query: what type of stone did the romans use

pos: Ancient Roman architecture The Temple of Hercules Victor of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving exception in Rome. From Augustus' reign the quarries at Carrara were extensively developed for the capital, and other sources around the empire exploited, especially the prestigious Greek marbles like Parian. Travertine limestone was found much closer, around Tivoli, and was used from the end of the Republic; the Colosseum is mainly built of this stone, which has good load-bearing capacity, with a brick core. Other more or less local stones were used around the empire. The Romans were extremely fond of luxury imported coloured marbles

pos: Furniture blurred. The Romans did have some limited innovation outside of Greek influence, and styles distinctly their own. Roman furniture was constructed principally using wood, metal and stone, with marble and limestone used for outside furniture. Very little wooden furniture survives intact, but there is evidence that a variety of woods were used, including maple, citron, beech, oak, and holly. Some imported wood such as satinwood was used for decoration. The most commonly used metal was bronze, of which numerous examples have survived, for example, headrests for couches and metal stools. Similar to the Greeks, Romans used tenons, dowels, nails, and

neg: Pillow ancient Egyptians used these wooden or stone pillows in order to provide support to a corpse’s head, uphold body vigor, keep blood circulating, and keep demons away. The Romans and Greeks of ancient Europe mastered the creation of the softer type pillow. These pillows were stuffed with reeds, feathers, and straw in order to make them softer and more comfortable. Only upper-class people typically owned these softer pillows; however, all classes of people were allowed to use some type of pillow while sleeping, lying down or sitting in order to give them support. People in ancient Europe started to use

neg: Torsion siege engine usage during the First Punic War and was so common by the Second Punic War that Plautus remarked in the "Captivi" that “Meus est ballista pugnus, cubitus catapulta est mihi” (“The ballista is my fist, the catapult is my elbow"). By 100 AD, the Romans had begun to permanently mount artillery, whereas previously machines had traveled largely disassembled in carts. Romans made the Greek ballista more portable, calling the hand-held version manuballista and the cart-mounted type carroballista. They also made use of a one armed torsion stone-projector named the onager. The earliest extant evidence of the carroballista is on Trajan's

neg: Stone sealer by sealing its surface effectively, so as to exclude harmful liquids and gases. The ancient Romans often used olive oil to seal their stone. Such treatment provides some protection by excluding water and other weathering agents, but it stains the stone permanently. During the renaissance Europeans experimented with the use of topical varnishes and sealants made from ingredients such as egg white, natural resins and silica, which were clear, could be applied wet and harden to form a protective skin. Most such measures did not last long, and some proved harmful in the long run. Modern stone sealers are divided

neg: Opus quadratum Opus quadratum Opus quadratum is an ancient Roman construction technique, in which squared blocks of stone of the same height were set in parallel courses, most often without the use of mortar. The Latin author Vitruvius describes the technique. This technique was used by the Romans from about the 6th century BC, and over time the precision and accuracy of the block cutting improved. The technique continued to be used throughout the age of the Roman Empire, even after the introduction of mortar, and was often used in addition to other techniques. The type of stone, the size of the

neg: The Settlers IV geographical region). In the original game, the player controlled three races; Romans, Vikings and Mayans. "The Trojans and the Elixir of Power" added the Trojans as a fourth race. As in "Settlers III", each race has a slightly different economic model. For example, the Romans' and Trojans' construction industries require roughly equal amounts of wood and stone, the Vikings' more wood than stone, and the Mayans' more stone than wood. Each race also has specific skills; for example, only the Romans can produce manna using only two buildings; only the Vikings can build war machines and warships which use manna

neg: Ground stone ground stone tools appear during the Japanese Paleolithic, possibly predating adoption elsewhere in the Neolithic by 25,000 years. Ground stones were created and used for a wide variety of reasons. Each use resulted in a different development and process by which a person created their ground stone. For example, the process for creating the head of a hammer is different from the process used to create a detailed decoration piece for one’s home. That being said, there are some processes that are basic to most ground stone making. When choosing what type of stone to use for a ground stone

neg: Roman bridge into the 19th century. Roman bridge Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built. Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure (see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. As with the vault and the dome the Romans were the first to fully realize the potential of arches for bridge construction. A list of Roman bridges compiled by the engineer Colin O'Connor features 330 Roman stone bridges for traffic, 34 Roman timber bridges and 54 Roman aqueduct

neg: Roman bridge Roman bridge Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built. Roman bridges were built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure (see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. As with the vault and the dome the Romans were the first to fully realize the potential of arches for bridge construction. A list of Roman bridges compiled by the engineer Colin O'Connor features 330 Roman stone bridges for traffic, 34 Roman timber bridges and 54 Roman aqueduct bridges, a substantial part

neg: Illyrian warfare authors, the name was associated with a class rather than a specific type of vessels, as considerable variation is evident in the sources: the number of oars ranged from 16 to 50, they could be one- or double-banked, and some types did not have a ram, presumably being used as couriers and fast cargo vessels. The most known Liburnian ship was their warship, known as a "libyrnis" to the Greeks and a "liburna" to the Romans, propelled by oars. According to some thoughts, liburna was shown in the scene of naval battle, curved on a stone tablet (Stele di Novilara)

neg: Bridge Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock. Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost (then later rediscovered). In India, the "Arthashastra" treatise by Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. A Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief architect of emperor Chandragupta I. The use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo

neg: Roman temple old. The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style, usually with little use of stone, for small temples found in the Western Empire, and by far the most common type in Roman Britain, where they were usually square, with an ambulatory. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the Celtic religion. Romano-Celtic temples were often circular, and circular temples of various kinds were built by the Romans. Greek models were available in "tholos" shrines and some other buildings, as assembly halls and various other functions. Temples of the goddess

neg: Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone with prehistoric North America. There's a certain amount of unevenness ... and this hole was extremely regular throughout. What we did not see was variations that would be consistent with something that was several hundred years old." Scratches in the lower bore suggest it was placed on a metal shaft and removed several times. Analysis has concluded the stone is a type of quartzite. Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone The mystery stone from Lake Winnipesaukee in New Hampshire is an alleged out-of-place artifact (OOPArt). The stone's age, purpose, and origin are unknown. The stone is about long and thick, dark and

