query: where can stem cells be found in plants

pos: Plant stem cell isolation. Due to the valuable and beneficial compounds for human health (i.e. paclitaxel) which are secreted by the CMC's, this technology is considered a serious breakthrough in plant biotechnology. Plant stem cell Plant stem cells are innately undifferentiated cells located in the meristems of plants. Plant stem cells serve as the origin of plant vitality, as they maintain themselves while providing a steady supply of precursor cells to form differentiated tissues and organs in plants. Two distinct areas of stem cells are recognised: the apical meristem and the lateral meristem. Plant stem cells are characterized by two distinctive properties, which

pos: Plant stem cell Plant stem cell Plant stem cells are innately undifferentiated cells located in the meristems of plants. Plant stem cells serve as the origin of plant vitality, as they maintain themselves while providing a steady supply of precursor cells to form differentiated tissues and organs in plants. Two distinct areas of stem cells are recognised: the apical meristem and the lateral meristem. Plant stem cells are characterized by two distinctive properties, which are: the ability to create all differentiated cell types and the ability to self-renew such that the number of stem cells is maintained. Plant stem cells never undergo aging

pos: Meristem in two locations: the root and the stem. Some Arctic plants have an apical meristem in the lower/middle parts of the plant. It is thought that this kind of meristem evolved because it is advantageous in Arctic conditions. Shoot apical meristems are the source of all above-ground organs, such as leaves and flowers. Cells at the shoot apical meristem summit serve as stem cells to the surrounding peripheral region, where they proliferate rapidly and are incorporated into differentiating leaf or flower primordia. The shoot apical meristem is the site of most of the embryogenesis in flowering plants. Primordia of leaves,

neg: Cord blood cord blood is mostly driven by the observation that cord blood also contains various types of stem and progenitor cells, mostly hematopoietic stem cells. Some non-hematopoietic stem cell types are also present in cord blood, for example, mesenchymal stem cells, however these are present in much lower numbers that can be found in adult bone marrow. Endothelial progenitor cells and multipotent unrestricted adult stem cells can also be found in cord blood. The stem cells found in cord blood are often confused with embryonic stem cells - unlike embryonic stem cells, cord blood stem cells are all types of adult

neg: Stem-cell niche is preferred as that can be precisely controlled by scaffold fabrication techniques, processing parameters or post-fabrication modifications. In order to mimic, it is essential to understand natural properties of ECM and their role in stem cell fate processes. Various studies involving different types of scaffolds that regulate stem cells fate by mimicking these ECM properties have been done.) Stem-cell niche Stem-cell niche refers to a microenvironment, within the specific anatomic location where stem cells are found, which interacts with stem cells to regulate cell fate. The word 'niche' can be in reference to the "in vivo" or "in vitro" stem-cell

neg: Stem cell body") stem cells, are stem cells which maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found. They can be found in children, as well as adults. Pluripotent adult stem cells are rare and generally small in number, but they can be found in umbilical cord blood and other tissues. Bone marrow is a rich source of adult stem cells, which have been used in treating several conditions including liver cirrhosis, chronic limb ischemia and endstage heart failure. The quantity of bone marrow stem cells declines with age and is greater in males than females during reproductive years. Much adult

neg: Stem-cell niche Stem-cell niche Stem-cell niche refers to a microenvironment, within the specific anatomic location where stem cells are found, which interacts with stem cells to regulate cell fate. The word 'niche' can be in reference to the "in vivo" or "in vitro" stem-cell microenvironment. During embryonic development, various niche factors act on embryonic stem cells to alter gene expression, and induce their proliferation or differentiation for the development of the fetus. Within the human body, stem-cell niches maintain adult stem cells in a quiescent state, but after tissue injury, the surrounding micro-environment actively signals to stem cells to promote either self-renewal

neg: Stem cell Stem cell Stem cells are biological cells that can differentiate into other types of cells and can divide to produce more of the same type of stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms. In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells—ectoderm, endoderm

neg: Adult stem cell found in the lining of the nose and are involved in the sense of smell. If they are given the right chemical environment these cells have the same ability as embryonic stem cells to develop into many different cell types. Olfactory stem cells hold the potential for therapeutic applications and, in contrast to neural stem cells, can be harvested with ease without harm to the patient. This means they can be easily obtained from all individuals, including older patients who might be most in need of stem cell therapies. Hair follicles contain two types of stem cells, one of which

neg: Cord blood bank treatment of several life-threatening conditions, mainly blood and immune system related genetic diseases, cancers, and blood disorders. The first clinically documented use of cord blood stem cells was in the successful treatment of a six-year-old boy afflicted by Fanconi anemia in 1988. Since then, cord blood has become increasingly recognized as a source of stem cells that can be used in stem cell therapy. Recent studies have shown that cord blood has unique advantages over traditional bone marrow transplantation, particularly in children, and can be life-saving in rare cases where a suitable bone-marrow donor cannot be found. Cord blood stem

neg: Adult stem cell from the immediate environment (including how stiff or porous the surrounding structure/extracellular matrix is) can alter or enhance the fate and differentiation of the stem cells. Pluripotent stem cells, i.e. cells that can give rise to any fetal or adult cell type, can be found in a number of tissues, including umbilical cord blood. Using genetic reprogramming, pluripotent stem cells equivalent to embryonic stem cells have been derived from human adult skin tissue. Other adult stem cells are multipotent, meaning they are restricted in the types of cell they can become, and are generally referred to by their tissue origin

neg: Endothelial stem cell is a cell surface receptor protein that is commonly used as a marker for ESCs and EPCs. CD34 is another marker that can be found on the surface of ESCs and EPCs. It is characteristic of hematopoietic stem cells, as well as muscle stem cells. The two lineages arising from the EPC and the hematopoietic progenitor cell (HPC) form the blood circulatory system. Hematopoietic stem cells can of course undergo self-renewal, and are multipotent cells that give rise to erythrocytes (red blood cells), megakaryocytes/platelets, mast cells, T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, monocyte/macrophage, and granulocytes. A study found that

neg: Stem-cell line fertilization (IVF) procedures are used. The fact that the blastocyst is destroyed during the process has raised controversy and ethical concerns. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate to form all cell types in the body. In vitro, embryonic stem cells can be cultured under defined conditions to keep them in their pluripotent state, or they can be stimulated with biochemical and physical cues to differentiate them to different cell types. Adult stem cells are found in juvenile or adult tissues. Adult stem cells are multipotent: they can generate a limited number of differentiated cell types (unlike pluripotent

