query: which geoengineering method for carbon sequestration has been enacted for several decades

pos: Climate change mitigation effects might there be. The following types of option were examined: reforestation, increasing ocean absorption of carbon dioxide (carbon sequestration) and screening out some sunlight. NAS also argued "Engineered countermeasures need to be evaluated but should not be implemented without broad understanding of the direct effects and the potential side effects, the ethical issues, and the risks." In July 2011 a report by the United States Government Accountability Office on geoengineering found that "[c]limate engineering technologies do not now offer a viable response to global climate change." Carbon dioxide removal has been proposed as a method of reducing the amount

pos: Carbon dioxide removal for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the "AVOID: Avoiding dangerous climate change" research program, stating that "Overall, of the technologies studied in this report, BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today’s energy system. The presence of a primary product will support early deployment." According to the OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of BECCS". Biochar is created by the pyrolysis of biomass, and is under investigation as a method of carbon sequestration. Biochar is a

neg: Ocean storage of carbon dioxide Ocean storage of carbon dioxide Ocean storage of carbon dioxide (CO) is a method of carbon sequestration. The concept of storing carbon dioxide in the ocean was first proposed by Italian physicist Cesare Marchetti in his 1976 paper "On Geoengineering and the carbon dioxide Problem." Since then, the concept of sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide in the world's oceans has been investigated by scientists, engineers, and environmental activists. 39,000 GtC currently reside in the oceans while only 750 GtC are in the atmosphere. Of the 1300 Gt carbon dioxide from anthropogenic emissions over the last 200 years, about 38% of that

neg: Enhanced weathering in which the CO is injected into silicate rock formations to promote carbonate formation underground (see: CarbFix) Mineral carbonation research has largely focused on the sequestration of CO from flue gas. It could be used for geoengineering if the source of CO was derived from the atmosphere, e.g. through direct air capture or biomass-CCS. Enhanced weathering Enhanced weathering refers to geoengineering approaches that use the dissolution of natural or artificially created minerals to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Since the carbon dioxide is usually first removed from ocean water, these approaches would attack the problem by first reducing ocean

neg: Haida Gwaii 2012, entrepreneur Russ George dispersed of iron sulphate dust into the Pacific Ocean several hundred miles west of the islands of Haida Gwaii. The Old Massett Village Council was persuaded to finance this geoengineering project as a salmon enhancement project with $1 million in village funds. The concept was that the formerly iron-deficient waters would produce more phytoplankton that would in turn produce more salmon. George hoped to finance the project by using the carbon sequestration effects of the new plankton as marketable carbon offsets. The project has been plagued by charges of unscientific procedures and recklessness. George contended that

neg: Biochar emissions during concrete production and to improve the strength considerably. If biomass is pyrolyzed to biochar and put back into the soil, rather than being completely burned, this may reduce carbon emissions. Potentially, the bioenergy industry might even be made to sequester net carbon. Pyrolysis might be cost-effective for a combination of sequestration and energy production when the cost of a ton reaches $37. Current biochar projects make no significant impact on the overall global carbon budget, although expansion of this technique has been advocated as a geoengineering approach. In May 2009, the Biochar Fund, a small "social profit organization",

neg: Lowell Wood for thesis titled "Hyperthermal Processes in the Solar Atmosphere". He currently works for Intellectual Ventures. Wood meets and consults with global think tanks on global warming. He has suggested anti-global warming measures, including space mirrors, carbon sequestration in the ocean, employing stratospheric sulfate aerosols, and super-efficient nuclear reactors. Through Intellectual Ventures, he consults for Bill Gates and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in support of their global vaccination program and other humanitarian projects. Lowell Wood Lowell Lincoln Wood Jr. (born 1941) is an American astrophysicist who has been involved with the Strategic Defense Initiative and with geoengineering studies. He

neg: Carbon sequestration externalities such as leakage and unforeseen environmental damage. Because reduction of atmospheric is a long-term concern, farmers can be reluctant to adopt more expensive agricultural techniques when there is not a clear crop, soil, or economic benefit. Governments such as Australia and New Zealand are considering allowing farmers to sell carbon credits once they document that they have sufficiently increased soil carbon content. Ocean iron fertilization is an example of such a geoengineering technique. Iron fertilization attempts to encourage phytoplankton growth, which removes carbon from the atmosphere for at least a period of time. This technique is controversial due to

neg: Carbon dioxide removal weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates. Ultramafic rock, for example, has the potential to store from hundreds to thousands of years' worth of CO emissions, according to estimates. Ocean-based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as grinding, dispersing, and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and CO sequestration. Enhanced weathering is considered one of the least expensive geoengineering options. One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the CarbFix project in Iceland. Carbon dioxide can be removed from ambient air through chemical processes, sequestered, and stored. Traditional modes of carbon

neg: Carbon sequestration ocean to boost -absorbing phytoplankton growth as a way to combat climate change. In 2007, Sydney-based ONC completed an experiment involving 1 tonne of nitrogen in the Sulu Sea off the Philippines. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around, offering avenues for geoengineering. Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering blooms of algae, which store carbon when they grow and export carbon when they die. This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in

neg: Carbon sink Examples of carbon sequestration at coal plants include converting carbon from smokestacks into baking soda, and algae-based carbon capture, circumventing storage by converting algae into fuel or feed. Another proposed form of carbon sequestration in the ocean is direct injection. In this method, carbon dioxide is pumped directly into the water at depth, and expected to form "lakes" of liquid CO at the bottom. Experiments carried out in moderate to deep waters (350–3600 m) indicate that the liquid CO reacts to form solid CO clathrate hydrates, which gradually dissolve in the surrounding waters. This method, too, has potentially dangerous environmental

neg: Mire as natural ones. Estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands indicate that natural wetlands have lower fluxes, but man-made wetlands have a greater carbon sequestration capacity. The carbon sequestration abilities of wetlands can be improved through restoration and protection strategies, but it takes several decades for these restored ecosystems to become comparable in carbon storage to peatlands and other forms of natural wetlands. Tropical peatlands comprise 0.25% of Earth’s terrestrial land surface but store 3% of all soil and forest carbon stocks and are mostly located in developing countries. The exploitation of these ecosystems, such as the draining and harvesting

