query: who did the ottoman empire fight in ww1

pos: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I 29 October 1914 when it launched the Black Sea Raid against Russian ports. Following the attack, Russia and its allies (Britain and France) declared war on the Ottomans in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire started military action came after three months of formal neutrality, but it had signed a secret alliance with the Central Powers in August 1914. The political reasons for the Ottoman Sultan's entry into the war are disputed. and the Ottoman Empire was an agricultural state in an age of industrialized warfare, Also, the economic resources of the empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan

pos: Republic Day (Armenia) Republic Day (Armenia) Republic Day () is a national holiday in Armenia marking the anniversary of the First Armenian Republic in 1918. It is commonly celebrated with fireworks, concerts, torchlight marches, parades, and parties. It is considered to be the national day of Armenia. Shortly after the start of WW1 the Ottoman Empire began forcible expulsion of Armenians from the empire. Women, children and elderly people were forced to leave Armenia and go to Syria and Russia. 1 to 1.5 million people were killed in what is now known as the Armenian Genocide. Following the genocide, the Armenian National Council

pos: Yishuv I, there were two British battalions of Jews, called the Zion Mule Corps, who were to fight on the front of Palestine. They helped in the British capture of Ottoman Syria (including Palestine), leading to the Turkish surrender. The members of the Zion Mule Corps later made up the Yishuv's defence groups that would fight against the British. World War I ended, along with the Ottoman Empire. Britain gained control of Palestine through the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which partitioned Ottoman Syria into French-ruled Syria and Lebanon and British-controlled Palestine and Transjordan. There was a hope that British control would allow the

pos: Siege of Perpignan (1542) I of France, used up the remainder of the year to prepare new campaigns. On the French part, Frances I did everything possible to obtain military support from the Ottoman Empire, persuading Suleiman the Magnificent to return to Hungary and attack Charles of Austria's possessions, while the Ottoman Admiral, Hayreddin Barbarossa, attacked the Spanish and Italian coasts. In Europe, the French, under Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, captured Lillers in April, and Marshal Claude d'Annebault had taken Landrecies. Wilhelm of Cleves, invaded Brabant, and the fight began in Artois and Hainaut. King Francis inexplicably halted with his army near

pos: Macedonian Front their participation due to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Not only did the Entente have the Greek army fully on their side (9 divisions strong), but they also had some from the Czechoslovak Legion, who had been evacuated from Russia and sailed around the world, ready to fight the Austro-Hungarians. The Bulgarians had also increased their army during 1917 and in total manpower, the two sides were roughly equal battalions vs. battalions, plus ten German battalions). The Allies were certain of their impending victory, while the Bulgarians could see the war was lost. The Ottoman Empire was near

pos: Ottoman Greece the Great, the Orthodox ruler of the Russian Empire, who hoped to acquire Ottoman territory, including Constantinople itself, by inciting a Christian rebellion against the Ottomans. However, during the Russian-Ottoman War which broke out in 1768, the Greeks did not rebel, disillusioning their Russian patrons. The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) gave Russia the right to make "representations" to the Sultan in defense of his Orthodox subjects, and the Russians began to interfere regularly in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire. This, combined with the new ideas let loose by the French Revolution of 1789, began to reconnect the Greeks

pos: Armenia–United Kingdom relations living in the city, with thousands murdered. Lord Salisbury, the new Conservative Prime Minister tried and failed to get the Powers to intervene. Nothing was done to help the Armenians. British policy around 1910 stood in opposition to Russian control of Armenia, and tried to push the Ottoman Empire into improving its treatment of Armenians. When the World War erupted, Britain rejected the idea of forming an Armenian Legion to fight against the Turks. Instead it supported an Armenian Legion under French command that did fight in Cyprus. As news of the Massacres of Armenians emerged, London worked to demonstrate

