query: what is the top layer of concrete called

pos: Screed from the mixing pan to the floor at a range of up to 60 meters. For example, the material called granolithic. Screed Screed has three meanings in building construction: In the US, screeding is the process a person called a concrete finisher performs by cutting off excess wet concrete to bring the top surface of a slab to the proper grade and smoothness. A power concrete screed has a gasoline motor attached which helps smooth and vibrate concrete as it is flattened. After the concrete is flattened it is smoothed with a concrete float or power trowel. A concrete floor

pos: Screed Screed Screed has three meanings in building construction: In the US, screeding is the process a person called a concrete finisher performs by cutting off excess wet concrete to bring the top surface of a slab to the proper grade and smoothness. A power concrete screed has a gasoline motor attached which helps smooth and vibrate concrete as it is flattened. After the concrete is flattened it is smoothed with a concrete float or power trowel. A concrete floor is sometimes called a solid ground floor. A plasterer also may use a screed to level a wall or ceiling surface

pos: Screed from the mixing pan to the floor at a range of up to 60 meters. For example, the material called granolithic. Screed Screed has three meanings in building construction: In the US, screeding is the process a person called a concrete finisher performs by cutting off excess wet concrete to bring the top surface of a slab to the proper grade and smoothness. A power concrete screed has a gasoline motor attached which helps smooth and vibrate concrete as it is flattened. After the concrete is flattened it is smoothed with a concrete float or power trowel. A concrete floor

neg: Gossberg (Hunsrück) plate of the outer shield hull consists of a so-called Zerschellschicht (a layer of lean concrete on top of the reinforced concrete construction to mitigate damage inflicted by explosions) with a thickness of 1.05m and an overlying layer of fluid concrete with quartzite blocks with a thickness of 1.10m. Finally, there is a soil layer of 0.40m on top as a green roof. The entire building extends for about 13.30m deep under the ground and for about 10.35m above the ground, while the horizontal dimensions (length × width) of it are 50.30m × 45.80m respectively. Hence, the gross area is

neg: Textile-reinforced concrete to house the concrete and textile; concrete is then spread evenly in the form work, and then the textile is laid on top. More concrete is poured on top, and a roller is used to push the concrete into the spaces in the textile; this is completed layer after layer, until the structure reaches its required size. TRC can also be created by Pultrusion. In this process, a textile is pushed through a slurry infiltration chamber, where the textile is covered and embedded with concrete. Rollers squeeze the concrete into the textile, and it can take several sized rollers to

neg: Whitetopping Whitetopping Whitetopping is the covering of an existing asphalt pavement with a layer of Portland cement concrete. Whitetopping is divided into types depending on the thickness of the concrete layer and whether the layer is bonded to the asphalt substrate. Unbonded whitetopping, also called conventional whitetopping, uses concrete thicknesses of eight inches or more that is not bonded to the asphalt. Bonded whitetopping uses thicknesses of two to six inches bonded to the asphalt pavement and is divided into two types, thin and ultrathin. The bond is made by texturing the asphalt. Thin whitetopping uses a bonded layer of concrete

neg: MythBusters (2005 season) however, it was filled almost to the top with concrete, rather than just with the thin layer that the team wanted. Adam therefore suggested splitting this myth into two sub-myths, the original one of cleaning a thin layer out of a truck (for which the team had to obtain a second truck), and another one involving a driver using explosives in what would presumably be a desperate attempt to remove a massive, solidified slab of concrete from the truck. See also "Exploding Toilet". This was the final episode in which the Build Team worked from their M6 workshop. In this

neg: Fifteenth Street and Oklahoma Avenue Brick Street Fifteenth Street and Oklahoma Avenue Brick Street The Fifteenth Street and Oklahoma Avenue Brick Street is a section of brick pavement on Fifteenth Street and Oklahoma Avenue in Mattoon, Illinois. The section of pavement covers eight blocks of Fifteenth Street and one block of Oklahoma Avenue at the south end of the Fifteenth Street section. The H. W. Clark Company paved the streets in 1924. The company first laid a concrete substructure and concrete curbs. An intermediate layer of sand and tar was laid on top of the concrete, and the bricks were placed on top of this layer. The

neg: Charles M. Braga Jr. Memorial Bridge replacement of the existing deck with a new lightweight deck overlaid with bituminous concrete. Construction crews repaired and repainted structural steel along the length of the mile-long span, a new concrete Jersey barrier was built in the center median, and "suicide fences" were built along the span. In 2003, the Massachusetts Highway Department began what was to be a three-year, $9 million rehabilitation of the Braga Bridge. The new top concrete layer of roadway was given a latex additive that resists water seepage to reduce cracking. Originally scheduled for completion in 2005, the end of the project was first re-scheduled

neg: Xbloc Xbloc An Xbloc is an interlocking concrete block (or "armour unit") designed to protect shores, harbour walls, seawalls, breakwaters and other coastal structures from the direct impact of incoming waves. The Xbloc model has been designed and developed by Delta Marine Consultants since 2001 and has been subjected to extensive research by several universities. Concrete armour units are generally applied in breakwaters and shore protections. The units are placed in a single layer as the outer layer of the coastal structure. This outer layer is called the "armour layer". The function of the armour layer in these structures is twofold.

neg: Concrete recycling the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt poured over it. The US Federal Highway Administration may use techniques such as these to build new highways from the materials of old highways. Crushed recycled concrete can also be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants. Also, concrete pavements can be broken in place and used as a base layer for an asphalt pavement through a process called rubblization. Larger pieces of crushed concrete can be used as riprap revetments, which are "a very effective and popular method of controlling

neg: Base course is normally made from newly quarried rock, or it is sometimes allowed to be made from recycled asphalt concrete and/or Portland cement concrete. Base course The base course or basecourse in pavements is a layer of material in an asphalt roadway, race track, riding arena, or sporting field. It is located under the surface layer consisting of the "wearing course" and sometimes an extra "binder course". If there is a sub-base course, the base course is constructed directly above this layer. Otherwise, it is built directly on top of the subgrade. Typical base course thickness ranges from and is governed