neg: Lisa Dilling decision making for climate risk . Her earlier work focused on how various factors like marine snow affected marine life, such as zooplankton, and can impact the ocean's ability to cycle carbon. In the last two decades, Dilling has published several papers on carbon management, climate adaptation on public lands, geoengineering, the use of tools in water management, stakeholder needs and building networks for adaptive capacity, and the dynamics of vulnerability. Listed below are some of Dilling's most cited publications: Lisa Dilling Lisa Dilling is an interdisciplinary scholar who focuses on climate adaptation, decision making, the use of information, and

neg: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Directive (RED) and Fuel Quality Directive (FQD), which require 20% of total energy consumption to be based on biomass, bioliquids and biogas by 2020. In February, 2018, US congress significantly increased and extended the section 45Q tax credit for sequestration of carbon oxides. This has been a top priority of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) supporters for several years. It increased $25.70 to $50 tax credit per tonnes of CO for secure geological storage and $15.30 to $35 tax credit per tonne of CO used in enhanced oil recovery. In the 2014 AMPERE modeling project, based on 8 different integrated

neg: Carbon sink this sequestration has been gradually increasing since 1998. Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil include no-till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation, all of which are more widely used in organic farming than in conventional farming. Because only 5% of US farmland currently uses no-till and residue mulching, there is a large potential for carbon sequestration. Conversion to pastureland, particularly with good management of grazing, can sequester even more carbon in the soil. Terra preta, an anthropogenic, high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can

neg: Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide () is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects, including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon

neg: Solvay process silting up the shipping channel. Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed for carbon sequestration. One idea is to react carbon dioxide, produced perhaps by the combustion of coal, to form solid carbonates (such as sodium bicarbonate) that could be permanently stored, thus avoiding carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed to convert carbon dioxide emissions into sodium carbonates, but carbon sequestration by calcium or magnesium carbonates appears more promising. However, the amount of carbon dioxide exhausted by mankind as compared to the amount which can be used for carbon sequestration with

neg: Carbon rift and economic analysis that has been done on carbon rift discusses the theory’s relation to geoengineering. While geoengineering is still in the development stage as both a topic and solution to climate change, the December 2015 Paris Agreement highlighted “negative emissions technologies”. These technologies aim to either “remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere” or “reduce the amount of solar radiation that hits the earth’s surface. Some scientists and advocacy groups warn that geoengineering will have dangerous, irreversible effects on human society. Furthermore, there is no way to fully test the accuracy of these technologies before launch, making the risk even

neg: Carbon sequestration the largest capacity, which is estimated to be 1,000–10,000 Gt CO. In the US, there is an estimated 160 Gt CO storage capacity. There are a number of large-scale carbon capture and sequestration projects that have demonstrated the viability and safety of this method of carbon storage, which are summarized here by the Global CCS Institute. The dominant monitoring technique is seismic imaging, where vibrations are generated that propagate through the subsurface. The geologic structure can be imaged from the refracted/reflected waves. The first large-scale sequestration project which began in 1996 is called Sleipner, and is located in the North

neg: Free-air concentration enrichment temperate forests and also in stands of aspen in Italy. The method is also utilized for agricultural research. For example, FACE circles have been used to measure the response of soybean plants to increased levels of ozone and carbon dioxide at research facilities at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. FACE technologies have yet to be implemented in old growth forests, or key biomes for carbon sequestration, such as tropical forests, or boreal forests and identifying future research priorities for these regions is considered an urgent concern. Examples of this method being used globally include TasFACE, which is investigating the

neg: Carbon sequestration with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) refers to biomass in power stations and boilers that use carbon capture and storage. The carbon sequestered by the biomass would be captured and stored, thus removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This technology is sometimes referred to as bio-energy with carbon storage, BECS, though this term can also refer to the carbon sequestration potential in other technologies, such as biochar. Burying biomass (such as trees) directly, mimics the natural processes that created fossil fuels. Landfills also represent a physical method of sequestration. Biochar is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass waste. The resulting

neg: Whendee Silver Silver is the lead scientist at the Marin Carbon Project, which she helped found in 2008. The Marin Carbon Project uses science to improve land management, to think about the whole system and thus consider and value ecosystem services such as soil's C sequestration ability, and make farm and ranch management more centered around n carbon-sequestration.Through this project she is working with ranchers, using compost for carbon sequestration on ranch land in California, greatly improving the soil's ability to sequester carbon. Silver's research on the biogeochemistry of tropical plants has been published in multiple academic journals. Silver's research was featured

neg: The Land Institute systems may have a variety of benefits over conventional annual monocultures such as increased biodiversity, reduced soil erosion, and reduced inputs of irrigation, fossil fuels, fertilizers, and pesticides. Perennial crops also show promise in root-based carbon sequestration. The organization's achievement of productive and genetically stable perennial crop plants for use by farmers is expected to take several decades. Critics note the future economic challenge in profitably harvesting perennial polyculture. Since 1979, The Land Institute has annually hosted its Prairie Festival, which includes lectures, art displays, tours, and music performances. The Land Institute has developed an intermediate wheatgrass ("Thinopyrum intermedium") grain

neg: No-till farming purchase carbon credits, which can encourage farmers to engage in conservation tillage. Under such schemes, the farmers' land is legally redefined as a carbon sink for the power generators' emissions. This helps the farmer in several ways , and it helps the energy companies meet regulatory demands for reduction of pollution, specifically carbon emissions. No-till farming can increase organic (carbon based) matter in the soil, which is a form of carbon sequestration. However, there is debate over whether this increased sequestration detected in scientific studies of no-till agriculture is actually occurring, or is due to flawed testing methods or other

neg: Carbon sequestration by power stations could be used as sorbents for mineral sequestration. The amount of captured averaged 60 to 65% of the carbonaceous and 10 to 11% of the total emissions. Various carbon dioxide scrubbing processes have been proposed to remove from the air, usually using a variant of the Kraft process. Carbon dioxide scrubbing variants exist based on potassium carbonate, which can be used to create liquid fuels, or on sodium hydroxide. These notably include artificial trees proposed by Klaus Lackner to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using chemical scrubbers. Carbon dioxide sequestration in basalt involves the injecting of