neg: Roman roads be of wood, stone, or both. Wooden bridges were constructed on pilings sunk into the river, or on stone piers. Larger or more permanent bridges required arches. These larger bridges were built with stone and had the arch as its basic structure (see arch bridge). Most also used concrete, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. Roman bridges were so well constructed that a number remain in use today. Causeways were built over marshy ground. The road was first marked out with pilings. Between them were sunk large quantities of stone so as to raise the causeway

neg: Durocornovium follow the general course of those built by the Romans. This was a town on a major communication link and for that reason a busy commercial element is probable. At Roman agricultural sites in the area, particularly to the south, the existence of ovens for drying corn indicates a trade in grain. The Romans also quarried stone from the hill to the west. Located in what is now West Swindon the Romans maintained a considerable pottery industry. The town has shown evidence of pottery remains from all over southern Britain, and some from Gaul and Africa, yet the potters of

neg: Antonine Wall top of the turf. The barrier was the second of two "great walls" created by the Romans in what the English once called Northern Britain. Its ruins are less evident than the better-known Hadrian's Wall to the south, primarily because the turf and wood wall has largely weathered away, unlike its stone-built southern predecessor. Construction began in AD 142 at the order of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, and took about 12 years to complete. Antoninus Pius never visited Britain, whereas his predecessor Hadrian did. Pressure from the Caledonians may have led Antoninus to send the empire's troops further north. The

neg: Architecture of Scotland in the Roman era period. There is also evidence of distinctive stone wheelhouses and small underground souterrains. From about 71 CE the Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland, building forts, like that at Trimontium, and probably pushing north as far as the River Tay where they created more fortifications, like those at Inchtuthil. These were soon abandoned, and the Romans settled for the occupation of the Southern Uplands by the end of the first century, below a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth. This resulted in more fortifications and the building of Hadrian's Wall across what is now northern

neg: Bernard Romans Troubles in the Netherlands", and the first volume was in the bookstores in January 1779. The second volume did not appear until 1782. On January 28, 1779, Romans married Elizabeth Whiting of Wethersfield, Connecticut, who was just 19 years old. A son, Hubertus Romans, was born on October 23, 1779. Romans joined the Southern Campaign in 1780. It is not clear what Romans's assignment was to be, but an application for a pension filed by Elizabeth Romans in 1848 states that Romans "was ordered to go to the State of South Carolina, there to join the Southern Army". The ship

neg: Armenian architecture hardly any early examples survive, as at the abandoned medieval capital of Ani. The stone used in buildings is typically quarried all at the same location, in order to give the structure a uniform color. In cases where different color stone are used, they are often intentionally contrasted in a striped or checkerboard pattern. Powder made out of ground stone of the same type was often applied along the joints of the tuff slabs to give buildings a seamless look. Unlike the Romans or Syrians who were building at the same time, Armenians never used wood or brick when building

neg: Sanisera pavement) were of the cista type (rectangular pits lined by stone slabs). Also, 21 cist tombs were excavated in its surroundings, all of them containing single burials (except one tombs that presented a multiple inhumation). All the tombs shared the same characteristics: they did not present any type of grave goods and the individuals were lying in supine position. However, the building remained partially excavated and, for this reason, they could not ascertain what type of structure was. Years later, due to natural weathering in the area, a semicircular apse has been revealed. For this reason it can be stated

neg: Barnack Hills & Holes National Nature Reserve the grassy slopes are home to a profusion of wild flowers. This type of meadowland is now all too rare; half of the surviving limestone grassland in Cambridgeshire is found here. In 2002 it was designated as a Special Area of Conservation, to protect the orchid rich grassland as part of the Natura 2000 network of sites throughout the European Union. The unique hummocky landscape was created by quarrying for limestone. The stone, sometimes known as Barnack Rag, was a valuable building stone first exploited by the Romans over 1,500 years ago. Most famously, stone from Barnack was used to

neg: Pleuratus III as Paeonia which the Dardanians had long longed for. By 189 BC he was regarded as one of the most ideal client kings of the Romans. in the same year the king of Pergamum and a long-standing ally of the Romans, Eumenes, complained in the Senate that Pleuratus had not deserved so much increase of his power in Illyria. Euemenes insisted that Pleuratus did not actually do anything for the Romans, his only merit lay in the fact that he did not cause them any damage. Be this as it may, Pleuratus became famous for what he had gained from

neg: History of Roman and Byzantine domes The dry concrete mixtures used by the Romans were compacted with rams to eliminate voids, and added animal blood acted as a water reducer. Because Roman concrete was weak in tension, it did not provide any structural advantage over the use of brick or stone. But, because it could be constructed with unskilled slave labor, it provided a constructional advantage and facilitated the building of large-scale domes. Domes reached monumental size in the Roman Imperial period. Although imprints of the formwork itself have not survived, deformations from the ideal of up to at the so-called "Temple of Mercury" in Baiae

neg: Roman war elephants may have confused this incident with the use of a similar war elephant in Claudius' final conquest of Britain. At least one elephantine skeleton with flint weapons that has been found in England was initially misidentified as these elephants, but later dating proved it to be a mammoth skeleton from the stone age. By the time of Claudius however, such animals were being used by the Romans in single numbers only—the last significant use of war elephants in the Mediterranean was against the Romans at the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, in which 60 of them were used, where

neg: Horsham Stone buried under hundreds of metres of further sediment over the next 100 million years and were then uplifted gradually by platetonic movement and then eroded to expose Wealden rocks. Horsham Stone would have been visible to early settlers after the Ice Age around 12,000 years ago. When quarried, Horsham Stone could be extracted in "flat grey slabs of varying thickness". Horsham Stone has a long history of use. The earliest record is from the Bronze Age. Archeologists at Amberley found quern fragments made of Horsham Stone at Amberley Mount. It was used extensively by the Romans including in the construction

