query: chemical processes controlling the carbon flux between the ocean surface and the atmosphere

pos: Oceanic carbon cycle inorganic carbon (carbon not associated with a living thing, such as carbon dioxide) and organic carbon (carbon that is, or has been, incorporated into a living thing). Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter. Three main processes (or pumps) that make up the marine carbon cycle bring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) into the ocean interior and distribute it through the oceans. These three pumps are: (1) the solubility pump, (2) the carbonate pump, and (3) the biological pump. The total active pool of carbon at the Earth's surface for durations of less than 10,000

pos: Solubility pump Solubility pump In oceanic biogeochemistry, the solubility pump is a physico-chemical process that transports carbon (as dissolved inorganic carbon) from the ocean's surface to its interior. The solubility pump is driven by the coincidence of two processes in the ocean : Since deep water (that is, seawater in the ocean's interior) is formed under the same surface conditions that promote carbon dioxide solubility, it contains a higher concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon than might be expected from average surface concentrations. Consequently, these two processes act together to pump carbon from the atmosphere into the ocean's interior. One consequence of this

pos: Solubility pump the fate of the solubility pump. While ocean absorption of anthropogenic CO from the atmosphere acts to decrease climate change, it causes ocean acidification which is believed will have negative consequences for marine ecosystems. Solubility pump In oceanic biogeochemistry, the solubility pump is a physico-chemical process that transports carbon (as dissolved inorganic carbon) from the ocean's surface to its interior. The solubility pump is driven by the coincidence of two processes in the ocean : Since deep water (that is, seawater in the ocean's interior) is formed under the same surface conditions that promote carbon dioxide solubility, it contains a

pos: F-ratio Gravitational sinking of organisms (or the remains of organisms) transfers carbon from the surface waters of the ocean to its deep interior. This process is known as the biological pump, and quantifying it is of interest to scientists because it is an important aspect of the Earth's carbon cycle. Essentially, this is because carbon transported to the deep ocean is isolated from the atmosphere, allowing the ocean to act as a reservoir of carbon. This biological mechanism is accompanied by a physico-chemical mechanism known as the solubility pump which also acts to transfer carbon to the ocean's deep interior. Measuring

pos: Whale fall (about two metric tons of carbon for a typical forty-ton carcass) is roughly equivalent to the amount of carbon exported to a hectare of abyssal ocean floor in 100–200 years. This amount of organic material reaching the seafloor at one time creates a pulse equivalent to about 2000 years of background carbon flux in the 50 square metres of sediment immediately beneath the whale fall. This helps to sustain the community structure that develops around a whale fall, but it also has potential implications for the biological pump, or the flux of organic material from the surface ocean to depth.

pos: Oceanic carbon cycle inorganic carbon (carbon not associated with a living thing, such as carbon dioxide) and organic carbon (carbon that is, or has been, incorporated into a living thing). Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter. Three main processes (or pumps) that make up the marine carbon cycle bring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) into the ocean interior and distribute it through the oceans. These three pumps are: (1) the solubility pump, (2) the carbonate pump, and (3) the biological pump. The total active pool of carbon at the Earth's surface for durations of less than 10,000

neg: Carbon cycle sinks. The carbon cycle was discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized by Humphry Davy. The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange: The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth. The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments are fairly balanced so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence. Carbon in the Earth's

neg: Joint Global Ocean Flux Study Joint Global Ocean Flux Study The Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) was an international research programme on the fluxes of carbon between the atmosphere and ocean, and within the ocean interior. Initiated by the Scientific Committee of Oceanic Research (SCOR), the programme ran from 1987 through to 2003, and became one of the early core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP). The overarching goal of JGOFS was to advance the understanding of, as well as improve the measurement of, the biogeochemical processes underlying the exchange of carbon across the air—sea interface and within the ocean. The programme aimed

neg: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study biologists, and policy-makers. SOLAS has three major focus areas: Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere, Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers, and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases (this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project; IMBER). These three focuses are detailed in the project's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans, and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group. The project is administered by a

neg: Atmospheric carbon cycle Large amounts of carbon dioxide are dissolved in cold water in higher latitudes. This water sinks down and brings the carbon into the deeper ocean levels, where it can stay for anywhere between decades and several centuries. Ocean circulation events cause this process to be variable. For example, during El Nino events there is less deep ocean upwelling, leading to lower outgasing of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Biological processes also lead to ocean-atmosphere carbon exchange. Carbon dioxide equilibriates between the atmosphere and the ocean's surface layers. As autotrophs add or subtract carbon dioxide from the water through photosynthesis or

neg: Atmospheric carbon cycle more. Different plant types of plant matter decay at different rates - for example, woody substances retain their carbon longer than soft, leafy material. Active carbon in soils can stay sequestered for up to a thousand years, while inert carbon in soils can stay sequestered for more than a millennium. Large amounts of carbon are exchanged each year between the ocean and the atmosphere. A major controlling factor in oceanic-atmospheric carbon exchange is thermohaline circulation. In regions of ocean upwelling, carbon rich water from the deep ocean comes to the surface and releases carbon into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

neg: Ocean acidification atmosphere, and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins. Ocean acidification has been compared to anthropogenic climate change and called the "evil twin of global warming" and "the other problem". Freshwater bodies also appear to be acidifying, although this is a more complex and less obvious phenomenon. The carbon cycle describes the fluxes of carbon dioxide () between the oceans, terrestrial biosphere, lithosphere, and the atmosphere. Human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels and land use changes have led to a new flux of into the atmosphere. About 45% has remained in the atmosphere;