pos: Ottoman–German alliance as he had tried to form an alliance with France. Not all parts of the Ottoman government accepted the Alliance. Austria-Hungary adhered to the Ottoman–German treaty on 5 August. The Ottoman Empire did not enter the war until the Ottoman Navy bombarded Russian ports on the 29 October 1914. Ottoman–German alliance The Ottoman–German Alliance was an alliance between the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire that was ratified on August 2, 1914, shortly following the outbreak of World War I. The alliance was created as part of a joint-cooperative effort that would strengthen and modernize the failing Ottoman military, as

pos: Grandville (comics) the Star Spangled Banner with the Seal of the United States. Appearing at the start of Noel, it resembles the World War One era of America, the police dress as they did at the start of the 20th century, and the U.S. Army soldiers dress similarly to WW1 ‘doughboys’. Following independence, Britain became "The Socialist Republic of Britain" and is now linked to the French Empire by the Channel railway bridge. However, a considerable degree of animosity remained between French and British people. Paris, the capital of the French Empire, is the biggest city in the world, known by the

pos: Franco-Ottoman alliance Great Britain. Britain took the opportunity to ally with the Ottoman Empire in order to repel Napoleon's invasion, intervening militarily during the Siege of Acre with Admiral William Sidney Smith in 1799, and under Ralph Abercromby at the Battle of Abukir in 1801. By 1802, the French were completely vanquished in the Middle East. Soon however, in 1803, France and Great Britain were again at war, and Napoleon went to great lengths to try to convince the Ottoman Empire to fight against Russia in the Balkans and join his anti-Russian coalition. On its side, Russia vied for Ottoman favour, and

pos: History of Zakynthos of Zakynthians (who were effectively Venetian subjects) in wars outside of Zakynthos took on a national character which went against the wishes of the Venetian rulers and often resulted in reprisals. In fact, Venice in accordance with their purported neutrality did their best to reduce the participation of Zakynthians in the Orlov Revolt and made overtures of peace to the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Following a long period of peace, on 23 October 1768 the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in response to supposed aggressive Russian foreign policy and interference in Crimea, an Ottoman vassal at the time.

pos: Partition of the Ottoman Empire of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. The Ottoman Empire had been the leading Islamic state in geopolitical, cultural and ideological terms. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after the war led to the rise in the Middle East of Western powers such as Britain and France and brought the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. Resistance to the influence of these powers came from the Turkish national movement but did not become widespread in the post-Ottoman states until after World War II. The League of

pos: Census in the Ottoman Empire Census in the Ottoman Empire The Ottomans, rulers of Ottoman Empire, did develop a reasonably efficient system for counting the empire's population only a quarter century after census procedures were introduced in the United States of America , Great Britain , and France. Four general censuses were held in the Ottoman Empire. These were 1831 census, 1881–82 census, 1905–06 census, and 1914 census. There were many special census, which Istanbul (Capital) is well known. There is considerable evidence that the census was taken throughout the empire, but it was accomplished under such severe difficulties that its results must be considered

pos: Avshalom Feinberg the Camp David Accords, a new village by the same name was founded in Israel in 1990. Avshalom Feinberg Avshalom Feinberg (, 23 October 1889 – 20 January 1917) was one of the leaders of Nili, a Jewish spy network in Ottoman Palestine helping the British fight the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Feinberg was born in Gedera, Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, and studied in France. He returned to work with Aaron Aaronsohn at the agronomy research station in Atlit. Soon after the beginning of war, the four Aaronsohn siblings (Sarah Aaronsohn, Rivka, Alex, and Aaron)

pos: Avshalom Feinberg Avshalom Feinberg Avshalom Feinberg (, 23 October 1889 – 20 January 1917) was one of the leaders of Nili, a Jewish spy network in Ottoman Palestine helping the British fight the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Feinberg was born in Gedera, Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, and studied in France. He returned to work with Aaron Aaronsohn at the agronomy research station in Atlit. Soon after the beginning of war, the four Aaronsohn siblings (Sarah Aaronsohn, Rivka, Alex, and Aaron) founded the Nili underground along with Feinberg. They were later joined by Yosef Lishansky and others. In