neg: Korea Carbon Capture & Sequestration R&D Center Korea Carbon Capture & Sequestration R&D Center The Korea Carbon Capture & Sequestration R&D Center (KCRC) is an institution in Daejeon, South Korea, specialized in Carbon Capture & Sequestration (CCS) R&D. The Korean government has selected CCS technology as part of core technologies for green growth, and has established the National Comprehensive Plan for CCS to commercialize and ensure the international competitiveness of CCS technology by 2020. As part of the plan, the Ministry of Science, ICT and future Planning(MSIP) has developed the ‘Korea CCS 2020 Project' to secure the best original technology of CCS and established KCRC in December

neg: Phytolith was carbon occluded within phytoliths that could be used for radiocarbon dating, research into the capacity of phytoliths as a method of storing carbon in soils was pioneered by Parr and Sullivan suggested that there was a real opportunity to sequester carbon securely in soils for the long term, in the form of carbon inclusions in durable silica phytoliths. Subsequent research has shown the effectiveness of phytoliths as a process to sequester carbon using a range of agricultural crops and other economically important plants. While carbon sequestration is a potentially important way to limit atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations in the

neg: Occidental Petroleum Libyan Investment Authority's investments were frozen by the U.S. government in early 2011 following the Gaddafi regime's attacks on Libyan civilians. In 2016, the company ceased operations in Libya. In 2017, the company was ranked 55th on the Carbon Majors Report, a list of the Top 100 producers and their cumulative greenhouse gas emissions from 1988-2015. In 2017, 25% of the company's production was from a method of oil extraction called carbon dioxide (CO2) flood technology, or carbon sequestration for enhanced oil recovery, which is a more environmental-friendly method of oil extraction because it could stall the accumulation of carbon

neg: Welsbach seeding resulting from the greenhouse effect, and in particular to a method which involves the seeding of the earth's stratosphere with Welsbach-like materials." The method has never been implemented, and is not considered to be a viable option by current geoengineering experts; in fact the proposed mechanism is considered to violate the second law of thermodynamics. Currently proposed atmospheric geoengineering methods would instead use sulfate aerosols, at considerably higher altitudes. Welsbach seeding Welsbach seeding is a patented climate engineering method, involving seeding the stratosphere with small (10 to 100 micron) metal oxide particles (thorium dioxide, Aluminium oxide). The purpose of the

neg: Carbon sink method of "geo-sequestration" or "geological storage" involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground geological formations. Declining oil fields, saline aquifers, and unminable coal seams have been suggested as storage sites. Caverns and old mines that are commonly used to store natural gas are not considered, because of a lack of storage safety. CO has been injected into declining oil fields for more than 40 years, to increase oil recovery. This option is attractive because the storage costs are offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Typically, 10–15% additional recovery of the original oil in place is possible.

neg: Glomalin productivity of an ecosystem. The chemistry of glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) is not yet fully understood, and the link between glomalin, GRSP, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is not yet clear. The physiological function of glomalin in fungi is also a topic of current research. Glomalin-related soil proteins (GRSPs), along with humic acid, are a significant component of soil organic matter and act to bind mineral particles together, improving soil quality. Glomalin has been investigated for its carbon and nitrogen storing properties, including as a potential method of carbon sequestration. Glomalin is hypothesized to improve soil aggregate water stability and decrease

neg: Carbon sequestration a recognized method of carbon sequestration as soil can act as an effective carbon sink offsetting as much as 20% of 2010 carbon dioxide emissions annually. (See No-till) Carbon emission reduction methods in agriculture can be grouped into two categories: reducing and/or displacing emissions and enhancing carbon removal. Some of these reductions involve increasing the efficiency of farm operations (e.g. more fuel-efficient equipment) while some involve interruptions in the natural carbon cycle. Also, some effective techniques (such as the elimination of stubble burning) can negatively impact other environmental concerns (increased herbicide use to control weeds not destroyed by burning). Soils

neg: Carbon capture and storage (timeline) to global climate change. The Regional Sequestration Partnership Program supports region-specific studies to determine the most suitable CCS technologies, regulations, and infrastructure. The seven partnerships consist of Big Sky Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership, Midwest Geological Sequestration Consortium (Illinois Basin), Midwest Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership, Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership, Southwest Regional Partnership for Carbon Sequestration, Plains CO Reduction Partnership, and West Coast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership. Under the "Clean Energy: Facing the Future" Programme, the Tsinghua-BP Clean Energy Research and Education Centre was launched in July 2003. It aims to combine the strengths to create a "world-leading institute for energy

neg: Crop rotation disturbances (e.g. from tillage) are responsible for exponential decline in SOC levels. In Brazil, conversion to no-till methods combined with intensive crop rotations has been shown an SOC sequestration rate of 0.41 tonnes per hectare per year. In addition to enhancing crop productivity, sequestration of atmospheric carbon has great implications in reducing rates of climate change by removing carbon dioxide from the air. Rotating crops adds nutrients to the soil. Legumes, plants of the family Fabaceae, for instance, have nodules on their roots which contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia. During a process called nodulation, the rhizobia bacteria use nutrients and

neg: Ionic liquids in carbon capture Ionic liquids in carbon capture The use of ionic liquids in carbon capture is a potential application of ionic liquids as absorbents for use in carbon capture and sequestration. Ionic liquids, which are salts that exist as liquids near room temperature, are polar, nonvolatile materials that have been considered for many applications. The urgency of climate change has spurred research into their use in energy-related applications such as carbon capture and storage. Amines are the most prevalent absorbent in postcombustion carbon capture technology today. In particular, monoethanolamine (MEA) has been used in industrial scales in postcombustion carbon capture, as well

neg: Carbon sink industrial emissions of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. One study in 2009 found that the fraction of fossil-fuel emissions absorbed by the oceans may have declined by up to 10% since 2000, indicating oceanic sequestration may be sublinear. However, another study by Wolfgang Knorr indicated that the fraction of absorbed by carbon sinks has not changed since 1850. Carbon sink A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration.