neg: Kenneth and Phyllis Laurent House common brick; plans originally called for limestone, but the Laurents rejected the additional cost. It is built on a poured concrete foundation set on crushed rock; the top layer of concrete was mixed with a red pigment. The house features two large chimneys. The central chimney is above the roofline with a wide copper drip edge. The other chimney is on the end wall of the east side of the master bedroom. The roof is flat and is made of tar and gravel. The house has deep eaves and a wide fascia. Recessed square lightboxes are found intermittently along the

neg: Stamped concrete is the procedure where the entire volume of concrete is dyed the base color. The entire volume of concrete is colored by adding the color hardener to the concrete truck, and allowing all the concrete in the truck to be dyed. Cast-on color is the procedure where the surface of the concrete is dyed the base color. The surface of the concrete is colored by spreading the color hardener onto the surface of the wet concrete and floating the powder into the top layer of the wet concrete. Concrete can be colored in many ways; color hardener, integral liquid or

neg: Crumb rubber etc.). Crumb rubber is often used in artificial turf as cushioning. The first synthetic grass was placed over concrete in 1964 and became known as “Chem Grass”. It was later named “Astro Turf” when it was installed in the Houston Astrodome in 1966. Athletes did not like playing on these fields because it was dangerous and not comfortable for their landings. Compared to only a thin layer of Astro Turf on top of concrete, a new artificial turf was developed in the early 2000s and was called styrene butadiene rubber, most commonly known as “crumb rubber.” This rubber was made

neg: Asphalt concrete cracking, although the recycled material is generally not very water-tight or smooth and should be overlaid with a new layer of asphalt concrete. Cold in-place recycling mills off the top layers of asphalt concrete and mixes the resulting loose millings with asphalt emulsion. The mixture is then placed back down on the roadway and compacted. The water in the emulsion is allowed to evaporate for a week or so, and new hot-mix asphalt is laid on top. Asphalt concrete that is removed from a pavement is usually stockpiled for later use as aggregate for new hot mix asphalt at an

neg: RBMK water temperature and ion chambers for monitoring the reactor power. The tank, sand layer, and concrete of the reactor pit serve as additional biological shields. The top of the reactor is covered by the upper biological shield (UBS), also called "Schema E", Pyatachok, or, after the explosion (of Chernobyl Reactor 4), "Elena". The UBS is a cylindrical disc of in size. It is penetrated by standpipes for fuel and control channel assemblies. The top and bottom are covered with thick steel plates, welded to be helium-tight, and additionally joined by structural supports. The space between the plates and pipes is

neg: George Pullman body, his family arranged for his remains to be placed in a lead-lined mahogany coffin, which was then sealed inside a block of concrete. At the cemetery, a large pit had been dug at the family plot. At its base and walls were 18 inches of reinforced concrete. The coffin was lowered, and covered with asphalt and tarpaper. More concrete was poured on top, followed by a layer of steel rails bolted together at right angles, and another layer of concrete. The entire burial process took two days. His monument, featuring a Corinthian column flanked by curved stone benches, was

neg: Ancient Roman architecture air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating. Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae), houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete, then another of tiles on top;

neg: Perret tower (Grenoble) long, made of 72 vertical stakes in reinforced concrete gathered at the top by a slab and placed on a hard gravel layer. The framework is compound of eight vertical poles. The tower diameter is at the base. The last floor is reachable by helical stairs (visible in the top openwork part) or by lift. Auguste Perret, with the assistance of Marie Dormoy, art critic, came to Grenoble for two years, to do conferences and meet political and artistic circles in order to promote a "reinforced concrete order"; a reference to the antique orders. Made of the first reinforced concrete,

neg: Tin can wall cans and the concrete are covered with a layer of cement or adobe mud mixture. What is applied depends on the location of the wall; if it is located in an area where it will be exposed to water (such as in a bathroom or utility room) it will need to be coated with a concrete layer. If it is located in a living room or bedroom, it can be covered with adobe plaster. A tin can wall that has half of its structure outside (such as the wall of an entrance to a building) will be coated with cement

neg: Trent Lakes most of Lake Ontario dried up some 450 million years ago the lake sediments hardened and lifted to form a top layer of limestone over the area. With the ice age small glaciers left a thin layer of soil. The area around what is known as Flynn's Turn (intersection of Peterborough County Road 36 and Country Road 507) is a prime example of a limestone flat. On highway 49 you can see the evidence of what is called a Limestone Ridge ("Ordovician strata". This same ridge extends to Lower Buckhorn Lake and the erosion on the northern edge has created

neg: Grist Mill Bridge, Dam and Mill Site top, and a final layer of asphalt. The grist ill dam is approximately 150 feet long and twelve to fifteen feet high. The main body of the dam is constructed from rock and earth-fill, and a concrete cap and spillway is placed on top. The spillway spans the entirety of the dam, and empties onto a nearly flat concrete apron five to seven feet in wide, and then onto a lower spillway. Concrete abutments are built at each end of the dam. The site of the former grist mill contains a rubble fieldstone retaining wall, along with foundation walls of

neg: Homasote with a layer of painted Masonite. The Homasote base reduces the incidence of impact injuries such as shin splints caused by dancing on the concrete floor. Homasote is also widely used in theatrical sets as a noise deadening layer for stage platforms; which consist of a plywood sublayer, a Homasote layer, and a Masonite top layer. Homasote Homasote is a brand name associated with the product generically known as cellulose based fiber wall board, which is similar in composition to papier-mâché, made from recycled paper that is compressed under high temperature and pressure and held together with an adhesive. It

neg: Concrete degradation The steel shuttering pinches the top surface of a concrete slab due to the weight of the next slab being constructed. Concrete slabs, block walls and pipelines are susceptible to cracking during ground settlement, seismic tremors or other sources of vibration, and also from expansion and contraction during adverse temperature changes. Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing of steel structures. However, concrete itself may be damaged by fire. An example of this was the 1996 Channel fire, where the fire reduced the thickness of concrete in an undersea tunnel connecting France

