query: the solution of the missing neutrino problem from the sun 's core was resolved by the discovery of

pos: Solar neutrino problem flavors of neutrinos: "electron neutrinos", "muon neutrinos", and "tau neutrinos". Electron neutrinos are the ones produced in the Sun and the ones detected by the above-mentioned experiments, in particular the chlorine-detector Homestake Mine experiment. Through the 1970s, it was widely believed that neutrinos were massless and their flavors were invariant. However, in 1968 Pontecorvo proposed that if neutrinos had mass, then they could change from one flavor to another. Thus, the "missing" solar neutrinos could be electron neutrinos which changed into other flavors along the way to Earth, rendering them invisible to the detectors in the Homestake Mine and contemporary

neg: Helioseismology Sun's deep interior. The modern field is separated into global helioseismology, which studies the Sun's resonant modes, and local helioseismology, which studies all the waves propagating at the Sun's surface. Helioseismology has contributed to a number of scientific breakthroughs. The most notable was to show the predicted neutrino flux from the Sun could not be caused by flaws in stellar models and must instead be a problem of particle physics. The so-called solar neutrino problem was ultimately resolved by neutrino oscillations. The experimental discovery of neutrino oscillations was recognized by the 2015 Nobel Prize for Physics. Helioseismology also allowed accurate

neg: Sun the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected. The Sun has a magnetic field that varies across the surface of the Sun. Its polar field is , whereas the field is typically in features on the Sun

neg: Solar neutrino problem Solar neutrino problem The solar neutrino problem concerned a large discrepancy between the flux of solar neutrinos as predicted from the Sun's luminosity and measured directly. The discrepancy was first observed in the mid-1960s and finally resolved around 2002. The flux of neutrinos at Earth is several tens of billions per square centimetre per second, mostly from the Sun's core. They are nevertheless hard to detect, because they interact very weakly with matter, traversing the whole Earth as light does thin air. Of the three types (flavors) of neutrinos known in the Standard Model of particle physics, the Sun produces

neg: Neutrino for this third neutrino type came from the observation of missing energy and momentum in tau decays analogous to the beta decay leading to the discovery of the electron neutrino. The first detection of tau neutrino interactions was announced in 2000 by the DONUT collaboration at Fermilab; its existence had already been inferred by both theoretical consistency and experimental data from the Large Electron–Positron Collider. In the 1960s, the now-famous Homestake experiment made the first measurement of the flux of electron neutrinos arriving from the core of the Sun and found a value that was between one third and one

neg: Neutrino Mikheyev and Alexei Smirnov (expanding on 1978 work by Lincoln Wolfenstein) noted that flavor oscillations can be modified when neutrinos propagate through matter. This so-called Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (MSW effect) is important to understand because many neutrinos emitted by fusion in the Sun pass through the dense matter in the solar core (where essentially all solar fusion takes place) on their way to detectors on Earth. Starting in 1998, experiments began to show that solar and atmospheric neutrinos change flavors (see Super-Kamiokande and Sudbury Neutrino Observatory). This resolved the solar neutrino problem: the electron neutrinos produced in the Sun had partly

neg: Bruno Pontecorvo of particles". The prediction that neutrinos associated with electrons are different from those associated with muons was confirmed in 1962. In 1988 Jack Steinberger, Leon M. Lederman and Melvin Schwartz were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the muon neutrino. Pontecorvo's solution to the solar neutrino problem involved an idea that he had first considered in 1957, and developed over the following decade. This was the idea that neutrinos may convert into other types of neutrinos, a phenomenon known as neutrino oscillation. Somewhere between the Sun and the Earth, electron neutrinos might transform into muon neutrinos.

neg: Solar neutrino problem what was believed. For example, since neutrinos measure the amount of current nuclear fusion, it was suggested that the nuclear processes in the core of the Sun might have temporarily shut down. Since it takes thousands of years for heat energy to move from the core to the surface of the Sun, this would not immediately be apparent. Helioseismology observations made it possible to measure the interior temperatures of the Sun; these agreed with the well established standard solar model. Furthermore, detailed observations of the neutrino spectrum from the more advanced neutrino observatories produced results which no adjustment of the

neg: Solar neutrino problem solar model could accommodate: While the overall lower neutrino flux (which the Homestake experiment results found) required a "reduction" in the solar core temperature, details in the energy spectrum of the neutrinos required a "higher" core temperature. This happens because different nuclear reactions, whose rates have different dependence upon the temperature, produce neutrinos with different amounts of energy. All adjustments that could be made to the solar model worsened some aspect of the discrepancies. The solar neutrino problem was resolved with an improved understanding of the properties of neutrinos. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, there are three

neg: Standard solar model solve the solar neutrino problem. The flux of boron-8 neutrinos is highly sensitive to the temperature of the core of the Sun, formula_5. For this reason, a precise measurement of the boron-8 neutrino flux can be used in the framework of the standard solar model as a measurement of the temperature of the core of the Sun. This estimate was performed by Fiorentini and Ricci after the first SNO results were published, and they obtained a temperature of formula_6 from a determined neutrino flux of 5.2·10/cm·s. Stellar models of the Sun's evolution predict the solar surface chemical abundance pretty well

neg: Super-Kamiokande Super-Kamiokande detected strong evidence of neutrino oscillation that successfully explained the solar neutrino problem. The Sun and about 80% of the visible stars produce their energy by the conversion of hydrogen to helium via formula_12 Consequently, stars are a source of neutrinos, including our Sun. These neutrinos primarily come through the pp-chain in lower masses, and for cooler stars, primarily through CNO-chains of heavier masses. In the early 1990s, particularly with the uncertainties that accompanied the initial results from Kamioka II and the Ga experiments, no individual experiment required a non-astrophysical solution of the solar neutrino problem. But in aggregate,

neg: Nuclear astrophysics led to discovery of neutrino oscillation (implying a non-zero mass for the neutrino absent in the Standard Model of particle physics) was motivated by a solar neutrino flux about three times lower than expected — a long-standing concern in the nuclear astrophysics community colloquially known as the Solar neutrino problem. The observable neutrino flux from nuclear reactors is much larger than that of the Sun, so Davis and others were primarily motivated to look for solar neutrinos for astronomical reasons. Although the foundations of the science are "bona fide", many questions still remain open. Some long-standing issues are helium fusion