neg: Our Choice the idea of "carbon capture and sequestration" (CCS) seems compelling, but the reality is that "decades after CCS was first proposed, no government or company in the world has built a single commercial-scale demonstration project capturing and sequestering large amounts of carbon dioxide from a power plant". Our Choice Our Choice is a 2009 book written by former U.S. Vice President Al Gore. Originally titled "The Path to Survival" it follows "", a companion book to the film "An Inconvenient Truth". All profits of the book (printed on 100% recycled paper) go to the Alliance for Climate Protection, which Gore

neg: The Energy Construct a focus on the development of carbon sequestration technologies. Coal power plants will full carbon sequestration are shown to be competitive with existing natural gas plants due to the currently high natural gas prices. With abundant coal resources in the United States, the author concludes that coal will continue to be an important part of U.S. energy generation for many decades. The Energy Construct The Energy Construct is a 2007 non-fiction book by author Ben Cipiti that examines the challenge of achieving a clean, independent, and economical energy future for the United States. The book examines alternative transportation fuels, renewable

neg: David Keith (scientist) progress has been made in reducing carbon emissions, we must put climate engineering on the table and consider it responsibly. ...This book provides a clear and accessible overview of the costs and risks, and how climate engineering might fit into a larger program for managing climate change." He has also contributed to assessments focused on geoengineering. Keith was a member of the working group for UK Royal Society's 2009 report as well as the Bipartisan Policy Center Report. Keith is the co-director, with Gernot Wagner, of Harvard's Solar Geoengineering Research Program founded in 2017. In 2010, Keith testified before committees

neg: Wood fuel effective method for carbon sequestration as well as an important technique to improve soil conditions for agriculture, particularly in heavily forested regions. It forms the basis of the rich soils known as Terra preta. The environmental impact of burning wood fuel is debatable. Several cities have moved towards setting standards of use and/or bans of wood burning fireplaces. For example, the city of Montréal, Québec passed a resolution to ban wood fireplace installation in new construction. Wood burning advocates claim that properly harvested wood is carbon-neutral, therefore off-setting the negative impact of by-product particles given off during the burning process.

neg: Carbon sequestration sinks. Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide () and may refer specifically to: Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining or from flue gases from power generation. sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks. Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global

neg: Land reclamation in Singapore clear overall decline in live coral cover has been noted, as has a decline in the depths at which corals thrive. Fortunately, though there have been limited extinctions of local species, overall coral reef diversity has not diminished: the main loss has instead been a general, relatively equal decrease in the population abundance of each species. Coral reefs are valued for their work towards carbon sequestration and shore protection (particularly in the dispersal of wave energy), as well as for their contributions to fisheries production, ecotourism, and scientific research. Singapore has also seen the negative effects of industrialization impact several

neg: Gas reinjection natural gas is used to repressure the well. The term 'gas-reinjection' is also sometimes referred to as repressuring--the term being used only to imply that the pressure inside the well is being increased to aid recovery. Injection or reinjection of carbon dioxide also takes place in order to reduce the emission of CO into the atmosphere, a form of carbon sequestration. This has been proposed as a method to combat climate change, allowing mass storage of CO over a geological timescale. Reinjection of carbon dioxide in the Norwegian Sleipner gas field saves the operators 1 million Norwegian Kroners per day

neg: Greenhouse gas removal removed by several natural processes, which can be enhanced. Greenhouse gas removal Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming. These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases, or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly. The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration, and some projects listed may not be considered to be climate engineering by all commentators, instead being described as mitigation. A wide range of techniques for carbon sequestration exist.

neg: Carbon capture and storage pipelines are not feasible. These methods are currently used for transporting for other applications. Various forms have been conceived for permanent storage of . These forms include gaseous storage in various deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), and solid storage by reaction of with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates. Also known as "geo-sequestration", this method involves injecting carbon dioxide, generally in supercritical form, directly into underground geological formations. Oil fields, gas fields, saline formations, unmineable coal seams, and saline-filled basalt formations have been suggested as storage sites. Various physical (e.g., highly impermeable caprock) and geochemical

neg: Carbon sequestration warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes, while some use entirely artificial processes. There are three ways that this sequestration can be carried out; post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-combustion. A wide variety of separation techniques are being pursued, including gas phase separation, absorption into a liquid, and adsorption on a solid, as well as

neg: Carbon-neutral fuel for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration. Direct air capture is less developed than other methods. Proposals for this method involve using a caustic chemical to react with carbon dioxide in the air to produce carbonates. These can then be broken down and hydrated to release pure CO gas and regenerate the caustic chemical. This process requires more energy than other methods because carbon dioxide is at much lower concentrations in the atmosphere than in other sources. Researchers have also suggested using biomass as a carbon source for fuel production. Adding hydrogen to the biomass would reduce its carbon to produce

neg: Hydrothermal carbonization This could lead to a specific reduction in CO release . According to Markus Antonietti, the most important point is "... that one has a simple method of transforming atmospheric CO via the detour of biomass into a stable and safe storage form, a carbon sink." With hydrothermal carbonization, as well as with other methods for the coking of biomass, a large quantity of carbon could be stored decently all over the world. Essentially safer than the currently discussed liquid or gaseous sequestration of carbon dioxide. With sufficient chemical stability of the coal, it could also be used very well

neg: North Sea oil oil-exporting nation in the world, and has led to Britain becoming a net importer of crude for the first time in decades, as recognized by the energy policy of the United Kingdom. The production is expected to fall to one-third of its peak by 2020. Norwegian crude oil production as of 2013 is 1.4 mbpd. This is a more than 50% decline since the peak in 2001 of 3.2 mbpd. In the North Sea, Norway's Equinor natural-gas platform Sleipner strips carbon dioxide out of the natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide by geological sequestration ("Carbon

neg: Carbide-derived carbon WC-CDC). CDCs have been synthesized using several chemical and physical synthesis methods. Most commonly, dry chlorine treatment is used to selectively etch metal or metalloid atoms from the carbide precursor lattice. The term "chlorine treatment" is to be preferred over chlorination as the chlorinated product, metal chloride, is the discarded byproduct and the carbon itself remains largely unreacted. This method is implemented for commercial production of CDC by Skeleton in Estonia and Carbon-Ukraine. Hydrothermal etching has also been used for synthesis of SiC-CDC which yielded a route for porous carbon films and nanodiamond synthesis. The most common method for producing