neg: Adult stem cell Adult stem cell Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells, found throughout the body after development, that multiply by cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues. Also known as somatic stem cells (from Greek Σωματικóς, meaning "of the body"), they can be found in juvenile as well as adult animals and humans, unlike embryonic stem cells. Scientific interest in adult stem cells is centered on their ability to divide or "self-renew" indefinitely, and generate all the cell types of the organ from which they originate, potentially regenerating the entire organ from a few cells. Unlike for embryonic stem

neg: VLA-4 or chemokines depending on the cell type. In T cells, IL-4 down-regulates the expression of VLA-4. In CD34 positive cells, IL-3 and SCF cause up-regulation, and G-CSF causes down-regulation (stem cells are CD34 positive cells). VLA-4 can be found on hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. These cells are found in the bone marrow, as that is where they are produced, and throughout the rest of the body. VLA-4, specifically the alpha subunit, is crucial for the localization and circulation of progenitor cells. In mice, it has been shown that injected anti-alpha antibodies result in an increase in progenitor cell circulation

neg: Amniotic stem cells tubular cells in mice with acute tubular necrosis. Amniotic stem cells can also be used to treat chronic damage. This was shown in mouse models for Alport syndrome, where the cells prolonged survival of the animals by slowing down the progression of the disease. The same effect was observed in mouse models where human amniotic stem cells were used to treat uretral obstruction. The use of foetal cells has been highly controversial because the tissue is usually obtained from the foetus following induced abortion. In contrast, foetal stem cells in the amniotic fluid can be obtained through routine prenatal testing

neg: Stem cell lineage database major factors that separates SCLD from other stem cell databases is that it allows users to edit information pertaining to cell types, markers, and lineages. The database allows user to update information found from the organic developmental stages and it also allows users to discuss experimental practices that altered the stem cells. Stem cells are cells in the body that can divide indefinitely in a culture and can be formulated into specialized cells. In biological research, these cells have become a subject of extensive research. With these cells, scientists will be able to better understand how these cells are differentiated

neg: Cell potency unrelated cell types. In another case, human umbilical cord blood stem cells were converted into human neurons. Research is also focusing on converting multipotent cells into pluripotent cells. Multipotent cells are found in many, but not all human cell types. Multipotent cells have been found in cord blood, adipose tissue, cardiac cells, bone marrow, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) which are found in the third molar. MSCs may prove to be a valuable source for stem cells from molars at 8–10 years of age, before adult dental calcification. MSCs can differentiate into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and adipocytes. In biology, oligopotency is

neg: Genetically modified organism or electric shock). DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. In plants the DNA is often inserted using "Agrobacterium"-mediated recombination, biolistics or electroporation. As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture. In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing

neg: CRISPR molecules that can dismember RNA, destroying the virus. Tailoring these genes opened any RNA molecule to editing. CRISPR-Cas systems can also be employed for editing of micro-RNA and long-noncoding RNA genes in plants. CRISPR simplifies creation of animals for research that mimic disease or show what happens when a gene is knocked down or mutated. CRISPR may be used at the germline level to create animals where the gene is changed everywhere, or it may be targeted at non-germline cells. CRISPR can be utilized to create human cellular models of disease. For instance, applied to human pluripotent stem cells CRISPR

neg: Progenitor cell this point of view, they may be compared to adult stem cells. But progenitors are said to be in a further stage of cell differentiation. They are in the “center” between stem cells and fully differentiated cells. The kind of potency they have depends on the type of their "parent" stem cell and also on their niche. Some progenitor cells were found during research, and were isolated. After their marker was found, it was proven that these progenitor cells could move through the body and migrate towards the tissue where they are needed. Many properties are shared by adult stem

neg: Transpiration increases the tension on the water menisci in the cell walls and decrease their radius and thus the tension that is exerted on the water in the cells. Because of the cohesive properties of water, the tension travels through the leaf cells to the leaf and stem xylem where a momentary negative pressure is created as water is pulled up the xylem from the roots. In taller plants and trees, the force of gravity can only be overcome by the decrease in hydrostatic (water) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of

neg: Stem-cell line embryonic stem cells). Types of adult stem cells include hematopoietic stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells. Hematopoetic stem cells are found in the bone marrow and generate all cells of the immune system all blood cell types. Mesenchymal stem cells are found in umbilical cord blood, amniotic fluid, and adipose tissue and can generate a number of cell types, including osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and adipocytes. In medicine, adult stem cells are mostly commonly used in bone marrow transplants to treat many bone and blood cancers as well as some autoimmune diseases. (See Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation) Of the types of adult

neg: Latex it is collected. The cells (laticifers) in which latex is found make up the laticiferous system, which can form in two very different ways. In many plants, the laticiferous system is formed from rows of cells laid down in the meristem of the stem or root. The cell walls between these cells are dissolved so that continuous tubes, called latex vessels, are formed. Since these vessels are made of many cells, they are known as "articulated laticifers". This method of formation is found in the poppy family and in the rubber trees (Para rubber tree, members of the family Euphorbiaceae,

neg: Stem-cell niche such as Wnt inhibitors produced by surrounding cells are important to maintain and facilitate the stem cell niche. Intestinal organoids have been used to study intestinal stem cell niches. An intestinal organoid culture can be used to indirectly assess the effect of the manipulation on the stem cells through assessing the organoid's survival and growth. Research using intestinal organoids have demonstrated that the survival of intestinal stem cells is improved by the presence of neurons and fibroblasts, and through the administration of IL-22. Cardiovascular stem cell niches can be found within the right ventricular free wall, atria and outflow tracks

neg: Induced stem cells stem cells, or native endothelial cells. Ex vivo genetic modification can be an effective strategy to enhance stem cell function. For example, cellular therapy employing genetic modification with Pim-1 kinase (a downstream effector of Akt, which positively regulates neovasculogenesis) of bone marrow–derived cells or human cardiac progenitor cells, isolated from failing myocardium results in durability of repair, together with the improvement of functional parameters of myocardial hemodynamic performance. Stem cells extracted from fat tissue after liposuction may be coaxed into becoming progenitor smooth muscle cells (iPVSMCs) found in arteries and veins. The 2D culture system of human iPS cells<ref name="doi10.1038/nbt1287"></ref>