neg: Ocean storage of carbon dioxide are based off small-scale experiments that have been extrapolated to show possible results on a scale as large as the ocean. Ocean sequestration in deep sea sediments has the potential to impact deep sea life. The chemical and physical composition of the deep sea does not undergo changes in the way that surface waters do. Due to its limited contact with the atmosphere, most organisms have evolved with very little physical and chemical disturbance and exposed to minimal levels of carbon dioxide. Most of their energy is obtained from feeding off of particulate matter that descends from the surface water

neg: Ocean storage of carbon dioxide to mineralization processes that takes place within rocks, mineralization can also occur under the sea. The rate of dissolution of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to oceanic regions relies upon the circulation period of the ocean and buffering ability of subducting surface water. Researches have demonstrated that the carbon dioxide marine storage at several kilometers deep could be viable for up to 500 years, but is dependent on injection site and conditions. Several studies have shown that although it may fix carbon dioxide effect, carbon dioxide may be released back to the atmosphere over time. However, this is unlikely for at

neg: CARIACO Ocean Time Series Program and carbon concentration, primary productivity and other biogeochemical observations throughout the entire water column (surface to 1300m) (Astor et al., 2003; Astor et al., 2005; Muller-Karger et al., 2001; Muller-Karger et al., 2009). Additionally, seasonal cruises to the CARIACO station are conducted to examine chemical and microbial processes (Scranton et al., 2006; Taylor et al., 2006). "Moorings" A sediment trap mooring, consisting of five sediment traps (located at depths of 150, 275, 400, 800, and 1200 m), is also deployed near the study site. This mooring collects the downward flux of particulate material (Thunell et al. 2000; Thunell et al.,

neg: Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide () is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects, including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon

neg: Joint Global Ocean Flux Study cycle of the open ocean. An important aspect of JGOFS lay in its objective to develop an increased network of observations, made using routine procedures, and curated such that they were easily available to researchers. JGOFS also oversaw the development of models of the marine system based on understanding gained from its observational programme. Joint Global Ocean Flux Study The Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) was an international research programme on the fluxes of carbon between the atmosphere and ocean, and within the ocean interior. Initiated by the Scientific Committee of Oceanic Research (SCOR), the programme ran from 1987

neg: Global Ocean Data Analysis Project (WOCE), Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) and Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange Study (OACES) programmes. The second GLODAP release (v2) extended the first using data from cruises from 2000—2013. The data are available both as individual "bottle data" from sample sites, and as interpolated fields on a standard longitude, latitude, depth grid. The GLODAPv1.1 climatology contains analysed fields of "present day" (1990s) dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), alkalinity, carbon-14 (C), CFC-11 and CFC-12. The fields consist of three-dimensional, objectively-analysed global grids at 1° horizontal resolution, interpolated onto 33 standardised vertical intervals from the surface (0 m) to the abyssal seafloor (5500 m). In

neg: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Total Carbon Column Observing Network The Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere. The TCCON ( ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls, Wisconsin, USA, and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide, with 7 former sites. The TCCON is designed to investigate several things, including the flow (or flux) of carbon between the atmosphere, land, and ocean (the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle). This is

neg: Oxygen minimum zone The downward flux of organic matter decreases sharply with depth, with 80–90% being consumed in the top . The deep ocean thus has higher oxygen because rates of oxygen consumption are low compared with the supply of cold, oxygen-rich deep waters from polar regions. In the surface layers, oxygen is supplied by exchange with the atmosphere. Depths in between, however, have higher rates of oxygen consumption and lower rates of advective supply of oxygen-rich waters. In much of the ocean, mixing processes enable the resupply of oxygen to these waters (i.e. waters that are part of the wind-driven subtropical gyre

neg: Geomorphology biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as Mars. Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment. The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as

neg: Solubility pump species (including the above-mentioned species). This balance can be changed by a number of processes. For example, the air-sea flux of CO, the dissolution/precipitation of CaCO, or biological activity such as photosynthesis/respiration. Each of these has different effects on each of the four basic parameters, and together they exert strong influences on global cycles. The net and local charge of the oceans remains neutral during any chemical process. The combustion of fossil fuels, land-use changes, and the production of cement have led to a flux of CO to the atmosphere. Presently, about one third (approximately 2 gigatons of carbon per

neg: Hawaii Ocean Time-series understand the processes controlling the fluxes of carbon and associated bioelements in the ocean and to document changes in the physical structure of the water column. To achieve this, the HOT program has several specific goals: The dissolved inorganic carbon data set that has been accumulated over the course of the HOT program shows the increase of carbon dioxide in the surface waters of the Pacific and subsequent acidification of the ocean. The data collected by these cruises are available online. The 200th cruise of the HOT program was in 2008. HOT recently celebrated its 25th year in operation, with

neg: HD 85512 b planet would have been overwhelmed by water vapor—a powerful greenhouse gas. Little amounts of carbon dioxide would have been present, as HD 85512 b was probably an ocean planet (with little to no landmasses) very shortly after its star was formed into the main sequence, before the stellar flux increased to its estimated present state. The surface pressure would have also increased to about 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100 kilopascals, 100 atm) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Thus, HD 85512 b is likely a desert planet rather than an ocean planet because of the

neg: Permafrost carbon cycle from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes, to the atmosphere, back to vegetation, and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes. Some of this carbon is transferred to the ocean and other portions of the globe through the global carbon cycle. The cycle includes the exchange of carbon dioxide and methane between terrestrial components and the atmosphere, as well as the transfer of carbon between land and water as methane, dissolved organic carbon, dissolved inorganic carbon, particulate inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon. Soils, in general, are the largest reservoirs of carbon in