neg: Marcia McNutt was nominated to stand for election as president of the National Academy of Sciences. She was elected to a six-year term beginning July 1, 2016 and ending June 30, 2022. McNutt chaired the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Geoengineering Climate: Technical Evaluation and Discussion of Impacts, whose sixteen scientists published their findings on climate geoengineering in February 2015. The committee decided to issue two complementary reports, one on mitigating carbon dioxide emissions, and one on albedo modification. They agreed to call the process "intervention", which implies an action intended to improve, rather than "management" or "geoengineering" which imply control

neg: Carbon sequestration hybrid processes, such as adsorption/membrane systems. These above processes basically will capture carbon emitting from power plants, factories, fuel burning industries and so on. Biosequestration or carbon sequestration through biological processes affects the global carbon cycle. Examples include major climatic fluctuations, such as the Azolla event, which created the current Arctic climate. Such processes created fossil fuels, as well as clathrate and limestone. By manipulating such processes, geoengineers seek to enhance sequestration. Peat bogs act as a sink for carbon due to the accumulation of partially decayed biomass that would otherwise continue to decay completely. There is a variance on

neg: Iron fertilization for millions of years. Most of the carbon that sinks beneath plankton blooms is dissolved and remineralized well above the seafloor and eventually (days to centuries) returns to the atmosphere, negating the original benefit . Advocates argue that modern climate scientists and Kyoto Protocol policy makers define sequestration over much shorter time frames. For example, trees and grasslands are viewed as important carbon sinks. Forest biomass sequesters carbon for decades, but carbon that sinks below the marine thermocline (100–200 meters) is removed from the atmosphere for hundreds of years, whether it is remineralized or not. Since deep ocean currents take

neg: Blue carbon shrinking beaches, and disappearing salt marshes. In addition, it’s possible that we might ruin the ability of coastal margins to bury blue carbon. Without sequestration of carbon in coastal marine sediments, we will likely see accelerated global climate change. The density of vegetation in mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, and tidal marshes is an important factor in carbon burial rates.The density of the vegetation must be sufficient to change water flows enough to reduce erosion and increase sediment deposition. Increases in carbon capture and sequestration have been observed in both mangrove and seagrass ecosystems which have been subjected to high nutrient

neg: Ionic liquids in carbon capture solubility of CO can be modeled accurately by the regular solubility theory (RST), which reduces operational costs in developing more sophisticated model to monitor the capture process. Ionic liquids in carbon capture The use of ionic liquids in carbon capture is a potential application of ionic liquids as absorbents for use in carbon capture and sequestration. Ionic liquids, which are salts that exist as liquids near room temperature, are polar, nonvolatile materials that have been considered for many applications. The urgency of climate change has spurred research into their use in energy-related applications such as carbon capture and storage. Amines

neg: Robert O. Mendelsohn and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world. He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources, forest management, and specifically carbon sequestration in forests. Professor Mendelsohn's area of interest is resource economics, with special emphasis on valuing the environment. Over the last decade, he has been involved in measuring the impacts from climate change. Together with William Nordhaus and Daigee Shaw, they have invented the Ricardian technique, a cross-sectional analysis that reveals the climate sensitivity of agriculture. This method has been applied to the United States, Africa, Latin America, and other countries around the world.

neg: MPMC MPMC Massively Parallel Monte Carlo (MPMC) is an Monte Carlo method package primarily designed to simulate liquids, molecular interfaces, and functionalized nanoscale materials. It was developed originally by Jon Belof and is now maintained by a group of researchers in the Department of Chemistry and SMMARTT Materials Research Center at the University of South Florida. MPMC has been applied to the scientific research challenges of nanomaterials for clean energy, carbon sequestration, and molecular detection. Developed to run efficiently on the most powerful supercomputing platforms, MPMC can scale to extremely large numbers of CPUs or GPUs (with support provided for NVidia's

neg: Wood lagging such as sand or gravel. Wood lagging is light, flexible, and easy to install at construction sites. As a method for protecting pipelines, wood lagging offers high-impact resistance at a considerably reduced cost compared to other types of pipeline protection, such as concrete coating. Materials for wood lagging can often be sourced regionally near pipeline construction sites, reducing transportation time and costs. Wood used in wood lagging is a renewable resource that creates a carbon sequestration effect after pipeline burial, providing minimal environmental impact compared to other types of pipeline protection. The longevity of wood lagging that has been installed

neg: Carbon dioxide removal negative emissions, offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems, airplanes and vehicle exhausts. It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering, while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation. Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of "climate engineering" or "geoengineering" usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken. The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues, including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri, the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres,

neg: Atmospheric escape through the oceans. The dry ice caps on Mars are also an example of sequestration. One mechanism for sequestration is chemical; for example, most of the carbon dioxide of the Earth's original atmosphere has been chemically sequestered into carbonate rock. Very likely a similar process has occurred on Mars. Oxygen can be sequestered by oxidation of rocks; for example, by increasing the oxidation states of ferric rocks from Fe to Fe. Gases can also be sequestered by adsorption, where fine particles in the regolith capture gas which adheres to the surface particles. Earth is too large to lose a significant

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle reefs. Most surface water will remain supersaturated with respect to CaCO (both calcite and aragonite) for some time on current emissions trajectories, but the organisms that require carbonate will likely be replaced in many areas. Coral reefs are under pressure from overfishing, nitrate pollution, and warming waters; ocean acidification will add additional stress on these important structures. "Full article: Iron Fertilization" Iron fertilization is a facet of geoengineering, which purposefully manipulates the Earth’s climate system, typically in aspects of the carbon cycle or radiative forcing. Of current geoengineering interest is the possibility of accelerating the biological pump to increase export

neg: Fluidization looping combustion, which has not yet been commercialized. One solution to reducing the potential effect of carbon dioxide generated by fuel combustion (e.g. in power stations) on global warming is carbon dioxide sequestration. Regular combustion with air produces a gas that is mostly nitrogen (as it is air's main component at about 80% by volume), which prevents economical sequestration. Chemical looping uses a metal oxide as a solid oxygen carrier. These metal oxide particles replace air (specifically oxygen in the air) in a combustion reaction with a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel in a fluidized bed, producing solid metal particles