neg: Durocornovium towns in the later empire built stone defences (such as walls and a gatehouse identified at Cunetio, near Marlborough ten miles to the south) this defensive work did not occur at Durocornovium. It may be this was impossible on the marshy ground existing at the time, or simply that it was economically not viable, and it is notable that the hill fort at Liddington immediately to the south was re-occupied in the 3rd century. It was not for shortage of stone: the Romans quarried stone on Swindon hill and although there is no evidence that stone was used at Durocornovium,

neg: Romans 13 the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 which precipitated debate as to whether the law should be obeyed or resisted. It was also used by the Dutch Reformed Church to justify apartheid rule in South Africa. In June 2018, Romans 13 was used by Jeff Sessions to justify the Trump administration family separation policy, saying: Sarah Huckabee Sanders, the White House press secretary, echoed Sessions' use of Romans 13, stating: Commenting on the fight to define Romans 13, Lincoln Mullen argues that "what the attorney general actually has on his side is the thread of American history that justifies oppression and

neg: Meisburg when the village of Meisburg might have arisen. Finds from the New Stone Age from about 4500 to 1800 BC and clues to Roman settlement about AD 300 in what is now Meisburg’s municipal area bear witness to human habitation here quite early on. The municipality owns a collection of Stone-Age stone hatchets, blades, scraping tools and arrowheads. Following the Celts were the Romans. The Roman road known as the "Weinstraße" (“Wine Road”) also came through the Meisburg area, running from Kirn in the Hunsrück by way of Wittlich, and then on the "Rackenbacher Wies’chen" (a “little meadow”) past nearby

neg: Ramond–Ramond field theory, called massive or Romans IIA supergravity, includes a field strength "G", called the Romans mass. Being a zero-form, it has no corresponding connection. Furthermore, the equations of motion impose that the Romans mass is constant. In the quantum theory Joseph Polchinski has shown that "G" is an integer, which jumps by one as one crosses a D8-brane. It is often convenient to use the democratic formulation of type II string theories, which was introduced by Paul Townsend in "p"-Brane Democracy. In D-brane Wess-Zumino Actions, T-duality and the Cosmological Constant Michael Green, Chris Hull and Paul Townsend constructed the field

neg: Antonine Wall Antonine Wall The Antonine Wall, known to the Romans as "Vallum Antonini", was a turf fortification on stone foundations, built by the Romans across what is now the Central Belt of Scotland, between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. Representing the northernmost frontier barrier of the Roman Empire, it spanned approximately and was about high and wide. Lidar scans have been carried out to establish the length of the wall and the Roman distance units used. Security was bolstered by a deep ditch on the northern side. It is thought that there was a wooden palisade on

neg: Balbo Monument baths, temples, shrines and sculptures. The Romans built the structure and column from breccia which is a type of stone created from the combination of angular gravel and the fragments of boulders. The pillar is a greenish color, thirteen feet tall and three feet in diameter. Two Italian architects named Capraro and Komar created the base of the monument out of travertine, which is a type of lightly colored limestone that is formed when river and spring waters evaporate. They inscribed a message in Italian from the Italian people of Fascist Italy. In English the message reads: <poem></poem> This object's

neg: Gallina and stone pipes. Artifacts from the Gallina time period are often hard to classify. For example, what archeologists originally classified as scrapers later proved to be knives. Frequently, assessing an object itself is not enough; it becomes necessary to analyze type as well as evidence of use and wear. Commonly found artifacts include vessels and jars. There are indications that the Gallina were advanced at basket weaving. They also may have traded local stone such as Jemez Mountain Obsidian and Pedernal Chert. Some pottery and reusable vessels imitate the Rosa style but still have distinctly different characteristics. For instance, the

neg: Roman sculpture Roman technology now long lost, such as ballistae and the use of waterwheel-driven saws for cutting stone. The latter was only recently discovered at Hieropolis and commemorates the miller who used the machine. Other reliefs show harvesting machines, much as they were described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. Compared to the Greeks, the Romans made less use of stone sculpture on buildings, apparently having few friezes with figures. Important pediments, such as the Pantheon for example, originally had sculpture, but hardly any have survived. Terracotta relief panels called Campana reliefs have survived in good numbers. These were

neg: Anthropogenic biome greatly changed the plant and animal life around the globe, from what type of wildlife and plant life dominated to what type of ecosystems dominate. Examples include Native Americans; they altered the forest, burnt land to clear it, settled in cities, disrupting forests and other ecosystems, and built monuments that required moving large amounts of earth, such as the Cahokia Monuments. More examples are the civilizations of the ancient world; they mined large amounts of material, made roads, and especially for the Romans, when mining lead, released large amounts of Mercury and lead into the air. They also moved large

neg: Architecture of Scotland in the Roman era Elginhaugh fort, in Midlothian, dates to about this period, as may Castle Greg in West Lothian. The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England, building the fortification known as Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast. Around 141 CE the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland, moving up to construct a new "limes" between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. The resulting Antonine Wall is the largest Roman construction inside Scotland. It is a sward-covered wall made of turf, around high, with nineteen forts and extending for . The stone foundations and

neg: Province of Cremona ancient times and stone age and Bronze Age rock drawings and artefacts have been found there. From the fifth century BC, Gallic tribes invaded and settled in the region, building several cities (including Milan) and ruling the land as far as the Adriatic Sea. From the third century BC the Romans expanded their sphere of influence into the area, and in 194 BC, the whole of what is now Lombardy, became a Roman province called Gallia Cisalpina. The Romans overwhelmed the previous civilisations and Lombardy became one of the richest and best-developed areas in Italy. It was here in 313

neg: Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras " / Eagerly did the Romans start the war, " / because they saw them few, but later they were sorry. " / Why shall I tell you a lot and what do we care? " / The war, they won, then, those Franks " / they slaughtered them all, a few did escape " / That was the only war the Romans made "" / during the time that the Franks won the Morea. The Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras was decisive for the conquest of the Peloponnese by the Franks, as it represented the last general

neg: Boules needs of players with physical disabilities. Such variations produce a wide variety of boules-type games played all over the world. In Italian bocce, balls may be thrown in three ways: punto, raffa and volo. There is a wide variation in the size and materials of the balls used in boules-type games. Originally, in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, the balls were probably made of stone. Gallic tribes, which were introduced to boules by the Romans, used wooden boules. In the 1800s in France, boules were typically made of a very hard wood, boxwood root. In the mid-1800s techniques were developed

neg: Timber framing buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a" Ständerhaus". Half-timbering refers to a structure with a frame of load-bearing timber, creating spaces between the timbers called panels (in German "Gefach" or "Fächer"), which are then filled-in with some kind of nonstructural material known as infill. The frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building. The earliest known type of infill, called "opus craticum" by the Romans, was a wattle and daub type construction. "Opus craticum" is now confusingly applied to a Roman stone/mortar infill as well.