pos: Armenian national liberation movement Revolutionary Federation. Armenians generally saw Russia as their natural ally in the fight against Turks although Russia maintained an oppressive policy in the Caucasus. Only after losing its presence in Europe after the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman government was forced to sign the Armenian reform package in early 1914, however it was disrupted by World War I. During World War I, the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated by the government in the Armenian Genocide. According to some estimates, from 1894 to 1923, about 1,500,000—2,000,000 Armenians were killed by the Ottoman Empire. After the decision to exterminate

neg: Antiquization perspectives on the true course of history emerged around heroic Slavic-speaking figures from the geographic region Macedonia who fought against the rule of the Ottoman Empire, like Dame Gruev and Gotse Delchev. But did these people fight for freedom and an independent Macedonian state? Or did they fight for independence from the Ottoman Empire in order to include this area into a Greater Bulgaria? Similarly to Greece, Bulgaria and other Balkan states see Macedonia presenting supposedly Macedonian heroes, which they actually claim to be Bulgarian or respectively Greek. In the modern Macedonian narrative, these people evidently fought for an independent

neg: Albanian nobility Albanian nobility with Ottoman Empire was the Battle of Savra in 1385. After the Battle of Savra Albanian nobility became vassals of the Ottoman Empire. Albanian nobility did not fight against Ottomans with united and compact forces like Serbian and Bulgarian aristocracy, but with small independent local rulers. Therefore, the Ottomans, who have been since claimed to be "brutal and cruel" to the Serbian and Bulgarian nobility, might have been conciliatory with the Albanian nobility. When Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire, it was divided into sanjaks with numerous timars. Many members of the Albanian nobility held high rank

neg: Australia Will Be There Australia Will Be There Australia Will Be There or Auld Lang Syne - Australia Will Be There is an Australian patriotic song written in 1915 as Australian troops were sent abroad to fight the German and Ottoman forces in Europe and the Middle East. The song was composed by Walter William Francis, a Welshman who immigrated to Australia in 1913 due to bad health. The song is one of the more well-known WW1 patriotic songs known in Australia today. It was one of the songs that Australian troops marched to on their way to fight in battle. The song's lyrics

neg: Central Powers with the Ottoman Empire on 19 August 1914. It was the last country to join the Central Powers, which Bulgaria did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia. It invaded Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Bulgaria held claims on the region of Vardar Macedonia then held by Serbia following the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and (from the Bulgarian point of view), the costly Treaty of Bucharest (1913). As a condition of entering WW1 on the side of the Central Powers, Bulgaria was granted the right to reclaim that territory. The Dervish movement was a rebel Somali

neg: Stephen Bocskai most Transylvanian politicians wanted to avoid war with the Ottoman Empire as long as Poland remained neutral. Sigismund did not abandon his plan to fight against the Ottomans, but only Bocskai and Ferenc Geszthy, who was the captain of Déva (now Deva in Romania), supported him in the royal council. Crimean Tatars stormed into Hungary and pillaged the Partium in June 1594, forcing Bocskai to stay in Várad. Sigismund Báthory convoked the Diet, but the delegates of the Three Nations of Transylvania refused to declare war against the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of the prince's failure, Balthasar Báthory persuaded him

neg: Australia Will Be There makes reference to HMAS Sydney's sinking of the SMS Emden the year prior. Australia Will Be There Australia Will Be There or Auld Lang Syne - Australia Will Be There is an Australian patriotic song written in 1915 as Australian troops were sent abroad to fight the German and Ottoman forces in Europe and the Middle East. The song was composed by Walter William Francis, a Welshman who immigrated to Australia in 1913 due to bad health. The song is one of the more well-known WW1 patriotic songs known in Australia today. It was one of the songs that Australian

neg: Republic of Serbian Krajina The name "Krajina" (meaning "frontier") stemmed from the Military Frontier which Austria carved out of parts of the crown lands of Croatia and Slavonia between 1553–1578 with a view to defending itself against the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. Many Croats, Serbs and Vlachs immigrated from nearby parts of the Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Bosnia and Serbia) into the region and helped bolster and replenish the population as well as the garrisoned troops in the fight against the Ottomans. The Austrians controlled the Frontier from military headquarters in Vienna and did not make it a crown land, though it had some