neg: Stem cell laws and policy in the United States Stem cell laws and policy in the United States Stem cell laws and policy in the United States have had a complicated legal and political history. Stem cells are cells found in all multi-cellular organisms. They were isolated in mice in 1981, and in humans in 1998. In humans there are many types of stem cells, each with varying levels of potency. Potency is a measure of a cell's differentiation potential, or the number of other cell types that can be made from that stem cell. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of

neg: Endogenous regeneration (those that can generate different types of cells) are present in these regions, and all of these cells differentiate into neural cell forms, such as neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. A long-held belief states that the multipotency of neural stem cells would be lost in the adult human brain. However, it is only "in vitro", using neurosphere and adherent monolayer cultures, stem cells that can be found in the adult mammalian brain that have shown mutipotent capacity, while the "in vivo" study is not convincing. Therefore, the term "neural progenitor" is used instead of "stem cell" to describe limited regeneration ability

neg: Sphagnum palustre light brown with stem diameters of 0.6 to 1.2 millimeters. The epidermis (Hyalodermis) of the stem is built in three layers and their cells form 1 to 3 seldom more pores and contain much spiral fibers. The branches are tufted forming clusters of three to six on the little stems. The heads are a little more pigmented and egg-shaped. "Sphagnum palustre" plants are spread across the whole of Europe and also can be found in parts of America, Australia and New Zealand. It is comparatively frequent and grows on moist and wet habitats like wet forests, often coniferous forests, on

neg: Adult stem cell cells, and hepatocytes. Bioactive mediators that favor local cell growth are also secreted by MSCs. Anti-inflammatory effects on the local microenvironment, which promote tissue healing, are also observed. The inflammatory response can be modulated by adipose-derived regenerative cells (ADRC) including mesenchymal stem cells and regulatory T-lymphocytes. The mesenchymal stem cells thus alter the outcome of the immune response by changing the cytokine secretion of dendritic and T-cell subsets. This results in a shift from a pro-inflammatory environment to an anti-inflammatory or tolerant cell environment. Endothelial stem cells are one of the three types of multipotent stem cells found in the

neg: Biological patents in the United States "man-made," such as through genetic engineering, then it is patentable. Because the DNA of Chakrabarty's organism was modified, it was patentable. Since that 1980 court case, there has been much patenting of genetically modified organisms. This includes bacteria (as just mentioned), viruses, seeds, plants, cells, and even non-human animals. Isolated and manipulated cells - even human cells - can also be patented. In 1998, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) issued a broad patent claiming primate (including human) embryonic stem cells, entitled "Primate Embryonic Stem Cells" (). On 13 March 2001, a second patent () was issued with the

neg: Chloroplast plants such as cacti, chloroplasts are found in the stems, though in most plants, chloroplasts are concentrated in the leaves. One square millimeter of leaf tissue can contain half a million chloroplasts. Within a leaf, chloroplasts are mainly found in the mesophyll layers of a leaf, and the guard cells of stomata. Palisade mesophyll cells can contain 30–70 chloroplasts per cell, while stomatal guard cells contain only around 8–15 per cell, as well as much less chlorophyll. Chloroplasts can also be found in the bundle sheath cells of a leaf, especially in C plants, which carry out the Calvin cycle

neg: Stem cell cell types) of the stem cell. In practice, stem cells are identified by whether they can regenerate tissue. For example, the defining test for bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is the ability to transplant the cells and save an individual without HSCs. This demonstrates that the cells can produce new blood cells over a long term. It should also be possible to isolate stem cells from the transplanted individual, which can themselves be transplanted into another individual without HSCs, demonstrating that the stem cell was able to self-renew. Properties of stem cells can be illustrated "in vitro", using

neg: Bio-MEMS micro-contact printing (μCP), inkjet printing, and mask spraying have been used in stem cell-ECM interaction studies. It has been found by using micro-contact printing to control cell attachment area that that switch in osteogenic / adipogenic lineage in human mesenchymal stem cells can be cell shape dependent. Microfabrication of microposts and measurement of their deflection can determine traction forces exerted on cells. Photolithography can also be used to cross-link cell-seeded photo-polymerizable ECM for three-dimensional studies. Using ECM microarrays to optimize combinatorial effects of collagen, laminin, and fibronectin on stem cells is more advantageous than conventional well plates due to its

neg: Telomerase reverse transcriptase sufficient length for their function and yet, at the same time, not contribute to aberrant telomere elongation High expression of hTERT is also often used as a landmark for pluripotency and multipotency state of embryonic and adult stem cells. Over-expression of hTERT was found to immortalize certain cell types as well as impart different interesting properties to different stem cells. hTERT immortalizes various normal cells in culture, thereby endowing the self-renewal properties of stem cells to non-stem cell cultures. There are multiple ways in which immortalization of non-stem cells can be achieved, one of which being via the introduction of

neg: Riella the cells thin-walled and chlorophyllose. In addition to the lamina, the central stem bears delicate, small, leaf-like scales in three series along its lateral and ventral aspects. The leaf scales are dimorphic and contain scattered oil cells, with a single oil body per cell. "Riella" is thus the only member of its order with oil cells, although other genera in the class Marchantiopsida commonly have them. Although found nearly worldwide, "Riella" populations are sporadic and limited to only a few known localities. The plants are never common, and are found most often in places where the summer is dry and

neg: Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells found in multiple human adult tissues including bone marrow, synovial tissues, and adipose tissues. Since they are derived from the mesoderm, they have been shown to differentiate into bone, cartilage, muscle, and adipose tissue. MSCs from embryonic sources have shown promise scientifically while creating significant controversy. As a result, many researchers have focused on adult stem cells, or stem cells isolated from adult humans that can be transplanted into damaged tissue. Because of their multi-potent capabilities, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) lineages have been used successfully in

neg: Subventricular zone of the subventricular zone neural stem cell proliferation. This natural molecular regulation of adult neurogenesis would be adjunct with therapies of appropriate molecules such as the tested NPY and Y1 receptor, in addition to pharmacological derivatives, in providing for manageable forms of neurodegenerative disorders of the striatal area. In an attempt to characterize the role of the subventricular zone in potential tumorigenesis, Quinones-Hinojosa "et al." found that brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs) are stem cells that can be isolated from brain tumors by similar assays used for neuronal stem cells. In forming clonal spheres similar to neurospheres of neuronal stem

neg: Stem-cell line types. Due to the self-renewal capacity of stem cells, a stem cell line can be cultured "in vitro" indefinitely. A stem-cell line is distinctly different from an immortalized cell line, such as the HeLa line. While stem cells can propagate indefinitely in culture due to their inherent properties, immortalized cells would not normally divide indefinitely but have gained this ability due to mutation. Immortalized cell lines can be generated from cells isolated from tumors, or mutations can be introduced to make the cells immortal. A stem cell line is also distinct from primary cells. Primary cells are cells that have