neg: Neutral particle oscillation every two days. The total accumulation was about one third of Bahcall's theoretical prediction. In 1968, Bruno Pontecorvo showed that if neutrinos are not considered massless, then (produced in the sun) can transform into some other neutrino species ( or ), to which Homestake detector was insensitive. This explained the deficit in the results of the Homestake experiment. The final confirmation of this solution to the solar neutrino problem was provided in April 2002 by the SNO (Sudbury Neutrino Observatory) collaboration, which measured both flux and the total neutrino flux. This 'oscillation' between the neutrino species can first be studied

neg: Content completeness problem Content completeness problem The inability of an ontology to include or encode every concept of interest to users of an ontology is known as the "content completeness problem". The problem stems from "the greater expressiveness of natural language relative to the finite enumeration of concepts present in an ontology". A specific instance of this problem may be temporarily resolved by adding missing concept/s to the target ontology, but this approach is not a general solution because in practice: Other workarounds to this problem include the use of post-coordination in ontologies (such as SNOMED CT) using free text or comment fields

neg: Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect eigenstate in matter ν, and remain as such as the density of solar material changes. Thus, the neutrinos of high energy leaving the Sun are in a vacuum propagation eigenstate, ν, that has a reduced overlap with the electron neutrino formula_1 seen by charged current reactions in the detectors. For high-energy solar neutrinos the MSW effect is important, and leads to the expectation that formula_2, where formula_3 is the solar mixing angle. This was dramatically confirmed in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), which has resolved the solar neutrino problem. SNO measured the flux of Solar electron neutrinos to be ~34%

neg: Queen's University six research centres and institutes, the Centre for Neuroscience Studies, GeoEngineering Centre, High Performance Computing Virtual Laboratory, Human Mobility Research Centre, Sudbury Neutrino Observatory Institute, and the Southern African Research Centre. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory's director, Arthur B. McDonald, is a member of the university's physics department. The observatory managed the SNO experiment, which showed the solution to the solar neutrino problem was neutrinos change flavour (type) as they propagate through the Sun. The SNO experiment proved a non-zero mass neutrino exists. This was a major breakthrough in cosmology. In October 2015, Arthur B. McDonald and Takaaki Kajita (University of

neg: Solar neutrino problem the fraction of electron-neutrinos. After extensive statistical analysis, the SNO collaboration determined that fraction to be about 34%, in perfect agreement with prediction. The total number of detected B neutrinos also agrees with the then rough predictions from the solar model. Solar neutrino problem The solar neutrino problem concerned a large discrepancy between the flux of solar neutrinos as predicted from the Sun's luminosity and measured directly. The discrepancy was first observed in the mid-1960s and finally resolved around 2002. The flux of neutrinos at Earth is several tens of billions per square centimetre per second, mostly from the Sun's

neg: Standard solar model water Cerenkov detector with a low enough energy threshold to detect neutrinos through neutrino-electron elastic scattering. In the elastic scattering interaction the electrons coming out of the point of reaction strongly point in the direction that the neutrino was travelling, away from the Sun. This ability to "point back" at the Sun was the first conclusive evidence that the Sun is powered by nuclear interactions in the core. While the neutrinos observed in Kamiokande-II were clearly from the Sun, the rate of neutrino interactions was again suppressed compared to theory at the time. Even worse, the Kamiokande-II experiment measured about

neg: GALLEX model predicted (the solar neutrino problem). After detector calibration the amount did not change. This discrepancy - an example of the solar neutrino problem - has since been explained. Such radiochemical neutrino detectors are sensitive only to electron neutrinos, and not to the second and third generation flavours of neutrinos - the neutrino oscillation of electron neutrinos emitted from the sun, between the earth and the sun, accounts for the discrepancy. The first solar neutrino detection experiment, the Homestake, used chlorine-37 to detect neutrinos with energies down to 814 keV. After the end of GALLEX its successor project, the Gallium

neg: Standard solar model 1/2 the predicted flux, rather than the chlorine experiment's 1/3. The solution to the solar neutrino problem was finally experimentally determined by the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO). The radiochemical experiments were only sensitive to electron neutrinos, and the signal in the water Cerenkov experiments was dominated by the electron neutrino signal. The SNO experiment, by contrast, had sensitivity to all three neutrino flavours. By simultaneously measuring the electron neutrino and total neutrino fluxes the experiment demonstrated that the suppression was due to the MSW effect, the conversion of electron neutrinos from their pure flavour state into the second neutrino mass

neg: Solar core to convection, and the speed at which heat moves outward becomes considerably faster. In the process of heat transfer from core to photosphere, each gamma ray in the Sun's core is converted during scattering into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they very rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were much lower than theories predicted, a problem which was recently resolved through

neg: Neutrino oscillation Neutrino oscillation Neutrino oscillation is a quantum mechanical phenomenon whereby a neutrino created with a specific lepton family number ("lepton flavor": electron, muon, or tau) can later be measured to have a different lepton family number. The probability of measuring a particular flavor for a neutrino varies between 3 known states, as it propagates through space. First predicted by Bruno Pontecorvo in 1957, neutrino oscillation has since been observed by a multitude of experiments in several different contexts. Notably, the existence of neutrino oscillation resolved the long-standing solar neutrino problem. Neutrino oscillation is of great theoretical and experimental interest, as

neg: Solar neutrino problem of the firm evidence provided by the 1998 and 2001 experiments “for neutrino oscillation”, Takaaki Kajita from the Super-Kamiokande Observatory and Arthur McDonald from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) were awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize for Physics. The Nobel Committee for Physics, however, erred in mentioning neutrino oscillations in regard to the SNO-Experiment: For the high-energy solar neutrinos observed in that experiment, it's not neutrino oscillations but the Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect. Early attempts to explain the discrepancy proposed that the models of the Sun were wrong, i.e. the temperature and pressure in the interior of the Sun were substantially different from

neg: Solar neutrino number, and this was known as the solar neutrino problem. It led to the idea of neutrino oscillation and the fact that neutrinos can change flavour. This was confirmed when the total flux of solar neutrinos of all types was measured and it agreed with the earlier predictions of expected electron neutrino flux, as seen by Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, and thus confirmed that neutrinos have mass. Solar models additionally predict the location within the Sun's core where solar neutrinos should originate from, depending on the nuclear fusion reaction which leads to their production. Future neutrino detectors will be able to

neg: Discovery of the neutron model became viable. Soon, neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way. If the proton–neutron model for the nucleus resolved many issues, it highlighted the problem of explaining the origins of beta radiation. No existing theory could account for how electrons, or positrons, could emanate from the nucleus. In 1934, Enrico Fermi published his classic paper describing the process of beta decay, in which the neutron decays to a proton by "creating" an electron and a (as yet undiscovered) neutrino. The paper employed the analogy that photons, or electromagnetic radiation, were similarly