neg: Republic Day (Armenia) held at the memorial, which featured hundreds of soldiers dressed in military uniforms from the First Armenian, Soviet Army uniforms from World War II, as well as veterans of the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Republic Day (Armenia) Republic Day () is a national holiday in Armenia marking the anniversary of the First Armenian Republic in 1918. It is commonly celebrated with fireworks, concerts, torchlight marches, parades, and parties. It is considered to be the national day of Armenia. Shortly after the start of WW1 the Ottoman Empire began forcible expulsion of Armenians from the empire. Women, children and elderly people were forced

neg: Vlad II Dracul butchered for Christian peace so that [he] and [his] country [could] be subjects" of the king of Hungary. His words evidence that he was convinced that his two sons had been murdered in the Ottoman Empire, but the sultan did not harm the boys. In 1446 or 1447, Vlad made peace with the Ottomans, even agreeing to return the Bulgarian refugees to the Ottoman Empire. He intervened in the fight for the Moldavian throne in favor of Roman II of Moldavia in July 1447. The Poles also supported Roman, but Roman's opponent, Peter II, was Hunyadi's protegé. On 20 July

neg: Ottoman entry into World War I to defend Ottoman territory if it was threatened, and Turkey would join with Germany if German treaty obligations with Austria forced it into war, but would not actually fight on Germany's side unless Bulgaria also did. The German government offered and to the Ottoman Navy as replacements, to gain influence. The British Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau failed when the Ottoman government opened the Dardanelles to allow them passage to Constantinople, despite being required under international law, as a neutral party, to block military shipping. On 2 August 1914 the Ottoman Empire ordered general mobilization, announcing that it would remain

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire many examples of Armenian citizens who played a fundamental role in the sociopolitical sphere of the Ottoman Empire. Certain elite Armenian families in the Ottoman Empire gained the trust of the Sultans and were able to achieve important positions in the Ottoman government and the Ottoman economy. Even though their numbers were small compared to the whole Ottoman Armenian population, this caused some resentment among Ottoman nationalists. The life of the rest of the common Armenians was a very difficult existence because they were treated as second class citizens. Those elite Armenians that did achieve great success were individuals such

neg: History of Romania other small local states with varying degrees of independence developed on the territory of today's Romania, but only in the 14th century the larger principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia emerged to fight the Ottoman Turks, who conquered Constantinople in 1453. Independent Wallachia had been near the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century until it had gradually succumbed under the Ottomans' influence during the next centuries with brief episodes of independence. Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula, ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456–62, and 1476 is remembered by his raids against the Ottoman Empire

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire did not support national liberation aspirations or who were neutral were called "chezoks". Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan and oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. He was the last Ottoman Sultan to rule with absolute power. The Bashkaleh clash was the bloody encounter between the Armenakan Party and the Ottoman Empire in May 1889. Its name comes from Başkale, a border town of Van Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. The event was important, as it was reflected in

neg: Ottoman coups of 1807–08 Janissaries early on, managed to reign for several more decades. By 1826, he had become less afraid of the Janissaries and, in the Auspicious Incident, intentionally, some historians claim, caused the unit to rebel. He called out his regular troops and, using artillery to bombard the Janissary headquarters, destroyed the elite troops' capability to fight. He arrested the survivors, executing them shortly afterward. Now, without having to fear a coup, Mahmud pursued military and social reforms that, although modernizing the empire, did not stop its decline. Ottoman coups of 1807–08 The Ottoman palace coups of 1807–08 refers to several coups

neg: Iraqi Air Force Iraqi Air Force The Iraqi Air Force (IQAF or IrAF; Arabic: القوات الجوية العراقية, "Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Iraqiya") is the aerial warfare service branch of the Iraqi Armed Forces, responsible for the policing of international borders and surveillance of national assets. The IQAF also acts as a support force for the Iraqi Navy and the Iraqi Army and it allows Iraq to rapidly deploy its developing Army. The Iraqi Air Force was founded in 1931, during British control of Iraq after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in WW1, with only a few pilots. Aside from a brief

