query: where do the ducts from the gallbladder end

pos: Gallbladder surgeons Phillipe Mouret and Francois Dubois are often credited for their operations in 1987 and 1988 respectively. Gallbladder In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats. The gallbladder

pos: Liver form bile ducts. Within the liver, these ducts are termed intrahepatic bile ducts, and once they exit the liver, they are considered extrahepatic. The intrahepatic ducts eventually drain into the right and left hepatic ducts, which exit the liver at the transverse fissure, and merge to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct from the gallbladder joins with the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. The biliary system and connective tissue is supplied by the hepatic artery alone Bile either drains directly into the duodenum via the common bile duct, or is temporarily stored in the

pos: Bile duct → intrahepatic bile ducts → left and right hepatic ducts "merge to form" → common hepatic duct "exits liver and joins" → cystic duct (from gall bladder) "forming" → common bile duct → "joins with" pancreatic duct → "forming" ampulla of Vater → "enters" duodenum The bile duct is green like the gallbladder, because of bile stains. Inflation of a balloon in the bile duct causes, through the vagus nerve, activation of the brain stem and the insular cortex, prefrontal cortex, and somatosensory cortex. Blockage or obstruction of the bile duct by gallstones, scarring from injury, or cancer prevents the

pos: Gallbladder Gallbladder In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats. The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones, formed by material that cannot be dissolved – usually cholesterol or bilirubin,

pos: Abdominal pain be referred to as visceral pain or peritoneal pain. To better understand the types of pain, it is important to understand the anatomy of the abdomen. The contents of the abdomen can be divided into the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut contains the pharynx, lower respiratory tract, portions of the esophagus, stomach, portions of the duodenum (proximal), liver, biliary tract (including the gallbladder and bile ducts), and the pancreas. The midgut contains portions of the duodenum (distal), cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and first half of the transverse colon. The hindgut contains the distal half of the transverse colon, descending

pos: Ascending cholangitis in the bile duct (see below) may not develop jaundice. Bile duct obstruction, which is usually present in acute cholangitis, is generally due to gallstones. 10–30% of cases, however, are due to other causes such as benign stricturing (narrowing of the bile duct without an underlying tumor), postoperative damage or an altered structure of the bile ducts such as narrowing at the site of an anastomosis (surgical connection), various tumors (cancer of the bile duct, gallbladder cancer, cancer of the ampulla of Vater, pancreatic cancer, cancer of the duodenum), anaerobic organisms such as Clostridium and Bacteroides (especially in the elderly

pos: Human digestive system Bile is collected and delivered through the common hepatic duct. This duct joins with the cystic duct to connect in a common bile duct with the gallbladder. Bile is stored in the gallbladder for release when food is discharged into the duodenum and also after a few hours. The gallbladder is a hollow part of the biliary tract that sits just beneath the liver, with the gallbladder body resting in a small depression. It is a small organ where the bile produced by the liver is stored, before being released into the small intestine. Bile flows from the liver through

pos: Biliary dyskinesia just as increased tonus of that outlet sphincter of Oddi, the backed-up bile can cause pancreatic injury with abdominal pain more toward the upper left side. In general, biliary dyskinesia is the disturbance in the coordination of peristaltic contraction of the biliary ducts, and/or reduction in the speed of emptying of the biliary tree into the duodenum. Normally, the downstream gallbladder stores and concentrates the bile which originates in liver hepatocyte cells and is released into the microscopic component of the biliary system by the liver. Through aggregating tubules of increasing diameter, the bile leaves the liver and reaches the

pos: Biliary dyskinesia upstream (proximal) component of the common bile duct. Apparently, the common bile duct beyond (distal to) the gallbladder tends to normally have a greater tone so that the bile backs up into the gallbladder. When bile enters the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine), it aids in digesting the fat within food leaving the stomach. When the bile can not be properly propelled from the not-mechanically-obstructed gallbladder or can not flow out of the end of the common bile duct properly, there is a state of biliary dyskinesia. So, biliary dyskinesia is a dynamically (functional...not fixed mechanical) obstructive,

neg: Accessory bile duct body of the gallbladder. They may not always drain bile and sometimes can have blind distal ends. One study showed them originating from the liver parenchyma of the right anterior inferior dorsal subsegment or from the connective tissue of the gallbladder bed. The study showed the distal connections ending at the hepatic right anterior inferior dorsal branch, hepatic right anterior branch, right hepatic duct, or common hepatic duct. The term "duct of Luschka" is ambiguous, as it may refer to supravesicular or subvesicular ducts. Supravesicular ducts are typically in the gallbladder bed. A 2012 review suggested that the term "duct

neg: Gallbladder side, the hepatic diverticulum, which will go on to become the biliary tree. Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the "cystic diverticulum", that will eventually develop into the gallbladder. The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store bile, also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food. Produced by the liver, bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately through the cystic duct (parts of the biliary tree) into the gallbladder, where it is stored. At any one time, of bile is stored within the gallbladder. When food containing fat

neg: Gallbladder () to describe a brave person, and "single gallbladder hero" () to describe a lone hero. In the Zangfu theory of Chinese medicine, the gallbladder not only has a digestive role, but is seen as the seat of decision-making. Most vertebrates have gallbladders, but the form and arrangement of the bile ducts may vary considerably. In many species, for example, there are several separate ducts running to the intestine, rather than the single common bile duct found in humans. Several species of mammals (including horses, deer, rats, and laminoids), several species of birds, lampreys and all invertebrates lack a gallbladder

neg: Cholescintigraphy Cholescintigraphy Cholescintigraphy or hepatobiliary scintigraphy is scintigraphy of the hepatobiliary tract, including the gallbladder and bile ducts. The image produced by this type of medical imaging, called a cholescintigram, is also known by other names depending on which radiotracer is used, such as HIDA scan, PIPIDA scan, DISIDA scan, or BrIDA scan. Cholescintigraphic scanning is a nuclear medicine procedure to evaluate the health and function of the gallbladder and biliary system. A radioactive tracer is injected through any accessible vein and then allowed to circulate to the liver, where it is excreted into the bile ducts and stored by the

neg: Gallbladder flush suffered a biliary pancreatitis after performing a gallbladder flush. Gallbladder flush The gallbladder flush or liver cleanse is an alternative medicine practice involving fasting, followed by the ingestion of some combination of Epsom salt, olive oil, and grapefruit juice, in some cases substituted by other, similar ingredients. Those who advocate it claim that it is possible to remove not only the well-known gallstones from the gallbladder, but also the so-called intra-hepatic stones from the bile ducts of the liver by this procedure. There are different sets of rules, according to which a gallbladder flush is performed. One can distinguish between

