the Science Journalism Fellowships of Canadian Institutes of Health Research. She was recipient of the William Southam Journalism fellowship at Massey College (2013-2014). Thus becoming Webster McConnell Fellow. With regard to television productions, she is one of the people who conceived the idea of making a documentary based on archive documents on involuntary participation of Canadian soldiers to nuclear tests that took place in 1957. She also participated in this production as a researcher. "Time Bombs" was retained by the New York International Independent Film and Video

neg: Bojinka plot asked him to attack United States President Bill Clinton, who was due to arrive in the Philippines on November 12, 1994 as part of a five-day tour of Asia. Yousef thought of several ways to kill the president, including placing nuclear bombs on Clinton's motorcade route, firing a Stinger missile at Air Force One or the presidential limousine, launching theater ballistic missiles at Manila and or killing him with phosgene, a chemical weapon. He abandoned the idea, as it would be too difficult to kill the President. However, he incorporated his plan to kill the Pope into the Bojinka plot.

neg: Operation Greenhouse Operation Greenhouse Operation Greenhouse was the fifth American nuclear test series, the second conducted in 1951 and the first to test principles that would lead to developing thermonuclear weapons ("hydrogen bombs"). Conducted at the new Pacific Proving Ground, specifically on islands of the Enewetak Atoll, all of the devices were mounted in large steel towers, to simulate air bursts. This series of nuclear weapons tests was preceded by Operation Ranger and succeeded by Operation Buster-Jangle. Operation Greenhouse showcased new and aggressive designs for nuclear weapons. The main idea was to reduce the size, weight, and most importantly, reduce the amount

neg: Tsutomu Yamaguchi during a telephone interview, he said, "I can't understand why the world cannot understand the agony of the nuclear bombs. How can they keep developing these weapons?" On December 22, 2009, Canadian movie director James Cameron and author Charles Pellegrino met Yamaguchi while he was in a hospital in Nagasaki, and discussed the idea of making a film about nuclear weapons. "I think it's Cameron's and Pellegrino's destiny to make a film about nuclear weapons," Yamaguchi said. At first, Yamaguchi did not feel the need to draw attention to his double survivor status. However, in later life he began to

neg: Nuclear weapon of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output. All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as atomic bombs or atom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs). This has long been noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons.

neg: Anti-nuclear protests of Hamburg. Some 100,000 people came face to face with 10,000 police officers. Twenty-one policemen were injured by demonstrators armed with gasoline bombs, sticks, stones and high-powered slingshots. The largest anti-nuclear protest was most likely a 1983 nuclear weapons protest in West Berlin which had about 600,000 participants. In October 1983, nearly 3 million people across western Europe protested nuclear missile deployments and demanded an end to the arms race. The largest turnout of protesters occurred in West Germany when, on a single day, 400,000 people marched in Bonn, 400,000 in Hamburg, 250,000 in Stuttgart, and 100,000 in West Berlin.

neg: Albert Einstein Einstein did not return to Germany. He settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the US begin similar research. This eventually led to the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported the Allies, but he generally denounced the idea of using nuclear fission as a weapon. He signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto with British philosopher Bertrand Russell, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. He was

neg: Supranational union state governments play a more prominent role. After the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, Albert Einstein spoke and wrote frequently in the late 1940s in favor of a "supranational" organization to control all military forces except for local police forces, including nuclear weapons. He thought this might begin with the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, and grow to encompass most other nations, presenting this as the only way to avoid nuclear war. He broached the idea in the November 1945 and November 1947 articles in "The Atlantic Monthly" that described how

neg: Gun-type fission weapon replacement, 40 Mark 11 bombs. Both the Mark 8 and Mark 11 designs were intended for use as earth-penetrating bombs (see nuclear bunker buster), for which the gun-type method was preferred for a time by designers who were less than certain that early implosion-type weapons would successfully detonate following an impact. The second program was a family of 11-inch nuclear artillery shells, the W9 and its derivative W19, plus a repackaged W19 in a 16-inch shell for US Navy battleships, the W23. The third family was an 8-inch artillery shell, the W33. Later, South Africa also developed six nuclear bombs