neg: Dervish Cara Yanina recalling them brothers and asking them not to fight for the Ottoman army. During a brief pause in the fighting, the Sublime Porte tried to end the rebellion through negotiations. Dervish Cara requested that Albanians be exempt from the law of the Ottoman army, under which all Muslims were forced to serve in the regular army (Nizam); stop the replacement of Ottoman local government officials (who were Albanians or spoke Albanian) with Turkish officials brought from Anatolia, who knew neither the language and customs; and the recognition of Albanian autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, as was recognized the autonomy

neg: Pan-Slavism the Balkan campaign of the Russian Empire, which resulted in the entire Balkan being liberated from the Ottoman Empire, with the help and the initiative of the Russian Empire. Pan-Slavism has some supporters among Czech and Slovak politicians, especially among the nationalistic and far-right ones, such as People's Party - Our Slovakia. During World War I, captured Slavic soldiers were asked to fight against "oppression in the Austrian Empire". Consequently, some did. (see Czechoslovak Legions) The creation of an independent Czechoslovakia made the old ideals of Pan-Slavism anachronistic. Relations with other Slavic states varied, sometimes being so tense it escalated

neg: Elmas Mehmed Pasha campaign plan of the Ottoman side and the Habsburgs raided the Ottoman army while the army was crossing the bridge over Tisa. Elmas Mehmed tried to organize an orderly withdrawal and he had to fight against the undisciplined soldiers who were in panic. He was killed by his own soldiers, suffocated to death with a bowstring. Two years later the Ottoman Empire had to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz and had to accept the loss of Hungary. Elmas Mehmed Pasha Elmas Mehmed Pasha (1661 – 11 September 1697) was an Ottoman statesman who served as grand vizier from 1695 to

neg: Kingdom of Semien the Jews were able to eventually restore their kingdom. Between the years 1529 until 1543 the Muslim Adal Sultanate armies with the assistance of forces from the Ottoman Empire invaded and fought the Ethiopian Empire and came close to extinguishing the ancient realm of Ethiopia. During that time period the Jews made a pact with the Ethiopian Empire. The leaders of the Kingdom of Beta Israel changed their alliance during the war and began supporting the Muslim Adal Sultanate armies. The Adal Sultanate armies did not see in favor the Jewish kingdom's change of alliance and continued the fight against

neg: Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire) Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire) Ottoman labour battalions (, , Greek: Τάγματα Εργασίας, "Tagmata Ergasias", but more often the transliterated Turkish name αμελέ ταμπουρού is used) was a form of unfree labour in the late Ottoman Empire. The term is associated with disarmament and murder of Ottoman Armenian soldiers during World War I, of Ottoman Greeks during the 1913-1919 persecution of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire and also during the Turkish War of Independence . Armenians did not serve in the armed forces in the Ottoman Empire until 1908. Soon after the Young Turk Revolution, which declared that unfair distinction between

neg: Ottoman Empire conduct war games, lest this serve as the cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron Colmar von der Goltz arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers who were to play a notable role in the politics of the last years of the empire. From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, some 7–9 million

neg: Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire it paid homage to a specific ruler and a new anthem was composed at each imperial succession. However, in 1844, with the Tanzimat reforms, the "Mecidiye Marşı" was recognized as the first official Ottoman national anthem. The first official Ottoman national flag (which was in essence identical to the present-day Turkish flag) was also adopted in 1844. After the start of the imperial anthem tradition, two Sultans did not have specific anthems composed. The first is Murad V, who reigned for 3 months in 1876 and the second is the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed VI, who used