neg: Voided biaxial slab to suit the specific project, joined together with vertical lattice girders with the void formers trapped between the top and bottom mesh reinforcement to fix their optimum position. This is termed a ‘bubble-reinforcement’ sandwich, which is then cast into bottom layer of 60 mm pre-cast concrete, encasing the bottom mesh reinforcement, to provide permanent formwork within part of the overall finished slab depth. On site the individual elements are then ‘stitched’ together with loose reinforcement simply laid centrally across the joints between elements. The splice bars are inserted loose above the pre-cast concrete layer between the bubbles, and purpose made

neg: Fondu fyre Fondu fyre Fondu Fyre, sometimes called Fondue Fyre, is a concrete developed for specialist application. Fondu Fyre is a heat-resistant concrete developed during the Apollo space program. The concrete is used in 2 different mixtures called WA-1 and XB-1. The XB-1 is used as a more fire and erosion resistant layer for covering WA-1 in areas which are directly exposed to the exhaust flame of a rocket engine. The concrete is used on the launch pads of the Kennedy Space Center on the flame deflectors. Fondue Fyre was used to repair the damage done on May 31, 2008 to launchpad

neg: Concrete shell on the shell structure itself. Shells may be cast in place, or pre-cast off site and moved into place and assembled. The strongest form of shell is the monolithic shell, which is cast as a single unit. The most common monolithic form is the dome, but ellipsoids and cylinders (resembling concrete Quonset huts / Nissen huts) are also possible using similar construction methods. Geodesic domes may be constructed from concrete sections, or may be constructed of a lightweight foam with a layer of concrete applied over the top. The advantage of this method is that each section of the dome

neg: Steel frame of steel can also be used, often filled with concrete. Steel beams are connected to the columns with bolts and threaded fasteners, and historically connected by rivets. The central "web" of the steel -beams is often wider than a column web to resist the higher bending moments that occur in beams. Wide sheets of steel deck can be used to cover the top of the steel frame as a "form" or corrugated mold, below a thick layer of concrete and steel reinforcing bars. Another popular alternative is a floor of precast concrete flooring units with some form of concrete topping.

neg: Highway engineering may have an inadequate structural capacity for the projected traffic loads. Throughout a highway’s life, its level of serviceability is closely monitored and maintained. One common method used to maintain a highway’s level of serviceability is to place an overlay on the pavement’s surface. There are three general types of overlay used on flexible pavements: asphalt-concrete overlay, Portland cement concrete overlay, and ultra-thin Portland cement concrete overlay. The concrete layer in a conventional PCC overlay is placed unbonded on top of the flexible surface. The typical thickness of an ultra-thin PCC overlay is 4 inches (10 cm) or less. There

neg: Osmotic blistering water will stop at the polymer coating. However, the pressure from the water does not stop, forcing the water to collect directly in between the concrete and the layer of epoxy/urethane. This collection creates the notorious “osmotic blister” that is commonly feared by coating specialists. Osmotic blistering Osmotic blistering is a chemical phenomenon where two substances attempt to reach equilibrium through a semi-permeable membrane. Water will flow from one solution to another, trying to create equilibrium between both solutions. Usually, the two solutions are concrete and the coating application on top of the concrete. Concrete is very porous, so water

neg: Roman roads to within 1 yd (1 m) or so of the surface it was covered with gravel and tamped down, a process called "pavire", or "pavimentare". The flat surface was then the "pavimentum". It could be used as the road, or additional layers could be constructed. A "statumen" or "foundation" of flat stones set in cement might support the additional layers. The final steps utilized lime-based concrete, which the Romans had discovered. They seem to have mixed the mortar and the stones in the ditch. First a small layer of coarse concrete, the "rudus", then a little layer of fine concrete,

neg: Blend modes one interpolates between these 3 results). These three results coincide with gamma correction of the bottom layer with γ=2 (for top black), unchanged bottom layer (or, what is the same, γ=1) (for top neutral gray), and γ=0.5 (for top white). The formula used by Photoshop as of 2012 has a discontinuity of local contrast, and other formulas correct it. Photoshop's formula is: where "a" is the base layer value and "b" is the top layer value. Depending on "b", one gets a linear interpolation between three gamma corrections: γ=2 (for "b"=0), γ=1 (for "b"=0.5), and γ=0.5 (for "b"=1). Pegtop's formula

neg: Rust for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust. Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in underwater concrete pillars, which generates green rust, is an example. Although rusting is generally a negative aspect of iron, a particular form of rusting, known as "stable rust," causes the object to have a thin coating of rust over the top, and if kept in low relative humidity, makes the "stable" layer

neg: Terrazzo chemically bonded, and the most recent, thin set method (epoxy-resin). Bonded terrazzo is applied over a sand-cement mortar underbed which sits on top of a concrete slab. The sand-cement layer allows for variations in the finished concrete slab that it sits on. Monolithic terrazzo is applied directly over an extremely flat and high quality concrete sub-floor. Thin-set terrazzo does not require a concrete sub-floor. Instead, a flexible membrane can be installed so that cracks do not appear on the surface. Unbonded includes the sand cushion method which uses wire reinforcing, an isolation sheet, and sand dusting that absorbs any movement

neg: Samuel Face American Concrete Institute, the American Society for Testing and Materials, the Canadian Standards Association, the World Bank and is more widely used with each passing year. A system that is a slight modification of F-Numbers is used in much of Europe. Sam Face's personal field consulting on construction projects in more than 20 countries helped create the modern industrial and commercial concrete floor. In the 1970s, working with Canada's top concrete contractor on numerous projects in greater Toronto, Mr. Face developed the placement and finishing practices that resulted in what he called "Superflat Floors," known to many at the time

neg: Hydrodemolition to remove the top surface of a concrete bridge or road surface. Usually the removal is within 1/4" to 3/4" at the most, but can be of any depth above the top layer of rebar. Removal of this type is done in order to provide a good microfracture-free surface for bonding with new, sound concrete. Much like applying oil and chips to an asphalt road, this helps extend the useful life of the bridge decking and road surface by delaying the need for complete replacement. Another application for hydro scarification is for decontamination, as for example is planned to be

neg: Self-leveling concrete A gauge rake is used to move it into place without spreading it too thin. The finishing is then done by lightly breaking the surface tension of the product using a tool called a smoother. The polymers in the self-leveling mix keep the viscosity of the product such that it remains uniform in composition from top to bottom without the sand aggregates sinking to the bottom of the installed layer. The typical installation thickness of these products is about 0.25 inches to ensure there is enough mass present for the material to flow, although some self-leveling products now exist that