neg: Siliceous ooze (i.e. carbon) from the surface ocean to the seafloor. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have been increasing exponentially since the Industrial Revolution and researchers are exploring ways to mitigate atmospheric carbon dioxide levels by increasing the uptake of carbon dioxide in the surface ocean via photosynthesis. An increase in the uptake of carbon dioxide in the surface waters may lead to more carbon sequestration in the deep sea through the biological pump. The bloom dynamics of diatoms, their ballasting by opal silica, and various nutrient requirements have made diatoms a focus for carbon sequestration experiments. Iron fertilization projects like the SERIES

neg: Lynn Good 2018. Among the topics were carbon capture and sequestration. Carbon capture and storage technology can capture up top 90 percent of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions made from a fossil fuels electricity generation plant, thus releasing much less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Good told CSIS that the carbon capture and sequestration process was not quite ready for prime time deployment even though it has potential for keeping fossil fuels in the power-generation mix. According to "Daily Energy Insider", "On paper, a gas or coal plant that does not release carbon dioxide into the air would be a logical asset to

neg: Carbon sequestration crop yield by 20 to 40 kilograms per hectare of wheat, 10 to 20 kg/ ha for maize, and 0.5 to 1 kg/ha for cowpeas. The effects of soil sequestration can be reversed. If the soil is disrupted or tillage practices are abandoned, the soil becomes a net source of greenhouse gases. Typically after 15 to 30 years of sequestration, soil becomes saturated and ceases to absorb carbon. This implies that there is a global limit to the amount of carbon that soil can hold. Many factors affect the costs of carbon sequestration including soil quality, transaction costs and various

neg: Alternative fuel dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $50 per ton. Carbon capture from ambient air is more costly, at between $600 and $1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration. Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day. Therefore, the price of nighttime wind power

neg: Synthetic fuels in the United States Fuels project, is developing a per day biomass and coal to liquids + carbon capture and sequestration project in Oakland Illinois. The project is expected to come online in 2013. Baard Energy, in their Ohio River Clean Fuels project, are developing a Coal and Biomass to Liquids project + Carbon Capture and Sequestration. DKRW is planning a 15,000- Per Day coal to liquids + Carbon Capture and Sequestration plant in Medicine Bow Wyoming. As of March 2013, the project has still not completed financing for its proposed $2 billion plant. Rentech was developing a per day coal and biomass to

neg: Jelly-falls Jelly-falls Jelly-falls are marine carbon cycling events whereby gelatinous zooplankton sink to the seafloor and enhance carbon and nitrogen fluxes via rapidly sinking particulate organic matter. These events provide nutrition to benthic megafauna and bacteria. Jelly-falls have been implicated as a major “gelatinous pathway” for the sequestration of labile biogenic carbon through the biological pump. Jelly-falls are primarily made up of the decaying corpses of Cnidaria and Thaliacea (Pyrosomida, Doliolida, and Salpida). Several circumstances can trigger the death of gelatinous organisms which would cause them to sink. These include high levels of primary production that can clog the feeding apparatuses

neg: Carbon sink creation of artificial sinks has been discussed, no major artificial systems remove carbon from the atmosphere on a material scale. Carbon sources include: Because growing vegetation takes in carbon dioxide, the Kyoto Protocol allows Annex I countries with large areas of growing forests to issue Removal Units to recognize the sequestration of carbon. The additional units make it easier for them to achieve their target emission levels. It is estimated that forests absorb between 10 and 20 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare each year, through photosynthetic conversion into starch, cellulose, lignin, and wooden biomass. While this has been well

neg: Blue carbon underground and below-ground biomass, and in dead biomass. In plant biomass such as leaves, stems, branches or roots, blue carbon can be sequestered for years to decades, and for thousands to millions of years in underlying plant sediments. Current estimates of long-term blue carbon C burial capacity are variable, and research is ongoing. Although vegetated coastal ecosystems cover less area and have less aboveground biomass than terrestrial plants they have the potential to impact longterm C sequestration, particularly in sediment sinks. One of the main concerns with Blue Carbon is the rate of loss of these important marine ecosystems is

neg: National Energy Technology Laboratory laboratories, non-government organizations, foreign government agencies, engineering and research firms, electric utilities, oil and gas companies, and other industrial partners. The following are the seven RCSPs. • Big Sky Carbon Sequestration Partnership • Midwest Geological Sequestration Consortium • Midwest Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership • Plains CO2 Reduction Partnership • Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership • Southwest Regional Partnership on Carbon Sequestration • West Coast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership Through NETL’s basic and applied research and collaboration with industry, academia, non-government organizations, and others, the resulting technologies create commercially viable solutions to national energy and environmental problems. NETL’s fossil fuel research,

neg: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum countries in dealing with greenhouse gases. Similar designations were also made in bilateral activities that include: In 2006 and 2007, the International Energy Agency and the CSLF held a series of three workshops for invited experts from around the world on the topic of near-term opportunities for carbon capture and storage. Resulting recommendations from these workshops were formally adopted by the CSLF and were sent forward to G8 leaders. The CSLF has recognized 30 carbon capture and storage projects worldwide that demonstrate a wide range of CO capture, transport and storage research and activities. Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum The Carbon

neg: Allan Yeomans on Sustainable Agriculture. At this conference he presented a paper “An Agricultural Solution to the Greenhouse Effect” in which he proposed the then novel concept of absorbing atmospheric carbon into soil by the systematic enhancement of soil fertility levels. The concept is becoming internationally accepted and has become the basic tenets of the organization, Carbon Farmers of America. His concept of the sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the enhancement of soil fertility has now, in 2010, been adopted as policy by the Australian Federal Opposition parties. Allan Yeomans also strongly supports the overall adoption of nuclear energy for industrial

neg: Ocean storage of carbon dioxide by the oceans. With increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations released due to human activities as compared to levels before the Industrialization, oceans are currently absorbing 7 Gt carbon dioxide per annum. To enhance the natural mechanism of CO2 dissolving in water, several methods have been proposed by the scientific community. These include the use of iron fertilization, urea fertilization, mixing layers, seaweed, as well as direct carbon injection into the sea floor. Ocean iron fertilization is an example of a geoengineering technique that involves intentional introduction of iron-rich deposits into oceans and is aimed to enhance biological productivity of organisms in