neg: Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom permission." Production of British nuclear weapons was slow and Britain had only ten atomic bombs on hand in 1955 and just fourteen in 1956. At the three-power Bermuda Conference with Eisenhower in December 1953, Churchill, suggested that the United States allow Britain to have access to American nuclear weapons to make up the shortfall. The provision on American weapons was called Project E. The agreement was confirmed by Eisenhower and Macmillan, who was now the Prime Minister, during their March 1957 meeting in Bermuda, and a formal Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed on 21 May 1957. Four squadrons of

neg: Peaceful nuclear explosion conducting 239 nuclear explosions. Some of these tests also released radioactivity, including a significant release of plutonium into the groundwater and the polluting of an area near the Volga River. A major part of the program in the 1970s and 80s was the use of very small bombs to produce shock waves as a seismic measuring tool, and as part of these experiments, two bombs were successfully used to seal blown-out oil wells. The program officially ended in 1988. As part of ongoing arms control efforts, both programs came to be controlled by a variety of agreements. Most notable among

neg: Leuna works and 3,000 others, thus making up a total of 62,550 persons. More than 19,000 of Leuna's workers were members of the air raid protection organization which operated over 600 radar-directed guns, while the fire-fighting force consisted of 5,000 men and women. A total of 6,552 bomber sorties over 20 US Eighth Air Force and 2 RAF attacks dropped 18,328 tons of bombs on Leuna. As the most heavily defended industrial target in Europe, Leuna would become so dark from flak, German smoke pots, and exploding oil tanks that ""we had no idea how close our bombs came to the target.""

neg: Mark 6 nuclear bomb US. Mark 18 bombs were eventually recycled into Mark 6 Mod 6 bombs after thermonuclear weapons were deployed in quantity. The Mark 18 was tested once in Operation Ivy King. Mark 6 nuclear bomb The Mark 6 nuclear bomb was an American nuclear bomb based on the earlier Mark 4 nuclear bomb and its predecessor, the Mark 3 Fat Man nuclear bomb design. The Mark 6 was in production from 1951 to 1955 and saw service until 1962. Seven variants and versions were produced, with a total production run of all models of 1100 bombs. The basic Mark 6 design

neg: Khidir Hamza first came to the United States in the 1960s, attending the Massachusetts Institute of Technology after being recommended by Abdul Jabbar Abdullah, a prominent Iraqi scientist and an alumnus of MIT himself. He later attended Florida State University, obtaining a degree in nuclear physics. He intended to stay permanently in America, but following the 1968 coup, Khidir heard about how families of relatives living overseas were arrested and reportedly tortured. Fearing for his parents and threats from Mossad and the PLO for turning down an offer to develop nuclear bombs for the PLO (the person who approached him for the

neg: Enrico Fermi answers to problems that would stump other people. Later on, his method of getting approximate and quick answers through back-of-the-envelope calculations became informally known as the "Fermi method", and is widely taught. Fermi was fond of pointing out that Alessandro Volta, working in his laboratory, could have had no idea where the study of electricity would lead. Fermi is generally remembered for his work on nuclear power and nuclear weapons, especially the creation of the first nuclear reactor, and the development of the first atomic and hydrogen bombs. His scientific work has stood the test of time. This includes his

neg: Operation Hudson Harbor actual release of the bombs while using conventional bombs. The intention was to both be entirely prepared for any ordered strikes and also intimidate the communists with the ease of US ability to fly nuclear bombs overhead. Nuclear cores were deployed and thus the Air Force had several nuclear weapons at their disposal. Command of any nuclear strike was given to General Curtis LeMay. The plan was to destroy large military targets, power plants, and also create a ring of blast zones through Manchuria to dissuade any further intervention from the Communists. Although the use of nuclear weapons was approved,