neg: Gallbladder flush Gallbladder flush The gallbladder flush or liver cleanse is an alternative medicine practice involving fasting, followed by the ingestion of some combination of Epsom salt, olive oil, and grapefruit juice, in some cases substituted by other, similar ingredients. Those who advocate it claim that it is possible to remove not only the well-known gallstones from the gallbladder, but also the so-called intra-hepatic stones from the bile ducts of the liver by this procedure. There are different sets of rules, according to which a gallbladder flush is performed. One can distinguish between "recipes" originating in traditional folk medicine and those of

neg: Cholecystography Cholecystography Oral cholecystography is a radiological procedure used to visualize the gallbladder and biliary channels, developed in 1924 by American surgeons Evarts Ambrose Graham and Warren Henry Cole. It is usually indicated in cases of suspected gallbladder disease, and can also be used to determine or rule out the presence of intermittent obstruction of the bile ducts or recurrent biliary disease after biliary surgery. A radiopaque cholegraphic (contrast) agent, usually iopanoic acid (Telepaque) or its sodium or calcium salt, is orally administered, which is absorbed by the intestine. This excreted material will collect in the gallbladder, where reabsorption of water

neg: Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is a medical imaging technique that uses magnetic resonance imaging to visualize the biliary and pancreatic ducts in a non-invasive manner. This procedure can be used to determine if gallstones are lodged in any of the ducts surrounding the gallbladder. It was introduced in 1991. MRCP makes use of heavily T2-weighted MRI pulse sequences. These sequences show high signal in static or slow moving fluids within the gallbladder, biliary ducts and pancreatic duct, with low signal of surrounding tissue. In the diagnosis of pancreatic disorders, MRCP is a much less invasive investigation when

neg: Primary sclerosing cholangitis Primary sclerosing cholangitis Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a long-term progressive disease of the liver and gallbladder characterized by inflammation and scarring of the bile ducts which normally allow bile to drain from the gallbladder. Affected individuals may have no symptoms or may experience signs and symptoms of liver disease such as yellow discoloration of the skin and eyes, itching, and abdominal pain. The bile duct scarring which occurs in PSC narrows the ducts of the biliary tree and impedes the flow of bile to the intestines. Eventually, it can lead to cirrhosis of the liver and liver failure. PSC

neg: Accessory bile duct Accessory bile duct An accessory bile duct is a conduit that transports bile and is considered to be supernumerary or auxiliary to the biliary tree. It may be described by its location relative to the gallbladder as supravesicular (superior to the gallbladder body) or subvesicular (inferior to the gallbladder body). In the surgical literature, the term duct of Luschka is used to refer to an accessory bile duct. They are small ducts that distinctly enter the gallbladder bed, or small tributaries of minor intrahepatic radicals of the right hepatic ductal system. They can drain directly from the liver into the

neg: Rigler's triad the small intestine and gallbladder, large stones can lodge in the small bowel, leading to its obstruction. Pneumobilia means air in the biliary tract. It is due to the transfer of air from bowel through the fistula into the biliary tract. Rigler's triad Rigler's triad is a combination of findings on an abdominal radiograph of people with gallstone ileus, a condition where a large gallstone causes bowel obstruction. Rigler's triad consists of: (1) small bowel obstruction, (2) a gallstone outside the gallbladder, and (3) air in the bile ducts. It bears the name of Leo George Rigler (1896–1979), who described

neg: Scintigraphy of gamma camera is the SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography). Another medical scintillography technique, the Positron-emission tomography (PET), which uses the scintillations provoked by electron-positron annihilation phenomena. Scintigraphy of the biliary system is called "cholescintigraphy" and is done to diagnose obstruction of the bile ducts by a gallstone (cholelithiasis), a tumor, or another cause. It can also diagnose gallbladder diseases, e.g. bile leaks of biliary fistulas. In cholescintigraphy, the injected radioactive chemical is taken up by the liver and secreted into the bile. The radiopharmaceutical then goes into the bile ducts, the gallbladder, and the intestines. The gamma camera

neg: Courvoisier's law of the gallbladder in the absence of gallstones. A palpable gallbladder without mild jaundice (hence the law cannot be applied) can also be seen in Mirizzi's syndrome. The following case is an illustration of using the rationale underlying the Courvoisier Law clinically. In a patient with a history of lung cancer presenting with jaundice and a non-palpable gallbladder it is likely that it is caused by a double cancer affected the common hepatic ducts and not from metastasis to the lymph node causing obstructive jaundice. This is because in the latter case, location of the lymph node has got to

neg: Gallstone and liver, and acute pancreatitis as blockage of the bile ducts can prevent active enzymes being secreted into the bowel, instead damaging the pancreas. Rarely gallbladder cancer may occur as a complication. Gallstone risk increases for females (especially before menopause) and for people near or above 40 years; the condition is more prevalent among both North and South Americans and among those of European descent than among other ethnicities. A lack of melatonin could significantly contribute to gallbladder stones, as melatonin inhibits cholesterol secretion from the gallbladder, enhances the conversion of cholesterol to bile, and is an antioxidant, which is

neg: Intravenous cholangiography from the blood and excretes it into the bile. The iodine is sufficiently concentrated as it is secreted into the bile that it does not need to be further concentrated by the gallbladder to outline the bile ducts and any gallstones that may be there. The gallbladder is not always seen on an IVC, as the iodine-containing bile may bypass the gallbladder entirely and empty directly into the small intestine. Occasional serious allergic reactions can occur to any iodine-containing dye. These reactions can usually be treated and rarely result in death. The IVC is not used as much today as

neg: Gastrointestinal disease as measurement of the amylase and lipase enzymes. Diseases of the hepatobiliary system affect the biliary tract (also known as the "biliary tree"), which secretes bile in order to aid digestion of fats. Diseases of the gallbladder and bile ducts are commonly diet-related, and may include the formation of gallstones that impact in the gallbladder (cholecystolithiasis) or in the common bile duct (choledocholithiasis). Gallstones are a common cause of inflammation of the gallbladder, called cholecystitis. Inflammation of the biliary duct is called cholangitis, which may be associated with autoimmune disease, such as primary sclerosing cholangitis, or a result of bacterial

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele as it cannot be effectively expelled. Without proper treatment the severity increases as the thickened material can cause obstruction in the bile ducts. This results in the risk of gallbladder rupture which is life threatening thus early diagnosis is necessary. Additionally the composition of biliary sludge has been suggested to encourage the formation of a mucocele. Biliary sludge occurs when more water or mucin is reabsorbed and there is excessive bile salts. As this progresses more water is increased causing the contents to become more solid and severely decrease the motility of the gallbladder It is most likely that there