neg: Permafrost (Arctic Carbon Cycle) deals with the transfer of carbon from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes, to the atmosphere, back to vegetation, and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes. Some of this carbon is transferred to the ocean and other portions of the globe through the global carbon cycle. The cycle includes the exchange of carbon dioxide and methane between terrestrial components and the atmosphere, as well as the transfer of carbon between land and water as methane, dissolved organic carbon, dissolved inorganic carbon, particulate inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon. Arctic

neg: Atmosphere of Mars the NASA Design reference mission study. Two major chemical pathways for use of the carbon dioxide are the Sabatier reaction, converting atmospheric carbon dioxide along with additional hydrogen (H), to produce methane (CH) and oxygen (O), and electrolysis, using a zirconia solid oxide electrolyte to split the carbon dioxide into oxygen (O) and carbon monoxide (CO). Mars's atmosphere is thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime, with evidence suggesting the possibility that Mars had large oceans a few billion years ago. As stated in the Mars ocean hypothesis, atmospheric pressure on the present-day Martian surface only

neg: Revelle factor Revelle Factor) the more DIC occurs as CO or HCO, effectively lowering the pCO levels in both the atmosphere and ocean. Revelle factor The Revelle factor (buffer factor) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide () to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO being absorbed by the ocean surface layer. The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO between the atmosphere and the ocean, and measures the amount of CO that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer. It is named after

neg: Radiocarbon dating not at the atmospheric baseline. The ocean surface is an example: it contains 2.4% of the carbon in the exchange reservoir, but there is only about 95% as much as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere. The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years, but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean, which has more than 90% of the carbon in the reservoir. Water in the deep ocean takes about 1,000 years to circulate back through surface waters,

neg: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity, modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 megatonnes of carbon dioxide each year. These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for photosynthesis and it is soluble in water forming carbonic acid. There is a large natural flux of into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57%

neg: Physical oceanography to be of order meters per second; ocean currents of order centimeters per second. Hence from the point of view of the atmosphere, the ocean can be considered effectively stationary; from the point of view of the ocean, the atmosphere imposes a significant wind stress on its surface, and this forces large-scale currents in the ocean. Through the wind stress, the wind generates ocean surface waves; the longer waves have a phase velocity tending towards the wind speed. Momentum of the surface winds is transferred into the energy flux by the ocean surface waves. The increased roughness of the ocean

neg: Eyewall replacement cycle connection with synoptic scale forcing has been observed in multiple storms, but has been shown to not be a necessary condition for the formation of a secondary eyewall. The wind-induced surface heat exchange (WISHE) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation, which results in a strong heat flux. WISHE has been proposed as a method of generating secondary eyewalls. Later work has shown that while WISHE is a necessary condition to amplify disturbances, it is not needed to generate them. In the vortex Rossby

neg: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean the atmosphere above the ice in promoting or inhibiting the warming or cooling of the ocean surface. The following individuals and organizations participated in SHEBA: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean, where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time. The study was designed to provide

neg: Earth System Research Laboratory Air Resources Laboratory. The goal of the Global Monitoring Division (GMD) is to conduct long-term, continuous measurement of atmospheric gases, particles and radiation in order to understand climate forcing, ozone depletion and air quality. This information will be used to support global and regional decisions, climate projections and carbon management. The Physical Sciences Division (PSD) conducts research to understand the physical environment: the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and land in order to improve local to global weather and climate predictions. The Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) studies chemical processes in the Earth's atmosphere that affect climate, air quality, and the ozone layer.

neg: Permafrost carbon cycle to the atmosphere. Carbon stored within arctic soils and permafrost is susceptible to release due to several different mechanisms. Carbon that is stored in permafrost is released back into the atmosphere as either carbon dioxide (CO) or methane (CH). Aerobic respiration releases carbon dioxide, while anaerobic respiration releases methane. Carbon is continually cycling between soils, vegetation, and the atmosphere. Currently, carbon flux from permafrost soils is minimal, however studies suggest that future warming and permafrost degradation will increase the CO flux from the soils. Thaw deepens the active layer, exposing old carbon that has been in storage for decades, to

neg: Prochlorococcus carbon pump(i.e. the transfer of organic carbon from the surface ocean to the deep via several biological, physical and chemical processes). The abundance, distribution and all other characteristics of the Prochlorococcus make it a key organism in oligotrophic waters serving as an important primary producer to the open ocean food webs. Prochlorococcus Prochlorococcus is a genus of very small (0.6 µm) marine cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation (chlorophyll "a2" and "b2"). These bacteria belong to the photosynthetic picoplankton and are probably the most abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth. "Prochlorococcus" microbes are among the major primary producers in the ocean, responsible

neg: Kepler-69c powerful greenhouse gas). Little amounts of carbon dioxide would've been present, as Kepler-69c was probably an ocean planet (with little to no landmasses) very shortly after its star was born into the main sequence, before the stellar flux increased to its estimated present value. The surface pressure would've also increased to around 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100 kilopascals, 100 atm.) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. In 2009, NASA's Kepler spacecraft was observing stars with its photometer, an instrument it uses to detect transit events, in which a planet crosses in front of and dims

neg: Sensible heat James Prescott Joule characterized it in 1847 as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer. Both sensible and latent heats are observed in many processes while transporting energy in nature. Latent heat is associated with changes of state, measured at constant temperature, especially the phase changes of atmospheric water vapor, mostly vaporization and condensation, whereas sensible heat directly affects the temperature of the atmosphere. In meteorology, the term 'sensible heat flux' means the conductive heat flux from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere. It is an important component of Earth's surface energy budget. Sensible heat flux is commonly measured

neg: Carbon cycle of a few hundred meters or less, within which the time between consecutive contacts may be centuries. The dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the surface layer is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere, maintaining equilibrium. Partly because its concentration of DIC is about 15% higher but mainly due to its larger volume, the deep ocean contains far more carbon—it's the largest pool of actively cycled carbon in the world, containing 50 times more than the atmosphere—but the timescale to reach equilibrium with the atmosphere is hundreds of years: the exchange of carbon between the two layers, driven by thermohaline circulation, is