neg: Carlo Caneva an infantry colonel to fight against Ethiopia and the Dervishes. In those campaigns he rose to major general. In 1911, after commanding divisions and then an army corps, he was selected to lead Italy's Libyan campaign against the Ottoman Empire and Libyan resistance forces under Omar Mukhtar, which ended in 1912. Sidney Sonnino described Caneva at the time of the Libyan campaign as "a man who has had stomach troubles for eight years to the present". Luigi Barzini was also critical, stating the "On my word of honour, I did not know if he was worth the table (as they

neg: Somali nationalism country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders". Hassan issued a religious ordinance stipulating that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered to be kafir, or "gaal". He soon acquired weapons from the Ottoman Empire, Sudan, other Islamic and Arabian countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, he gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his forces. Hassan's Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and

neg: Zehra Bilir Zehra Bilir Zehra Bilir (March 26, 1913 in Arapgir, Ottoman Empire – June 28, 2007 in Istanbul, Turkey) was a renowned Turkish folk singer of Armenian descent. She was known as the Edith Piaf of Turkey. Zehra Bilir was born Eliz Surhantakyan in Arapgir. Armenian newspaper "Agos" published in Turkey suggests that Zehra Bilir's real Armenian name was Eliza Olchuyan (or Eliza Ölçüyan in Turkish transliteration). Her father Harutyun, went to fight for the Ottoman Empire during the First World War but has never returned. Eliz had two sisters and a brother who her mother couldn't look after on her

neg: Liberalism in Turkey Turkish intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, which they believed did not go far enough, and wanted to end the autocracy in the empire. Young Ottomans sought to transform Ottoman society by preserving the empire and modernizing along the European tradition of adopting a constitutional government. Though the Young Ottomans were frequently in disagreement ideologically, they all agreed that the new constitutional government should continue to be somewhat rooted in Islam to emphasize "the continuing and essential validity of Islam as the basis of Ottoman political culture." However, they sincreticize islamic idealism with modern

neg: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire were executed on 15 June 1915. The first Kurds to challenge the authority of the Ottoman Empire did so primarily as Ottoman subjects, rather than "national" Kurds. They worked with other Ottoman subjects who were in opposition to the policies of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and in 1889 formed the CUP. Abdul Hamid responded with a policy of repression, but also of integration, co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents into the Ottoman power structure with prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appears successful given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye Cavalry. In 1908, after the overthrow of Sultan, the Hamidiye

neg: Ottoman expedition to Aceh Ottoman expedition to Aceh The Ottoman expedition to Aceh started from around 1565 when the Ottoman Empire endeavoured to support the Aceh Sultanate in its fight against the Portuguese Empire in Malacca. The expedition followed an envoy sent by the Acehnese Sultan Alauddin Riayat Syah al-Kahhar (1539–71) to Suleiman the Magnificent in 1564, and possibly as early as 1562, requesting Ottoman support against the Portuguese. An informal Ottoman-Aceh alliance had existed since at least the 1530s. Sultan Alauddin wished to develop these relations, both to attempt the expulsion of the Portuguese in Malacca, and to extend his own power in

neg: Kosovo Serbs battle occurred between the Hungarian troops supported by the Albanian ruler George Kastrioti Skanderbeg on one side, and Ottoman troops supported by the Branković dynasty in 1448. Skanderbeg's troops which were going to help John Hunyadi were stopped by the Branković's troops, who was more or less an Ottoman vassal. Hungarian King John Hunyadi lost the battle after a 2-day fight, but essentially stopped the Ottoman advance northwards. Kosovo then became vassalaged to the Ottoman Empire, until its direct incorporation as the Vilayet of Kosovo after the final fall of Serbia in 1459. In 1455, new castles rose to prominence

neg: Ottoman family law Ottoman Empire, was to give women better access to divorce. However, it is argued by scholar Judith Tucker that the Ottoman Law of Family Rights did little to advance women's rights in the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman family law A part of Muslim sharia law that was prominent during the Ottoman Empire is family law. This law relates to marriage, children, and divorce. Family law falls under the category of private law in the Ottoman Empire. Family and inheritance law was at the very center of Ottoman law, and thus was least affected by the penetration of foreign law. Family law