neg: Duke of York Column to the duke reached £21,000 (), the committee overseeing the project asked a number of architects to submit proposals, and in December 1830 they chose a design by Benjamin Dean Wyatt. The mason Nowell of Pimlico, was contracted to build the column for a sum of £15,760. Excavations for the concrete foundations began on 27 April 1831. The ground was excavated to a layer of natural soil, around below street level. A layer of York stone slabs at a depth of around was used to consolidate the concrete, and another was placed at the top of the foundations, as a

neg: Concrete degradation dioxide from air can react with the calcium hydroxide in concrete to form calcium carbonate. This process is called carbonatation, which is essentially the reversal of the chemical process of calcination of lime taking place in a cement kiln. Carbonatation of concrete is a slow and continuous process progressing from the outer surface inward, but slows down with increasing diffusion depth. Carbonatation has two effects: it increases mechanical strength of concrete, but it also decreases alkalinity, which is essential for corrosion prevention of the reinforcement steel. Below a pH of 10, the steel's thin layer of surface passivation dissolves and

neg: Concrete slump test measured using the standard slump test, because the concrete will not retain its shape when the cone is removed. The test is carried out using a metal mould in the shape of a conical frustum known as a slump cone or Abrams cone, that is open at both ends and has attached handles. The tool typically has an internal diameter of at the top and of at the bottom with a height of .The cone is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in three stages. Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times

neg: Quilting layers in a quilt: the quilt top, the middle layer of batting, and the fabric backing. The quilt top is the design layer. The cotton or polyester batting in the middle layer is what determines the warmth of the quilt. Batting comes in different thicknesses depending on the purpose of the final quilt, and multiple layers of batting can be combined to increase the warmth of the final product. The bottom layer is often a simple layer of solid fabric, in a neutral or complimentary color and design scheme, though some quilters use the extra or spare fabric from the

neg: Xbloc Firstly, it shall protect the finer material below the armour layer against severe wave action. Secondly, the armour layer shall dissipate the wave energy in order to reduce the wave run-up, overtopping and reflection. These two functions require a heavy, but porous armour. Common factors to apply single layer concrete armour units are: Also compared to older concrete armour units, as e.g. Tetrapod which are normally placed in double layer as for rock protection, modern single layer armour units involve significantly less concrete. Therefore, less construction material (cement, gravel) is required, reducing costs and also the carbon footprint of coastal

neg: Masonry veneer Masonry veneer Masonry veneer walls consist of a single non-structural external layer of masonry, typically made of brick, stone or manufactured stone. Masonry veneer can have an air space behind it and is technically called "anchored veneer". A masonry veneer attached directly to the backing is called "adhered veneer". The innermost element is usually structural wall, and may consist of concrete masonry (often called a Cavity wall where inner and outer layers are both structural), concrete, wood or metal frame. Because brick itself isn't waterproof, the airspace also functions as a drainage plane, allowing any water that has penetrated the

neg: Blend modes Blend modes Blend modes (or Mixing modes) in digital image editing and computer graphics are used to determine how two layers are blended into each other. The default blend mode in most applications is simply to hide the lower layer with whatever is present in the top layer. However, as each pixel has a numerical representation, a large number of ways to blend two layers is possible. The top layer is not necessarily called a "layer" in the application. It may be applied with a painting or editing tool. The top layer can also be referred to as the "blend

neg: Göltzsch Viaduct of the region, and photographs and paintings made during the bridge's construction. In 1930, a top layer of reinforced concrete with a parapet allowed the railway track to become wider. During the latter days of World War II, the Wehrmacht intended to blow up the bridge with explosives. This plan was never executed. Between 1955 and 1958, the masonry was completely restored. It would take until 1977 for all work, including smaller jobs such as the placement of steel cover plates, to be completed. The Göltzsch Viaduct is part of the so-called Saxon-Franconian trunk line ("Sachsen-Franken-Magistrale"), which was restored from

neg: Shape moiré Shape moiré Shape moiré is one type of moiré patterns demonstrating the phenomenon of moiré magnification. 1D shape moiré is the particular simplified case of 2D shape moiré. One-dimensional patterns may appear when superimposing an opaque layer containing tiny horizontal transparent lines on top of a layer containing a complex shape which is periodically repeating along the vertical axis. Shape moiré is sometimes referred as band moiré. The opaque layer with transparent lines is called the revealing layer. The layer containing the periodically repeating shapes is called the base layer. The period of shapes in the base layer is denoted

neg: Baiyoke Tower II hollow columns fused together by key studs with an 200mm outer layer of 60N high strength concrete. Columns start solid at the base and becoming hollow at the top. The erection of tower was sped up with the use of VSL Climbform self-climbing, modular system for construction of vertical walls. It is the first time VSL Climbform technology was in use in Thailand. Concrete were pumped to a 300m height level using Putzmeister pump (the pump previously set world record in high-rise conveying of concrete to a height of 532 metre during the construction of the Riva del Garda dam

neg: Roman engineering floods and other environmental hazards. Some roads built by the Romans are still in use today. There were several variations on a standard Roman road. Most of the higher quality roads were composed of five layers. The bottom layer, called "pavimentum", was one inch thick and made of mortar. Above this were four strata of masonry. The layer directly above the pavimentum was called the "statumen". It was one foot thick, and was made of stones bound together by cement or clay. Above that, there were the "rudens", which were made of ten inches of rammed concrete. The next layer,

neg: Meta-Object Facility MOF is designed as a four-layered architecture. It provides a meta-meta model at the top layer, called the M3 layer. This M3-model is the language used by MOF to build metamodels, called M2-models. The most prominent example of a Layer 2 MOF model is the UML metamodel, the model that describes the UML itself. These M2-models describe elements of the M1-layer, and thus M1-models. These would be, for example, models written in UML. The last layer is the M0-layer or data layer. It is used to describe real-world objects. Beyond the M3-model, MOF describes the means to create and manipulate

neg: Washington Monument foundation below its top step was removed. A continuous sloping unreinforced concrete buttress encircles what remains. The buttress is square at its base, square at its top, and high. The perimeter of the original top step of the old rubble foundation rests on the larger top of the concrete buttress. Its slope (lower external angle from the vertical) is 49°. This buttress rests in a depression (triangular cross-section) on the top surface of the concrete slab. The slab was constructed by digging pairs of wide drifts on opposite sides of the monument's center line to keep the monument properly balanced.