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle moderated by the flux of carbon in and out of the lithosphere. Rocks formed in the ocean seafloor are recycled through plate tectonics back to the surface and weathered or subducted into the mantle, the carbon outgassed by volcanoes. Oceans take up 15 – 40% of anthropogenic CO, and so far roughly 40% of the carbon from fossil fuel combustion has been taken up into the oceans. Because the Revelle factor increases with increasing CO, a smaller fraction of the anthropogenic flux will be taken up by the ocean in the future. Current annual increase in atmospheric CO is approximately

neg: Physical oceanography These windrows are created by adjacent ovular water cells (extending to about deep) alternating rotating clockwise and counterclockwise. In the convergence zones debris, foam and seaweed accumulates, while at the divergence zones plankton are caught and carried to the surface. If there are many plankton in the divergence zone fish are often attracted to feed on them. At the ocean-atmosphere interface, the ocean and atmosphere exchange fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum. The important heat terms at the surface are the sensible heat flux, the latent heat flux, the incoming solar radiation and the balance of long-wave (infrared) radiation. In

neg: Sea salt aerosol Sea salt aerosol Sea salt aerosol, which originally comes from sea spray, is one of the most widely distributed natural aerosols. Sea salt aerosols are characterized as non-light-absorbing, highly hygroscopic, and having coarse particle size. Some sea salt dominated aerosols could have a single scattering albedo as large as ~0.97. Due to the hygroscopy, a sea salt particle can serve as a very efficient cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), altering cloud reflectivity, lifetime, and precipitation process. According to the IPCC report, the total sea salt flux from ocean to atmosphere is ~3300 Tg/yr. Many physical processes over ocean surface can generate

neg: Geotraces Geotraces GEOTRACES is an international research programme that aims to improve an understanding of biogeochemical cycles in the oceans. The concept of cycle describes the pathway by which a chemical element moves through the three major compartments of Earth (such as continents, atmosphere, and ocean). Because these cycles are directly related to climate dynamics and are heavily impacted by global change, it is essential to quantify them. GEOTRACES focuses on the oceanic part of the cycles, with the ambition to map the distribution of trace elements and isotopes in the ocean and to understand the processes controlling this distribution. Some

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle Oceanic carbon cycle The oceanic carbon cycle (or marine carbon cycle) is composed of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the seafloor. Carbon is an element that is essential to all living things; the human body is made up of approximately 18% carbon. The carbon cycle is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The Oceanic carbon cycle is a central process to the global carbon cycle and contains both

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle all reservoir carbon burial. After 2000, the Paraná (home to 70 dams) and the Zambezi (home to the largest reservoir) River basins exceeded the burial by the Mississippi. Other large contributors to carbon burial caused by damming occur on the Danube, the Amazon, the Yangtze, the Mekong, the Yenisei, and the Tocantins Rivers. Oceanic carbon cycle The oceanic carbon cycle (or marine carbon cycle) is composed of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the seafloor. Carbon is an element that is essential to all living things; the

neg: Carbon sequestration surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The iron rich feces causes phytoplankton to grow and take up more carbon from the atmosphere. When the phytoplankton dies, some of it sinks to the deep ocean and takes the atmospheric carbon with it. By reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling has resulted in an extra 200,000 tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. Ian Jones proposes fertilizing the ocean with urea, a nitrogen rich substance, to encourage phytoplankton growth. Australian company Ocean Nourishment Corporation (ONC) plans to sink hundreds of tonnes of urea into the

neg: Ocean acidification in the Arctic Ocean air-sea gas exchange with carbon dioxide. With less water completely exposed to the atmosphere, the levels of carbon dioxide gas in the water remain low. The Arctic ocean should have low carbon dioxide levels due to intense cooling, run off of fresh water and photosynthesis from marine organisms. However, the decrease of sea ice over the years due to global warming has limited freshwater runoff and has exposed a higher percentage of the ocean surface to the atmosphere. The increase of carbon dioxide in the water decreases the pH of the ocean causing ocean acidification. The decrease in sea ice

neg: Constructed wetland pollutants, and act as a carbon source for the microbes when they decay. Different species of aquatic plants have different rates of heavy metal uptake, a consideration for plant selection in a constructed wetland used for water treatment. Constructed wetlands are of two basic types: subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands. Constructed wetlands are one example of nature-based solutions and of phytoremediation. Many regulatory agencies list treatment wetlands as one of their recommended "best management practices" for controlling urban runoff. Physical, chemical, and biological processes combine in wetlands to remove contaminants from wastewater. An understanding of these processes is fundamental

neg: General circulation model were 'corrected', the factors that led to these unrealistic fluxes might be unrecognised, which could affect model sensitivity. As a result, the vast majority of models used in the current round of IPCC reports do not use them. The model improvements that now make flux corrections unnecessary include improved ocean physics, improved resolution in both atmosphere and ocean, and more physically consistent coupling between atmosphere and ocean submodels. Improved models now maintain stable, multi-century simulations of surface climate that are considered to be of sufficient quality to allow their use for climate projections. Moist convection releases latent heat and is