neg: Solar neutrino Solar neutrino Electron neutrinos are produced in the Sun as a product of nuclear fusion. Solar neutrinos constitute by far the largest flux of neutrinos from natural sources observed on Earth, as compared with e.g. atmospheric neutrinos or the diffuse supernova neutrino background. Solar neutrinos are produced in the core of the sun through various nuclear fusion reactions, each of which occurs at a particular rate and leads to its own spectrum of neutrinos. Details of these reactions are listed below. The main contribution comes from the proton-proton reaction. The reaction is: or in words: From this reaction, 86% of

neg: Herbert H. Chen the solar neutrino problem. The result seemed to imply that neutrinos were changing their properties as they traveled from the sun to the earth. In 2002, Ray Davis and Masatoshi Koshiba won part of the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental work which found the number of solar neutrinos to be around a third of the number predicted by the standard solar model. In 1984, Chen proposed the use of a large heavy water detector as a means of observing neutrinos from the sun to resolve the solar neutrino problem. The use of the deuterium of heavy water had the

neg: Neutrino surface area on the side of the Earth opposite the Sun receives about the same number of neutrinos as the side facing the Sun. In 1966, Colgate and White calculated that neutrinos carry away most of the gravitational energy released by the collapse of massive stars, events now categorized as Type Ib and Ic and Type II supernovae. When such stars collapse, matter densities at the core become so high () that the degeneracy of electrons is not enough to prevent protons and electrons from combining to form a neutron and an electron neutrino. A second and more important neutrino

neg: Luigi Di Lella they looked for oscillations over an average distance of ~650 m. They found no oscillations, and when these oscillations were first observed by the Super-Kamiokande experiment in Japan using neutrinos produced by cosmic rays in the Earth atmosphere, they were found to occur over distances of the order of 1000 km (T. Kajita and A. McDonald shared the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of neutrino oscillations). From 2000 until his retirement Di Lella took part in the CAST experiment (CERN Axion Solar Telescope experiment), searching for axions produced in the core of the Sun. After retiring in

neg: Solar neutrino problem detectors were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. The Sun performs nuclear fusion via the proton–proton chain reaction, which converts four protons into alpha particles, neutrinos, positrons, and energy. This energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation, as gamma rays, as well as in the form of the kinetic energy of both the charged particles and the neutrinos. The neutrinos travel from the Sun's core to Earth without any appreciable absorption by the Sun's outer layers. In the late 1960s, Ray Davis and John N. Bahcall's Homestake Experiment was the first to measure the flux of neutrinos from

neg: Neutrino astronomy Neutrino astronomy Neutrino astronomy is the branch of astronomy that observes astronomical objects with neutrino detectors in special observatories. Neutrinos are created as a result of certain types of radioactive decay, or nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the Sun, in nuclear reactors, or when cosmic rays hit atoms. Due to their weak interactions with matter, neutrinos offer a unique opportunity to observe processes that are inaccessible to optical telescopes. Neutrinos were first recorded in 1956 by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines in an experiment employing a nearby nuclear reactor as a neutrino source. Their discovery was

neg: Neutrino Factory Neutrino Factory The Neutrino Factory is a proposed particle accelerator complex intended to measure in detail the properties of neutrinos, which are extremely weakly interacting fundamental particles that can travel in straight lines through normal matter for thousands of kilometres. Up until the 1990s, neutrinos were assumed to be massless, but experimental results from searches for solar neutrinos (those produced in the Sun's core) and others are inconsistent with this assumption, and thus indicate that the neutrino does have a very small mass (see Solar neutrino problem). The Neutrino Factory will create a fairly focused beam of neutrinos at one

neg: Neutrino Factory in very rapid-cycling synchrotrons. Neutrino Factory The Neutrino Factory is a proposed particle accelerator complex intended to measure in detail the properties of neutrinos, which are extremely weakly interacting fundamental particles that can travel in straight lines through normal matter for thousands of kilometres. Up until the 1990s, neutrinos were assumed to be massless, but experimental results from searches for solar neutrinos (those produced in the Sun's core) and others are inconsistent with this assumption, and thus indicate that the neutrino does have a very small mass (see Solar neutrino problem). The Neutrino Factory will create a fairly focused beam

neg: Content completeness problem to supplement ontology entry systems. The first usage of the term "content completeness problem" was by Elkin, but it was described by Rogers and Rector in 1997. Content completeness problem The inability of an ontology to include or encode every concept of interest to users of an ontology is known as the "content completeness problem". The problem stems from "the greater expressiveness of natural language relative to the finite enumeration of concepts present in an ontology". A specific instance of this problem may be temporarily resolved by adding missing concept/s to the target ontology, but this approach is not a

neg: Extraneous and missing solutions Extraneous and missing solutions In mathematics, an extraneous solution (or spurious solution) is a solution, such as that to an equation, that emerges from the process of solving the problem but is not a valid solution to the problem. A missing solution is a solution that is a valid solution to the problem, but disappeared during the process of solving the problem. Both are frequently the consequence of performing operations that are not invertible for some or all values of the variables, which prevents the chain of logical implications in the proof from being bidirectional. One of the basic principles

neg: Yoji Totsuka solution to the solar neutrino problem. The measurement of neutrino oscillations at such a high level of precision was a critical chapter in the history of particle physics. Neutrino oscillations, and thus the existence of neutrino mass, are not a prediction made by the Standard Model of particle physics. Indeed, the Standard Model requires that neutrinos are massless. Totsuka's experiment provided incontrovertible evidence that there is still much about particle physics yet to be understood. For the remainder of his time as a physicist, as the Director General at KEK, he oversaw successful the K2K experiment and the Belle B-meson

neg: Neutrino fields. This feature of weak interaction interests scientists because it means neutrinos can be used to probe environments that other radiation (such as light or radio waves) cannot penetrate. Using neutrinos as a probe was first proposed in the mid-20th century as a way to detect conditions at the core of the Sun. The solar core cannot be imaged directly because electromagnetic radiation (such as light) is diffused by the great amount and density of matter surrounding the core. On the other hand, neutrinos pass through the Sun with few interactions. Whereas photons emitted from the solar core may require

neg: Antonio Ereditato May 2010 Ereditato announced the detection of the first tau-neutrino by OPERA. This was the first indication of the direct appearance of neutrino oscillations. On September 2011 the OPERA Collaboration announced that an anomaly was detected in the measurement of the neutrino velocity, pointing to the possibility of superluminal muon neutrinos. The source of the anomaly was then found by the OPERA researchers as due to an instrumental problem. As head of the ATLAS Bern group, Ereditato contributed to the discovery of the Higgs Boson in 2012. In the framework of the T2K experiment in Japan, in 2013 he took

neg: Neutrino astronomy events. When astronomical bodies, such as the Sun, are studied using light, only the surface of the object can be directly observed. Any light produced in the core of a star will interact with gas particles in the outer layers of the star, taking hundreds of thousands of years to make it to the surface, making it impossible to observe the core directly. Since neutrinos are also created in the cores of stars (as a result of stellar fusion), the core can be observed using neutrino astronomy. Other sources of neutrinos- such as neutrinos released by supernovae- have been detected.