neg: Roman roads to more than above the marsh. In the provinces, the Romans often did not bother with a stone causeway, but used log roads ("pontes longi"). The public road system of the Romans was thoroughly military in its aims and spirit. It was designed to unite and consolidate the conquests of the Roman people, whether within or without the limits of Italy proper. A legion on the march brought its own baggage train ("impedimenta") and constructed its own camp ("castra") every evening at the side of the road. Milestones divided the via Appia even before 250 BC into numbered miles, and

neg: Roman–Sabine wars Priscus, the Sabines attacked Rome. Tarquinius had been preparing to construct a stone wall around Rome, however the Sabines, having already crossed the Anio river, forced the king to abandon his plans and prepare for the attack. Livy reports that the initial engagement, though bloody, did not result in success for either side. The Sabines withdrew to their camp, allowing the Romans time to levy additional troops. Tarquinius, believing Rome's military weakness lay in its lack of horsemen, doubled the number of the equites. A second battle was then fought. The Romans, desiring to cut off the enemy's means of

neg: As, Belgium ("Aska") which first referred to the Bosbeek brook and later the village itself. Archaeological finds indicate an early prehistoric settlement, including objects made of flint dating from the earliest Stone Age. The area was inhabited from 500 BC as shown by a cemetery in the field between Genk and As. The Romans built the road from Tongeren to Venlo via Munsterbilzen and As. The current road next to the brook and the roads to Niel and Dorne follow the course of the Roman road. However, the Romans did not establish any settlements in the area as the sandy soil was

neg: Celtiberian Wars the army into two. During the battle he brought them into view. This frightened the enemy, who had never seen these animals. They fled inside the town. Nobilitor attacked the city walls and there was a fierce battle. Then an elephant was hit by a large falling stone and made a loud noise which frightened the other elephants. They went on the rampage, trampling over the Romans, who took to disorderly flight. The Numantines made a sortie and killed 4,000 Romans and three elephants. Nobilitor then attacked the town of Axinium which stored the enemy supplies, but did not achieve

neg: Roman lead pipe inscription the use of common text stamps. Brekle describes the manufacturing method as follows: Brekle lists the following reasons for the employment of stamps and against that of movable type: for printing on lead sheets the way the Romans created them, it would be much more practical to use single stamp blocks than sets of individual letters, since the latter would be unstable and would have required a clamp or some similar mechanism to maintain the necessary cohesion. Neither impressions of such clamps nor of the fine lines between the individual letters typical for the use of movable type are discernible

neg: Attila use his cavalry. The two armies clashed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the outcome of which is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious. Attila returned in 452 to

neg: Löllbach the “Lochwiese”, a Löllbach farmer unearthed a so-called "Viergötterstein" (a “four-god stone”, a pedestal on which a Jupiter Column was customarily stood) in 1872. This is now kept at a museum in Worms. Some people from Löllbach have also found Roman coins. About AD 450, the Romans had to withdraw their forces from the Rhine into the Gaulish backlands. Another Germanic tribe, this time the Franks, was threatening the Romans with superior military might. Not everyone withdrew from the area, however. The subject people, the Treveri, stayed behind, as did landed Roman families. The invading Franks, however, arranged for themselves

neg: Alectryomancy Rome to identify thieves. A rare, obsolete meaning of alectryomancy is "a divination by a cock-stone". A cock-stone or alectoria was "a christall coloured stone (as big as a beane) found in the gyzerne, or maw of some cockes" (Cotgrave). These stones, purportedly found in a rooster's crop, were known to the Romans (in Latin they were called "alectoria gemma", literally "cock's gem") and were imputed with magical powers. Apparently, they were used for some sort of lithomantic divination, though the details of this use are not to be found. Alectryomancy Alectryomancy (also called alectoromancy or alectromancy; derivation comes from

neg: The Settlers III and Amazons' construction industries require roughly equal amounts of wood and stone, the Egyptians' requires more stone than wood, and the Asians' more wood than stone. Each race also has specific skills; for example, only the Romans can turn wood into coal; only the Egyptians can build on desert terrain; only the Asians can mine sulfur; and only the Amazons can build war machines which use manna rather than physical ammunition. The economy is under the player's control throughout the game, and is adjustable in multiple ways. For example, the player can control the distribution of goods by selecting which

neg: Practical reason to draw conclusions about an agent's goals, motives or intentions, based on reports of what the agent said or did. Practical reasoning is centrally important in artificial intelligence, and also vitally important in many other fields such as law, medicine and engineering. It has been known as a distinctive type of argumentation as far back as Aristotle. Practical reason In philosophy, practical reason is the use of reason to decide how to act. It contrasts with theoretical reason, often called speculative reason, the use of reason to decide what to follow. For example, agents use practical reason to decide whether

neg: Bridge accommodate chariots, between the fort of Tiryns and town of Epidauros in the Peloponnese, in southern Greece. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age (13th century BC), it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence and use. Several intact arched stone bridges from the Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese. The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans. The Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. Some stand today. An example is the Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, in Spain. The

neg: Tuff whole port of the island of Ventotene (still in use), was carved from tuff. The Servian Wall, built to defend the city of Rome in the fourth century BC, is also built almost entirely from tuff. The Romans also cut tuff into small, rectangular stones that they used to create walls in a pattern known as "opus reticulatum". The Romans thought bees nested in tuff. The substance is mentioned in the "Aeneid" (Book XII, ln 805). The peperino, much used at Rome and Naples as a building stone, is a trachyte tuff. Pozzolana also is a decomposed tuff, but of