neg: Geochemistry of carbon important part of the carbon cycle involves the trapping of living matter into sediments. The carbon then becomes part of a sedimentary rock when lithification happens. Human technology or natural processes such as weathering, or underground life or water can return the carbon from sedimentary rocks to the atmosphere. From that point it can be transformed in the rock cycle into metamorphic rocks, or melted into igneous rocks. Carbon can return to the surface of the Earth by volcanoes or via uplift in tectonic processes. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere via volcanic gases. Carbon undergoes transformation in the mantle

neg: Volcanic ash water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride. These sulfur and halogen gases and metals are removed from the atmosphere by processes of chemical reaction, dry and wet deposition, and by adsorption onto the surface of volcanic ash. It has long been recognised that a range of sulfate and halide (primarily chloride and fluoride) compounds are readily mobilised from fresh volcanic ash.; It is considered most likely that these salts are formed as a consequence of rapid acid dissolution of ash particles within eruption plumes, which is thought to supply the cations involved in the

neg: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere plays an integral role in the Earth's carbon cycle whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by some natural processes such as photosynthesis and deposition of carbonates, to form limestones for example, and added back to the atmosphere by other natural processes such as respiration and the acid dissolution of carbonate deposits. There are two broad carbon cycles on Earth: the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle refers to movements of carbon between the environment and living things in the biosphere whereas the slow carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the

neg: Atmospheric carbon cycle respiration, they modify this balance, allowing the water to absorb more carbon dioxide or causing it to emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon is generally exchanged very slowly between the atmosphere and geosphere. Two exceptions are volcanic eruptions and the combustion of fossil fuels, both of which release high amounts carbon into the atmosphere very quickly. Fresh silicate rock that is exposed through geological processes absorbs carbon from the atmosphere when it is exposed to air by the processes of weathering and erosion. Human activities change the amount of carbon in the atmosphere directly through the burning of fossil

neg: Oxygen cycle The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus was discovered in 1986 and accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean. An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and escape into space, leaving O in the atmosphere: The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The lithosphere also consumes atmospheric free oxygen by chemical weathering and surface reactions. An

neg: Nordic Seas interacting in the Nordic Sea. These water masses are present due to subduction, deep convective mixing, surface/frontal mixing, and entrainment of water from low and high latitudes. Interaction from multiple water sources can lead to varying conditions. New primary production is higher in this region, usually exceeding regenerated primary production. New production is higher in regions where water interacts with Atlantic Water, which has nutrient-rich waters. When looking at carbon flux from the atmosphere to the ocean, this region is considered one of the highest in the world’s oceans. This region is also known as being one of the few

neg: Revelle factor Revelle factor The Revelle factor (buffer factor) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide () to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO being absorbed by the ocean surface layer. The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO between the atmosphere and the ocean, and measures the amount of CO that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer. It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle, who was one of the first scientists to study global warming. Revelle factor = (Δ[] / [])

neg: Carbonate–silicate cycle Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate–silicate geochemical cycle describes the long-term transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation, and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicate rocks by metamorphism and volcanism. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere during burial of weathered minerals and returned to the atmosphere through volcanism. On million-year time scales, the carbonate-silicate cycle is a key factor in controlling Earth's climate because it regulates carbon dioxide levels and therefore global temperature. The carbonate-silicate cycle involves many chemical reactions that occur in different environments. In the atmosphere, gaseous carbon dioxide dissolves in rainwater, forming

neg: Dry-ice blasting Dry ice is made of reclaimed carbon dioxide that is produced from other industrial processes, does not add additional greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, and is an approved media by the EPA, FDA and USDA. It also reduces or eliminates employee exposure to the use of chemical cleaning agents. Compared to other media blasting methods, dry ice blasting does not create secondary waste or chemical residues as dry ice sublimates, or converts back to a gaseous state, when it hits the surface that is being cleaned. Dry ice blasting does not require clean-up of a blasting medium. The waste products,

neg: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere. Seawater is slightly basic (meaning pH > 7), and ocean acidification involves a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions (pH < 7). An estimated 30–40% of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes. To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. Some of the resulting carbonic acid molecules dissociate into a bicarbonate ion

neg: Sea surface microlayer three orders of magnitude in some locations). Devices used to sample the concentrations of particulates and compounds of the SML include a glass fabric, metal mesh screens, and other hydrophobic surfaces. These are placed on a rotating cylinder which collects surface samples as it rotates on top of the ocean surface. Sea surface microlayer The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the top 1000 micrometers (or 1 millimeter) of the ocean surface. It is the boundary layer where all exchange occurs between the atmosphere and the ocean. The chemical, physical, and biological properties of the SML differ greatly from the sub-surface

neg: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean, where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time. The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models, which scientists use to study global climate change. Ice reflects sunlight more readily than open water. Snow-covered sea

neg: Carbon respiration The calculation of the annual net difference between carbon release and carbon storage constitutes the annual global atmospheric carbon accumulation rate. Using this method, the annual carbon flux ratio has been calculated to be approaching zero. This means the carbon respiration rate and carbon storage rate are in balance when generating a global estimate of this figure. Annual net carbon flux has been grossly calculated to be close to zero, implying the carbon release and carbon fixation rates are roughly in balance worldwide. This finding is contradicted by measuring the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, an important indication

neg: Radiocarbon dating be hundreds of years old. Hemisphere effect The northern and southern hemispheres have atmospheric circulation systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric / ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of about 40 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is

neg: Sperm whale surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The iron-rich faeces cause phytoplankton to grow and take up more carbon from the atmosphere. When the phytoplankton dies, it sinks to the deep ocean and takes the atmospheric carbon with it. By reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling has resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. Remaining sperm whale populations are large enough that the species' conservation status is rated as vulnerable rather than endangered. However, the recovery from centuries of commercial whaling is a slow process, particularly in the