neg: Hydroid (botany) plants but there is no lignin present in the cell walls to provide structural support. Hydroids have been found in some fossilised plants from the Rhynie chert, including "Aglaophyton", where they were initially mistaken for xylem tracheids. Hydroid (botany) A hydroid is a type of vascular cell that occurs in certain bryophytes. In some mosses such as members of the Polytrichaceae family, hydroids form the innermost layer of cells in the stem. At maturity they are long, colourless, thin walled cells of small diameter, containing water but no living protoplasm. Collectively, hydroids function as a conducting tissue, known as the

neg: Adult stem cell appears to represent a remnant of the stem cells of the embryonic neural crest. Similar cells have been found in the gastrointestinal tract, sciatic nerve, cardiac outflow tract and spinal and sympathetic ganglia. These cells can generate neurons, Schwann cells, myofibroblast, chondrocytes and melanocytes. Multipotent stem cells with a claimed equivalency to embryonic stem cells have been derived from spermatogonial progenitor cells found in the testicles of laboratory mice by scientists in Germany and the United States, and, a year later, researchers from Germany and the United Kingdom confirmed the same capability using cells from the testicles of humans. The

neg: NINDS brain trauma research more specialized cell types. These cells are found in adult neural tissue and normally develop into several different cell types found within the central nervous system. NINDS researchers are investigating the ability of stem cells to develop into neurotransmitter-producing neurons, specifically dopamine-producing cells. Researchers are also looking at the power of stem cells to develop into oligodendrocytes, a type of brain cell that produces myelin, the fatty sheath that surrounds and insulates axons. One study in mice has shown that bone marrow stem cells can develop into neurons, demonstrating that neural stem cells are not the only type of stem

neg: Stem-cell therapy further enrich blood supply to the damaged areas, and consequently promote tissue regeneration, platelet-rich plasma could be used in conjunction with stem cell transplantation. The efficacy of some stem cell populations may also be affected by the method of delivery; for instance, to regenerate bone, stem cells are often introduced in a scaffold where they produce the minerals necessary for generation of functional bone. Stem cells have also been shown to have a low immunogenicity due to the relatively low number of MHC molecules found on their surface. In addition, they have been found to secrete chemokines that alter the

neg: Stem-cell line stem cells have successfully been isolated and identified, only mesenchymal stem cells can successfully be grown in culture for long periods of time. Other adult stem cell types, such as hematopoietic stem cells, are difficult to grow and propagate in vitro. Identifying methods for maintaining hematopoietic stem cells in vitro is an active area of research. Thus, while mesenchymal stem cell lines exist, other types of adult stem cells that are grown in vitro can better be classified as primary cells. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines are pluripotent stem cells that have been generated from adult/somatic cells. The method

neg: Shinya Yamanaka Klf4) were sufficient to convert mouse embryonic or adult fibroblasts to pluripotent stem cells (capable of producing teratomas in vivo and contributing to chimeric mice). These pluripotent cells are called iPS (induced pluripotent stem) cells; they appeared with very low frequency. iPS cells can be selected by inserting the b-geo gene into the Fbx15 locus. The Fbx15 promoter is active in pluripotent stem cells which induce b-geo expression, which in turn gives rise to G418 resistance; this resistance helps us identify the iPS cells in a culture. Moreover, in 2007, Yamanaka and his colleagues found iPS cells with germ line

neg: Endothelial stem cell Endothelial stem cell Endothelial stem cells (ESCs) are one of three types of stem cells found in bone marrow. They are multipotent, which describes the ability to give rise to many cell types, whereas a pluripotent stem cell can give rise to all types. ESCs have the characteristic properties of a stem cell: self-renewal and differentiation. These parent stem cells, ESCs, give rise to progenitor cells, which are intermediate stem cells that lose potency. Progenitor stem cells are committed to differentiating along a particular cell developmental pathway. ESCs will eventually produce endothelial cells (ECs), which create the thin-walled endothelium that

neg: Corneal transplantation dystrophy and pseudophakic bullous keratopathy. There is a bioengineering technique that uses stem cells to create corneas or part of corneas that can be transplanted into the eyes. Corneal stem cells are removed from a healthy cornea. They are collected and, through laboratory procedures, made into five to ten layers of cells that can be stitched into a patient's eye. The stem cells are placed into the area where the damaged cornea tissue has been removed. This is a good alternative for those that cannot gain vision through regular cornea transplants. A new development, announced by the University of Cincinnati

neg: Neuronal lineage marker one cell only. Neural stem cells are an example of somatic stem cell found in various tissues, both during development and in the adult. They have two fundamental characteristics: they are self-renewing and upon terminal division and differentiation, they can give rise to the full range of cells classes within the relevant tissue. Hence, a neural stem cell can give rise to another neural stem cell, or to any of the differentiated cell types found in the central and peripheral nervous systems (inhibitory and excitatory neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes). The standard method of isolating neural stem cells in vitro is

neg: Amniotic epithelial cell the inhibition of angiogenesis, which is the basic conversion of a tumor into malignant cancer. In harvesting embryonic stem cells, a human embryo is destroyed. Many pro-life individuals associate this act with abortion and consider it immoral. Amniotic epithelial cells are harvested from the placenta, which is commonly discarded after birth. The cells are very easily obtainable without the use of intrusive procedures. Thus their use averts the controversy about embryonic stem cells. There are also large amounts of amniotic epithelial cells found in the placenta and can be found in upwards of 50-100 million cells from one extraction. However,

neg: Cord blood bank private banks, partly because most treatable conditions can't use one's own cord blood. Cord blood contains hematopoietic stem cells (which can differentiate only into blood cells), and should not be confused with embryonic stem cells or pluripotent stem cells, which can differentiate into any cell in the body. Cord blood stem cells are blood cell progenitors which can form red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. This is why cord blood cells are currently used to treat blood and immune system related genetic diseases, cancers, and blood disorders. On the possibility that cord blood stem cells could be used

neg: Clonal hematopoiesis somatic mutations that give it a competitive advantage in hematopoiesis over the stem/progenitor cells without these mutations. Alternatively, clonal hematopoiesis may arise without a driving mutation, through mechanisms such as neutral drift in the stem cell population. Clonal hematopoiesis may occur in people who are completely healthy but has also been found in people with hematologic diseases. The clonal population may vary in size depending on the person, where it can be less than 2% of the blood or, at the other end, can sometimes grow close to 100%. The incidence of clonal hematopoiesis has been found to rise dramatically