neg: Neutrino detector Dakota, containing 520 short tons (470 metric tons) of fluid, was the first to detect the solar neutrinos, and made the first measurement of the deficit of electron neutrinos from the sun (see Solar neutrino problem). A similar detector design, with a much lower detection threshold of 0.233 MeV, uses a gallium → germanium transformation which is sensitive to lower-energy neutrinos. A neutrino is able to react with an atom of gallium-71, converting it into an atom of the unstable isotope germanium-71. The germanium was then chemically extracted and concentrated. Neutrinos were thus detected by measuring the radioactive decay of

neg: Solar neutrino problem the neutrinos produced in the Sun are not massless particles as predicted by the Standard Model but rather mixed quantum states made up of defined-mass eigenstates in different (complex) proportions. That allows a neutrino produced as a pure electron neutrino to change during propagation into a mixture of electron, muon and tau neutrinos, with a reduced probability of being detected by a detector sensitive to only electron neutrinos. Several neutrino detectors aiming at different flavors, energies, and traveled distance contributed to our present knowledge of neutrinos. In 2002 and 2015, a total of four researchers related to some of these

neg: Solar core a better understanding of neutrino oscillation. Solar core The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 of solar radius. It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System. It has a density of 150 g/cm (150 times the density of liquid water) at the center, and a temperature of 15 million kelvins (15 million degrees Celsius, 27 million degrees Fahrenheit). The core is made of hot, dense plasma (ions and electrons), at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar (3.84 trillion psi or 26.5 petapascals (PPa)) at

neg: Solar neutrino problem Homestake experiment has also to do with neutrino mass. One year later, the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) started collecting data. That experiment aimed at the B solar neutrinos, which at around 10 MeV are not much affected by oscillation in both the Sun and the Earth. A large deficit is nevertheless expected due to the Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect as had been calculated by Alexei Smirnov in 1985. SNO's unique design employing a large quantity of heavy water as the detection medium was proposed by Herb Chen, also in 1985. SNO observed electron neutrinos, specifically, and all flavors of neutrinos, collectively, hence

neg: Neutrino detector so) neutrino experiments often cover or surround the primary detector with a "veto" detector which reveals when a cosmic ray passes into the primary detector, allowing the corresponding activity in the primary detector to be ignored ("vetoed"). For lower-energy experiments, the cosmic rays are not directly the problem. Instead, the spallation neutrons and radioisotopes produced by the cosmic rays may mimic the desired signals. For these experiments, the solution is to place the detector deep underground so that the earth above can reduce the cosmic ray rate to acceptable levels. Neutrino detectors can be aimed at astrophysics observations, many astrophysics

neg: IceCube Neutrino Observatory being used in conjunction with gamma-ray satellites like Swift or Fermi for this goal. IceCube has not observed any neutrinos in coincidence with gamma ray bursts, but is able to use this search to constrain neutrino flux to values less than those predicted by the current models. Weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter could be gravitationally captured by massive objects like the Sun and accumulate in the core of the Sun. With a high enough density of these particles, they would annihilate with each other at a significant rate. The decay products of this annihilation could decay into neutrinos,

neg: Electron neutrino Electron neutrino The electron neutrino () is a subatomic lepton elementary particle which has no net electric charge. Together with the electron it forms the first generation of leptons, hence the name electron neutrino. It was first hypothesized by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930, to account for missing momentum and missing energy in beta decay, and was discovered in 1956 by a team led by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines (see Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment). In the early 1900s, theories predicted that the electrons resulting from beta decay should have been emitted at a specific energy. However, in 1914, James Chadwick showed

neg: Masatoshi Koshiba Koshiba, drawing on the work done by Raymond Davis Jr, constructed an underground neutrino detector in a zinc mine in Japan. Called Kamiokande II, it was an enormous water tank surrounded by electronic detectors to sense flashes of light produced when neutrinos interacted with atomic nuclei in water molecules. Koshiba was able to confirm Davis's results—that the Sun produces neutrinos and that fewer neutrinos were found than had been expected (a deficit that became known as the solar neutrino problem). In 1987 Kamiokande also detected neutrinos from a supernova explosion outside the Milky Way. After building a larger, more sensitive

neg: Solar neutrino problem only electron neutrinos. When neutrino detectors became sensitive enough to measure the flow of electron neutrinos from the Sun, the number detected was much lower than predicted. In various experiments, the number deficit was between one half and two thirds. Particle physicists knew that a mechanism, discussed back in 1957 by Bruno Pontecorvo, could explain the deficit in electron neutrinos. However, they hesitated to accept it for various reasons, including the fact that it required a modification of the accepted Standard Model. They first pointed at the solar model for adjustment, which was ruled out. Today it is accepted that

neg: Samsung Galaxy S factory defaults. TechRadar acknowledged GPS faults in the Galaxy S and stated that these have been fixed in the Google Nexus S. There is, however, a solution to the problem and it includes opening it and welding the antenna contacts with the motherboard. The Samsung Galaxy S used the Samsung S5PC110 processor. This processor combined a 45 nm 1 GHz ARM Cortex-A8 based CPU core with a PowerVR SGX 540 GPU made by Imagination Technologies which supported OpenGL ES 1.1/2.0 and is capable of up to 20 million triangles per second. The CPU core, code-named "Hummingbird", was co-developed by Samsung

neg: Neutrino theory of light the theory can be traced to any one cause it is fair to say that it lies in the fact that light waves are polarized transversely while neutrino ‘waves’ are polarized longitudinally,” and lack of rotational invariance. In 1966, V S Berezinskii reanalyzed Pryce’s paper, giving a clearer picture of the problem that Pryce uncovered. Starting in the 1960s work on the neutrino theory of light resumed, and there continues to be some interest in recent years. Attempts have been made to solve the problem pointed out by Pryce, known as Pryce’s Theorem, and other problems with the composite photon