neg: Ocean storage of carbon dioxide of the carbon-rich biomass generated from plankton is generally consumed by other organisms (small fish, zooplankton, etc.) and substantial part of rest of the deposits that sink beneath plankton blooms may be re-dissolved in the water and gets transferred to the surface where it eventually returns to the atmosphere, thus, nullifying any possible intended effects regarding carbon sequestration. Nevertheless, supporters of the idea of iron fertilization believe that carbon sequestration should be re-defined over much shorter time frames and claim that since the carbon is suspended in the deep ocean it is effectively isolated from the atmosphere for hundreds of

neg: Ocean planet stratosphere, where it is easily broken down (photolyzed) by ultraviolet radiation (UV). Heating of the upper atmosphere by UV radiation can then drive a hydrodynamic wind that carries the hydrogen (and potentially some of the oxygen) to space, leading to the irreversible loss of a planet's surface water, oxidation of the surface, and possible accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. The fate of a given planet's atmosphere strongly depends on the extreme ultraviolet flux, the duration of the runaway regime, the initial water content, and the rate at which oxygen is absorbed by the surface. Volatile-rich planets should be more

neg: High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions die off and presumably sink to the deep ocean, taking much of the absorbed carbon dixoide to the seafloor and sequestering it from the short-term carbon cycle in the deep ocean or ocean sediments. To effectively remove anthropogenic carbon from the atmosphere, iron fertilization would need to result in significant removal of particulate carbon from the surface ocean and transport it to the deep ocean. Various studies estimated that less than 7-10% of carbon taken up during a bloom would be sequestered, and only a 15-25 ppm decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide would result with sustained global iron fertilization. The

neg: Carbon respiration Carbon respiration Carbon respiration (also called carbon emissions and carbon releases) is used in combination with carbon fixation to gauge carbon flux (as CO) between atmospheric carbon and the global carbon cycle Carbon is released to the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, organic respiration, wood burning, and volcanic eruptions. The uptake of carbon from the atmosphere occurs through carbon dissolution into the oceans, Photosynthesis, and the consequent storing of carbon in various forms such as peat bogs, oil accumulation, and formation of minerals such as coal and copper. It also happens when carbohydrates are changed into carbon dioxide.

neg: HadCM3 HadCM3 HadCM3 (abbreviation for "Hadley Centre Coupled Model, version 3") is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom. It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001. Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere (including its predecessor HadCM2), HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment (additional "artificial" heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface) to produce a good simulation. The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle labile and semilabile carbon is taken up by heterotrophs, whereas fewer than 0.2 gigatons of refractory carbon is consumed. Marine dissolved organic matter (DOM) can store as much carbon as the current atmospheric CO supply, but industrial processes are altering the balance of this cycle. Inputs to the marine carbon cycle are numerous, but the primary contributions, on a net basis, come from the atmosphere and rivers. Hydrothermal vents generally supply carbon equal to the amount they consume. Before the Industrial Revolution, the ocean was a source of CO to the atmosphere balancing the impact of rock weathering and terrestrial

neg: CARIACO Ocean Time Series Program (FONACIT, Venezuela). All data generated by the CARIACO program are available via the project web page (). CARIACO Ocean Time Series Program In 1995, the Ocean Time Series Program called CARIACO (Carbon Retention in a Colored Ocean) was initiated. This time series consists of field observations using ship, mooring, and satellite platforms in the eastern Cariaco Basin at 10°30’N, 64°40’W. The program seeks to understand the relationship between surface primary production, physical forcing variables like the wind, and the settling flux of particles in this unique location. "Ship observations" Monthly oceanographic cruises are conducted on board the R/V Hermano Ginés

neg: CARIACO Ocean Time Series Program CARIACO Ocean Time Series Program In 1995, the Ocean Time Series Program called CARIACO (Carbon Retention in a Colored Ocean) was initiated. This time series consists of field observations using ship, mooring, and satellite platforms in the eastern Cariaco Basin at 10°30’N, 64°40’W. The program seeks to understand the relationship between surface primary production, physical forcing variables like the wind, and the settling flux of particles in this unique location. "Ship observations" Monthly oceanographic cruises are conducted on board the R/V Hermano Ginés of the Fundación La Salle de Ciencias Naturales de Venezuela. The cruises serve to collect hydrographic, nutrient

neg: Carbon dioxide Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (410 ppm), depending on the location. Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without the dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals

neg: Parametrization (atmospheric modeling) molecular scale. This method of parameterization is also done for the surface flux of energy between the ocean and the atmosphere in order to determine realistic sea surface temperatures and type of sea ice found near the ocean's surface. Also, the grid size of the models is large when compared to the actual size and roughness of clouds and topography. Sun angle as well as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account. Soil type, vegetation type, and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into warming and how much moisture is drawn up into the adjacent

neg: Numerical weather prediction be parameterized before they can be included in the model. Atmospheric drag produced by mountains must also be parameterized, as the limitations in the resolution of elevation contours produce significant underestimates of the drag. This method of parameterization is also done for the surface flux of energy between the ocean and the atmosphere, in order to determine realistic sea surface temperatures and type of sea ice found near the ocean's surface. Sun angle as well as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account. Soil type, vegetation type, and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into

neg: Sea surface microlayer Sea surface microlayer The sea surface microlayer (SML) is the top 1000 micrometers (or 1 millimeter) of the ocean surface. It is the boundary layer where all exchange occurs between the atmosphere and the ocean. The chemical, physical, and biological properties of the SML differ greatly from the sub-surface water just a few centimeters beneath. Organic compounds such as amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, and phenols are highly enriched in the SML interface. Most of these come from biota in the sub-surface waters, which decay and become transported to the surface, though other sources exist also such as atmospheric deposition,