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele the risks of anaesthesia because most patients are older aged dogs. During surgical procedures the whole abdominal cavity is checked in case of any concurrent and or occult problems. The bile ducts will be commonly be expressed to perform biopsies of the liver as well as the collection of bile and liver samples for further diagnosis. If the patients gallbladder has ruptured the cavity will be extensively flushed and the abdominal drained. In some cases which are more severe particularly when the canines gallbladder has already ruptured feeding tubes may be placed pre-emptively if the veterinarian is concerned about their

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele that is pear-shaped and identified between two liver lobes. It is divided into three sections a body, neck and fundus. The main function of this excretory organ is storing, acidifying and concentrating bile. This is achieved due to the nature of the muscular sac being a thin wall that can easily distend to accommodate the bile. It is collected from the liver cells via small channels that pass through the hepatic ducts and into the gallbladder. After a fatty meal the bile is then released into the small intestine promoted by a hormone called cholecystokinin that is present in the

neg: Primary sclerosing cholangitis 29,000 individuals have PSC. Although there is no curative treatment, several clinical trials are underway that aim to slow progression of this liver disease. Obeticholic acid is being investigated as a possible treatment for PSC due to its antifibrotic effects. Simtuzumab is a monoclonal antibody against the pro-fibrotic enzyme LOXL2 that is being developed as a possible therapy for PSC. Primary sclerosing cholangitis Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a long-term progressive disease of the liver and gallbladder characterized by inflammation and scarring of the bile ducts which normally allow bile to drain from the gallbladder. Affected individuals may have no

neg: Bile duct Bile duct A bile duct is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry bile, and is present in most vertebrates. Bile, required for the digestion of food, is secreted by the liver into passages that carry bile toward the hepatic duct, which joins with the cystic duct (carrying bile to and from the gallbladder) to form the common bile duct, which opens into the intestine. The biliary tree (see below) is the whole network of various sized ducts branching through the liver. The path is as follows: Bile canaliculi → Canals of Hering → interlobular bile ducts

neg: Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography compared to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Although both techniques can image the ductal system in detail, MRCP also allows imaging of the surrounding parenchyma. In a study from 2008, 269 patients undergoing both ERCP and MRCP showed comparable results between the two techniques. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is a medical imaging technique that uses magnetic resonance imaging to visualize the biliary and pancreatic ducts in a non-invasive manner. This procedure can be used to determine if gallstones are lodged in any of the ducts surrounding the gallbladder. It was introduced in 1991. MRCP makes use of heavily

neg: Cholangiocarcinoma occurring near where the bile ducts exit the liver) are least likely to be operable. When surgery is possible, they are generally treated with an aggressive approach often including removal of the gallbladder and potentially part of the liver. In patients with operable perihilar tumors, reported 5-year survival rates range from 20–50%. The prognosis may be worse for patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis who develop cholangiocarcinoma, likely because the cancer is not detected until it is advanced. Some evidence suggests that outcomes may be improving with more aggressive surgical approaches and adjuvant therapy. Cholangiocarcinoma is a relatively rare form of

neg: Cystohepatic triangle bound by the cystic duct, common hepatic duct, and the liver margin. General surgeons frequently quiz medical students on this term and the name for the lymph node located within the triangle, Mascagni's lymph node or Lund's node, however many often erroneously refer to it as "Calot's node." The latter is frequently enlarged due to inflammation of the gallbladder (e.g. cholecystitis) or the biliary tract (e.g. cholangitis) and may be removed along with the gallbladder during surgical treatment (cholecystectomy). Calot's triangle, containing the cystic artery, may also contain an accessory right hepatic artery or anomalous sectoral bile ducts. As a

neg: Biliary dyskinesia including the gallbladder and bile ducts. The image produced by this type of medical imaging, called a cholescintigram, is also known by other names depending on which radiotracer is used, such as HIDA scan, PIPIDA scan, DISIDA scan, or BrIDA scan. Cholescintigraphic scanning is a nuclear medicine procedure to evaluate the health and function of the gallbladder and biliary system. A radioactive tracer is injected through any accessible vein and then allowed to circulate to the liver and starts accumulating in the gall bladder which can take up to an hour. A standard fatty meal (usually a high fat milk

neg: Sergey Fedorov operating on the brain, the autonomic and peripheral nervous systems, the intestines, and the bile ducts. For example, he developed the Fedorov incision for gallbladder surgery and designed a special instrumentarium for trephination of the skull, clamps to stop hemorrhage in the dura mater, a proctoscope, and a set of instruments for surgery on the bile ducts. In 1893 — 1894 Fedorov was the first in Russia to prepare a tetanus antitoxin. He was also concerned with the surgical treatment of diseases of the esophagus and the lungs, with traumatology and military field surgery, and with oncology, anesthesiology, and blood

neg: Rigler's triad Rigler's triad Rigler's triad is a combination of findings on an abdominal radiograph of people with gallstone ileus, a condition where a large gallstone causes bowel obstruction. Rigler's triad consists of: (1) small bowel obstruction, (2) a gallstone outside the gallbladder, and (3) air in the bile ducts. It bears the name of Leo George Rigler (1896–1979), who described it in 1941. It is not the same as Rigler's sign. It is most commonly seen in 6th to 7th decade of life and affects females more often. Most patients with gallstone ileus are asymptomatic. Due to the fistula formation between

neg: Gallbladder polyp presence of gallstones (cholelithiasis). Most affected individuals do not have symptoms. The gallbladder polyps are detected during abdominal ultrasonography performed for other reasons. The incidence of gallbladder polyps is higher among men than women. The overall prevalence among men of Chinese ancestry is 9.5%, higher than other ethnic types. Gallbladder polyp Gallbladder polyps are growths or lesions resembling growths (polypoid lesions) in the wall of the gallbladder. True polyps are abnormal accumulations of mucous membrane tissue that would normally be shed by the body. The main types of polypoid growths of the gallbladder include cholesterol polyp/cholesterosis, cholesterosis with fibrous dysplasia

neg: Gallbladder polyp Gallbladder polyp Gallbladder polyps are growths or lesions resembling growths (polypoid lesions) in the wall of the gallbladder. True polyps are abnormal accumulations of mucous membrane tissue that would normally be shed by the body. The main types of polypoid growths of the gallbladder include cholesterol polyp/cholesterosis, cholesterosis with fibrous dysplasia of gallbladder, adenomyomatosis, hyperplastic cholecystosis, and adenocarcinoma. Most polyps do not cause noticeable symptoms. Gallbladder polyps are usually found incidentally when examining the abdomen by ultrasound for other conditions, usually abdominal pain. Most small polyps (less than 1 cm) are not cancerous and may remain unchanged for years. However,