neg: Büchel Air Base delivering the twenty B61 nuclear bombs, which are stored and maintained by the 702 MUNSS of the USAF. Under the NATO nuclear sharing arrangement, these twenty B61 bombs require a dual key system, with the simultaneous authorizations of Germany and the United States, before any action is taken. Since July 2007, the air base is the only location in Germany with nuclear weapons. According to the press, Eastern European Member States of NATO have resisted the withdrawal of the shared nuclear bombs from Europe, fearing it would show a weakening of the US commitment to defend Europe against Russia. Büchel

neg: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 400 bombs. The American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted only four years before the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb in September 1949. The United States responded with the development of the hydrogen bomb, a nuclear weapon a thousand times as powerful as the bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Such ordinary fission bombs would henceforth be regarded as small tactical nuclear weapons. By 1986, the United States would have 23,317 nuclear weapons, while the Soviet Union had 40,159. By 2017, nine nations had nuclear weapons, but Japan was not one of them. Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty on the

neg: B61 Family B61 Family The B61 Family is a series of nuclear bombs and nuclear warheads based on the B61 nuclear bomb. They can be atomic bombs (using fission) or thermonuclear (using fusion). The B61 bomb was developed by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL; now Los Alamos National Laboratory) starting in 1960. The intent was to develop an aircraft bomb which was high yield (up to over 100 kilotons) and yet was small enough and had low enough drag to carry under the wing of a fighter or fighter-bomber type aircraft. One major feature was Full Fuzing Options (allowing various air and

neg: Swedish nuclear weapons program the recently founded FOA should find out what was known about those new weapons. FOA's first report to the Supreme Commander in late 1945 was largely based on the Smyth Report, the official US report on Manhattan project and physics behind it, was published on August 12. As soon as nuclear bombs became known, both nuclear weapons and nuclear energy drew significant attention in many countries. Immediately after the Smyth Report came out, discussions around peaceful use of nuclear energy in the US began. Studies of military and civilian use of nuclear energy started in Sweden even before the end

neg: Swedish nuclear weapons program 08, the previously classified documents provide no support for the claim that something other than aerial bombs would have been prioritized. Nuclear-armed anti-ship missiles (as the RBS-15 is believed to have such a non-conventional option capability), as well as nuclear-armed torpedoes, would primarily have been targeted at naval transportation. However, the study of nuclear devices came to the conclusion that a bomb dropped in the home port would have the greatest impact. At sea, naval fleets would be dispersed to reduce casualties from nuclear attack. Statements about plans on nuclear ammunition for 155 mm Swedish artillery greater than 25 km

neg: Deep Core (film) the diamond cave they run out of communication cable, that they have been laying to stay in contact with the command center. This initiates a self-destruct countdown of the bomb pod within the drilling vehicle. They eject the bomb pod from the main mining vehicle, but Alan stays in the pod and delays the self-destruct by tying up the computer with a diagnostics program. Brian and his team find a magma flow, to get them to the surface away from the nuclear bombs before they detonate. The nuclear bombs all explode successfully. Brian and his team make it to the

neg: North Korea in the Navy. North Korea has the largest special forces and the largest submarine fleet in the world. North Korea possesses nuclear weapons, but the strength of its arsenal is uncertain. In January 2018, estimates of North Korea's nuclear arsenal ranged between 15 and 60 bombs, probably including hydrogen bombs. Delivery capabilities are provided by the Rocket Force, which has some 1,000 ballistic missiles with a range of up to . According to a 2004 South Korean assessment, North Korea possesses a stockpile of chemical weapons estimated to amount to 2,500–5,000 tons, including nerve, blister, blood, and vomiting agents, as

neg: United States and weapons of mass destruction B-2 Spirits. All 64 B-1s were retrofitted to operate in a solely conventional mode by 2007 and thus don't count as nuclear platforms. In addition to this, the U.S. military can also deploy smaller tactical nuclear weapons either through cruise missiles or with conventional fighter-bombers. The U.S. maintains about 400 nuclear gravity bombs capable of use by F-15, F-16, and F-35. Some 350 of these bombs are deployed at seven airbases in six European NATO countries; of these, 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs fall under a nuclear sharing arrangement. The U.S. Navy currently has 18 s deployed, of which 14