neg: Lepton more than one type of neutrino exists by first detecting interactions of the muon neutrino, which earned them the 1988 Nobel Prize, although by then the different flavours of neutrino had already been theorized. The tau was first detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by Martin Lewis Perl with his colleagues at the SLAC LBL group. Like the electron and the muon, it too was expected to have an associated neutrino. The first evidence for tau neutrinos came from the observation of "missing" energy and momentum in tau decay, analogous to the "missing" energy and momentum

neg: Super-Kamiokande of Sun comes from the nuclear fusion in its core where a helium atom and an electron neutrino are generated by 4 protons. These neutrinos emitted from this reaction are called solar neutrinos. Photons, created by the nuclear fusion in the center of the Sun, take millions of years to reach the surface; on the other hand, solar neutrinos arrive at the earth in eight minutes due to their lack of interactions with matter. Hence, solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun in "real-time" that takes millions of years for visible light. In 1999, the

neg: Neutrino oscillation not conclusively identified as the source of the deficit until the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory provided clear evidence of neutrino flavor change in 2001. Solar neutrinos have energies below 20 MeV. At energies above 5 MeV, solar neutrino oscillation actually takes place in the Sun through a resonance known as the MSW effect, a different process from the vacuum oscillation described later in this article. Following the theories that were proposed in the 1970s suggesting unification of weak, strong and Electromagnetic forces, a few experiments on proton decay followed in the 80's. Large detectors such as IMB, MACRO, and Kamiokande II

neg: Philip R. Goode he teamed to demonstrate that there is no astrophysical solution to the sun’s neutrino deficit but rather the deficit is in the province of particle physics, which was subsequently shown experimentally. Further, the seismic age of the Sun (4.6 GY) was determined and is the first confirmation of the age of the solar system from meteorite data. This team's last work in helioseismology, determined, self-consistently, that the Sun shrinks and cools by insignificant amounts as the activity cycle rises from minimum to maximum after a complex competition between thermal and magnetic effects in the Sun’s outermost layers. The Earth’s climate

neg: Linear production game "S" is the maximum profit it can achieve with all the resources possessed by its members. It can be obtained by solving a corresponding Linear Programming problem formula_4 as follows. Every LP game "v" is a totally balanced game. So every subgame of "v" has a non-empty core. One imputation can be computed by solving the dual problem of formula_5. Let formula_6 be the optimal dual solution of formula_5. The payoff to player" i" is formula_8. It can be proved by the duality theorems that formula_9 is in the core of "v". An important interpretation of the imputation formula_9 is

neg: The Sun (United Kingdom) emphasis – in a national newspaper sets a dangerous precedent, and harks back to the use of the phrase 'The Jewish problem in the last century, to which the Nazis responded with 'The Final Solution' – the Holocaust". A cross-party group of over 100 MPs from the Conservatives, Labour, the Liberal Democrats and the Greens subsequently signed a letter to the editor of "The Sun" demanding action over the column. The letter stated the MPs "were truly outraged by the hate and bigotry" in Kavanagh's column. On 9 March 2016, "The Sun"s front page proclaimed that Queen Elizabeth II was

neg: Menaechmus Menaechmus Menaechmus (, 380–320 BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician and geometer born in Alopeconnesus in the Thracian Chersonese, who was known for his friendship with the renowned philosopher Plato and for his apparent discovery of conic sections and his solution to the then-long-standing problem of doubling the cube using the parabola and hyperbola. Menaechmus is remembered by mathematicians for his discovery of the conic sections and his solution to the problem of doubling the cube. Menaechmus likely discovered the conic sections, that is, the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola, as a by-product of his search for the solution

neg: Neutrino oscillation the precise properties of the process can shed light on several properties of the neutrino. In particular, it implies that the neutrino has a non-zero mass, which requires a modification to the Standard Model of particle physics. The experimental discovery of neutrino oscillation, and thus neutrino mass, by the Super-Kamiokande Observatory and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatories was recognized with the 2015 Nobel Prize for Physics. A great deal of evidence for neutrino oscillation has been collected from many sources, over a wide range of neutrino energies and with many different detector technologies. The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics was shared

neg: Unsatisfiable core several practical methods of computing minimal unsatisfiable cores. A "minimum unsatisfiable core" contains the smallest number of the original clauses required to still be unsatisfiable. No practical algorithms for computing the minimum core are known. Algorithms for Computing Minimal Unsatisfiable Subsets. Notice the terminology: whereas "minimal unsatisfiable core" was a local problem with an easy solution, the "minimum unsatisfiable core" is a global problem with no known easy solution. Unsatisfiable core In mathematical logic, given an unsatisfiable Boolean propositional formula in conjunctive normal form, a subset of clauses whose conjunction is still unsatisfiable is called an unsatisfiable core of the

neg: Solar neutrino problem the Sun and detect a deficit. The experiment used a chlorine-based detector. Many subsequent radiochemical and water Cherenkov detectors confirmed the deficit, including the Kamioka Observatory and Sudbury Neutrino Observatory. The expected number of solar neutrinos was computed using the standard solar model, which Bahcall had helped establish. The model gives a detailed account of the Sun's internal operation. In 2002, Ray Davis and Masatoshi Koshiba won part of the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental work which found the number of solar neutrinos to be around a third of the number predicted by the standard solar model. In recognition

neg: Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment the solar core. Observatories such as these detected neutrino bursts from supernova SN 1987A in 1987, the birth of neutrino astronomy. Through observations of solar neutrinos, the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory was able to demonstrate the process of neutrino oscillation. Neutrino oscillation shows that neutrinos are not massless, a profound development in particle physics. Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment The Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment was conducted by Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines in 1956. The experiment confirmed the existence of neutrinos. Neutrinos, subatomic particles with no electric charge and very small mass, had been conjectured to be an essential particle in beta decay

neg: Georg von Krogh von Krogh, G., Wallin, M., & Wörter, M. (Forthcoming) External Knowledge and Information Technology: Implications for Process Innovation Performance. MIS Quarterly. von Hippel, E. & von Krogh, G. (2016). Identifying Viable ‘Need-Solution Pairs’: Problem Solving Without Problem Formulation. Organization Science , 27(1), 207–221 Ben-Menahem, S., von Krogh, G., Erden, Z. & Schneider, A. (2016). Coordinating Knowledge Creation in Multidisciplinary Teams: evidence from Early-stage drug Discovery, Academy of Management Journal, 59(4), 1308-1338. Spaeth, S., von Krogh, G., & He, F. (2014). Perceived Firm Attributes and Intrinsic Motivation in Sponsored Open Source Software Projects. Information Systems Research, 26(1), 224-237. Hacklin, F., Battistini,