neg: Bile vomiting, for example – a person's vomit may be green or dark yellow, and very bitter. The bitter and greenish component may be bile or normal digestive juices originating in the stomach. The color of bile is often likened to "fresh-cut grass", unlike components in the stomach that look greenish yellow or dark yellow. Bile may be forced into the stomach secondary to a weakened valve (pylorus), the presence of certain drugs including alcohol, or powerful muscular contractions and duodenal spasms. Biliary obstruction refers to a condition when bile ducts which deliver bile from the gallbladder or liver to the

neg: Cholangiocarcinoma the techniques to measure the concentration of byproducts of cancer stromal cell formation in the blood for diagnostic purposes. Changes in CA19-9 tumor marker are being assessed in a clinical trial of oral vaccine Immunitor V3-X. Cholangiocarcinoma Cholangiocarcinoma, also known as bile duct cancer, is a form of cancer that is composed of mutated epithelial cells (or cells showing characteristics of epithelial differentiation) that originate in the bile ducts which drain bile from the liver into the small intestine. Other biliary tract cancers include gallbladder cancer and cancer of the ampulla of Vater. Cholangiocarcinoma is a relatively rare neoplasm that

neg: Bile duct the ampulla of Vater. Jaundice is commonly caused by conditions such as pancreatic cancer, which causes blockage of the bile duct passing through the cancerous portion of the pancreas; cholangiocarcinoma, cancer of the bile ducts; blockage by a stone in patients with gallstones; and from scarring after injury to the bile duct during gallbladder removal. Biliary drainage is performed with a tube or catheter (called a "biliary drain", "biliary stent" or "biliary catheter") by a surgeon or, commonly, an interventional radiologist. It can be used to relieve a blockage in the bile duct, either permanently or as a temporary solution

neg: Cholecystitis disease, or rapid weight loss. Occasionally acute cholecystitis occur as a result of vasculitis, chemotherapy, or during recovery from major trauma or burns. Cholecystitis is suspected based on symptoms and laboratory testing. Abdominal ultrasound is then typically used to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment is usually with laparoscopic gallbladder removal, within 24 hours if possible. Taking pictures of the bile ducts during the surgery is recommended. The routine use of antibiotics is controversial. They are recommended if surgery cannot occur in a timely manner or if the case is complicated. Stones in the common bile duct can be removed before surgery

neg: Pseudomyxoma peritonei from these cells in the appendix. The K-Ras and p53 genes may be involved in the oncogenesis. It may be diagnosed with a range of conditions. While the majority of these cases are associated with appendiceal carcinomas, other conditions may also be found, including disseminated peritoneal adenomucinosis (DPAM), peritoneal carcinomas, several mucinous tumors (mucinous adenocarcinoma, mucinous cystadenoma, and mucinous cystadenocarcinoma), as well as other disease states. Other primary sites that have been reported include colon, rectum, stomach, gallbladder, bile ducts, small intestine, urinary bladder, lung, breast, fallopian tubes, and the pancreas. This disease is often discovered during surgery for other

neg: Cholangiocarcinoma Cholangiocarcinoma Cholangiocarcinoma, also known as bile duct cancer, is a form of cancer that is composed of mutated epithelial cells (or cells showing characteristics of epithelial differentiation) that originate in the bile ducts which drain bile from the liver into the small intestine. Other biliary tract cancers include gallbladder cancer and cancer of the ampulla of Vater. Cholangiocarcinoma is a relatively rare neoplasm that is classified as an adenocarcinoma (a cancer that forms glands or secretes significant amounts of mucins). It has an annual incidence rate of 1–2 cases per 100,000 in the Western world, but rates of cholangiocarcinoma have

neg: Gallbladder secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3-10 fold by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed. Gallstones form when the bile is saturated, usually with either cholesterol or bilirubin. Most gallstones do not cause symptoms, with stones either remaining in the gallbladder or passed along the biliary system. When symptoms occur, severe "colicky" pain in the upper right part of the abdomen is

neg: Gallbladder polyp propria. Ultrasonography may reveal the thickened gallbladder wall with intramural diverticulae, called Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses. Diagnosis is typically by ultrasound or CT imaging. Most polyps are benign and do not need to be removed. Surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) is recommended when a gallbladder polyp larger than 1 cm is found, even if the person has no symptoms clearly related to the polyp. Laparoscopic surgery is an option for small or solitary polyps. Polypoid lesions of the gallbladder affect approximately 5% of the adult population. The causes are uncertain, but there is a definite correlation with increasing age and the

neg: Technetium (99mTc) mebrofenin ducts. The two useful parameters gathered from hepatic uptake of Tc mebrofenin, to aid in determining severity of liver disease, is the hepatic extraction fraction (HEF) and excretion half-life. HEF is calculated by initial hepatocyte uptake divided by peak vascular uptake. HEF is 100% in normal individuals, in most patients remains close to 100% with partial common bile duct obstruction and in patients with sclerosing cholangitis, but is severely decreased in patients with Child-Pugh class C cirrhosis. Excretion half-life directly correlates with the degree of liver abnormality and can be a predictor of cirrhotic stage. Gallbladder visualization happens once all

neg: Abdomen inlet. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity. The boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. The abdomen contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs. Hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, the small intestine, and the colon with its attached appendix. Organs such as the liver, its attached gallbladder, and the pancreas function in close association with the digestive tract and communicate with it via ducts. The spleen, kidneys, and adrenal

neg: CYP3A5 CYP3A5 Cytochrome P450 3A5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "CYP3A5" gene. "CYP3A5" encodes a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Like most of the Cytochrome P450, the CYP3A5 is expressed in the prostate and the liver. It is also expressed in epithelium of the small intestine and large intestine for uptake and in small amounts in the bile duct, nasal mucosa, kidney, adrenal cortex, epithelium of the gastric mucosa with intestinal metaplasia, gallbladder, intercalated ducts of the pancreas, chief cells of the parathyroid and the corpus luteum of the ovary (at protein level).