neg: Heresy (Rush song) were now suddenly free buying up everything they've ever wanted to. The song concludes with the fact that all other countries that were not under the communist yoke were threatened by the possibility of nuclear war. Referring to the Cold War, the military spending, and building of nuclear bombs for that war, the song's main line was, ""All those precious wasted years. Who will pay?"" Rush drummer Neil Peart discussed the topic of the end of the Cold War further in his fourth book, "Roadshow: Landscape with Drums". This is one of only four songs by Rush which contains potentially

neg: Boeing B-52 Stratofortress modern unit. Forty-seven B-52Hs were modified under the CEM program by 1996, with 19 more by the end of 1999. By around 2010, U.S. Strategic Command stopped assigning B61 and B83 nuclear gravity bombs to B-52, and later listed only the B-2 as tasked with delivering strategic nuclear bombs in budget requests. Nuclear gravity bombs were removed from the B-52's capabilities because it is no longer considered survivable enough to penetrate modern air defenses, instead relying on nuclear cruise missiles and focusing on expanding its conventional strike role. Starting in 2016, Boeing is to upgrade the internal rotary launchers to

neg: J. Robert Oppenheimer appeared on the covers of "Life" and "Time". Nuclear physics became a powerful force as all governments of the world began to realize the strategic and political power that came with nuclear weapons. Like many scientists of his generation, he felt that security from atomic bombs would come only from a transnational organization such as the newly formed United Nations, which could institute a program to stifle a nuclear arms race. In November 1945, Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech, but he soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching. In 1947, he accepted an offer

neg: Nuclear sharing the Cold War consisted of dropping nuclear weapons on Prague, Budapest and then on all eastern countries in case of a first strike of the Soviets against NATO members. He acknowledged the presence of U.S. nuclear weapons in Italy, and speculated about the possible presence of British and French nuclear weapons. The only German nuclear base is located in Büchel Air Base, near the border with Luxembourg. The base has 11 Protective Aircraft Shelters (PAS) equipped with WS3 Vaults for storage of nuclear weapons, each with a maximum capacity of 44 B61 nuclear bombs. There are 20 B61 bombs stored

neg: Edward Teller Teller advocated the development of a bomb using uranium hydride, which many of his fellow theorists said would be unlikely to work. At Livermore, Teller continued work on the hydride bomb, and the result was a dud. Ulam once wrote to a colleague about an idea he had shared with Teller: "Edward is full of enthusiasm about these possibilities; this is perhaps an indication they will not work." Fermi once said that Teller was the only monomaniac he knew who had several manias. Carey Sublette of Nuclear Weapon Archive argues that Ulam came up with the radiation implosion compression design

neg: Aftermath of World War II the West was impossible. In mid-1948 the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the Western zone of occupation in Berlin. Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over further Soviet expansion, American planners came up with a contingency plan code-named "Operation Dropshot" in 1949. It considered possible nuclear and conventional war with the Soviet Union and its allies in order to counter a Soviet takeover of Western Europe, the Near East and parts of Eastern Asia that they anticipated would begin around 1957. In response, the US would saturate the Soviet Union with atomic and high-explosive bombs, and

neg: Mark 39 nuclear bomb Redstone IRBM missile, and in the B-58 Hustler weapons pod. Two Mark 39 nuclear bombs were carried by a B-52 Stratofortress that broke up in the air and crashed near Goldsboro, North Carolina on January 24, 1961. According to Parker F. Jones, a supervisor of nuclear safety at Sandia National Laboratories, in a 1969 report that was declassified in 2013, the Mark 39 bomb had four safety mechanisms, one of which was not effective in the air. On one of the bombs involved, two more safety mechanisms were "rendered ineffective by aircraft breakup." As a result, Jones noted that the