neg: Monty Python's Life of Brian of his Friday shows. The segment is used to highlight good events from the past week in listeners' lives and to generally celebrate the end of the work week. In the 1997 film "As Good as It Gets", the misanthropic character played by Jack Nicholson sings "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" as evidence of the character's change in attitude. A BBC history series "What the Romans Did for Us", written and presented by Adam Hart-Davis and first broadcast in 2000, takes its title from John Cleese's rhetorical question "What have the Romans ever done for us?" in

neg: Chili pepper was well known to ancient Romans). Contrary to the Columbian Exchange, evidence of the use of chili peppers in Southeast Asia can be found in stone inscriptions from the Bagan period of the thirteenth-century Myanmar. The Shwe-Kun-Cha Pagoda stone inscriptions (1223 CE) of King Nadoungmya (1234 – 1254 CE) included five baskets of chiles in the list of his donations to the pagoda and a slightly later stone inscription (1248 CE) of Princess A-Saw-Kyaum, alternative transliteration Asawgyun, included chiles alongside rice, betel nut, and salt in the cost of her merit makings. Worldwide in 2016, 34.5 million tonnes of green

neg: Building stones of Wales Castles make use of 'Pennant Blue'. Basingwerk Abbey uses a northern equivalent of the Pennant, the Cefn Sandstone. Rocks of Triassic age are found in southern Monmouthshire and Glamorgan and some quarries have been worked here for building stone. The Quarella Stone from Bridgend has been used at Kidwelly Castle for example whilst a red conglomerate from Radyr quarries is to be found in service at Penarth docks. The Sudbrook stone, a sandy limestone, was used in the construction of Caldicot Castle in Monmouthshire and by the Romans when they constructed their forts at Caerleon and Caerwent. The limestone of

neg: Romans (documentary) The last episode portrays emperor Nero. Romans (documentary) Romans is a documentary created by Tony Robinson about the Roman Empire. It was first broadcast on Channel 4 on 20 September 2003. This documentary is 3 hours in length, consists of 4 episodes and makes extensive use of research. The first two episodes portrays the life of the Dictator Julius Caesar while the remaining are portraits of Emperor Caligula and Emperor Nero. Tony Robinson is portraying Caligula in a different perspective, than what is normally associated with the "mad emperor", by using various sources that examines his childhood in order to

neg: Romans (documentary) Romans (documentary) Romans is a documentary created by Tony Robinson about the Roman Empire. It was first broadcast on Channel 4 on 20 September 2003. This documentary is 3 hours in length, consists of 4 episodes and makes extensive use of research. The first two episodes portrays the life of the Dictator Julius Caesar while the remaining are portraits of Emperor Caligula and Emperor Nero. Tony Robinson is portraying Caligula in a different perspective, than what is normally associated with the "mad emperor", by using various sources that examines his childhood in order to portray him in a better light.

neg: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire not endemic in the Roman empire nor did it cause its fall. Although "defrutum" and "sapa" prepared in leaden containers would indubitably have contained toxic levels of lead, the use of leaden containers, though popular, was not the standard and copper was used far more generally. The exact amount of "sapa" added to wine was also not standardised and there is no indication how often "sapa" was added or in what quantity. Additionally, Roman authors such as Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius recognised the toxicity of lead. Vitruvius, who flourished during Augustus' time, writes that the Romans knew very well

neg: Science and technology of the Han dynasty pits" for Han tombs; this method was also used for tomb sites dug into the sides of mountains. The walls of most Western Han tombs were built of large hollow bricks while the smaller, non-hollow brick type that dominated Eastern Han tomb architecture (with some made out of stone) appeared in the late Western Han. The smaller brick type was better-suited for Han tomb archways at entrances, vaulted chambers, and domed roofs. Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits. The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han

neg: Roman conquest of the Iberian peninsula and spear heads, constantly kept in motion by the current. This prevented the enemy from slipping through covertly. He managed to force Numantia into starvation. The Numantines surrendered. Some killed themselves. Scipio kept 50 men for his triumph, sold the rest into slavery and destroyed the city. Appian wrote: "With only 8,000 men when the war began, how many and what terrible reverses they bring upon the Romans! How many treaties did they make on equal terms with the Romans, which the latter would not consent to make with any other people! How often did they challenge to open battle

neg: Collaborationist Chinese Army Japanese weapons. Their Japanese advisers viewed the army as a strictly infantry force, providing it only with minimal artillery and armor, and what little they did receive was mostly used by Wang's three Capital Guard divisions. The main type of artillery in use by the Nanjing Army were medium mortars, with 31 field guns (including Model 1917 mountain guns) being in use by the Guards divisions. The Japanese provided 18 Type 94 tankettes in 1941 so that the Wang Jingwei regime would have at least a token armored force. Records indicate that the Nanjing Army was also given 20 armored

neg: Lucayan people marine mollusks. The Lucayans grew cotton ("Gossypium barbadense") and tobacco, and used other plants including agave, furcraea and hibiscus for fiber in fishing nets. One of Columbus's sailors received of cotton in trade from a single Lucayan on Guanahani. Although Columbus did not see tobacco in use by the Lucayans, he did note that they traded a type of leaf that they regarded as valuable. Bixa was used to produce a reddish body paint and "jagua" (Genipa or Mamoncillo) for black body paint. The Lucayans carved canoes, spears, bowls and ceremonial stools from wood. Stone chopping, cutting and scraping tools

neg: Dennis Spooner the gradual introduction of humour, as is evident in the scripts Spooner himself wrote. The BBC's episode guide notes that "it is for its innovative use of humour that "The Romans" will always be best remembered, and in this respect it represents a worthwhile attempt at finding new dramatic ground for the series to cover". It was a change that resounded with the public, helping an episode of "The Romans" to receive the highest-ever share in the history of the series. Spooner was also responsible for helping to foster a new paradigm for the historical type of adventure. It was