neg: Atmospheric dispersion modeling The "stratosphere" is the next layer and extends from 18 km to about 50 km. The third layer is the "mesosphere" which extends from 50 km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, but they are insignificant with respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the "atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)" or the "planetary boundary layer (PBL)" . The air temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called a "inversion layer" (where the temperature increases with increasing altitude) that caps the Convective Boundary Layer, typically

neg: Concrete moisture meter as a relative test. The meters are used to “‘Spot check’ the top surface at one particular location on the slab.” The results can determine the best place to put a concrete relative humidity test. There is no ASTM standard for using a concrete moisture meter to determine a final moisture content reading. Concrete moisture meters, either non-pin or pin meters are affected by what it sees in the concrete. This can be anything from the density of the concrete and aggregate size to the chemical properties of the slab. Uncovered concrete dries from the top down. Concrete moisture meters

neg: Flooring with a plastic laminate top layer. HDF laminate consists of high density fiberboard topped by one or more layers of decorative paper and a transparent protective layer. Laminate may be more durable than hardwood, but cannot be refinished like hardwood. Laminate flooring is available in many different patterns which can resemble different woods or even ceramic tile. It usually locks or taps together. Underlayment is required for laminate flooring to provide moisture and noise control. Hard flooring (not to be confused with "hardwood") is a family of flooring materials that includes concrete or cement, ceramic tile, glass tiles, and natural

neg: Ferrocement Ferrocement Ferrocement or ferro-cement (also called thin-shell concrete or ferro-concrete) is a system of reinforced mortar or plaster (lime or cement, sand and water) applied over layer of metal mesh, woven expanded-metal or metal-fibers and closely spaced thin steel rods such as rebar. The metal commonly used is iron or some type of steel. It is used to construct relatively thin, hard, strong surfaces and structures in many shapes such as hulls for boats, shell roofs, and water tanks. Ferrocement originated in the 1840s in France and is the origin of reinforced concrete. It has a wide range of other

neg: Canal lining underneath a layer of earth 15 to 30 cm thick, makes for an adequate lining system. Typically, porous soils are removed before compacted clay is applied to the bed and sides of a canal. Another simple method of canal lining with soils entails applying a layer of compacted silt on top of the subgrade of the canal. The use of soils as canal linings is efficient for controlling seepage, but not effective against weed growth. Plastic linings are often referred to as geomembranes or flexible membrane linings. Plastic linings are often covered with soil, rocks, brick, concrete or other material.

neg: Roller-compacted concrete curing than do conventional mass concrete placements. Roller-compacted concrete has many time and cost benefits over conventional mass concrete dams; these include higher rates of concrete placement, lower material costs and lower costs associated with post-cooling and formwork. For dam applications, RCC sections are built lift-by-lift in successive horizontal layers resulting in a downstream slope that resembles a concrete staircase. Once a layer is placed, it can immediately support the earth-moving equipment to place the next layer. After RCC is deposited on the lift surface, small dozers typically spread it in one-foot-thick (300mm) layers. The first RCC dam built in

neg: Cleveland Convention Center (demolished) moisture barrier above the perlite, and thick layer of concrete laid atop the moisture barrier. The bottom of the pool consisted of another five layers of roofing felt, on top of which were laid a thick layer of gravel. The gravel-impregnated grout was laid down in alternating grey and white sections (each section separated by a brass rail), to add visual distinctiveness to the bottom of the pool. The granite for the lip of the pool was imported from West Germany. The granite, which was shaped to wrap around the exterior, top, and interior of the lip, was about thick.

neg: Scabbling Scabbling Scabbling—also called scappling—is the process of reducing stone or concrete. In masonry, it refers to shaping a stone to a rough square by use of an axe or hammer. In Kent, rag-stone masons call this "knobbling". It was similarly used to shape grindstones. In modern construction, scabbling is a mechanical process of removing a thin layer of concrete from a structure, typically achieved by compressed air powered machines. A typical scabbling machine uses several heads, each with several carbide or steel tips that peck at the concrete. It operates by pounding a number of tipped rods down onto the

neg: Motorcycle speedway forward and around the bend. The skill of speedway lies in the overall ability of the rider to control his motorcycle when cornering and thus avoid losing places through deceleration. The use of asphalt, concrete and tarmac for any layer is prohibited. The top layer must be levelled or "graded" at intervals during an event by tractors towing specially adapted rakes to evenly re-distribute the surface. Tracks are watered before and, if needed, during meetings to prevent the surface becoming too dry and to protect the public and the riders from dust. Safety requirements include the use of suspended wire

neg: Communication protocol conforming to the various layer specifications. In the OSI model, communicating systems are assumed to be connected by an underlying physical medium providing a basic (and unspecified) transmission mechanism. The layers above it are numbered (from one to seven); the n layer is referred to as (n)-layer. Each layer provides service to the layer above it (or at the top to the application process) using the services of the layer immediately below it. The layers communicate with each other by means of an interface, called a "service access point". Corresponding layers at each system are called "peer entities". To communicate,

neg: Canal lining are also used when only a short distance needs to be covered. Certain additives, such as kankar lime and surkhi, are sometimes included in the concrete mixture to improve water retention. Prior to constructing concrete linings, it is common practice to ensure the sub-grade layer of soil is adequately consolidated. If expansive clay is located on the site of a canal, a layer of this clay is removed and replaced with sand or gravel before the concrete lining is constructed. This removal minimizes the risk of ground swelling, which can cause cracking in the concrete. In order to prevent cracking

neg: Blank (cartridge) some nail guns (powder-actuated tools), where the power is tapped to force a heavy piston into the nail, with enough force to bury its full length in steel or concrete. Some forms of fast draw competitions use special blanks that are loaded with a layer of slow burning rifle powder on top of a thin layer of faster-burning pistol powder. The pistol powder ignites the slower burning rifle powder, and fires it out the barrel much like a shotgun shell. The burning powder only travels a few yards before it completely combusts, but that is far enough to burst the