neg: History of the Daleks bombs which are accidentally detonated by a meteorite storm. (The idea of the war having an accidental, rather than deliberate origin, goes back to an earlier draft of the first Dalek television story.) The Daleks' chief scientist, Yarvelling, had built Dalek casings as war machines prior to the nuclear holocaust. After the neutron bombs explode, Yarvelling and Zolfian, the warlord of the humanoid Daleks, explore their continent and contract radiation sickness. They discover that a mutated Dalek had survived in the war machine casing. This Dalek persuades Yarvelling and Zolfian to build more Dalek casings for their mutated descendants. Before

neg: Nuclear weapon design in 1950 U.S. President Harry S. Truman ended the H-bomb debate by ordering the Los Alamos designers to build one. In 1952, the 10.4-megaton Ivy Mike explosion was announced as the first hydrogen bomb test, reinforcing the idea that hydrogen bombs are a thousand times more powerful than fission bombs. In 1954, J. Robert Oppenheimer was labeled a hydrogen bomb opponent. The public did not know there were two kinds of hydrogen bomb (neither of which is accurately described as a hydrogen bomb). On May 23, when his security clearance was revoked, item three of the four public findings against

neg: Don't Make a Wave Committee wife Marie came up with the idea to sail to Amchitka, inspired by the anti-nuclear voyages of Albert Bigelow in 1958. The idea ended up in the press and was linked to The Sierra Club. The Sierra Club did not like this connection and in 1970 Jim and Marie Bohlen, Irving and Dorothy Stowe and Paul Cote, a law student and peace activist established The "Don't Make a Wave Committee", working independently of The Sierra Club. Early meetings were held in the Shaughnessy home of Robert and Bobbi Hunter. The first office was opened in a back-room of a storefront

neg: Interpretations of 2001: A Space Odyssey appearance there are statements by members of the production staff who still refer to them as weapons. Walker, in his book "Stanley Kubrick, Director", noted that although the bombs no longer fit in with Kubrick's revised thematic concerns, "nevertheless from the national markings still visible on the first and second space vehicles we see, we can surmise that they are the Russian and American bombs." Similarly, Walker in a later essay stated that two of the spacecraft seen circling Earth were meant to be nuclear weapons, after asserting that early scenes of the film "imply" nuclear stalemate. Pietrobon, who was

neg: Dassault Mirage IV free-fall bombs used by both its strategic and tactical nuclear forces, development of the ASMP stand-off missile was initiated; the ASMP would possess a range of up to 400 km (250 mi) and was alternative armed with either a single 150 or 300 kt nuclear warhead. Various test launches of dummy and later live ASMPs were performed using the Mirage IV as the launch platform between 1981 and 1983. In July 1984, a contract was formally issued for the upgrade of a total of 18 Mirage IVAs to carry the ASMP missile in the place of traditional bombs; these aircraft

neg: Dobrich Air Base the inventory and the MiG-15bisR - in 1981. In 1981 the advanced MiG-25RBT entered service with the Bulgarian Air Force to form the Operational Reconnaissance Flight for photographic reconnaissance and ELINT duties, and a secondary task of ground attack. For it up to 8 500 kg unguided bombs could be carried. But the most impressive ability was to carry nuclear bombs and upon the beginning of a major military conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact they were to be delivered from the Soviet Union for nuclear strikes against Greece and Turkey. A MiG-25RBT was lost in flight due to

neg: Fairchild Air Force Base "2" appear to be redeveloped into light industrial estates; "4" and "6" appear to be converted into private residences. At one time, Washington state had the distinction of having more nuclear warheads than four of the six known nuclear-armed nations. These warheads were concentrated in two places: at Fairchild AFB and at the Kitsap Submarine Base across Puget Sound, on the Hood Canal. At Fairchild, 85 nuclear gravity bombs (25 B61-7 gravity bombs and 60 B83 gravity bombs) were stored in a reserve nuclear depot. Bangor's eight submarines have 24 Trident I missiles per boat with eight warheads per missile,

neg: Aiken tube in industry in a variety of jobs. He spent the next six years working for the University of California Radiation Laboratory, today's Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, designing controls for the cyclotrons being built there. He was then put in charge of developing an x-ray spectrometer for measuring the temperature of the fireballs from nuclear weapons. While working on these developments he was sent to Eniwetok during a series of nuclear tests. It was during this time that he came up with the idea for a new type of thin cathode ray tube (CRT) while he was working with oscilloscopes. He