neg: Ocean acidification in the Arctic Ocean has also allowed more Pacific water to flow into in the Arctic ocean during the winter, this is called Pacific winter water. The Pacific water flows into the Arctic ocean carrying additional amounts of carbon dioxide by being exposed to the atmosphere and absorbing carbon dioxide from decaying organic matter and from sediments. The Arctic ocean pH levels are rapidly decreasing because not only is the ocean water absorbing more carbon dioxide due to increased surface area exposure as a result of a decrease in sea ice. It also has large amounts of carbon dioxide being transferred to the Arctic

neg: Bioclimatology may progressively modify these habitats and cause overpopulation or extinction of indigenous species. The biosphere, for its part, and in particular continental vegetation, which constitutes over 99% of the total biomass, has played a critical role in establishing and maintaining the chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere, especially during the early evolution of the planet (See History of Earth for more details on this topic). Currently, the terrestrial vegetation exchanges some 60 billion tons of carbon with the atmosphere on an annual basis (through processes of carbon fixation and carbon respiration), thereby playing a critical role in the carbon cycle.

neg: Terraforming mainly clustered together around the planet's southern hemisphere. Finally, between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago, asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the surface environment of objects in the Solar System. The low gravity of Mars suggests that these impacts could have ejected much of the Martian atmosphere into deep space. Terraforming Mars would entail two major interlaced changes: building the atmosphere and heating it. A thicker atmosphere of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide would trap incoming solar radiation. Because the raised temperature would add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, the two processes

neg: Oceanography 1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor mapping data became available in 1995. In recent years studies advanced particular knowledge on ocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents, the El Niño phenomenon, mapping of methane hydrate deposits, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, weathering and climate feedbacks in regards to climate change interactions. Study of the oceans is linked to understanding global climate changes, potential global warming and related biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind

neg: Carbon cycle the net product of the process is that more carbon stays in the atmosphere. Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils and decreasing plant productivity. Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle. Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have

neg: Carbon monoxide monoxide (CO) is present in small amounts (about 80 ppb) in the Earth's atmosphere. About half of the carbon monoxide in Earth's atmosphere is from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass (such as forest and bushfires). Most of the rest of carbon monoxide comes from chemical reactions with organic compounds emitted by human activities and plants. Small amounts are also emitted from the ocean, and from geological activity because carbon monoxide occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the Earth's mantle. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is

neg: Enhanced weathering Enhanced weathering Enhanced weathering refers to geoengineering approaches that use the dissolution of natural or artificially created minerals to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Since the carbon dioxide is usually first removed from ocean water, these approaches would attack the problem by first reducing ocean acidification. Weathering is the natural process in which rocks are broken down and dissolved on the land surface. When silicate or carbonate minerals dissolve in rainwater, carbon dioxide is drawn into the solution from the atmosphere through the reactions below (Eq.1&2) to form bicarbonate ions: Eq.1 Forsterite: MgSiO + 4CO + 4HO → 2Mg

neg: Climate change a time. Examples of this type of variability include the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere and/or by altering the cloud/water vapor/sea ice distribution which can affect the total energy budget of the earth. The oceanic aspects of these circulations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than in the atmosphere, and thus very high thermal inertia. For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation

neg: SOCCOM project it. For example, despite only comprising about 30% of the Earth’s ocean area, the Southern Ocean accounts for approximately half of the anthropogenic carbon uptake, as well as the majority of the oceanic anthropogenic heat uptake. These characteristics are believed to be the result of a unique oceanic circulation found in the South Ocean. Cold water upwells from the deep, and this water is deficient in carbon. Once this water comes into contact with the warmer atmosphere, the anthropogenic carbon (CO2) and heat is absorbed into the ocean. The now warm and carbon containing surface water is then moved by

neg: Ocean acidification exposed to the atmosphere and absorbing carbon dioxide from decaying organic matter and from sediments. The Arctic ocean pH levels are rapidly decreasing because not only is the ocean water absorbing more carbon dioxide due to increased surface area exposure as a result of a decrease in sea ice. It also has large amounts of carbon dioxide being transferred to the Arctic from the Pacific ocean. Cold water is able to absorb higher amounts of carbon dioxide compared to warm water. The solubility of gases decreases in relation to increasing temperature. Cold water bodies are absorbing the increasing amount of

neg: Glass disease contents of SiO increase acidity of the glass. Higher contents of CaO, NaO, and KO increase basicity. The chemical stability of glass decreases when only NaO and KO are added as flux, because bonding becomes weaker. The chemical stability of glass can be increased by adding CaO, MgO, ZnO, and AlO. To be stable, glass composition must balance temperature lowering agents with stabilizing agents. Exposure of a glass surface to moisture, either in solution or from humidity in the atmosphere, causes chemical reactions to occur on and below the surface of the glass. The exchange of alkali metal ions (from

neg: Ocean Observatories Initiative of energy and mass, especially during high winds (greater than 20 meters-per-second), to provide estimates of energy and gas exchange between the surface and deep ocean. Such measurements should improve the predictive capability of storm forecasting and climate change models. Examine how climate variability affects ocean circulation, weather patterns, the ocean’s biochemical environment and marine ecosystems. Understand the role of turbulent mixing in the transfer of materials within the ocean and in the exchange of energy and gases between the ocean and atmosphere. Quantify the processes governing the coastal ocean. Examine the degree to which active tectonic plate boundaries influence