neg: Pith young growth, but in the trunk and older branches the pith often gets replaced - in great part - by xylem. In some plants, the pith in the middle of the stem may dry out and disintegrate, resulting in a hollow stem. A few plants, such as walnuts, have distinctive chambered pith with numerous short cavities (See image at middle right). The cells in the peripheral parts of the pith may, in some plants, develop to be different from cells in the rest of the pith. This layer of cells is then called "the perimedullary region of the pithamus". An

neg: Biochemical cascade microRNA expression increases, reducing Hmga2 levels and increasing p16 and p19 levels. This reduces the sensitivity of stem cells to mitogenic signals by inhibiting cyclin-CDK complexes. As a result, either stem cells cannot enter the cell cycle, or cell division slows in many tissues. Extrinsic regulation is made by signals from the niche, where stem cells are found, which is able to promote quiescent state and cell cycle activation in somatic stem cells. Asymmetric division is characteristic of somatic stem cells, maintaining the reservoir of stem cells in the tissue and production of specialized cells of the same. Stem cells

neg: Adult stem cell stem cell environment. (See also DNA damage theory of aging.) Adult stem cells can, however, be artificially reverted to a state where they behave like embryonic stem cells (including the associated DNA repair mechanisms). This was done with mice as early as 2006 with future prospects to slow down human aging substantially. Such cells are one of the various classes of induced stem cells. Adult stem cell research has been focused on uncovering the general molecular mechanisms that control their self-renewal and differentiation. Adult stem cell treatments have been used for many years to successfully treat leukemia and related bone/blood

neg: Adult stem cell extracted stem cells are known as human adult germline stem cells (GSCs) Multipotent stem cells have also been derived from germ cells found in human testicles. To ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see "Stem cell division and differentiation" diagram). Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter cells, both endowed with stem cell properties, whereas asymmetric division produces only one stem cell and a progenitor cell with limited self-renewal potential. Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before finally differentiating into a mature cell. It is believed that the molecular distinction between symmetric

neg: Chimera (genetics) combination can be picked; they are generally but not limited to diploid embryo and ES cells, diploid embryo and diploid embryo, ES cell and tetraploid embryo, diploid embryo and tetraploid embryo, ES cells and ES cells. The combination of embryonic stem cell and diploid embryo is a common technique used for the making of chimeric mice, since gene targeting can be done in the embryonic stem cell. These kinds of chimeras can be made through either aggregation of stem cells and the diploid embryo or injection of the stem cells into the diploid embryo. If embryonic stem cells are to

neg: Stem cell in veterinary medicine to treat tendon and ligament injuries in horses. The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as controversial as the use of embryonic stem cells, because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. Additionally, in instances where adult stem cells are obtained from the intended recipient (an autograft), the risk of rejection is essentially non-existent. Consequently, more US government funding is being provided for adult stem cell research. Multipotent stem cells are also found in amniotic fluid. These stem cells are very active, expand extensively without

neg: G0 phase a reversible quiescent state is perhaps most important for tissue stem cells to respond quickly to stimuli and maintain proper homeostasis and regeneration, reversible G phases can be found in non-stem cells such as mature hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are typically quiescent in normal livers but undergo limited replication (less than 2 cell divisions) during liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy. However, in certain cases, hepatocytes can experience immense proliferation (more than 70 cell divisions) indicating that their proliferation capacity is not hampered by existing in a reversible quiescent state. Often associated with aging and age-related diseases in vivo, senescent cells can be

neg: Stem-cell line Stem-cell line A stem cell line is a group of stem cells that is cultured in vitro and can be propagated indefinitely. Stem cell lines are derived from either animal or human tissues and come from one of three sources: embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, or induced stem cells. They are commonly used in research and regenerative medicine. By definition, stem cells possess two properties: (1) they can self-renew, which means that they can divide indefinitely while remaining in an undifferentiated state; and (2) they are pluripotent or multipotent, which means that they can differentiate to form specialized cell

neg: Solar energy block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells. In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels. Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established. Solar technologies are

neg: Induced pluripotent stem cell Induced pluripotent stem cell Induced pluripotent stem cells (also known as iPS cells or iPSCs) are a type of pluripotent stem cell that can be generated directly from adult cells. The iPSC technology was pioneered by Shinya Yamanaka’s lab in Kyoto, Japan, who showed in 2006 that the introduction of four specific genes encoding transcription factors could convert adult cells into pluripotent stem cells. He was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize along with Sir John Gurdon "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent." Pluripotent stem cells hold promise in the field of regenerative medicine. Because

neg: Xenotransplantation The bone marrow stem cells give rise to cells of all hematopoietic lineages, through the process of hematopoiesis. Lymphoid progenitor cells are created by this process and move to the thymus where negative selection eliminates T cells found to be reactive to self. The existence of donor stem cells in the recipient’s bone marrow causes donor reactive T cells to be considered self and undergo apoptosis. Chronic rejection is slow and progressive, and usually occurs in transplants that survive the initial rejection phases. Scientists are still unclear how chronic rejection exactly works, research in this area is difficult since xenografts

neg: Hemangioblast cells in the embryo arise out of a phenotype CD34 population. It was then found that hemangioblasts are also present in the tissue of post-natal individuals, such as in newborn infants and adults. There is now emerging evidence of hemangioblasts that continue to exist in the adult as circulating stem cells in the peripheral blood that can give rise to both endothelial cells and hematopoietic cells. These cells are thought to express both CD34 and CD133 These cells are likely derived from the bone marrow, and may even be derived from hematopoietic stem cells. The hemangioblast was first hypothesized in

neg: Dermal fibroblast by researchers at the Harvard Stem Cell Institute, dermal cell "human keratinocyte [stem cells] could be propagated in vitro when culture on fibroblast feeder cells." In addition to improving the culture and proliferation of stem cells, dermal fibroblasts can also become stem cells. Although dermal cells demonstrate less plasticity than other fibroblast cell types, researchers can still turn these cells into induced pluripotent cells (IPCs). As noted by researchers within the Harvard Stem Cell Institute, researchers obtained fibroblasts from a mouse with sickle cell anemia and, using a virus, "reprogrammed these cells into pluripotent [stem cells], corrected the genetic deficiency