neg: Joshua Corin in the Open Door Contest. Joshua Corin grew up in Rhode Island and went to the State University of New York at Binghamton. Joshua Corin Joshua Corin is an American author and screenwriter. He is known for writing the novel "Nuclear Winter Wonderland" and a screenplay for the novel. "Nuclear Winter Wonderland" follows the story of an underachieving college kid, Adam Weiss, whose sister Anna is kidnapped by a lunatic nuclear terrorist. Adam sets off for the terrorist, teaming up with a dyspeptic ex-mob thug and a Spanish-speaking female clown. Adam soon learns that twelve nuclear bombs placed around the

neg: Peaceful nuclear explosion proposals for peaceful nuclear explosions that came close to being carried out was Project Chariot, which would have used several hydrogen bombs to create an artificial harbor at Cape Thompson, Alaska. It was never carried out due to concerns for the native populations and the fact that there was little potential use for the harbor to justify its risk and expense. There was also talk of using nuclear explosions to excavate a second Panama Canal. The largest excavation experiment took place in 1962 at the Department of Energy's Nevada Test Site. The Sedan nuclear test carried out as part of

neg: Vladislav Ivanov (physicist) Vladislav Ivanov (physicist) Vladislav Alexandrovich Ivanov (; 1936-2007) was a Soviet physicist and engineer, who proposed in 1959 the basic principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging , decades before this technique was demonstrated by Paul Lauterbur. Ivanov graduated from Lenigrad Airforce Academy in 1959. While at the academy, he came up with the idea of using the recently discovered phenomenon of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance for imaging purposes. In 1959, he filed his first application for Invention Certificate (a patent -like document used in the Soviet Union) titled "Free-precession proton microscope". Soon afterwards he filed three more applications. The second of his

neg: Nuclear energy in Jordan pursue an internationally-approved path to obtaining nuclear energy. In October 2013 the Russian VVER-1000 design was selected in a competitive tender for Jordan's first twin reactor nuclear power station. As recently as April, 2014, King Abdullah II met with Russian President Vladimir Putin to discuss a possible Jordanian-Russian nuclear cooperation. As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the local anti-nuclear movement has picked up steam. The movement is led by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who heads the National Campaign, an anti-nuclear energy non-profit. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear

neg: Tsunami using nuclear weapons to cause tsunamis near an enemy coastline. Even during World War II consideration of the idea using conventional explosives was explored. Nuclear testing in the Pacific Proving Ground by the United States seemed to generate poor results. "Operation Crossroads" fired two bombs, one in the air and one underwater, above and below the shallow () waters of the Bikini Atoll lagoon. Fired about from the nearest island, the waves there were no higher than upon reaching the shoreline. Other underwater tests, mainly "Hardtack I/Wahoo" (deep water) and "Hardtack I/Umbrella" (shallow water) confirmed the results. Analysis of the

neg: Single Integrated Operational Plan with the 30 nuclear bombs then available. Plan BROILER (November 1947) envisioned 34 bombs on 24 Soviet cities. It and later plans such as HALFMOON (May 1948; 50 bombs on 20 cities) and OFFTACKLE (December 1949; 104 urban targets, 220 bombs, 72 more reserved for follow-up attacks) envisioned Western forces in Europe slowly retreating while the United Kingdom was reinforced as an air base for atomic attacks on the Soviet Union. President Harry S. Truman hoped for an international ban on atomic weapons and believed that the American people would not support their use for "aggressive purposes", and ordered JCS

neg: Moscow–Washington hotline 2008, the Moscow–Washington hotline has been a secure computer link over which messages are exchanged by a secure form of email. Several people came up with the idea for a hotline. They included Harvard professor Thomas Schelling, who had worked on nuclear war policy for the Defense Department previously. Schelling credited the pop fiction novel "Red Alert" (the basis of the film "Dr. Strangelove") with making governments more aware of the benefit of direct communication between the superpowers. In addition, Parade magazine editor Jess Gorkin personally badgered 1960 presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, and buttonholed the Soviet