neg: Bruno Pontecorvo was between one third and one half of the predicted number. This became the solar neutrino problem. For a time, scientists contemplated the awful possibility that the Sun might have burned out. The problem had already been solved by Pontecorvo in 1968. In 1959, a powerful accelerator (that was never built) was being designed, and he began considering experiments that could be performed with it. He contemplated a project investigating muons. Julian Schwinger had hypothesised that particles experience the weak interaction through exchanging W bosons. The W boson would not be discovered until 1983, but a problem immediately surfaced. Gerald

neg: Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem the "A"'s and "b" are majorized in matrix and vector norm by a simple scalar rational analytic function. The corresponding scalar Cauchy problem involving this function instead of the "A"'s and "b" has an explicit local analytic solution. The absolute values of its coefficients majorize the norms of those of the original problem; so the formal power series solution must converge where the scalar solution converges. If "F" and "f" are analytic functions near 0, then the non-linear Cauchy problem with initial conditions has a unique analytic solution near 0. This follows from the first order problem by considering the

neg: Shooting method form In this case, the solution to the boundary value problem is usually given by: where formula_6 is the solution to the initial value problem: and formula_8 is the solution to the initial value problem: See the proof for the precise condition under which this result holds. A boundary value problem is given as follows by Stoer and Burlisch (Section 7.3.1). The initial value problem was solved for "s" = −1, −2, −3, ..., −100, and "F"("s") = "w"(1;"s") − 1 plotted in the first figure. Inspecting the plot of "F", we see that there are roots near −8 and

neg: The Core of the Sun The Core of the Sun The Core of the Sun is a “Finnish weird” novel by Johanna Sinisalo, originally published in 2013. It was translated into English by Lola Rogers in 2016. It follows a young, misunderstood woman in the Eusistocratic Republic of Finland, seeking her missing sister, Manna, and her next fix of illegal chiles - by any means necessary. The novel's structure is unique, switching between the perspective of Vanna and another character, Jare, as well as Vanna's letters to her sister, and various definitions, acts of legislation, and other background information. "The Core of the Sun" won

neg: Convair B-58 Hustler Hill AFB (later Grissom AFB), Indiana from 1961 to 1970. The 305th also operated the B-58 combat crew training school (CCTS), the predecessor of the USAF's current formal training units (FTUs). By the time the early problems had largely been resolved and SAC interest in the bomber had solidified, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that the B-58 was not a viable weapon system. It was during the B-58's introduction that high-altitude Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAM) became a threat, especially the SA-2 Guideline, a SAM system the Soviet Union extensively deployed. The "solution" to this problem was to fly at

neg: Tau neutrino Tau neutrino The tau neutrino or tauon neutrino is a subatomic elementary particle which has the symbol and no net electric charge. Together with the tau, it forms the third generation of leptons, hence the name tau neutrino. Its existence was immediately implied after the tau particle was detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by Martin Lewis Perl with his colleagues at the SLAC–LBL group. The discovery of the tau neutrino was announced in July 2000 by the DONUT collaboration (Direct Observation of the Nu Tau). The tau neutrino is last of the leptons, and is

neg: Star equivalence relationship "E" = "mc". The hydrogen fusion process is temperature-sensitive, so a moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate. As a result, the core temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million kelvin for a small M-class star to 40 million kelvin for a massive O-class star. In the Sun, with a 10-million-kelvin core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton–proton chain reaction: These reactions result in the overall reaction: where e is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, ν is a neutrino, and H

neg: Hp-FEM hp-FEM was not only predicted theoretically but also observed by numerous independent researchers. The hp-FEM differs from the standard (lowest-order) FEM in many aspects. The Fichera problem (also called the Fichera corner problem) is a standard benchmark problem for adaptive FEM codes. One can use it to show the dramatic difference in the performance of standard FEM and the hp-FEM. The problem geometry is a cube with missing corner. The exact solution has a singular gradient (an analogy of infinite stress) at the center. The knowledge of the exact solution makes it possible to calculate the approximation error exactly and

neg: Neutrino limit (GZK cutoff). Neutrinos, in contrast, can travel even greater distances barely attenuated. The galactic core of the Milky Way is fully obscured by dense gas and numerous bright objects. Neutrinos produced in the galactic core might be measurable by Earth-based neutrino telescopes. Another important use of the neutrino is in the observation of supernovae, the explosions that end the lives of highly massive stars. The core collapse phase of a supernova is an extremely dense and energetic event. It is so dense that no known particles are able to escape the advancing core front except for neutrinos. Consequently, supernovae

neg: DRTE Computer by translating each 10-bit address into an X and Y address in the planes; for 1,024 words in the DTRE this needed 32×32 planes. One problem with using core on the DRTE machine was that core required fairly high power in order to operate. Providing such power from transistors, which at the time were low-power only, represented a major challenge. Although one solution, commonly used at the time, was to build the core machinery out of tubes, for the DRTE machine this was considered one more challenge in transistor design. The eventual solution, designed primarily by Richard Cobbald, was entirely

neg: Electron neutrino this light neutral particle from Chadwick's neutron) to resolve the confusion. It was a pun on neutrone, the Italian equivalent of "neutron": the "-one" ending can be an augmentative in Italian, so "neutrone" could be read as the "large neutral thing"; "-ino" replaces the augmentative suffix with a diminutive one. Upon the prediction and discovery of a second neutrino, it became important to distinguish between different types of neutrinos. Pauli's neutrino is now identified as the "electron neutrino", while the second neutrino is identified as the "muon neutrino". The electron neutrino has a corresponding antiparticle, the electron antineutrino (), which

neg: Neutrino the neutrino signal by delaying some neutrinos. The 13 second-long neutrino signal from SN 1987A lasted far longer than it would take for unimpeded neutrinos to cross through the neutrino-generating core of a supernova, expected to be only 3200 kilometers in diameter for SN 1987A. The number of neutrinos counted was also consistent with a total neutrino energy of , which was estimated to be nearly all of the total energy of the supernova. For an average supernova, approximately 10 (an octodecillion) neutrinos are released, but the actual number detected at a terrestrial detector formula_1 will be far smaller, at