neg: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean these observations, they identified five phases of change in heat budget: The experimental results allowed meaningful modeling of the seasonal heat budget processes occurring through the Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere. The scope of the model was the column from below the ice pack through the top of the atmosphere. The scientists realized that key to the model was correctly characterizing the changing reflectivity or albedo of the ice surface, owing to changes in snow pack and ice melting. Cloud cover was key to describing how much energy reached or escaped the ocean surface. The model incorporated the observation

neg: Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio readily available and easy to use. Organic matter that is deposited in marine sediments contains a key indicator as to its source and the processes it underwent before reaching the floor as well as after deposition, its carbon to nitrogen ratio. In the global oceans, freshly produced algae in the surface ocean typically have a carbon to nitrogen ratio of about 4 to 10. However, it has been observed that only 10% of this organic matter (algae) produced in the surface ocean sinks to the deep ocean without being degraded by bacteria in transit, and only about 1% is permanently

neg: Carbon capture and storage quantified directly via the eddy covariance flux measurements, In order to detect carbon dioxide leaks and the effectiveness of geological sequestration sites, different monitoring techniques can be employed to verify that the sequestered carbon stays trapped below the surface in the intended reservoir. Leakage due to injection at improper locations or conditions could result in carbon dioxide being released back into the atmosphere. It is important to be able to detect leaks with enough warning to put a stop to it, and to be able to quantify the amount of carbon that has leaked for purposes such as cap and

neg: Sea ice thickness of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface—see below—as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen—see sea ice growth processes. It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through. Ice thickness can be measured in various ways, directly by taking an ice core and measuring it or more efficient with satellite measurements. Measurements of ice depth below the waterline (or draft) by submarine sonar or radar

neg: Europa (moon) in Earth's atmosphere, Europa's is not of biological origin. The surface-bounded atmosphere forms through radiolysis, the dissociation of molecules through radiation. Solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles (ions and electrons) from the Jovian magnetospheric environment collide with Europa's icy surface, splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen constituents. These chemical components are then adsorbed and "sputtered" into the atmosphere. The same radiation also creates collisional ejections of these products from the surface, and the balance of these two processes forms an atmosphere. Molecular oxygen is the densest component of the atmosphere because it has a long lifetime; after returning to the

neg: Mars ocean hypothesis elevations water can exist only as a solid or a vapor (assuming pure water). Annual mean temperatures at the surface are currently less than 210 K, significantly less than what is needed to sustain liquid water. However, early in its history Mars may have had conditions more conducive to retaining liquid water at the surface. Early Mars had a carbon dioxide atmosphere similar in thickness to present-day Earth (1000 hPa). Despite a weak early Sun, the greenhouse effect from a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere, if bolstered with small amounts of methane or insulating effects of carbon-dioxide-ice clouds, would have been

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle of carbon from the surface ocean. This increased export could theoretically remove excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for storage in the deep ocean. Ongoing investigations regarding artificial fertilization exist. Due to the scale of the ocean and the fast response times of heterotrophic communities to increases in primary production, it is difficult to determine whether limiting-nutrient fertilization results in an increase in carbon export. However, the majority of the community does not believe this is a reasonable or viable approach. There are over 16 million dams in the world that alter carbon transport from rivers to oceans. Using data

neg: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere, and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change. Thus, this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system. The project includes meteorologists, oceanographers, marine

neg: Oceanic carbon cycle Sea, as well as scientists from NOAA, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, CSIRO, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the human impacts on the marine carbon cycle are significant. Before the Industrial Revolution, the ocean was a net source of CO to the atmosphere whereas now the majority of the carbon that enters the ocean comes from atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO). The burning of fossil fuels and production of cement have changed the balance of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and oceans, causing acidification of the oceans. Climate change, a result of excess CO in the atmosphere, has

neg: Future of Earth in the Solar System being ejected from the newly combined galaxy, it is considered unlikely to have any adverse effect on the Sun or its planets. The rate of weathering of silicate minerals will increase as rising temperatures speed up chemical processes. This in turn will decrease the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as these weathering processes convert carbon dioxide gas into solid carbonates. Within the next 600 million years from the present, the concentration of carbon dioxide will fall below the critical threshold needed to sustain C photosynthesis: about 50 parts per million. At this point, trees

neg: Tectonic–climatic interaction or absence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and carbon dioxide (CO) is typically considered the most significant greenhouse gas. Observations infer that large uplifts of mountain ranges globally result in higher chemical erosion rates, thus lowering the volume of CO in the atmosphere as well as causing global cooling. This occurs because in regions of higher elevation there are higher rates of mechanical erosion (i.e. gravity, fluvial processes) and there is constant exposure and availability of materials available for chemical weathering. The following is a simplified equation describing the consumption of CO during chemical weathering of silicates: From this

neg: Ocean fertilization of primary production and carbon export to the deep ocean by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The faeces causes phytoplankton to grow and take up carbon. The phytoplankton nourish krill. Reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. Many locations, such as the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, support high marine biodiversity. Nitrogen or other nutrient loading in coral reef areas can lead to community shifts towards algal overgrowth of corals and ecosystem disruption, implying that

neg: Timothy Leighton seabed, there is probably more carbon trapped in methane than there is in all other forms of conventional fossil fuel, yet as a greenhouse gas methane is 20 times more potent per molecule than carbon dioxide, so assessing how much is in the seabed, and how much leaks into the atmosphere, is a key task). He made measurements of key parameters in the transfer of atmospheric gas between atmosphere and ocean. This is important for climate change modelling, because over 1000 million tonnes of atmospheric carbon transfers each year between atmosphere and ocean. He worked as part of the team