neg: India and weapons of mass destruction Jaguars of the Indian Air Force are able to provide a secondary nuclear-strike role. The SEPECAT Jaguar was designed to be able to carry and deploy nuclear weapons and the Indian Air Force has identified the jet as being capable of delivering Indian nuclear weapons. The most likely delivery method would be the use of bombs that are free-falling and unguided. Three air bases with four squadrons of Mirage 2000H (about 16 aircraft with 16 bombs from 1st and 7th squadrons of the 40th Wing at Maharajpur Air Force Station) and Jaguar IS/IB (about 32 aircraft with 32 bombs from

neg: Project E were not V-bombers but 28 Canberra bombers earmarked as night interdictors for the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) in 1957. These were new B(I)8 models, which came straight from the manufacturer for modification to carry the Mark 7 nuclear bomb. The intention was that they would be able to carry either American or British bombs, but since the latter were not available, they were only fitted for American bombs. Later-model Canberras would be able to carry both. Since the specifications for the bomb bay doors said they opened wide, and the tail fins of the bombs were between wide, no

neg: Dolfijn-class submarine . The designer was Max F. Gunning, who came upon this idea when he though of a way to make sure Malta was properly provisioned during the Second World War. The Royal Netherlands Navy considered using nuclear propulsion for the second batch of "Dolfijn"-class submarines (so-called "Potvis"-class) and therefore postponed in the late 1950s their construction to study the feasibility of building nuclear powered submarines, but in the end it was decided not to use nuclear propulsion for the "Potvis"-class submarines. This meant that both "Potvis"-class submarines were built with diesel-electric propulsion like her earlier sister ships. "Zeehond" was converted

neg: Mark 36 nuclear bomb continued to be improved and the Mark 36 device started production in April 1956. In 1957, all older Mark 21 bombs were converted to Mark 36 Y1 Mod 1 bombs. A total of 920 Mark 36 bombs were produced as new build or converted from the 275 Mark 21 bombs produced earlier. All Mark 36 nuclear bombs were retired between August 1961 and January 1962, replaced by the higher yield B41 nuclear bomb A Mark 36 casing is on display in the Cold War Gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. A Mark

neg: No. 226 Operational Conversion Unit RAF came to an end. The next area where 226 OCU saw service was Scotland. Shifting emphasis to strike aircraft, 226 OCU reformed at RAF Lossiemouth the day after disbandment and undertook its peacetime role training pilots for the Sepecat Jaguar. Less well known was 226 OCU's wartime emergency role as a 'shadow squadron' or reserve unit made up principally of the squadron's instructors. From 1975 until 1991 the unit's wartime role was as an operational squadron in the front line assigned to SACEUR with twelve Jaguar aircraft, eight WE.177 nuclear bombs, and a variety of conventional weapons. In a high-intensity

neg: Project E was not possible if US permission was required for half of the force. With sufficient British bombs becoming available, operational issues and the concept of an independent nuclear deterrent came to the fore. The Air Council decided on 7 July 1960 that Project E weapons would be phased out by December 1962, by which time it was anticipated that there would be sufficient British megaton weapons to equip the entire strategic bomber force. Project E weapons were replaced by British Yellow Sun bombs at RAF Honington on 1 July 1961 and Waddington on 30 March 1962. Problems encountered in the

neg: Single Integrated Operational Plan discussed the idea of preventive and preemptive war. Truman rejected preventive war, stating that "[s]tarting an atomic war is totally unthinkable for rational men", but Attlee stated in 1945 that "twice is he armed who gets in the first blow". JCS proposed in 1947 that the president be authorized to use atomic bombs to prevent a nuclear attack. NSC 68 of April 1950 opposed "a military attack not provoked by a military attack on us or on our allies", but acknowledged "if possible" the benefits of preemptively "landing the first blow" before the Soviet Union did so. In August 1950