neg: Watchtower Watchtower A watchtower is a type of fortification used in many parts of the world. It differs from a regular tower in that its primary use is military and from a turret in that it is usually a freestanding structure. Its main purpose is to provide a high, safe place from which a sentinel or guard may observe the surrounding area. In some cases, non-military towers, such as religious towers, may also be used as watchtowers. The Romans built numerous towers as part of a system of communications, one example being the towers along Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Romans built

neg: Lorica squamata backing. It can be difficult to tell which type of armour a single scale might have come from, as the Romans did not necessarily have different terms for each type. The typical scale had a vertical pair of holes at each side near the top, plus one or two holes at the top. Lorica squamata The lorica squamata is a type of scale armour used by the ancient Roman military during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians,

neg: Italian wolf religious contexts) and "lupus", the latter of which was incorporated into Latin. Although the Romans did not worship wolves, killing them was likely considered taboo; unlike the Etruscans, the Romans very rarely sacrificed wolves in rituals, and no records have been found of wolves being used in the amphitheatres, despite being more numerous and easily accessible compared to other, more exotic animals used. The use of wolves in Roman folk medicine, while attested by Pliny the Elder, was minimal compared to other animals such as snakes or bears and, contrary to popular imagery, Roman standard bearers did not wear wolf

neg: Byzantine–Sasanian wars w The Romans employed the best infantry of the time: heavily armed and armored soldiers plus numerous auxiliaries. By the 4th century A.D., armor was less often used, and by the 5th century, Germanic mercenaries were employed. The Romans continued to use heavy infantry of the legionary type, but these were less mobile than the Persian horse archers, although more effective in attrition warfare. From the 3rd century heavy cataphract cavalry wearing full horse and rider armor became an increasingly important component of Roman armies. The Sasanian dynasty had a more or less secure northern and eastern border due to

neg: Roman war elephants Roman war elephants Due to the Roman focus on infantry and its discipline, war elephants were rarely used. While the Romans did eventually adopt them, and used them occasionally after the Punic wars, especially during the conquest of Greece, they fell out of use by the time of Claudius, after which they were generally used for the purpose of demoralizing enemies instead of being used for tactical purposes. The Romans occasionally used them for transport. Although the use of war elephants in the Mediterranean is most famously associated with the wars between Carthage and Rome, the introduction of war elephants

neg: Architecture of Scotland in the Prehistoric era Architecture of Scotland in the Prehistoric era The architecture of Scotland in the prehistoric era includes all human building within the modern borders of Scotland, before the arrival of the Romans in Britain in the first century BCE. Stone Age settlers began to build in wood in what is now Scotland from at least 8,000 years ago. The first permanent houses of stone were constructed around 6,000 years ago, as at Knap of Howar, Orkney and settlements like Skara Brae. There are also large numbers of chambered tombs and cairns from this era, particularly in the west and north. In

neg: Sculpture in Scotland head fragment of the Deskford carnyx, a war-trumpet from Deskford in Banffshire, probably dating from the first century CE. Similar instruments are mentioned in Roman sources and depicted on the Gundestrup Cauldron found in Denmark. In stone carving there are a number of simple stone heads from Scotland, like that found at Coupar Angus in Perthshire, that may date from the Iron Age. They are similar to those found across Great Britain and Ireland, although they are difficult to date and may have been made much later. The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71

neg: Matilo 85 and 116, the moat was palisaded and between 130 and 196 AD the Romans added three moats and rebuilt the armoury ("armamentarium") in stone. They did this once more sometime in 196–243, and replaced the wooden outer wall with a stone one as well. The wall and moats were then rebuilt once more after that. This "castellum" was home to the "cohors XV Voluntarium" from the last quarter of the first century up to at least 196–198, the "cohors I Lucensium (Hispanorum)" occupied the outpost during Trajan's reign (103 or 110) and another inscription mentions the "Numerus Exploratorum Batavorum

neg: Buckle of dolphin-heads, they were adorned with horse-heads. There were also Type II buckles (Type IIA and Type IIB) used by Romans, but all types of Roman buckles could have served purposes for simple clothing as well, and predominantly, as a military purpose. Aside from the practical use found in Roman buckles, Scythian and Sarmatian buckles incorporated animal motifs that were characteristic to their respective decorative arts. These motifs often represented animals engaged in mortal combat. These motifs were imported by many Germanic peoples and the belt buckles were evident in the graves of the Franks and Burgundies. And throughout the

neg: A Haunting in Salem great) and much is quite bad." The reviewer took issue with the acting, offering that even the simplest lines felt hammed up, with the cast giving performances at a level with community theater. He also found flaw with Shane Van Dyke's directing, in that while his use of "shock tactics and very predictable setups for the scares can be forgiven", the director never connected with his audience. The reviewer did have positive response for actress Jenna Stone, and that the "cheesy" and "carnival spook house" type monsters did not have much actual screen time or were seen from a distance.

neg: Hellenistic armies had no relation to Roman organization. In terms of equipment, most of these so-called 'Romanized' troops did not abandon their traditional spear for a sword, which the Hastati and Principles abandoned between the 3rd and 2nd Century BC. Also the Romans used the pila, while Greek troops tended to use local variations of Javelins. Also similarity of equipment in regards to helmets and chain-mail can be explained by Celtic influence experienced by both the Greeks and Romans at a similar time. In this sense, we can only assume that the Hellenistic kingdoms did reform and re-organize their troops in some

neg: Battle of the Lycus their companions did not know why they were running away and they did not want to stay and find out. Pompey wanting to make use of this blow to his enemy's morale and fearing Mithridates would escape during the night decided to launch an assault of the Pontic camp during the night. As the Romans attacked with the moon to their backs the Pontic troops launched their missiles too early. The Romans were able to get right up to and into the Pontic camp. Once the experienced Roman legionaries got among the Pontic troops the fight was as good as

neg: Old Bridge (Heidelberg) comparatively young. The nickname "Old Bridge" dates from the construction of the Theodor Heuss Bridge in 1877 (then known as the Friedrichs Bridge). Since the thirteenth century there have been eight bridges on the site; the current bridge is built on their foundations. The bridge gate () at the south end of the bridge also dates from the Middle Ages. The Romans built the first bridge in the region of what is now Heidelberg in the first century CE. This wooden pile bridge, located between what are now the districts of Neuenheim and Bergheim, was rebuilt in stone around the