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele that is isolated in the bacterial cultures and microbiologic sampling. The bile could also reveal more than one infection present, in this case a combination of medications is often given. To promote the excretion of excessive bile chloritic drugs can also be prescribed to manage the GBM. This is used to increase the bile flow by deliberately minimising the cholesterol content in the bile as well as diluting the secretions to allow it to exit more freely via the bile ducts. This occurs due to a naturally occurring bile acid present in the drug called Ursodiol. Hepatoprotectants are simultaneously prescribed

neg: Childhood rhabdomyosarcoma it, the gallbladder, connecting bile ducts, and male and female genitalia. Stage two is characterized by a lump size of five centimeters. Stage three is characterized by the spread to the lymph nodes and the cancer has spread to nearby sites. The size of the lump may still be only up to five centimeters. Stage three cancer may be seen anywhere other than the mentioned stage one areas. Stage 4 is characterized by a tumor of any size that has also spread to nearby lymph nodes. However, the cancer is not strictly limited to this area and may be seen

neg: Fasciolosis toxins into the bloodstream resulting in what is known as black disease. There is no cure and death follows quickly. As "C. novyi" is common in the environment, black disease is found wherever populations of liver flukes and sheep overlap. Fasciolosis is caused by two digenetic trematodes "F. hepatica" and "F. gigantica". Adult flukes of both species are localized in the bile ducts of the liver or gallbladder. "F. hepatica" measures 2 to 3 cm and has a cosmopolitan distribution. "F. gigantica" measures 4 to 10 cm in length and the distribution of the species is limited to the tropics

neg: General surgery General surgery General surgery is a surgical specialty that focuses on abdominal contents including esophagus, stomach, small bowel, colon, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, appendix and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland (depending on local referral patterns). They also deal with diseases involving the skin, breast, soft tissue, trauma, peripheral vascular surgery and hernias and perform endoscopic procedures such as gastroscopy and colonoscopy. General surgeons may sub-specialize into one or more of the following disciplines: In many parts of the world including North America, Australia and the United Kingdom, the overall responsibility for trauma care falls under the auspices of general

neg: Courvoisier's law but in the intrahepatic bile ducts). To reiterate, the law simply says that jaundice and non-tender, palpable gall bladders are caused by other things than chronic bile gallstone formation. The law does not say that these symptoms automatically mean pancreatic cancer. It just happens that pancreatic cancer is the most common cause that falls under Courvoisier's law. Other cause includes malignancy of the CBD (i.e. cholangiocarcinoma), head of pancreas and ampulla of Vater. A palpable "tender" gallbladder (hence the law cannot be applied) may be seen in acute acalculous cholecystitis, which commonly follows trauma or ischemia and causes acute inflammation

neg: Colorectal polyp in risk of developing cancer of the intestinal tract. The syndrome also causes increased risk of extraintestinal cancer such as that involving breast, ovary, cervix, fallopian tubes, thyroid, lung, gallbladder, bile ducts, pancreas, and testicles. The polyps often bleeds and may cause obstruction that would require surgery. Any polyps larger than 1.5 cm needs removal and patients should be monitored closely and screen every 2 years for malignancy. Juvenile Polyposis Syndrome It is an autosomal dominant syndrome characterized by increased risk of cancer of intestinal tract and extraintestinal cancer. It often presents with bleeding and obstruction of the intestinal tract

neg: Alveolar duct Alveolar duct Alveolar ducts are tiny ducts that connect the respiratory bronchioles to alveolar sacs, each of which contains a collection of alveoli (small mucus-lined pouches made of flattened epithelial cells). They are tiny end ducts of the branching airways that fill the lungs. Each lung holds approximately 1.5 to 2 million of them. The tubules divide into two or three alveolar sacs at the distal end. They are formed from the confluence openings of several alveoli. Distal terminations of alveolar ducts are atria which then end in alveolar sacs. In human anatomy, respiratory bronchioles exist proximal to the alveolar

neg: Mammary gland age of about 7–8 weeks. By the pubertal stage, the mammary ducts have invaded to the end of the mammary fat pad. At this point, the terminal end buds become less proliferative and decrease in size. Side branches form from the primary ducts and begin to fill the mammary fat pad. Ductal development decreases with the arrival of sexual maturity and undergoes estrous cycles (proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus). As a result of estrous cycling, the mammary gland undergoes dynamic changes where cells proliferate and then regress in an ordered fashion. During pregnancy, the ductal systems undergo rapid proliferation and

neg: Chilled beam per length of the beam. Chilled beams are generally installed so that the center of each beam is no more than from the center of the next beam. Some architects and end-users dislike the beams because they do not cover the entire ceiling so ducts, wiring, and other infrastructure can be seen. Some designers have installed one chilled beam system around the building perimeter (where temperature differences can be the greatest) and another in the interior of the building, to better control temperature throughout the structure. Higher system performance may be obtained by increasing the static pressure of the air

neg: Gallstone as low as 3%. Gallbladder and biliary related diseases occurred in about 104 million people (1.6%) in 2013 and they resulted in 106,000 deaths. Women more commonly have stones than men and they occur more commonly after the age of 40. Certain ethnic groups have gallstones more often than others. For example, 48% of Native Americans have gallstones. Once the gallbladder is removed, outcomes are generally good. Gallstone disease refers to the condition where gallstones are either in the gallbladder or common bile duct. The presence of stones in the gallbladder is referred to as cholelithiasis, from the Greek "chol"-

neg: General surgery independent sector as a consultant general surgeon. The implementation of the European Working Time Directive limited UK surgical residents to a 48-hour working week. The introduction of a sub-consultant grade to enable those who have recently received a UK Certificate of Completion of Training may be necessary. General surgery General surgery is a surgical specialty that focuses on abdominal contents including esophagus, stomach, small bowel, colon, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, appendix and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland (depending on local referral patterns). They also deal with diseases involving the skin, breast, soft tissue, trauma, peripheral vascular surgery and hernias

neg: Liver fluke Liver fluke Liver fluke is a collective name of a polyphyletic group of parasitic trematodes under the phylum Platyhelminthes. They are principally parasites of the liver of various mammals, including humans. Capable of moving along the blood circulation, they can occur also in bile ducts, gallbladder, and liver parenchyma. In these organs, they produce pathological lesions leading to parasitic diseases. They have complex life cycles requiring two or three different hosts, with free-living larval stages in water. The body of liver flukes is leaf-like, and flattened. The body is covered with a tegument. They are hermaphrodites having complete sets of

neg: Phrygian cap (anatomy) decrease in bile flow, it may warrant a preventative removal of the gallbladder. Phrygian cap (anatomy) In medicine, a Phrygian cap is the folded portion of some gallbladders that resembles the Phrygian cap (a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia). It is a normal anatomical variant seen in 1-6% of patients. It is caused by a fold in the gallbladder where the gallbladder fundus joins the gallbladder body. Apart from the chance of being mistaken for stones on a sonogram, it has no other medical

neg: Cholesterolosis of gallbladder hence the term "strawberry" gallbladder. It is not tied to cholelithiasis (gallstones) or cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder). Cholesterolosis of gallbladder In surgical pathology, strawberry gallbladder, more formally cholesterolosis of the gallbladder and gallbladder cholesterolosis, is a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol. The name "strawberry gallbladder" comes from the typically stippled appearance of the mucosal surface on gross examination, which resembles a strawberry. Cholesterolosis results from abnormal deposits of cholesterol esters in macrophages within the lamina propria (foam cells) and in mucosal epithelium. The gallbladder may be affected in a patchy localized form or in a