neg: Illumination problem dark "points" (rather than regions) are unilluminable from any given position of the point source. An improved solution was put forward by D. Castro in 1997, with a 24-sided room with the same properties. In 2016, Lelièvre, Monteil and Weiss showed that a light source in a polygonal room whose angles (in degrees) are all rational numbers will illuminate the entire polygon, with the possible exception of a finite number of points. Illumination problem The illumination problem is a resolved mathematical problem first posed by Ernst Straus in the 1950s. Straus asked if a room with mirrored walls can always

neg: Hilbert's eighth problem Hilbert's eighth problem Hilbert's eighth problem is one of David Hilbert's list of open mathematical problems posed in 1900. It concerns number theory, and in particular the Riemann hypothesis, although it is also concerned with the Goldbach Conjecture. The problem as stated asked for more work on the distribution of primes and generalizations of Riemann hypothesis to other rings where prime ideals take the place of primes. This problem has yet to be resolved. Hilbert calls for a solution to the Riemann hypothesis, which has long been regarded as the deepest open problem in mathematics. Given the solution, he calls

neg: Disappeared (TV program) documentary format. It features re-enactments and interviews with family members, friends, and law enforcement connected to the missing subject(s), to explore their recent lives and last actions prior to disappearing. By the time episodes air, some cases have been resolved, with a variety of outcomes, but most often the cases covered have not been explained at the time the episode reaches broadcast. The series debuted on December 10, 2009, featuring the case of Brandi Ellen Wells. After the series' sixth season conclusion in 2013, it was on a three-years-long hiatus. On April 11, 2016, the series returned to Investigation Discovery

neg: Frederick Reines from atmospheric nuclear tests, and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing. In the wake of the Sputnik crisis, he participated in John Archibald Wheeler's Project 137, which evolved into JASON. He was also a delegate at the Atoms for Peace Conference in Geneva in 1958. The neutrino is a subatomic particle first proposed by Wolfgang Pauli on December 4, 1930. The particle was required to resolve the problem of missing energy in observations of beta decay, when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. The new hypothetical particle was required to preserve the fundamental law of conservation

neg: Soo-Bong Kim of the solar neutrino problem. He participated in the historical and first observation of neutrino burst from the Supernova 1987A and jointly discovered the neutrino oscillations using the Super-Kamiokande detector in 1998. He then joined the effort of measuring neutrino oscillations using a neutrino beam produced by an accelerator. As a member of the K2K (KEK-to-Kamioka) collaboration in 2004, he measured one of the neutrino mixing angles. Kim started construction of a neutrino detector facility, near a nuclear power plant in Korea, to measure the last unknown neutrino mixing angle in 2006, and completed it in early 2011. He has

neg: Scientific theory different theories appear to contradict each other, this is also resolved by either further evidence or unification. For example, physical theories in the 19th century implied that the Sun could not have been burning long enough to allow certain geological changes as well as the evolution of life. This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun. Contradictions can also be explained as the result of theories approximating more fundamental (non-contradictory) phenomena. For example, atomic theory is an approximation of quantum mechanics. Current theories describe three separate fundamental phenomena of which all other

neg: Planetary core this by integrating the bulk density of the Earth with the missing iron and nickel as a core. The first detection of Earth's core occurred in 1906 by Richard Dixon Oldham upon discovery of the P-wave shadow zone; the liquid outer core. By 1936 seismologists had determined the size of the overall core as well as the boundary between the fluid outer core and the solid inner core. Planetary systems form from flattened disks of dust and gas that accrete rapidly (within thousands of years) into planetesimals around 10 km in diameter. From here gravity takes over to produce Moon

neg: Kamioka Observatory was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002. Raymond Davis Jr. and Riccardo Giacconi were co-winners of the prize. The KEK To Kamioka experiment used accelerator neutrinos to verify the oscillations observed in the atmospheric neutrino signal with a well controlled and understood beam. A neutrino beam was directed from the KEK accelerator to Super Kamiokande. The experiment found oscillation parameters which were consistent with those measured by Super-K. By the 1990s particle physicists were starting to suspect that the solar neutrino problem and atmospheric neutrino deficit had something to do with neutrino oscillation. The Super Kamiokande detector was

neg: Borexino allow scientists to test and to further understand the functioning of the Sun (e.g., nuclear fusion processes taking place at the core of the Sun, solar composition, opacities, matter distribution, etc.) and will also help determine properties of neutrino oscillations, including the MSW effect. Specific goals of the experiment are to detect beryllium-7, boron-8, pp, pep and CNO solar neutrinos as well as anti-neutrinos from the Earth and nuclear power plants. The project may also be able to detect neutrinos from supernovae within our galaxy with a special potential to detect the elastic scattering of neutrinos onto protons, due to

neg: Solar neutrino experimentally, for the first time, the pattern of solar neutrino oscillations predicted by the theory. Neutrinos can trigger nuclear reactions. By looking at ancient ores of various ages that have been exposed to solar neutrinos over geologic time, it may be possible to interrogate the luminosity of the Sun over time, which, according to the Standard Solar Model, has changed with time. Solar neutrino Electron neutrinos are produced in the Sun as a product of nuclear fusion. Solar neutrinos constitute by far the largest flux of neutrinos from natural sources observed on Earth, as compared with e.g. atmospheric neutrinos or

neg: Muon neutrino Muon neutrino The muon neutrino is a lepton, an elementary subatomic particle which has the symbol and no net electric charge. Together with the muon it forms the second generation of leptons, hence the name muon neutrino. It was first hypothesized in the early 1940s by several people, and was discovered in 1962 by Leon Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger. The discovery was rewarded with the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1962 Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger established by performing an experiment at the Brookhaven National Laboratory that more than one type of neutrino exists

neg: Sudbury Neutrino Observatory equivalent of billiards, and for this reason the electrons produced usually point in the direction that the neutrino was travelling (away from the sun). Because this interaction takes place on atomic electrons it occurs with the same rate in both the heavy and light water. On 18 June 2001, the first scientific results of SNO were published, bringing the first clear evidence that neutrinos oscillate (i.e. that they can transmute into one another), as they travel in the sun. This oscillation in turn implies that neutrinos have non-zero masses. The total flux of all neutrino flavours measured by SNO agrees

neg: MacBook Pro i9 MacBook Pro was slower than the 2017 MacBook Pro and stated, "This isn't a problem with Intel's Core i9, it's Apple's thermal solution." When Lee put the i9 MacBook Pro inside a freezer, the render times were over 8 minutes shorter. On July 24, Apple released a software fix for the new 2018 MacBook Pros which addressed the thermal throttling issue. Apple said "there is a missing digital key in the firmware that impacts the thermal management system and could drive clock speeds down under heavy thermal loads on the new MacBook Pro". A "limited number" of 13-inch MacBook