neg: Germ layer it, and forms a new layer, called the endoderm, pushing the hypoblast out of the way (this goes on to form the amnion.) The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The top layer is now called the ectoderm. The endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm. The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tract except part of the

neg: Incan engineers land. The different layering of materials is part of what makes the terraces so successful. It starts with a base layer of large rocks. Followed by a second layer is smaller rocks. Then a layer of sand like material, and finally the top soil. You can practice this in a simulation here. The most impressive part of the terraces were their drainage systems. Drain outlets placed in the numerous stone retaining walls. The larger rocks at base of each terrace level is what allowed the water to flow easier through the larger spaces in between the rocks eventually coming out

neg: Electricity Substation No. 349 turret with simulated windows, balcony and ornamental ironwork, and decorative arch motifs forming the supporting brackets. The ventilation panels are formed by curved concrete or ceramic blocks set into what are window spaces for metal louvres in other similar designs. The substation is constructed in load-bearing brick and finished with a smooth layer of stucco. The roof is curved ceramic tile. Curved ceramic or concrete blocks form ventilation panels in the side walls. As at 18 October 2007, the condition of the building was generally good. Downpipes discharge to ground. The exterior is architecturally intact. Internal equipment has been completely

neg: Saint-Nazaire submarine base a volume of concrete of 480,000 m³. The roof is 8 metres deep, featuring four layers: the first one is a 3.5 metre sheet of reinforced concrete; the second is a 35 cm granite and concrete layers; the third is a 1.7 metre layer of reinforced concrete, and the fourth, is a "Fangrost" layer of steel beams, 1.40 metres deep. The roof is dotted with anti-aircraft weaponry, machine guns and mortars. The base offers 14 submarine pens. Pens 1 through 8 are dry docks, 92 metres long and 11 metres wide; pens 9 through 14 are simple docks, 62 metres

neg: External morphology of Lepidoptera adjacent to the vitelline layer which is thought to have evolved to prevent desiccation. In insects, the chorion has a layer of air pores in the otherwise solid material which provides very limited capability for respiratory function. In Lepidoptera, the chorion layer above this air pore layer is lamellar with successive sheets of protein arranged in a particular direction and stepped so as to form a helical arrangement. The top of the egg is depressed and forms a small central cavity called micropyle through which the egg is fertilised. The micropyle is situated on top in eggs which are globular,

neg: Virtual file system filesystem. Virtual file system A Virtual File System (VFS) or virtual filesystem switch is an abstraction layer on top of a more concrete file system. The purpose of a VFS is to allow client applications to access different types of concrete file systems in a uniform way. A VFS can, for example, be used to access local and network storage devices transparently without the client application noticing the difference. It can be used to bridge the differences in Windows, classic Mac OS/macOS and Unix filesystems, so that applications can access files on local file systems of those types without having

neg: Virtual file system Virtual file system A Virtual File System (VFS) or virtual filesystem switch is an abstraction layer on top of a more concrete file system. The purpose of a VFS is to allow client applications to access different types of concrete file systems in a uniform way. A VFS can, for example, be used to access local and network storage devices transparently without the client application noticing the difference. It can be used to bridge the differences in Windows, classic Mac OS/macOS and Unix filesystems, so that applications can access files on local file systems of those types without having to

neg: Pavement light protective layer that can be replaced if it becomes chipped or cracked. The top surface of the pavers may also be chosen and treated to improve traction. Wrought iron, cast iron, and stainless steel frames have all been used. Reinforced concrete slabs began to replace iron frames in the 1890s in New York. Benefits claimed included less condensation (due to the lower thermal conductivity) and a less slippery surface when wet. Concrete panels may be pre-cast or cast in-situ. Late concrete panels often were made with metal-framed "armored prisms", which were intended to prevent breakage and make replacing individual prisms

neg: Halle Building braces (each in thickness and long) were placed apart to help stabilize the sheeting until the foundation and interior walls could be constructed. The foundation of the Pope Building is a combination reinforced concrete floating raft and grillage. Reengineering the foundation due to the quicksand problem meant only a single sub-basement was constructed. In the sub-basement, the sheet piling was plastered and then waterproofed with felt and tar. The felt/tar layer waterproofing was flashed over the top of the sheet piling and extended horizontally about past the outer wall. Below the sub-basement floor was another waterproofing layer that consisted of

neg: Fratton Park As the Milton End is a solid earth bank, there are no concourse facilities beneath the stand. In 1928 the Milton End was rebuilt with concrete terracing and a large analogue scoreboard and clock, taking the Fratton Park capacity up to 40,000. During October of 1948, repairs to the uneven broken rear gangway of the Milton End took place to make it safe, using brick rubble surfaced with a top layer of ashes. A new perimeter wall with a handrail was also built at the top of the Milton End to stop supporters falling from the top into the Specks

neg: The Three Graces (Indianapolis) breast of each figure. The central figure's dress has a tassel hanging off a fold on the front left, and the top completely covers her chest but leaves her arms bare. The central figure alone wears sandals. Each of the three has a crisp ribbon in her hair. This sculpture stands on a tall, three-part base made of limestone and concrete. The bottommost layer is simply a poured concrete slab. Upon this sits a large limestone pedestal with a thick, simply carved border along its lower edge. Its sides curve inward and upward toward the next piece, a simple rectangular

neg: Corruption in the Suvarnabhumi Airport project from this surface distortion, both runways were in good structural condition. Further investigations found that taxilane and taxiway rutting was caused by separation of the asphalt binder from the aggregate surface due to prolonged water infiltration into the asphalt concrete base course, a phenomenon known as "stripping." The 23 cm thick base course is the top-most layer of the tarmac. Core samples indicated that the concrete base course material contained the correct job mix and aggregate gradation. Below the base course are the binder course, and the cement-treated base. Detailed investigations found that water seepage was evident along the rims

neg: Sabbath food preparation into a second utensil, this utensil is called a kli sheni. A kli shlishi is the third utensil into which hot food or liquid is transferred. The problem of preparing hot beverages on Shabbat revolves around the temperature of the water. If the water is hot enough to cook the tea leaves, it would constitute "malacha." Pouring straight from an urn (also considered a klei rishon) would cause the cooking of the substance. For a solid substance the outer and concrete layer will definitely be cooked (bishul kdai klipah), which would be malacha. For a liquid there is no concrete

neg: Cotton Tree Caravan Park its wall construction including brick, painted concrete block and breeze block infill. It is founded on a large concrete slab. There are three BBQ places with shelters provided in the Park, all in the north-eastern corner. A number of permanent caravan dwellings occupy lots in the Park. These caravans are most often decorated or extended in various ways to facilitate year-round occupation. These embellishments include: small gardens, paving, air-conditioning, verandah and patio additions, a second roof layer built over the top of the caravan to prevent heat gain, and infill materials fixed around the edges to hide under- caravan spaces.