neg: Alveolar duct ducts. The epithelial lining consists of smooth muscle knobs covered by nonciliated, simple cuboidal cells. The smooth muscle constricts under parasympathetic innervation and relax under sympathetic innervation. Alveolar duct Alveolar ducts are tiny ducts that connect the respiratory bronchioles to alveolar sacs, each of which contains a collection of alveoli (small mucus-lined pouches made of flattened epithelial cells). They are tiny end ducts of the branching airways that fill the lungs. Each lung holds approximately 1.5 to 2 million of them. The tubules divide into two or three alveolar sacs at the distal end. They are formed from the confluence

neg: Development of the urinary system side of these ducts, and thus come to lie side by side between and behind the latter—the four ducts forming what is termed the "common genital cord", to distinguish it from the "genital cords of the germinal epithelium" seen later in this article. The Müllerian ducts end in an epithelial elevation, the Müllerian eminence, on the ventral part of the cloaca between the orifices of the Wolffian ducts. At a later stage the eminence opens in the middle, connecting the Müllerian ducts with the cloaca. In the male the Müllerian ducts atrophy, but traces of their anterior ends are represented

neg: Development of the reproductive system of these ducts, and thus come to lie side by side between and behind the latter—the four ducts forming what is termed the "common genital cord", to distinguish it from the "genital cords of the germinal epithelium" seen later in this article. The mesonephric ducts end in an epithelial elevation, the sinus tubercle, on the ventral part of the cloaca between the orifices of the mesonephric ducts. At a later stage the sinus tubercle opens in the middle, connecting the paramesonephric ducts with the cloaca. In the male the paramesonephric ducts atrophy, but traces of their anterior ends are represented

neg: Cystic duct Cystic duct The cystic duct is the short duct that joins the gallbladder to the common bile duct. It usually lies next to the cystic artery. It is of variable length. It contains 'spiral valves of Heister', which do not provide much resistance to the flow of bile. Bile can flow in both directions between the gallbladder and the common bile duct and the hepatic duct. In this way, bile is stored in the gallbladder in between meal times. The hormone cholecystokinin, when stimulated by a fatty meal, promotes bile secretion by increased production of hepatic bile, contraction of the

neg: Cholecystectomy the bile duct. Pain and complications caused by gallstones are the most common reasons for removal of the gallbladder. The gallbladder can also be removed in order to treat biliary dyskinesia or gallbladder cancer. Gallstones are incredibly common but 50–80% of people with gallstones are asymptomatic and do not need surgery; their stones are noticed incidentally on imaging tests of the abdomen (such as ultrasound or CT) done for some other reason. Of the more than 20 million people in the US with gallstones, only about 30% will eventually require cholecystectomy to relieve symptoms (pain) or treat complications. Biliary colic,

neg: Cholesterolosis of gallbladder Cholesterolosis of gallbladder In surgical pathology, strawberry gallbladder, more formally cholesterolosis of the gallbladder and gallbladder cholesterolosis, is a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol. The name "strawberry gallbladder" comes from the typically stippled appearance of the mucosal surface on gross examination, which resembles a strawberry. Cholesterolosis results from abnormal deposits of cholesterol esters in macrophages within the lamina propria (foam cells) and in mucosal epithelium. The gallbladder may be affected in a patchy localized form or in a diffuse form. The diffuse form macroscopically appears as a bright red mucosa with yellow mottling (due to lipid),

neg: Porcelain gallbladder and discovered on imaging obtained for a different reason. The assertion that porcelain gallbladder increases the incidence of gallbladder cancer is widely taught in medical schools but is based on studies from 1931 and 1962. A prominent study aid for surgical residents even states that the risk of cancer in a porcelain gallbladder is 15%. The precise nature of the association between gallbladder cancer and porcelain gallbladder is uncertain. Two articles published in 2001 examined the association between cancer of the gallbladder and calcified gallbladder. The first study reviewed 10,741 cholecystectomies and found that the 88 patients with gallbladder cancer

neg: Collecting duct system duct follows the cortical collecting duct. It reaches the level of the renal medulla where the thin descending limb of loop of Henle borders with the thick ascending limb of loop of Henle The inner segment is the part of the collecting duct system between the outer segment and the papillary ducts. The terminal portions of the medullary collecting ducts are the "papillary ducts", which end at the renal papilla and empty into a minor calyx. Each component of the collecting duct system contains two cell types, "intercalated cells" and a segment-specific cell type: The principal cell mediates the collecting

neg: Cystic artery that supply part of the cystic duct and cervix of the gallbladder before dividing into the major superficial and deep branches at the superior aspect of the gallbladder neck: When superficial and deep branches of the cystic artery do not share a common origin it is defined as a "double cystic artery" occurring with a frequency of 15%. The deep branch consistently arises from the right hepatic artery which is generally also the source of origin of the superficial branch, however in some cases it has been found to initiate from the anterior segmental artery, middle hepatic artery, left hepatic

neg: Development of the reproductive system end of fetal life. These embryonic structures are the mesonephric ducts (also known as "Wolffian ducts") and the paramesonephric ducts, (also known as "Müllerian ducts"). The mesonephric duct remains as the duct in males, and the paramesonephric duct as that of the female. The mesonephric duct originates from a part of the pronephric duct. In the outer part of the intermediate mesoderm, immediately under the ectoderm, in the region from the fifth cervical segment to the third thoracic segment, a series of short evaginations from each segment grows dorsally and extends caudally, fusing successively from before backward to form the

neg: Cholecystectomy decrease the risk of spontaneous abortion and pre-term delivery. Without cholecystectomy, more than half of such women will have recurrent symptoms during their pregnancy, and nearly one in four will develop a complication, such as acute cholecystitis, that requires urgent surgery. Acute cholecystitis is the second most common cause of acute abdomen in pregnant women after appendectomy. Porcelain gallbladder (PGB), a condition where the gallbladder wall shows calcification on imaging tests, was previously considered a reason to remove the gallbladder because it was thought that people with this condition had a high risk of developing gallbladder cancer. However, recent studies

neg: Phrygian cap (anatomy) Phrygian cap (anatomy) In medicine, a Phrygian cap is the folded portion of some gallbladders that resembles the Phrygian cap (a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia). It is a normal anatomical variant seen in 1-6% of patients. It is caused by a fold in the gallbladder where the gallbladder fundus joins the gallbladder body. Apart from the chance of being mistaken for stones on a sonogram, it has no other medical implications nor does it predispose one to other diseases. However, due to potential

neg: Paramesonephric duct The two are conjoined at the sinus tubercle. Paramesonephric ducts are present on the embryo of both sexes. Only in females do they develop into reproductive organs. They degenerate in males of certain species, but the adjoining mesonephric ducts develop into male reproductive organs. The sex based differences in the contributions of the paramesonephric ducts to reproductive organs is based on the presence, and degree of presence, of Müllerian inhibiting factor. During the formation of the reproductive system, the paramesonephric ducts are formed just lateral to the mesonephric ducts in both female and male embryos 6 weeks after fertilization. During