neg: Stem cell laws and policy in the United States the blastocyst. These stem cells can differentiate into all other cells in the human body and are the subject of much scientific research. However, since they must be derived from early human embryos their production and use in research has been a hotly debated topic as the emt introduce new cells into adult bodies for possible treatment of cancer, diabetes, neurological disorders and other medical conditions. Stem cells have been used to repair tissue damaged by disease or age. Cloning also might be done with stem cells. Pluripotent stem cells can also be derived from Somatic cell nuclear transfer which

neg: Shinya Yamanaka can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent." There are different types of stem cells. These are some types of cells that will help in understanding the material. The prevalent view during the early 20th century was that mature cells were permanently locked into the differentiated state and cannot return to a fully immature, pluripotent stem cell state. They thought that cellular differentiation can only be a unidirectional process. Therefore, non-differentiated egg/early embryo cells can only develop into specialized cells. However, stem cells with limited potency (adult stem cells) remain in bone marrow, intestine, skin etc. to act as a source of

neg: Chorionic villus sampling heart, neural and liver cells have all been engineered through use of fetal stem cells The first fetal stem cells bank in US is active in Boston, Massachusetts. A small percentage (1-2%) of pregnancies have confined placental mosaicism, where some but not all of the placental cells tested in the CVS are abnormal, even though the pregnancy is unaffected. Cells from the mother can be mixed with the placental cells obtained from the CVS procedure. Occasionally if these maternal cells are not completely separated from the placental sample, this can lead to discrepancies with the results. This phenomenon is called

neg: Amniotic stem cells Amniotic stem cells Amniotic stem cells are the mixture of stem cells that can be obtained from the amniotic fluid as well as the amniotic membrane. They can develop into various tissue types including skin, cartilage, cardiac tissue, nerves, muscle, and bone. The cells also have potential medical applications, especially in organ regeneration. The stem cells are usually extracted from the amniotic sac by amniocentesis which occurs without harming the embryos. The use of amniotic fluid stem cells is therefore generally considered to lack the ethical problems associated with the use of cells from embryos. In 2009, the first US

neg: Embryonic stem cell "Sox2", and "Klf4") to differentiated cells. The delivery of these genes "reprograms" differentiated cells into pluripotent stem cells, allowing for the generation of pluripotent stem cells without the embryo. Because ethical concerns regarding embryonic stem cells typically are about their derivation from terminated embryos, it is believed that reprogramming to these "induced pluripotent stem cells" (iPS cells) may be less controversial. Both human and mouse cells can be reprogrammed by this methodology, generating both human pluripotent stem cells and mouse pluripotent stem cells without an embryo. This may enable the generation of patient specific ES cell lines that could potentially

neg: Stratum basale hyper-proliferative epidermis (from a skin disease). The "stratum basale" is primarily made up of basal keratinocyte stem cells, which can be considered the stem cells of the epidermis. They divide to form the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum, which migrate superficially. Other types of cells found within the "stratum basale" are melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), Langerhans cells (immune cells), and Merkel cells (touch receptors). Stratum basale The stratum basale (basal layer, sometimes referred to as stratum germinativum) is the deepest layer of the five layers of the epidermis, the outer covering of skin in mammals. The "stratum basale" is a single

neg: Stem cell and mesoderm (see induced pluripotent stem cells)—but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues. There are three known accessible sources of autologous adult stem cells in humans: Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood just after birth. Of all stem cell types, autologous harvesting involves the least risk. By definition, autologous cells are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures. Adult stem cells are frequently used in various medical therapies (e.g., bone marrow transplantation). Stem cells can

neg: Bone morphogenetic protein 4 BMP4, initially expressed in the epidermis, is found in the roof plate during formation of the neural tube. A gradient of BMP signaling is found in opposition to a Sonic hedgehog, Shh, gradient. This expression of BMP4 patterns the dorsal neurons. BMP4, in conjunction with FGF2, promote differentiation of stem cells to mesodermal lineages. After differentiation, BMP4 and FGF2 treated cells generally produces higher amounts of osteogenic and chondorgenic differentiation than untreated stem cells. Also in conjunction with FGF2 it can produce progenitor thyroid cells from pluripotent stem cells in mice and hmans. BMP4 has been shown to induce the

neg: Microchimerism cells could enter the brain during pregnancy and become differentiated into neural cells. Fetal microchimerism can occur in the maternal mouse brain, responding to certain cues in the maternal body. Fetal microchimerism could have an implication on maternal health. Isolating cells in cultures can alter the properties of the stem cells, but in pregnancy the effects of fetal stem cells can be investigated without in vitro cultures. Once characterized and isolated, fetal cells that are able to cross the blood brain barrier could impact certain procedures. For example, isolating stem cells can be accomplished through taking them from sources like

neg: Cellular differentiation many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types of the adult organism is known as "pluripotent". Such cells are called meristematic cells in higher plants and embryonic stem cells in animals, though some groups report the presence of adult pluripotent cells. Virally induced expression of four transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and KIF4 (Yamanaka factors) is sufficient to create pluripotent (iPS) cells from adult fibroblasts. A multipotent cell is one that can differentiate into multiple different, but closely related cell types. Oligopotent cells are more restricted than multipotent, but

neg: Amniotic stem cells without the need for abortion or foetal biopsy. Amniotic stem cells Amniotic stem cells are the mixture of stem cells that can be obtained from the amniotic fluid as well as the amniotic membrane. They can develop into various tissue types including skin, cartilage, cardiac tissue, nerves, muscle, and bone. The cells also have potential medical applications, especially in organ regeneration. The stem cells are usually extracted from the amniotic sac by amniocentesis which occurs without harming the embryos. The use of amniotic fluid stem cells is therefore generally considered to lack the ethical problems associated with the use of

neg: Lolitrem B way to distinguish between different Lolitrems, based on their difference in chemical structure (see 'Chemistry'). Lolitrem B is found in perennial ryegrass that has been infected with the fungus "Epichloë festucae" (var. lolii")". This fungus is an endophyte; for part of its lifecycle it lives inside plants, growing between the plant cells; it is most prevalent in the ryegrass stem. The fungus produces lolitrem B, one of several mycotoxins that kill pests but which also can be neurotoxins for mammals. When animals eat ryegrass stems infected with Epichloë festucae (var. lolii) they get a condition called perennial ryegrass staggers; in