neg: One Glass Solution a pattern to create electrodes to sense touch. A thin insulator layer is applied before a second ITO layer is deposited in a pattern creating electrodes running at right angles to the first layer. The assembly is then laminated onto a standard LCD panel. The second approach is called "on-cell" capacitive touchscreen, with the cell referring to the LCD. In this process, a conductive layer of ITO is deposited directly onto the top layer of glass in the LCD panel in an electrode pattern. A thin insulating layer is applied before a second ITO layer is deposited in a pattern

neg: Rebound Ace Rebound Ace Rebound Ace is a cushioned tennis hardcourt composed of polyurethane rubber, fiberglass, and other materials on top of an asphalt or reinforced concrete base. It is manufactured by California Products Corporation's Sports Surfaces division. The friction of the surface of Rebound Ace can be varied by adjusting the amount of sand in the top layer thereby customising the ball bounce and general speed of the court. Rebound Ace is sometimes compared with DecoTurf, which is used at the US Open, however Rebound Ace is built with more cushioning. From 1988 until May 30 2007, Rebound Ace was the

neg: Protocol data unit The letters themselves are SDUs when the bags are opened but become PDUs when the address is read for final delivery. When the addressee finally opens the envelope, the top-level SDU, the letter itself, emerges. Protocol data units of the OSI model are: Given a context pertaining to a specific OSI layer, "PDU" is sometimes used as a synonym for its representation at that layer. Protocol data units for the Internet Protocol Suite are: On TCP/IP over Ethernet, the bit stream on the physical layer is commonly called an Ethernet Packet. ATM's corresponding data link layer PDU is called a

neg: Wearing course Wearing course The wearing course is the upper layer in roadway, airfield, and dockyard construction. The term 'surface course' is sometimes used, however this term is slightly different as it can be used to describe very thin surface layers such as chip seal. In rigid pavements the upper layer is a portland cement concrete slab. In flexible pavements, the upper layer consists of asphalt concrete, that is a construction aggregate with a bituminous binder. The wearing course is typically placed on the binder course which is then laid on the base course, which is normally placed on the subbase, which

neg: Double tee evolved from the earlier use of tee systems where the flanges of the T-beams were connected. The concrete is then poured at the top of the tees during the construction to create the floor surface, hence the process is called field-placed concrete topping. In double-tee structures, the top concrete is usually made at the factory as an integral part of the precast double tee structure. Double tees are connected during the construction without topping with concrete to create the parking structure floor surface. A benefit of pre-topped double tees is a higher quality concrete for more durable surface to reduce

neg: Conservation and restoration of photographic plates consists of an image bound to a glass support. Glass plates emerged as a common support medium for photographic negatives in the mid-nineteenth century. In general, black-and-white photographic negatives are made up of fine silver particles, (or color dyes for color negatives), which are embedded in a thin layer called a binder. Combined with the image substance, these two elements make-up what is called the emulsion. This emulsion layer sits upon what is called the support, which can be paper, metal, film, or as in the case of photographic plates, glass. An important part of the photographic process, "fixing," is

neg: Insulating concrete form System ICFs, the concrete has the shape of a hybrid between Screen Grid and Flat Wall system concrete, with a grid of thicker reinforced concrete and having thinner concrete in the center areas where a screen grid would have solid ICF material. For Post and Lintel System ICFs, the concrete has a horizontal member, called a lintel, only at the top of the wall (Horizontal concrete at the bottom of the wall is often present in the form of the building's footer or the lintel of the wall below.) and vertical members, called posts, between the lintel and the surface

neg: Two-dimensional materials form what is called few-layer boron nitride nanosheets. In these structures, the boron atoms of one sheet are positioned on top or below the nitrogen atoms due to electron deficient nature of boron and electron rich nature of nitrogen, respectively. Due to several similar structural similarities with graphene, boron nitride nanosheets are considered graphene analogs, often called “white graphene". Boron nanosheets (BNNS) defined as single or few layers of boron nitride whose aspect ratio is small. However, there are a couple variations of 2D boron nitride structure. Boron nitride nanoribbons (BNNR) are boron nitride nanosheets with significant edge effects and

neg: Open Semantic Framework OSF Web Services; there are now more than 20 providing OSF's distributed computing functionality. Full CRUD access and user permissions and security is provided to all digital objects in the stack. This middleware layer then provides a means to access the third layer, the engines and indexers that drive the entire stack. Both the top CMS layer and the engines layer are provided by existing off-the-shelf software. What makes OSF a complete stack are the connecting scripts and the intermediate Web services layer. The premise of the OSF stack is based on the RDF data model. RDF provides the means

neg: Pyraminx of algorithms, also called LL algs (last layer algs), are given to solve the remaining puzzle. 2) Top first methods- In these methods three edges around a corner are solved first, and the remaining is solved using a set of algorithms. Common V first methods- a) Layer by Layer - In this method a face with all edges oriented in the right spot (a.k.a. a layer) is solved and then the remaining puzzle is solved by a single algorithm from a set of 5. b) L4E- L4E or last 4 edges is very similar to Layer by Layer. The only