neg: Gallbladder a product of haemoglobin breakdown. These may cause significant pain, particularly in the upper-right corner of the abdomen, and are often treated with removal of the gallbladder called a cholecystectomy. Cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder, has a wide range of causes, including result from the impaction of gallstones, infection, and autoimmune disease. The gallbladder is a hollow organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver, that is grey-blue in life. In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately in length and in diameter when fully distended. The gallbladder has a capacity of about . The gallbladder

neg: Cholecystectomy have shown that there is no strong association between gallbladder cancer and porcelain gallbladder, and that PGB alone is not a strong enough indication for a prophylactic cholecystectomy. There are several alternatives to cholecystectomy for people who do not want surgery, or in whom the benefits of surgery would not outweigh the risks. Conservative management for biliary colic involves a "watch and wait" approach—treating symptoms as-needed with oral medications. Experts agree that this is the preferred treatment for people with gallstones but no symptoms. Conservative management may also be appropriate for people with mild biliary colic, as the pain from

neg: Androgen insensitivity syndrome this anti-Müllerian hormone, the Müllerian ducts develop into the female internal genitalia (uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, and upper vaginal barrel). Unlike the Müllerian ducts, the Wolffian ducts will not continue to develop by default. In the presence of testosterone and functional androgen receptors, the Wolffian ducts develop into the epididymides, vasa deferentia, and seminal vesicles. If the testes fail to secrete testosterone, or the androgen receptors do not function properly, the Wolffian ducts degenerate. Masculinization of the male external genitalia (the penis, penile urethra, and scrotum), as well as the prostate, are dependent on the androgen dihydrotestosterone. Testosterone is converted

neg: Ejaculatory duct obstruction the ejaculatory ducts due to other causes. In approx. 50% of cases of unexplained low-volume azoospermia MRI and TRUS do not reveal any pathological findings, because it is difficult to see alterations in a narrowed, scarred duct with these methods. Due to the blockage of ejaculatory ducts, enlarged seminal vesicles are frequently seen in patients with ejaculatory duct obstructions. However, this is again neither a proof of an obstruction nor do normal-sized seminal vesicles rule-out an obstruction of the ejaculatory ducts. Since ejaculatory duct obstruction is a relatively rare cause of infertility, this possibility may be unfamiliar to some physicians,

neg: Gallbladder disease gain, and cigarette smoking. Alcohol was shown to have an inverse relationship between use and gallbladder disease. Xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis is a rare form of gallbladder disease which mimics gallbladder cancer although it is not cancerous. It was first discovered and reported in the medical literature in 1976 by J.J. McCoy, Jr., and colleagues. Gallbladder disease Gallbladder diseases are diseases involving the gallbladder. Gallstones may develop in the gallbladder as well as elsewhere in the biliary tract. If gallstones in the gallbladder are symptomatic, surgical removal of the gallbladder, known as cholecystectomy may be indicated. Gallstones form when the tenuous balance

neg: Gallbladder managed by removing the gallbladder, however the prognosis remains poor. Cancer of the gallbladder may also be found incidentally after surgical removal of the gallbladder, with 1-3% of cancers identified in this way. Gallbladder polyps are mostly benign growths or lesions resembling growths that form in the gallbladder wall and are only associated with cancer when they are larger in size (>1 cm). Cholesterol polyps, often associated with cholesterolosis ("strawberry gallbladder", a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol), often cause no symptoms and are thus often detected in this way. Tests used to investigate for gallbladder disease

neg: Sexual differentiation in humans The sex of an early embryo cannot be determined because the reproductive structures do not differentiate until the seventh week. Prior to this, the child is considered bipotential because it cannot be identified as male or female. The internal genitalia consist of two accessory ducts: mesonephric ducts (male) and paramesonephric ducts (female). The mesonephric system is the precursor to the male genitalia and the paramesonephric to the female reproductive system. As development proceeds, one of the pairs of ducts develops while the other regresses. This depends on the presence or absence of the sex determining region of the Y chromosome,

neg: Intravenous cholangiography Intravenous cholangiography The intravenous cholangiogram or IVC is a radiologic (x-ray) procedure that is used primarily to look at the larger bile ducts within the liver and the bile ducts outside the liver. The procedure can be used to locate gallstones within these bile ducts. IVC also can be used to identify other causes of obstruction to the flow of bile, for example, narrowings (strictures) of the bile ducts and cancers that may impair the normal flow of bile. To do an IVC, an iodine-containing dye (meglumine ioglycamate) is injected intravenously into the blood. The liver then removes the dye

neg: Plant secretory tissue and much branched ducts containing a milky or yellowish colored juice known as latex. They contain numerous nuclei which lie embedded in the thin lining layer of protoplasm. They irregularly distributed in the mass of parenchymatous cells. Laticiferous ducts, in which latex are found are again two types- Also called as "non-articulate latex ducts", these ducts are independent units which extend as branched structures for long distances in the plant body. They originates as minute structures, elongate quickly and by repeated branching ramify in all directions but do not fuse together. Thus a network is not formed as in latex

neg: Development of the urinary system remnants in the adult, involving e.g. the development of the suspensory ligament of the ovary. Shortly after the formation of the Wolffian ducts a second pair of ducts is developed; these are the Müllerian ducts. Each arises on the lateral aspect of the corresponding Wolffian duct as a tubular invagination of the cells lining the abdominal cavity. The orifice of the invagination remains open, and undergoes enlargement and modification to form the abdominal ostium of the fallopian tube. The ducts pass backward lateral to the Wolffian ducts, but toward the posterior end of the embryo they cross to the medial

neg: Development of the reproductive system mesonephric duct that persist, e.g. the development of the suspensory ligament of the ovary. Shortly after the formation of the mesonephric ducts a second pair of ducts is developed; these are the paramesonephric ducts. Each arises on the lateral aspect of the corresponding mesonephric duct as a tubular invagination of the cells lining the abdominal cavity. The orifice of the invagination remains open, and undergoes enlargement and modification to form the abdominal ostium of the fallopian tube. The ducts pass backward lateral to the mesonephric ducts, but toward the posterior end of the embryo they cross to the medial side

neg: Gallbladder disease Gallbladder disease Gallbladder diseases are diseases involving the gallbladder. Gallstones may develop in the gallbladder as well as elsewhere in the biliary tract. If gallstones in the gallbladder are symptomatic, surgical removal of the gallbladder, known as cholecystectomy may be indicated. Gallstones form when the tenuous balance of solubility of biliary lipids tips in favor of precipitation of cholesterol, unconjugated bilirubin, or bacterial degradation products of biliary lipids. For cholesterol gallstones, metabolic alterations in hepatic cholesterol secretion combine with changes in gallbladder motility and intestinal bacterial degradation of bile salts to destabilize cholesterol carriers in bile and produce cholesterol crystals.