neg: Planetary engineering might be possible to incrementally seed with the species in their trophic (see foodchain) context and to build up an aquatic ecosystem. Geoengineering is the application of planetary engineering techniques to Earth. Recent geoengineering proposals have principally been methods to tackle human-induced climate change by either removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (e.g. using ocean iron fertilization) or by managing solar radiation (e.g. by using mirrors in space) in order to negate the net warming effect of climate change. Future geoengineering projects may preserve the habitability of Earth through the sun's life cycle by moving the Earth to keep it

neg: Carbon sequestration capture technologies being used and with the different sites that it is implemented in, but the costs tend to increase with CCS capture implementation. One study conducted predicted that with new technologies these costs could be lowered but would remain slightly higher than prices without CCS technologies. The energy requirements of sequestration processes may be significant. In one paper, sequestration consumed 25 percent of the plant's rated 600 megawatt output capacity. Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global

neg: Holistic management (agriculture) Ohio State University. Teague has also done specific research in Canada and Texas comparing the increased carbon sequestration on land where people are practicing Holistic Planned Grazing in comparison to their neighbors that are not. On average in the Texas study the holistically grazed land added 3 tons Carbon/ha/yr more than the heavy continuously grazed neighboring land. Keith Weber from Idaho State University has worked on how holistic planned grazing improves soil moisture retention on semi-arid rangelands. This water retention leads to more plant growth which increases soil carbon and thus carbon sequestration. Some qualitative studies show the improved profitability

neg: Coal in Australia tailings and chitter). The Federal Government has, as part of its pledge to mitigate global warming, committed A$100 million to commission a climate change-fighting "clean coal" and carbon sequestration research institute to make Australia a leader in this emerging technology. Carbon sequestration technology is not expected to be commercially viable for at least 5 to 10 years, but the Federal Labor government argues that it is a vital technology given Australia's reliance on coal-fired electricity. The merits of "clean coal" have been highly disputed by some technical experts and environment awareness groups. Coal in Australia Coal is mined in every

neg: Carbon sequestration of agricultural carbon removal is to use the crop and its relation to the carbon cycle to permanently sequester carbon within the soil. This is done by selecting farming methods that return biomass to the soil and enhance the conditions in which the carbon within the plants will be reduced to its elemental nature and stored in a stable state. Methods for accomplishing this include: Agricultural sequestration practices may have positive effects on soil, air, and water quality, be beneficial to wildlife, and expand food production. On degraded croplands, an increase of 1 ton of soil carbon pool may increase

neg: Biomass heating system use of fossil fuels in significant quantities, biomass in the form of wood fuel provided most of humanity's heating. On a large scale, the use of biomass removes agricultural land from food production, reduces the carbon sequestration capacity of forests, and extracts nutrients from the soil. Combustion of biomass creates air pollutants and adds significant quantities of carbon to the atmosphere that may not be returned to the soil for many decades. Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants, in some cases

neg: Muon tomography transmission radiography and muon scattering tomography. Muon tomography imagers are under development for the purposes of detecting nuclear material in road transport vehicles and cargo containers for the purposes of non-proliferation. Another application is the usage of muon tomography to monitor potential underground sites used for carbon sequestration. Cosmic ray muons have been used for decades to radiograph objects such as pyramids and geological structures. The technique of muon transmission imaging was first used in the 1950s by Eric George to measure the depth of the overburden of a tunnel in Australia. In a famous experiment in the 1960s, Luis

neg: Carbon capture and storage transported to Fort Saskatchewan where it is injected into a porous rock formation called the Basal Cambrian Sands for permanent sequestration. Since beginning operation in 2015, the Quest Project has stored 3 Mt CO and will continue to store 1 Mtpa for as long as it is operational. British Columbia has been making strides with regards to reducing their carbon emissions. The province implemented North America's first large-scale carbon tax in 2008. An updated carbon tax in 2018 set the price at 35$ per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions. This tax will increase by 5$ every year until it

neg: Climate change mitigation in power plants to turn carbon dioxide into stone in a relatively short period of two years, addressing the common concern of leakage in CCS projects. While this project used basalt rocks, olivine has also shown promise. Geoengineering is seen by Olivier Sterck as an alternative to mitigation and adaptation, but by Gernot Wagner as an entirely separate response to climate change. In a literature assessment, Barker "et al." (2007) described geoengineering as a type of mitigation policy. IPCC (2007) concluded that geoengineering options, such as ocean fertilization to remove CO from the atmosphere, remained largely unproven. It was judged

neg: Canadian health claims for food of heart disease" is commonly accepted and correlated. Saturated fatty acids do not contain any carbon-to-carbon double bonds in the fatty acid chain. Trans fatty acids contain carbon-to-carbon double bonds in the trans confirmation. During the past several decades, reduction of fat intake has been one of the main focuses from a dietary perspective. During these decades, fats have been progressively gaining a greater correlation with health complications especially heart disease. Subsequently, the food industry had been taking notice of this, more labels like "fat-free" or "low-fat" appeared on food packaging. 80,082 women who were between 34 and 59 years

neg: Carbon sink side product will offset the storage cost. Leakage of CO back into the atmosphere may be a problem in saline-aquifer storage. However, current research shows that several "trapping mechanisms" immobilize the CO underground, reducing the risk of leakage. A major research project examining the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide is currently being performed at an oil field at Weyburn in south-eastern Saskatchewan. In the North Sea, Norway's Equinor natural-gas platform Sleipner strips carbon dioxide out of the natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide by geological sequestration. Sleipner reduces emissions of carbon dioxide by approximately one

neg: Radiometric dating material. The procedures used to isolate and analyze the parent and daughter nuclides must be precise and accurate. This normally involves isotope-ratio mass spectrometry. The precision of a dating method depends in part on the half-life of the radioactive isotope involved. For instance, carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years. After an organism has been dead for 60,000 years, so little carbon-14 is left that accurate dating cannot be established. On the other hand, the concentration of carbon-14 falls off so steeply that the age of relatively young remains can be determined precisely to within a few decades. If a

neg: Carbon capture and storage to support permanent sequestration of the captured at the plant. In addition to individual carbon capture and sequestration projects, there are a number of U.S. programs designed to research, develop, and deploy CCS technologies on a broad scale. These include the National Energy Technology Laboratory's (NETL) Carbon Sequestration Program, regional carbon sequestration partnerships and the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF). In October 2007, the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin received a 10-year, $38 million subcontract to conduct the first intensively monitored long-term project in the United States studying the feasibility of injecting a large