neg: Niedernhausen Oberjosbach that was dated to the time of the “Beaker Cultures” of the New Stone Age (2300-1600 BC). There is no hint as to whether the area was settled, although it does prove a human presence. About the beginning of the Christian Era, the Romans came into what is now the Niedernhausen municipal area. Beginning in AD 86 they began work on the Limes between the places now known as Oberseelbach and Idstein; on 15 July 2005, UNESCO proclaimed it a World Heritage Site. The Niedernhausen area lay on the Roman side of the frontier, and what would later become

neg: Pie of hunter-foraging. The introduction of the baking of processed cereals including the creation of flour, provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat brittle bread loaf of millet bread called "dhourra" cake, while the Romans had a biscuit called "buccellum". During the Egyptian Neolithic period or New Stone Age period, the use of stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, the domestication of plants and animals, the establishment of permanent villages, and the practice of crafts such as pottery and weaving became common. Early pies were in the form of flat, round or freeform crusty cakes

neg: Protestant views on contraception These include whether contraceptive use or non-use is a matter of individual conscience or binding Biblical commands, what types of birth control are permissible if any, and the amount of weight modern Protestants should give early Protestant Reformers' views on contraception. The majority of Protestants, irrespective of denomination, maintain that use or non-use of birth control in its various methods is a matter of conscience for individual Christians before God, and that individual couples should be convinced in their own minds of what is and is not permissible for them particularly (see Romans 14). In this view, God has a

neg: River Thames built. The earliest known major crossings of the Thames by the Romans were at London Bridge and Staines Bridge. At Folly Bridge in Oxford the remains of an original Saxon structure can be seen, and medieval stone bridges such as Newbridge, Wallingford Bridge and Abingdon Bridge are still in use. Kingston's growth is believed to stem from its having the only crossing between London Bridge and Staines until the beginning of the 18th century. During the 18th century, many stone and brick road bridges were built from new or to replace existing bridges both in London and along the length

neg: Adhesive physical phase. Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was approximately 200,000 years ago, when Neanderthals produced tar from the dry distillation of birch bark for use in binding stone tools to wooden handles. The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BC. The Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period AD 1500–1700. From then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the

neg: History of Cumbria area that became the county of Cumbria in 1974, and its inhabitants. Although the term "Cumbria" was in use in the 10th century AD, this was a description of an entity belonging to the small kingdom of Strathclyde. In the 12th century, Cumberland and Westmorland came into existence as administrative counties. 'Prehistoric Cumbria' describes that part of north-west England, subsequently the county of Cumbria, prior to the coming of the Romans. Barrowclough puts the archaeological record of the county (as of 2010) at '443 stone tools, 187 metal objects and 134 pots', plus the various monuments such as henges, stone

neg: Stone Bridge (Regensburg) which are referred to as the "Regensburg Danube Strudel". Five of them were reduced in size in 1848 as part of construction of the Ludwig Canal, and they were all reduced and strengthened with concrete and stone during renovation work in 1951–62. The construction using abutments is a modification of the technique used by the Romans for the bridge over the Mosel at Trier, where the piers rest directly on the riverbed. Watermills were built at the south end of the bridge, making use of the currents it created; the revenues contributed to the upkeep of the bridge. The Bavarians

neg: Wall Street (1987 film) "story frames what happens in my movie, which is basically a "Pilgrim's Progress" of a boy who is seduced and corrupted by the allure of easy money. And in the third act, he sets out to redeem himself". Stone asked Weiser to read "Crime and Punishment", but Weiser found that its story did not mix well with their own. Stone then asked Weiser to read "The Great Gatsby" for material that they could use, but it was not the right fit either. Weiser had no prior knowledge of the financial world and immersed himself in researching the world of stock

neg: Dragon's Lair: The Legend maid has used her limited powers of sorcery to shatter the Life Stone into hundreds of pieces and scatter them throughout the land. Dirk knew what he must now do, though he did not relish the task. The Life Stone must be reassembled before Princess Daphne could be rescued from Mordroc's evil clutches! The player can use either the A or B button to jump and left or right on the control pad to walk. The Start button pauses and the Select button resets if pressed on the pause screen. The goal of the game is to move screen-by-screen collecting

neg: Stone carving stone carving tools, each carver will decide for themselves which tools to use. Traditionalists might use hand tools only. Powered pneumatic hammers make the hard work easier. Progress on shaping stone is faster with pneumatic carving tools. Air hammers (such as Cuturi) place many thousands of impacts per minute upon the end of the tool, which would usually be manufactured or modified to suit the purpose. This type of tool creates the ability to 'shave' the stone, providing a smooth and consistent stroke, allowing for larger surfaces to be worked. Among modern tool types, there are two main stone carving

neg: Parable of the Wicked Husbandmen Church's belief that they had superseded Judaism through Jesus' death, resurrection and role as the messiah. Others think it might be a reference to the Roman destruction of Jerusalem as seen by Christians as God's punishment for Jesus' death and their assumption that their new communities were the new Temple. Seeing Jesus as a "stone" to build on precedes Jerusalem's destruction, however. Paul, in his letter to the Romans chapter 9:33, refers to Jesus as a stone. Paul does not use the Psalms for his scriptural support but instead uses quotes from Isaiah 8:14 and 28:16. Luke stated, probably after

neg: Millstone a smaller stone cylinder rotates. Smaller ones, for household use, were operated by two people. Larger ones, for community or commercial use, used livestock to rotate the upper cylinder. The type of stone most suitable for making millstones is a siliceous rock called burrstone (or buhrstone), an open-textured, porous but tough, fine-grained sandstone, or a silicified, fossiliferous limestone. In some sandstones, the cement is calcareous. Millstones used in Britain were commonly of two types: In Europe, a third type of millstone was used. These were uncommon in Britain, but not unknown: The surface of a millstone is divided by deep