neg: Gallbladder bile from the gallbladder. A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence of "Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses", deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which indicate adenomyomatosis. The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue. The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a thick serosa, which is exposed to the peritoneum. The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics. The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue. The gallbladder varies in size, shape, and

neg: Canine gallbladder mucocele Canine gallbladder mucocele Canine gallbladder mucocele (GBM) is an emerging biliary disease in dogs described as the excessive and abnormal accumulation of thick, gelatinous mucus in the lumen, which results in an enlarged gallbladder. GBMs have been diagnosed more frequently in comparison to prior to the 2000s when it was considered rare. The mucus is usually pale yellow to dark green in appearance. The name originates from the Greek word "kele" meaning tumour as a mucocele resembles a mass. Although this disease is primarily identified in dogs, cats and ferrets have also been diagnosed. The gallbladder is an excretory organ

neg: Porcelain gallbladder malignancy fell to 6%. Comparatively, a matched cohort without gallbladder calcification showed a 1% rate of gallbladder malignancy. Abdominal radiography (X-ray), abdominal ultrasound or CT scan. Due to the increased risk for gallbladder cancer, the recommended treatment is cholecystectomy which usually includes pre-operative or intra-operative imaging of the biliary tree. Cholecystectomy may be performed via an open incision or via laparoscopic methods, but gallbladder anatomy and consistency may complicate the operation. Porcelain gallbladder Porcelain gallbladder is a calcification of the gallbladder believed to be brought on by excessive gallstones, although the exact cause is not clear. As with gallstone disease

neg: Lung highly vascularised. Bronchioles and alveolar ducts also develop. By week 26 the terminal bronchioles have formed which branch into two respiratory bronchioles. During the period covering the 26th week until birth the important blood–air barrier is established. Specialised type I alveolar cells where gas exchange will take place, together with the type II alveolar cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant, appear. The surfactant reduces the surface tension at the air-alveolar surface which allows expansion of the alveolar sacs. The alveolar sacs contain the primitive alveoli that form at the end of the alveolar ducts, and their appearance around the seventh month

neg: Mammary gland the invagination of cells within the placode into the mesenchyme, leading to a mammary anlage (biology). The primitive (stem) cells are detected in embryo and their numbers increase steadily during development Postnatally, the mammary ducts elongate into the mammary fat pad. Then, starting around four weeks of age, mammary ductal growth increases significantly with the ducts invading towards the lymph node. Terminal end buds, the highly proliferative structures found at the tips of the invading ducts, expand and increase greatly during this stage. This developmental period is characterized by the emergence of the terminal end buds and lasts until an

neg: Gallbladder occurs, it is mostly of the glands lining the surface of the gallbladder (adenocarcinoma). Gallstones are thought to be linked to the formation of cancer, and other risk factors include large (>1 cm) gallbladder polyps and having a highly calcified "porcelain" gallbladder. Cancer of the gallbladder can cause attacks of biliary pain, yellowing of the skin (jaundice), and weight loss. A large gallbladder may be able to be felt in the abdomen. Liver function tests may be elevated, particularly involving GGT and ALP, with ultrasound and CT scans being considered medical imaging investigations of choice. Cancer of the gallbladder is

neg: Porcelain gallbladder Porcelain gallbladder Porcelain gallbladder is a calcification of the gallbladder believed to be brought on by excessive gallstones, although the exact cause is not clear. As with gallstone disease in general, this condition occurs predominantly in overweight female patients of middle age. It is a morphological variant of chronic cholecystitis. Inflammatory scarring of the wall, combined with dystrophic calcification within the wall transforms the gallbladder into a porcelain-like vessel. Removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) is the recommended treatment. Symptoms are similar to gallstones and can include abdominal pain (especially after eating), jaundice, and vomiting. Porcelain gallbladder can also be asymptomatic

neg: Gallbladder cancer organs such as the liver. It is a rare cancer that is thought to be related to gallstones building up, which also can lead to calcification of the gallbladder, a condition known as porcelain gallbladder. Porcelain gallbladder is also rare. Some studies indicate that people with porcelain gallbladder have a high risk of developing gallbladder cancer, but other studies question this. The outlook is poor for recovery if the cancer is found after symptoms have started to occur, with a 5-year survival rate close to 3%. Early symptoms mimic gallbladder inflammation due to gallstones. Later, the symptoms may be that

neg: Human digestive system layer of the body is of smooth muscle tissue that helps the gallbladder contract, so that it can discharge its bile into the bile duct. The gallbladder needs to store bile in a natural, semi-liquid form at all times. Hydrogen ions secreted from the inner lining of the gallbladder keep the bile acidic enough to prevent hardening. To dilute the bile, water and electrolytes from the digestion system are added. Also, salts attach themselves to cholesterol molecules in the bile to keep them from crystallising. If there is too much cholesterol or bilirubin in the bile, or if the gallbladder

neg: Cholangiocarcinoma as a radiologic contrast medium, has been linked to the development of cholangiocarcinoma as late as 30–40 years after exposure; Thorotrast was banned in the United States in the 1950s due to its carcinogenicity. Cholangiocarcinoma can affect any area of the bile ducts, either within or outside the liver. Tumors occurring in the bile ducts within the liver are referred to as "intrahepatic", those occurring in the ducts outside the liver are "extrahepatic", and tumors occurring at the site where the bile ducts exit the liver may be referred to as "perihilar". A cholangiocarcinoma occurring at the junction where the

neg: Cholecystitis lead to the formation of direct connections between the gallbladder and gastrointestinal tract, called fistulas. With these direct connections, gallstones can pass from the gallbladder to the intestines. Gallstones can get trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly at the connection between the small and large intestines (ileocecal valve). When a gallstone gets trapped, it can lead to an intestinal obstruction, called gallstone ileus, leading to abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation, and abdominal distension. Cholecystitis occurs when the gallbladder becomes inflamed. Gallstones are the most common cause of gallbladder inflammation but it can also occur due to blockage from a tumor

neg: Breast development and transformation of the tubules into the matured ductal system of the breasts. Under the influence of estrogen, the ducts sprout and elongate, and terminal end buds (TEBs), bulbous structures at the tips of the ducts, penetrate into the fat pad and branch as the ducts elongate. This continues until a tree-like network of branched ducts that is embedded into and fills the entire fat pad of the breast is formed. In addition to its role in mediating ductal development, estrogen causes stromal tissue to grow and adipose (fat) tissue to accumulate, as well as the nipple-areolar complex to increase