neg: Herbert H. Chen mine near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Chen was the U.S. leader and spokesman for this project, while George Ewan led the Canadian team. While one focus of the research was on the solar neutrino question, the use of the term "Observatory" was to emphasize the intent to use the facility to record neutrino pulses produced by astronomical events, neutrino astronomy. The astronomical observatory argument proved compelling after neutrino bursts were detected from supernova SN 1987A in February 1987. The initial problem Chen and the collaboration addressed was the acquisition of 1000 tones of heavy water from the Canadian nuclear power company

neg: The Core of the Sun in general represent an extreme characterization of women that don’t fit the ideals of femininity in society are dismissed and considered lesser than women seen as traditionally feminine. The Core of the Sun The Core of the Sun is a “Finnish weird” novel by Johanna Sinisalo, originally published in 2013. It was translated into English by Lola Rogers in 2016. It follows a young, misunderstood woman in the Eusistocratic Republic of Finland, seeking her missing sister, Manna, and her next fix of illegal chiles - by any means necessary. The novel's structure is unique, switching between the perspective of Vanna

neg: Super-Kamiokande neutrinos changing or oscillating into some other neutrinos that are not detected. This is called neutrino oscillation; this discovery indicates the finite mass of neutrinos and suggests an extension of the Standard Model. Neutrinos oscillate in three flavors, and all neutrinos have their rest mass. Later analysis in 2004 suggested a sinsinusoidal dependence of the event rate as a function of “Length/Energy”, which confirmed the neutrino oscillations. The K2K experiment was a neutrino experiment from June 1999 to November 2004. This experiment was designed to verify oscillations observed by Super-Kamiokande through muon neutrinos. It gives first positive measurement of neutrino

neg: Partition problem partition problem, which is to partition the multiset "S" into two subsets "S", "S" such that the difference between the sum of elements in "S" and the sum of elements in "S" is minimized. The optimization version is NP-hard, but can be solved efficiently in practice. Given "S" = {3,1,1,2,2,1}, a valid solution to the partition problem is the two sets "S" = {1,1,1,2} and "S" = {2,3}. Both sets sum to 5, and they partition "S". Note that this solution is not unique. "S" = {3,1,1} and "S" = {2,2,1} is another solution. Not every multiset of positive integers

neg: Neutrino detector events being believed to emit neutrinos. Underwater neutrino telescopes: Under-ice neutrino telescopes: Underground neutrino observatories: Miscellaneous: Neutrino detector A neutrino detector is a physics apparatus which is designed to study neutrinos. Because neutrinos only weakly interact with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground, to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation. The field of neutrino astronomy is still very much in its infancy – the only confirmed extraterrestrial sources so far as of 2018 are the Sun, the supernova 1987A

neg: Antonio Ereditato part in the discovery of the appearance of neutrino oscillations and with the OPERA collaboration he shared the discovery of tau-neutrino appearance. For these results Ereditato was one of the recipients of the 2016 Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics. He is currently involved in the USA neutrino program, notably with the MicroBooNE and SBND experiments at Fermilab aimed at the search for sterile neutrinos. He has been one of the founders of the DUNE experiment for the high precision study of neutrino oscillations and astroparticle physics. The research group of Ereditato is also leader in the R&D for detectors with

neg: Interest Flooding Attack Interest Flooding Attack An Interest Flooding Attack (IFA) is a denial-of-service attack in an Information-centric network (or Content-Centric Networking (CCN) or Named Data Networking (NDN)). An attacker requests existing or non-existing content in order to overload the distribution infrastructure. This can be implemented by sending Interest packets, which are not resolved at all or not resolved fast enough and thus lead to malicious CPU or memory consumption. This attack was previously denoted an open problem in ICN, only heuristic countermeasures available. In 2016, Aubrey Alston and Tamer Refaei of The MITRE Corporation presented an exact solution to this problem which

neg: Neutrino from the nuclear fusion powering the Sun and other stars. The details of the operation of the Sun are explained by the Standard Solar Model. In short: when four protons fuse to become one helium nucleus, two of them have to convert into neutrons, and each such conversion releases one electron neutrino. The Sun sends enormous numbers of neutrinos in all directions. Each second, about 65 billion () solar neutrinos pass through every square centimeter on the part of the Earth orthogonal to the direction of the Sun. Since neutrinos are insignificantly absorbed by the mass of the Earth, the

neg: Neutrino neutrinos must be less than . The Nobel prize in Physics 2015 was awarded to both Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald for their experimental discovery of neutrino oscillations, which demonstrates that neutrinos have mass. In 1998, research results at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector determined that neutrinos can oscillate from one flavor to another, which requires that they must have a nonzero mass. While this shows that neutrinos have mass, the absolute neutrino mass scale is still not known. This is because neutrino oscillations are sensitive only to the difference in the squares of the masses. The best estimate of

neg: Variation of parameters The general method of variation of parameters allows for solution of an inhomogeneous linear equation by interpreting the second-order linear differential operator "L" as the net force, so that the total impulse imparted to a solution between time "s" and "s"+"ds" is "F"("s")"ds". Denote by formula_13 the solution of the homogeneous initial value problem Then a particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation is the result of linearly superposing the infinitesimal homogeneous solutions. There are generalizations to higher order linear differential operators. In practice, variation of parameters usually involves the fundamental solution of the homogeneous problem, the infinitesimal solutions formula_13 then

neg: Atsuto Suzuki for Neutrino Science in 1998 and led the KamLAND neutrino detection experiments. From 2006 until 2015 he was Director General of the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) Accelerator Laboratory. The Kamiokande-II experiment detected a burst of neutrinos from Supernova 1987A, the first observation of this kind, winning the research team the Asahi and Bruno Rossi prizes. Observations from the Super-Kamiokande experiment measured the phenomenon of neutrino oscillation (and hence neutrino mass) with unprecedented accuracy, thereby resolving the solar neutrino problem. For this accomplishment, the project was awarded the 1998 Asahi Prize. The KamLAND experiment was the first to detect

neg: James Chadwick of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino. The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe. Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim. Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor. With

neg: Activity selection problem problem. A classic application of this problem is in scheduling a room for multiple competing events, each having its own time requirements (start and end time), and many more arise within the framework of operations research. Assume there exist "n" activities with each of them being represented by a start time "s" and finish time "f". Two activities "i" and "j" are said to be non-conflicting if "s" ≥ "f" or "s" ≥ "f". The activity selection problem consists in finding the maximal solution set (S) of non-conflicting activities, or more precisely there must exist no solution set S' such