neg: Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair microdrilling (also microfracture) surgery followed by post-operative injections of autologous peripheral blood progenitor cells (PBPC) in combination with hyaluronic acid(HA). Stem cell transplantation for articular cartilage repair Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells found in multiple human adult tissues including bone marrow, synovial tissues, and adipose tissues. Since they are derived from the mesoderm, they have been shown to differentiate into bone, cartilage, muscle, and adipose tissue. MSCs from embryonic sources have shown promise scientifically while creating significant controversy. As a result, many researchers have focused on adult stem cells, or stem cells isolated from adult humans that can

neg: Embryonic stem cell using embryonic stem cell lines derived prior to August 2001. In March, 2009, the limitation was lifted. The iPSC technology was pioneered by Shinya Yamanaka’s lab in Kyoto, Japan, who showed in 2006 that the introduction of four specific genes encoding transcription factors could convert adult cells into pluripotent stem cells. He was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize along with Sir John Gurdon "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent." In 2007 it was shown that pluripotent stem cells highly similar to embryonic stem cells can be generated by the delivery of three genes ("Oct4",

neg: Muse cell cell sorting can be done using SSEA-3 antibody. Their size is 13~15 μm in diameter. Muse cells do not express CD34 (markers for hematopoietic stem cells, adipose stem cells, VSELs) and CD117 (hematopoietic stem cells markers), Snai1 and Slug (skin-derived precursors markers), CD271 and Sox10 (neural crest-derived stem cells markers), NG2 and CD146 (perivascular cells) or CD31 and von Willebrand factor (endothelial progenitor markers). This indicates that Muse cells do not belong to previously investigated stem cell types. Muse cells can differentiate into: Recently, Tsuchiyama et al. showed that human dermal fibroblast-derived Muse cells were efficiently differentiated into melanin-producing functional

neg: Sara Rankin as a postdoctoral researcher in 1992. , Rankin is based in the Faculty of Medicine at the National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), where she was appointed Professor in 2010. Rankin and her team are trying to navigate the mesenchymal stem cells found in bone marrow to injured sites around the body, where they can promote regeneration in nearby tissue and dampen the immune system. The regulated movement of stem cells from bone marrow to sites of tissue damage could treat broken bones or heart disease. She is the lead for biology and therapeutics at the Blast Injury Centre at

neg: Leaf scar Leaf scar A leaf scar is the mark left by a leaf after it falls off the twig. It marks the site where the petiole attached to the stem. A leaf scar is typically found below a branch as branches come from axillary buds located above leaf scars. Leaf scars are formed naturally, often at the end of the growing season for deciduous plants when a layer of cells called the abscissa layer forms between the petiole and stem. The abscission layer acts as a point of cleavage and the leaf breaks off leaving a cleanly shaped wound that is

neg: Stem cell controversy restrictions on federal funding for ES cell research. Anthony Atala of Wake Forest University says that the fluid surrounding the fetus has been found to contain stem cells that, when used correctly, "can be differentiated towards cell types such as fat, bone, muscle, blood vessel, nerve and liver cells". The extraction of this fluid is not thought to harm the fetus in any way. He hopes "that these cells will provide a valuable resource for tissue repair and for engineered organs, as well". Stem cell debates have motivated and reinvigorated the pro-life movement, whose members are concerned with the rights

neg: Organoid the potential of stem cells to form organs "in vitro" was realized early on with the observation that when stem cells form teratomas or embryoid body, the differentiated cells can organize into different structures resembling those found in multiple tissue types. The advent of the field of organoids, started with a shift from culturing and differentiating stem cells in 2D media, to 3D media to allow for the development of the complex 3-dimensional structures of organs. Since 1987, researchers have devised different methods for 3-D culturing, and were able to utilize different types of stem cells to generate organoids resembling

neg: Tocotrienol tocotrienols, primarily gamma-tocotrienol, alpha-tocotrienol and delta-tocotrienol. Other cultivated plants high in tocotrienols includes rice, wheat, barley, rye and oat. In anatto, tocotrienols are relatively abundant (only delta- and gamma-tocotrienol however) and it contains no tocopherols. No human trials. Following exposure to gamma radiation, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the bone marrow, which are important for producing blood cells, rapidly undergo apoptosis (cell death). There are no known treatments for this acute effect of radiation. Two studies conducted by the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute (AFRRI) found that treatment with γ-tocotrienol or δ-tocotrienol enhanced survival of hematopoietic stem cells, which

neg: Mesenchymal stem cell CD34. They are sometimes referred to as "bone marrow stromal stem cells". The youngest and most primitive MSCs can be obtained from umbilical cord tissue, namely Wharton's jelly and the umbilical cord blood. However MSCs are found in much higher concentration in the Wharton’s jelly compared to cord blood, which is a rich source of hematopoietic stem cells. The umbilical cord is available after a birth. It is normally discarded and poses no risk for collection. These MSCs may prove to be a useful source of MSCs for clinical applications due to their primitive properties. Adipose tissue is a rich

neg: Stem-cell niche often referred to as a hypoxic stem cell niche. Hypoxic environments are often found in tumors where the cells are dividing faster that angiogenesis can occur. It is important to study hypoxia as an aspect of cancer because hypoxic environments have been shown to be resistant to radiation therapy. Radiation has been shown to increase the amounts of HIF-1. EMT induction by hypoxia though interactions between HIF-1α and ROS is crucial for metastasis in cancers such as melanoma. It has been found that many genes associated with melanoma are regulated by hypoxia such as MXI1, FN1, and NME1. Epithelial–mesenchymal transition

neg: Organogenesis in response to specific cocktails of hormones (mainly auxins and cytokinins), most plant tissues can de-differentiate and form a mass of dividing totipotent stem cells called a callus. Organogenesis can then occur from those cells. The type of organ that is formed depends on the relative concentrations of the hormones in the medium. Plant organogenesis can be induced in tissue culture and used to regenerate plants. Organogenesis Organogenesis is the phase of embryonic development that starts at the end of gastrulation and continues until birth. During organogenesis, the three germ layers formed from gastrulation: the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm form

neg: Xenotransplantation T cells. Antigens of phagocytosed graft cells can also be presented by the host’s class I MHC molecules to CD8 T cells. The strength of cellular rejection in xenografts remains uncertain, however it is expected to be stronger than in allografts due to differences in peptides among different animals. This leads to more antigens potentially recognized as foreign, thus eliciting a greater indirect xenogenic response. A proposed strategy to avoid cellular rejection is to induce donor non-responsiveness using hematopoietic chimerism. Donor stem cells are introduced into the bone marrow of the recipient, where they coexist with the recipient’s stem cells.