neg: Kedzierzyn Zero-Emission Plant and thus permanently captured in chemical products such as methanol, fertilizers or polycarbonates. The chemical sequestration of CO takes place as part of the carbon-dioxide, which would normally have been emitted, is used for the chemical industry. Taking into account both the pre-combustion carbon capture as well as the chemical sequestration, a total reduction of 92% of potential CO emissions can be achieved. Units and abbreviations used are: The project is developed the cooperation of chemicals producer Zakłady Azotowe Kędzierzyn and electricity company Południowy Koncern Energetyczny. The technically innovative concept of the Kędzierzyn Zero-Emission Plant was received with great interest

neg: Carbon sink Carbon sink A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. Public awareness of the significance of CO sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset. There are also different strategies used to enhance this process. Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide means increase in global temperature. The amount of carbon dioxide varies naturally. The natural sinks are: Whilst the

neg: Life-cycle assessment are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is typically used. An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products found a lack of consistency in the methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the product lifecycle. A wide variety of methods and assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions – particularly with regard to carbon sequestration and methane generation in landfills and with carbon accounting

neg: CCS and climate change mitigation consideration. Feasibility includes concerns in various fields, such as geophysics, technology, economics, social acceptance, and politics, all of which can serve to facilitate or obstruct the carbon capture and sequestration of emissions needed in order to achieve the global temperature targets.Uncertainty in feasibility is especially a problem with more strict temperatures limits such as 1.5°C. Real world feasibility of SSPs models, or any other models, in general are coarse approximations of reality. CCS and climate change mitigation Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a method used to reduce the amount of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO) in the atmosphere

neg: Ocean storage of carbon dioxide carbon sequestration. In fact, fertilization is an important process that occurs naturally in the ocean waters. For instance, upwellings of ocean currents can bring nutrient-rich sediments to the surface. Another example is through transfer of iron-rich minerals, dust, and volcanic ash over long distances by rivers, glaciers, or wind. Moreover, it has been suggested that whales can transfer iron-rich ocean dust to the surface, where planktons can take it up to grow. It has been shown that reduction in the number of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean has resulted in a 200,000 tonnes/yr decrease in the atmospheric carbon uptake,

neg: Biochar of researchers involved in biochar research (iBRN, Israel Biochar Researchers Network) was established as early as 2009, and the University of Delaware. Long-term effect of biochar on soil C sequestration of recent carbon inputs has been examined using soil from arable fields in Belgium with charcoal-enriched black spots dating >150 years ago from historical charcoal production mound kilns. Topsoils from these ‘black spots’ had a higher organic C concentration [3.6 ± 0.9% organic carbon (OC)] than adjacent soils outside these black spots (2.1 ± 0.2% OC). The soils had been cropped with maize for at least 12 years which provided

neg: David Keith (scientist) David Keith (scientist) "For other people named David Keith see David Keith (disambiguation)." David W. Keith is Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics for the Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) and Professor of Public Policy for the Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University. He is also executive chairman of Carbon Engineering. Keith’s research has spanned several domains, including climate-related technology assessment and policy analysis, technology development, atmospheric sciences, and physics. Keith has worked on solar geoengineering since 1992, when he wrote one of the first assessments of the technology and its policy implications. Since Keith’s 1992 paper,

neg: Integrated gasification combined cycle than expected. Recent testimony in regulatory proceedings show the cost of IGCC to be twice that predicted by Goddell, from $96 to 104/MWhr. That's before addition of carbon capture and sequestration (sequestration has been a mature technology at both Weyburn in Canada (for enhanced oil recovery) and Sleipner in the North Sea at a commercial scale for the past ten years)—capture at a 90% rate is expected to have a $30/MWh additional cost. Wabash River was down repeatedly for long stretches due to gasifier problems. The gasifier problems have not been remedied—subsequent projects, such as Excelsior's Mesaba Project, have a

neg: Carbon sequestration over the lifetime of the tree. It is generally practiced and maintained on smaller scales, like in cities. The results of urban forestry can have different results depending on the type of vegetation that is being used, so it can function as a sink but can also function as a source of emissions. Along with sequestration by the plants which is difficult to measure but seems to have little effect on the overall amount of carbon dioxide that is uptaken, the vegetation can have indirect effects on carbon by reducing need for energy consumption. Wetland soil is an important carbon

neg: Operation Wallacea have taken on an even more important role. The purpose of the REDD+ funding is to provide a marginal cost advantage for governments and communities to protect their forests rather than allow deforestation, thereby protecting their carbon sequestration value. The REDD+ funding is intended not just to protect the carbon value of the forests but also to protect its biodiversity and provide funds for poverty alleviation for communities surrounding or within the funded forest areas. In recent years, general surveys and student projects have been divided across several teams, namely for plants by 'Botany', and animal teams divided into 'Birds',

neg: Carbon project a DOE has produced a verification report which has been submitted to the CDM Executive Board (EB). There may be new project methodology validated by the CDM EB for post phase II Kyoto trading. In the United States standards similar to those of the Kyoto Protocol schemes are developing around California's AB-32 and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI). Offset projects can be of many types, but only those that have proven additionality are likely to become monetized under a future U.S. Cap & Trade program. One example of such a project, the Valley Wood Carbon Sequestration Project, receives funding

neg: Carbon capture and storage are now being tested in a world-first pilot plant project based in Newcastle, Australia. New techniques for mineral activation and reaction have been developed the GreenMag Group and the University of Newcastle and funded by the New South Wales and Australian Governments to be operational by 2013. In 2009 it was reported that scientists had mapped of rock formations in the U.S. that could be used to store 500 years' worth of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions. A study on mineral sequestration in the US states: Carbon sequestration by reacting naturally occurring Mg and Ca containing minerals with to form carbonates

neg: Green roof 168 g C m and 107 g C m . Variations occurred among the different species of plant used. Substrate carbon content averaged 913 g C m and after the subtraction of the original carbon content the total sequestration was 378 g C m. The sequestration can be improved by changing plant species, increasing substrate depth, substrate composition, and management practices. In a study done in Michigan above ground sequestration ranged from 64 g C m to 239 g C m for S. acre and S album. Also, by increasing the substrate depth would allow for more area of carbon