neg: Galați period. For example, north west of the town of Galați, on the eastern shores of the Malina marshes, fragments of ceramic-type Stoicani Aldeni, stilex and tools made of bone have been found. A stone sceptre, from the late Bronze Age, belonging to the Coslogeni culture was found on the marshes' southern bank. Galați town itself developed from an ancient Dacian settlement of the sixth and fifth centuries BCE where there was a ford across the Danube river. In 101 to 102 and 105 to 106, the Dacians fought wars against the Romans and the area became part of the Roman

neg: Gower Peninsula Llethryd, Culver Hole (Port Eynon) and Cat Hole Cave. With the transition into the Iron Age, hill forts (timber fortifications on hill tops and coastal promontories) and earthworks began to appear. The largest example of this type of Iron Age settlement in the Gower Peninsula is Cilifor Top near Llanrhidian. Roman occupation brought new settlement. The Romans built Leucarum, a rectangular or trapezoidal fort at the mouth of the River Loughor, in the late 1st century AD to house a regiment of Roman auxiliary troops. Its remains are located beneath the town of Loughor. Stone defences were added to the

neg: Turrilitidae other ammonites, did not survive the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Turrilitidae Turrilitidae is a family of extinct heteromorph ammonite cephalopods. All members had shells that coiled helically that tended to resemble auger shells. The ecological roles turrilitids played is largely unknown, as experts are still speculating what niches they filled. Some are suspected of floating in the water column, while others, such as the eponymous "Turrilites", are believed to have been bottom-dwellers. The name of the type genus "Turrilites" is a hybrid formation based on Latin "turris" "tower" and Greek "lithos" "stone", coined by Lamarck in 1801. Although they were diverse,

neg: Sacred bull and virile strength not just in Aryan literature but in many IE cultures. In Cyprus, bull masks made from real skulls were worn in rites. Bull-masked terracotta figurines and Neolithic bull-horned stone altars have been found in Cyprus. The Canaanite (and later Carthaginian) statue to which sacrifices were burnt, either as a deity or a type of sacrifice – Moloch – was referred to as a horned man, and likened to Cronus by the Romans. There may be a connection between sacrifice to the Cretan horned man Minotaur and Cronus' himself. Both Baʿal and El were associated with the bull

neg: Rollin' Stone (album) But on this album, I think it’s a very full album, it’s something for everybody. This is more one of the party records, the club type records for the album. But there’s definitely different records that’s gonna put you in a different mind frame. Like I did a record called ‘My Remedy,’ and that’s just saying that when I hit the stage, music becomes my remedy and all my problems fade away. Music is my escape. It don’t matter what happens, I been in situations where I get a bad phone call like five minutes before I hit the stage

neg: Roman Cumbria Roman Cumbria Roman Cumbria was an area that lay on the north-west frontier of Roman Britain, and, indeed, of the Roman Empire itself. (The term 'Cumbria' is a much later designation - the Romans would not have used it). Interest in the Roman occupation of the region lies in this frontier aspect - why did the Romans choose to occupy the north-west of England; why build a solid barrier in the north of the region (Hadrian's Wall); why was the region so heavily militarised; to what extent were the native inhabitants 'Romanised' compared to their compatriots in southern England? The

neg: History of construction in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. For the longer spans it is uncertain if the Greeks or Romans invented the truss but the Romans certainly used timber roof trusses. Before 650 B.C.E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or "petrified carpentry". Fired clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. The roof tiles allow a low roof

neg: Discourses on Livy Romans seized towns. He talks about the different advantages to seizing towns in different ways, both weighing the pros and cons such as cost and efficiency. Chapter 33 talks about how the Romans gave free commissions to their captains of armies. They valued these men and what they did so much that they were willing to give free commissions in order to show them how they felt about them. Chapter 1 of Book 3 starts with a heading: "If one wishes a sect or republic to live long, it is necessary to draw it back often towards its beginning." Machiavelli

neg: Colne in the area can be traced back to the Stone Age. A Mesolithic camp site, a Bronze Age burial site and stone tools from the Bronze and Stone Ages have been discovered at nearby Trawden. There are also the remains of an Iron Age fort, dating from the 6th century BC, above Colne at Castercliff. Although a Roman road passes through nearby Barnoldswick, and some Roman coins have been discovered, there is no conclusive evidence of the Romans having occupied the area. There is, however, some debate among local historians as to whether the Romans may have stayed at Castercliff.

neg: Microbrewery use of adjuncts in the brewing process. The change allows long-established breweries, such as Yuengling, to be defined as craft beer. The B.A. statement read: The idea that brewers who had been in business for generations didn't qualify as "traditional" simply did not cohere for many members. Brewers have long brewed with what has been available to them. (Since the Brewers Association doesn’t define craft beer—that idea remains up to the beer drinker—the definition doesn't differentiate on what type of beer craft brewers brew, as long as the majority of what they make is beer.) The revised definition also provides

neg: Sunstone (medieval) crystal to be used in conjunction with known landmarks; churches and monasteries would have valued such an object as an aid to keep track of the canonical hours. A Hungarian team proposed that a sun compass artifact with crystals might have allowed Vikings to guide their boats at night too. A type of crystal they called a sunstone can use scattered sun light from below the horizon as a guide. What they suggest is that calcite stone crystals similar to one found amongst navigational tools on a sixteenth century sunken ship were used in combination with Haidinger's brush. If so,

neg: Signage same purpose for pagans. The use of commercial signage has a very ancient history. Retail signage and promotional signs appear to have developed independently in the East and the West. In antiquity, the ancient Egyptians, Romans and Greeks were known to use signage. In ancient Rome, signboards were used for shop fronts as well as to announce public events. Roman signboards were usually made from stone or terracotta. Alternatively, they were whitened areas, known as "albums" on the outer walls of shops, forums and marketplaces. Many Roman examples have been preserved; among them the widely recognized bush to indicate a

neg: Love of Christ the greatest of these is love." The love of Christ is an important theme in the Epistle to the Romans. In Paul asks, "What can separate us from the love of Christ?" And he answers: "Shall tribulation, or anguish, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? ... Nay, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him that loved us." The use of "love of Christ" in Romans 8:35 and the "love of God" in reflects Paul's focus on joining Christ and God in the experience of the believer without asserting their equality. In the