neg: Childhood leukemia through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column. Stem cell transplant is a process in which the blood-forming cells that are abnormal (like leukemia cells) or that were destroyed by chemotherapy are replaced with healthy new blood-forming cells. A stem-cell transplant can help the human body produce more healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, or platelets. It also reduces the risk of life-threatening conditions such as anemia, or hemorrhage. Stem cell transplants can be done by obtaining cells from the bone-marrow, blood or umbilical-cord blood. Stem cell transplants can use the cells from one's

neg: Cancer stem cell biologically distinct non-CSC and CSC populations supports a more CSC model, proposing that both models may play a vital role in tumor heterogeneity. This model suggests that immunological properties may be important for understanding tumorigenesis and heterogeneity. Such, CSCs can be very rare in some tumors, but some researchers found that a large proportion of tumor cells can initiate tumors if transplanted into severely immunocompromised mice, and thus questioned the relevanve of rare CSCs. However, both stem cells and CSCs possess unique immunological properties which render them highly resistant towards immunosurveillance. Thus, only CSCs may be able to seed tumors

neg: Organoid cells can be driven to form intestinal organoids is through first the application of activin A to drive the cells into a mesoendodermal identity, followed by the pharmacological upregulation of Wnt3a and Fgf4 signaling pathways as they have been demonstrated to promote posterior gut fate. Intestinal organoids have also been generated from intestinal stem cells, extracted from adult tissue and cultured in 3D media. Intestinal organoids recapitulate the crypt-Villus structure of the intestine, by recapitulating its function, physiology and organization, and maintaining all the cell types found normally in the structure including intestinal stem cells. Intestinal organoids recapitulate the crypt-Villus

neg: CD34 of murine hematopoietic stem cells, and can be stimulated and reversed. CD34+ cells may be isolated from blood samples using immunomagnetic or immunofluorescent methods. Antibodies are used to quantify and purify hematopoietic progenitor stem cells for research and for clinical bone marrow transplantation. However, counting CD34+ mononuclear cells may overestimate myeloid blasts in bone marrow smears due to hematogones (B lymphocyte precursors) and CD34+ megakaryocytes. Cells observed as CD34+ and CD38- are of an undifferentiated, primitive form; i.e., they are multipotential hemopoietic stem cells. Thus, because of their CD34+ expression, such undifferentiated cells can be sorted out. In tumors, CD34

neg: CD90 and their associated esterified structures (e.g. additional fatty acids and alcohols) also can be cell type and species specific. Thy1 expression varies between species. Amongst the cells reported to generally express Thy-1 are thymocytes (precursor of T cells in the thymus) & CD34(+) prothymocytes; neurons, mesenchymal stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells, NK cells, murine T-cells, endothelium (mainly in high endothelial venules or HEVs where diapedesis takes place), renal glomerular mesangial cells, circulating metastatic melanoma cells, follicular dendritic cells (FDC), a fraction of fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. As a GPI-anchored protein, Thy-1 is present in the outer leaflet of lipid rafts in

neg: Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 these difficulties, grafted neural precursor cells have been shown to be viable and to successfully migrate into desired location in SCA1 transgenic mice models and mesenchymal stem cells have been shown to mitigate loss of dendritic arborization SCA1 mice. Positive results have been found in mice models using both stem cells from fetal neuroectoderm and adult stem cells from the lateral ventricles and the dentate gyrus. Using harvested stem cells in stem cell therapies require immunosuppression to prevent the host from rejecting the transplants; creating induced pluripotent stem cells from the host's own cells would mitigate this risk and has

neg: Adult stem cell zone, which lines the lateral ventricles, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. Although the generation of new neurons in the hippocampus is well established, the presence of true self-renewing stem cells there has been debated. Under certain circumstances, such as following tissue damage in ischemia, neurogenesis can be induced in other brain regions, including the neocortex. Neural stem cells are commonly cultured "in vitro" as so called neurospheres – floating heterogeneous aggregates of cells, containing a large proportion of stem cells. They can be propagated for extended periods of time and differentiated into both neuronal and glia cells,

neg: Neuroethics possibility of rejection of the stem cells. If the hematopoetic stem cells can be harvested from the individual, risk of rejection is much lower. But, there can be the risk of those cells being programmed to induce MS. However, if the tissue is donated from another individual there is high risk of rejection leading to possibly fatal toxicity in the recipient's body. Considering that there are fairly good treatments for MS, the use of stem cells in this case may have a higher cost than the benefits they produce. However, as research continues perhaps stem cells will truly become a

neg: Irving Weissman humans. His laboratory purified stem cells from other mature cells, such as B cells, by observing the different lineage markers expressed by each immune cell type. So when the immune cells of mice reacted with fluorescently labeled antibodies specific to effector cells, the mature cells were differentiated from the newly forming stem cells. His work has contributed to the understanding of how a single hematopoietic stem cell can give rise to specialized blood cells. Weissman is also a leading expert in the field of cancer stem cell biology, where his work sheds light on the understanding of the pathogenesis of

neg: Ditylenchus dipsaci through the root cap or from inside the seed. The plant cells become enlarged due to the disappearance of chloroplasts and an increase of intracellular spaces in parenchyma tissue. Once the bulbs enlarge, "D. dipsaci" migrates down the stem. This causes the stem to become puffy and soft due to cavities, which can lead to collapse. "D. dipsaci" only enters the soil again if conditions become unfavorable. "D. dipsaci" has an extensive host range. Major damage occurs in garlic, onion, carrot, fava bean, alfalfa, oats, and strawberry. Ornamental plants can also be infected including hyacinth and tulip. It is estimated

neg: Hematopoietic stem cell umbilical cord blood and, in small numbers, in peripheral blood. Stem and progenitor cells can be taken from the pelvis, at the iliac crest, using a needle and syringe. The cells can be removed as liquid (to perform a smear to look at the cell morphology) or they can be removed via a core biopsy (to maintain the architecture or relationship of the cells to each other and to the bone). In order to harvest stem cells from the circulating peripheral blood, blood donors are injected with a cytokine, such as granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), that induces cells to leave

neg: Plant senescence both it and its share of both shoot and root cells that do not acquire sugar and gases whether they are of a structural, reproductive, immature, or just plain, root nature. The idea that a plant does not impose efficiency demands on immature cells is that most immature cells are part of so-called dormant buds in plants. These are kept small and non-dividing until the plant needs them. They are found in buds, for instance in the base of every lateral stem. There is little theory on how plants induce themselves to senesce, although it is reasonably widely accepted that