neg: Pastitsio cheese and egg as a binder; a middle layer of ground beef, veal or lamb with tomato and cinnamon, nutmeg or allspice; another layer of pasta; and a top layer of sauce, varying from an egg-based custard to a flour-based béchamel or a béchamel with cheese (known as mornay sauce in France). Grated cheese is often sprinkled on top. Pastitsio is a common dish, and is often served as a main course, with a salad. In Cyprus a similar dish is called "oven macaroni" (Greek: μακαρόνια του φούρνου, "makarónia tou foúrnou", Turkish: fırında makarna). It is an essential dish during

neg: Concrete a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one

neg: Road transport traffic. Concrete is a rigid pavement, which can take heavier loads but is more expensive and requires more carefully prepared subbase. So, generally, major roads are concrete and local roads are asphalt. Concrete roads are often covered with a thin layer of asphalt to create a wearing surface. Modern pavements are designed for heavier vehicle loads and faster speeds, requiring thicker slabs and deeper subbase. Subbase is the layer or successive layers of stone, gravel and sand supporting the pavement. It is needed to spread out the slab load bearing on the underlying soil and to conduct away any water

neg: Underseal slab so it flows into patches that were hollow and eroded. After concrete undersealing, the concrete is more stable and can be overlaid with a thin layer of asphalt to repair cracks, saving the expense and time of replacing the entire surface. Underseal Underseal (often called undercoating in the U.S.) is a thick resilient coating applied to the underbody or chassis of an automobile to protect against impact damage from small stones, which would rapidly chip ordinary paint, allowing rusting to begin. Historically a bitumen-based compound was used, but after approximately a decade this becomes brittle and water can become

neg: Rebound Ace Olympics, at Homebush Bay in the Sydney Olympic Park. In 2013, Rebound Ace was acquired by California Products Corporation of Andover, Massachusetts and incorporated into its Sports Surfaces line of athletic surfacing products. Rebound Ace Rebound Ace is a cushioned tennis hardcourt composed of polyurethane rubber, fiberglass, and other materials on top of an asphalt or reinforced concrete base. It is manufactured by California Products Corporation's Sports Surfaces division. The friction of the surface of Rebound Ace can be varied by adjusting the amount of sand in the top layer thereby customising the ball bounce and general speed of the

neg: Hogan's Fountain Pavilion 5, 1965 onto the original blueprint; he approved the shingle change from shake to that of cement shingles laid over a single layer of 15 lb. asphalt felt. The floor of the pavilion is constructed of a round concrete pad, originally with a large interior circular fire pit surrounded by wooden picnic tables. Above the fire pit is a substantial sized 13 foot diameter smokestack to provide proper venting. The sides of the building were left open to help facilitate cooling by transferring the warm air upward out through an opening at the top. Exiting the top of the covered

neg: Xbloc transported and installed can be enormous for a larger breakwater exposed to significant wave action. Due to the interlocking effect the weight and thus the volume of single layer armour units is considerably less compared to an armour consisting entirely of rock. In addition units are normally fabricated near or at project site, so that transport issues are less critical. The Xbloc consists of non-reinforced concrete, similar to other single layer armour units. Ordinary concrete C25/30 is normally appropriate for the production of Xbloc armour units. However, often concrete of higher strength is applied for other reasons, e.g. early strength

neg: Deep foundation A "transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement, cathodic protection, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.)" is attached to the now deeply driven pile, the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with concrete. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection. Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, Cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or Cast-in-Situ piles, a borehole is drilled into the ground, then concrete (and often some sort of reinforcing) is

neg: Pruinescence mushrooms, which can be important for identification. It may also be called a pruina (plural: pruinae), using the Latin word which gave rise to the various English terms. An epinecral layer is "a layer of horny dead fungal hyphae with indistinct lumina in or near the cortex above the algal layer. Pruinescence Pruinescence , or pruinosity, is a "frosted" or dusty looking coating on top of a surface. The adjectival form is pruinose . In insects, a "bloom" caused by wax particles on top of an insect's cuticle that covers up the underlying coloration, giving a dusty or frosted appearance.

neg: Terrazzo deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers add a layer of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips in the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place into each of the panels a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a weighted roller () over the entire surface. In the 1970s, polymer-based terrazzo was

neg: Kjeller Airport Lillestrøm Municipal Council approved plans for a runway on 2 May 1958. Although this would spare the main road, it would still have to be closed during take-off and landing of jets. Construction started on 25 August and saw an upgrade to the existing runway through a layer of crushed stone being laid on top of the concrete. The runway was extended by ca. in each direction, and received a layer of construction aggregate. The entire runway was asphalted, creating a surface. The work was completed on 1 June 1959. During construction the airfield has been used for 115 aircraft

neg: Hydraulic conductivity An aquifer is called "semi-confined" when a saturated layer with a relatively small horizontal hydraulic conductivity (the semi-confining layer or aquitard) overlies a layer with a relatively high horizontal hydraulic conductivity so that the flow of groundwater in the first layer is mainly vertical and in the second layer mainly horizontal. <br> The resistance of a semi-confining top layer of an aquifer can be determined from pumping tests. When calculating flow to drains or to a well field in an aquifer with the aim to control the water table, the anisotropy is to be taken into account, otherwise the result

neg: Dispersituberoolithus Formation, which is dated to the late Campanian. "Dispersituberoolithus" is one of the few fossil eggs of the ornithoid-prismatic morphotype. The outer surface of its eggshell exhibits what is called dispersituberculate ornamentation, i.e. the shell is covered with randomly distributed nodes. "Dispersituberoolithus" was named for this pattern. Its shell is 0.26 to 0.28 mm thick, and is made up of three structural layers. The innermost layer, called the mammillary layer, is half the thickness of the continuous layer and twice the thickness of the external zone. The boundary between the continuous and the mammillary layers exhibits a squamatic ultrastructure. It

neg: Falling weight deflectometer stiffness-related parameters of a pavement structure. The process of calculating the elastic moduli of individual layers in a multi-layer system (e.g. asphalt concrete on top of a base course on top of the subgrade) based on surface deflections is known as "backcalculation", as there is no closed-form solution. Instead, initial moduli are assumed, surface deflections calculated, and then the moduli are adjusted in an iterative fashion to converge on the measured deflections. This process is computationally intensive although quick on modern computers. It can give quite misleading results and requires an experienced analyst. Commonly used backcalculation software are: Many analysts