neg: Nuclear Freeze campaign widely accepted idea of deterrence, arguing that adding more nuclear weapons to the world would only increase the chance of nuclear war. Additionally, Forsberg argued that a nuclear weapons freeze would result in a large amount of fiscal savings, going on to detail the social and economic benefits of various alternative domestic spending options. After "Call to Halt the Nuclear Arms Race" was published, it was endorsed by various leaders, intellectuals, and activists. Political figures, such as George Ball, Clark Clifford, William Colby, Averell Harriman, and George Kennan, came forward to support the idea. Scientists also supported the proposal, including

neg: German Air Force in delivering these weapons in the event of their use. Soon after its founding the German Air Force began to train with the US Seventeenth Air Force in handling, arming and delivering nuclear weapons. At first the F-104 Starfighter was intended to be used solely as a nuclear delivery platform, armed with nuclear air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, as well as nuclear bombs. The Tornado was the second plane the air force fielded capable of delivering nuclear ammunition, although it was limited to deliver B61 nuclear bombs. From 1965 through 1970, the Missile Wing 1 and Missile Wing 2 fielded 16

neg: Fusion rocket a fusion engine based on an FRC. For space flight, the main advantage of fusion would be the very high specific impulse, and the main disadvantage the (likely) large mass of the reactor. However, a fusion rocket may produce less radiation than a fission rocket, reducing the mass needed for shielding. The surest way of building a fusion rocket with current technology is to use hydrogen bombs as proposed in Project Orion, but such a spacecraft would also be massive and the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty prohibits the use of nuclear bombs. Therefore, the use of nuclear bombs to

neg: Thin Man (nuclear bomb) gun-type design was chosen, in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a "bullet" into a "target". The idea of an implosion-type nuclear weapon was suggested by Richard Tolman but attracted scant consideration. Oppenheimer, reviewing his options in early 1943, gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but as a hedge against the threat of pre-detonation, he created the E-5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion. Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb, because compressed fissile

neg: Lend-Lease lending of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend–lease". As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them." As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs." In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States. The aim of

neg: Fist of the North Star finally begins to recover from the nuclear war. Tetsuo Hara has stated that he came up with the idea of "Hokuto no Ken" from his editor Nobuhiko Horie. According to Hara, Horie suggested to him that he should draw a manga about "a martial artist who destroys his opponents by striking their acupressure points" based on Hara's aspiration to draw a manga about martial arts and his knowledge of pressure points. At the time, Hara was having trouble breaking into the market, as his first series, the "Iron Don Quixote", was cancelled ten weeks after its debut. A prototype version

neg: Earl Cooley (smokejumper) high school and graduated from the class of 1930. After graduation, he went on to attend and graduate the forestry school at the University of Montana. In 1937, Cooley started his career with the forestry service. At this point in time the forestry was looking for ways to improve the methods used to fight fires. Terrain in the mountains in the 1930s was almost inaccessible, and the roads almost nonexistent. (Bramwell). The challenge became focused on finding a way to get to the fire quicker. The service came up with an idea on attaching “water bombs” to a plane to

neg: Nuclear sharing bombs or control over them is intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the NPT would no longer be controlling", so there is no breach of the NPT. However, the pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO countries practice handling and delivering the US nuclear bombs, and non-US warplanes have been adapted to deliver US nuclear bombs which involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. Even if the US argument is considered legally correct, some argue such peacetime operations appear to contravene both the objective and the spirit of the

neg: Trident (UK nuclear programme) Project E, the B57 nuclear depth bombs and the Lance missiles and W48 nuclear artillery shells used by the British Army of the Rhine, were withdrawn in July 1992. The British Conservative government followed suit. The deployment of ships carrying nuclear weapons caused embarrassment during the Falklands War, and in the aftermath it was decided to stockpile them ashore in peacetime. The nuclear depth bombs were withdrawn from service in 1992, followed by the WE.177 free-fall bombs used by the Royal Navy and RAF on 31 March 1998, and all were dismantled by the end of August. This left Trident