neg: Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire Many twentieth-century scholars argued that power of the Ottoman Empire began waning after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566, and without the acquisition of significant new wealth the empire went into decline, a concept known as the Ottoman Decline Thesis. Since the late 1970's, however, historians increasingly came to question the idea of Ottoman decline, and now there is a consensus among academic historians that the Ottoman Empire did not decline. Itzkowitz and İnalcik state Ottoman writers attributed the Empire’s troubles to the dissolution of the circle of equity, erosion

neg: Vlad II Dracul in 1442. Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and made Vlad's cousin, Basarab II, voivode. Vlad was released before the end of the year, but he had to leave his two sons as hostages in the Ottoman Empire. He was restored in Wallachia with Ottoman support in 1443. He remained neutral during Hunyadi's "Long Campaign" against the Ottoman Empire between October 1443 and January 1444, but he sent 4,000 horsemen to fight against the Ottomans during the Crusade of Varna. With the support of a Burgundian fleet he captured the important Ottoman fortress at Giurgiu in 1445. He made peace with the Ottoman

neg: Mircea I of Wallachia in 1389. The treaty was renewed in 1404 and 1410. He maintained close relations with Sigismund of Luxembourg, the king of Hungary, relying on their common interest in the struggle against Ottoman expansion. His interventions in support of the Bulgarians south of the Danube who were fighting against the Turks brought him into conflict with the Ottoman Empire. In 1394, Beyazid I (also known as "Yıldırım Beyazıt", "the Thunderbolt") crossed the Danube river, leading 40,000 men, an impressive force at the time. Mircea had only about 10,000 men so he could not survive an open fight. He chose to fight

neg: Young Ottomans Young Ottomans The Young Ottomans () were a secret society established in 1865 by a group of Ottoman Turkish intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, which they believed did not go far enough. Young Ottomans sought to transform Ottoman society by preserving the empire and modernizing along the European tradition of adopting a constitutional government. Though the Young Ottomans were frequently in disagreement ideologically, they all agreed that the new constitutional government should continue to be somewhat rooted in Islam to emphasize "the continuing and essential validity of Islam as the basis of Ottoman

neg: Ze'ev Jabotinsky controlled Palestine. In 1915, together with Joseph Trumpeldor, a one-armed veteran of the Russo-Japanese War, he created the Zion Mule Corps, which consisted of several hundred Jewish men, mainly Russians who had been exiled from Palestine by the Ottoman Empire and had settled in Egypt. The unit served with distinction in the Battle of Gallipoli. When the Zion Mule Corps was disbanded, Jabotinsky traveled to London, where he continued his efforts to establish Jewish units to fight in Palestine as part of the British Army. Although Jabotinsky did not serve with the Zion Mule Corps, Trumpeldor, Jabotinsky and 120 Zion

neg: History of Somalia of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders." Hassan issued a religious ordinance that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as "kafir" or "gaal". He soon acquired weapons from the Ottoman Empire, Sudan, and other sympathetic Muslim countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, Hassan gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his follower-warriors. His Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and

neg: Jafar al-Askari was invited by Husayn’s son, Amir Faisal, to join in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. Ja’far fought under Amir Faisal throughout this period up until the fall of the Ottoman Empire, including Faisal’s assault on Damascus in 1918. After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Zaid, on behalf of Amir Faisal, asked Ja’far to be the Inspector General of the Army of the newly established Arab state of Syria, which he accepted. Shortly thereafter, Ja’far was appointed the military Governor of the Aleppo Vilayet in Syria. During his time as

neg: Romanians the 14th century, when the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia emerged to fight the Ottoman Empire. During the late Middle Ages, prominent medieval Romanian monarchs such as Bogdan of Moldavia, Stephen the Great, Mircea the Elder, Michael the Brave, or Vlad the Impaler took part actively in the history of Central Europe by waging tumultuous wars and leading noteworthy crusades against the then continuously expanding Ottoman Empire, at times allied with either the Kingdom of Poland or the Kingdom of Hungary in these causes. Eventually the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by the Ottoman Empire. However, Moldavia and Wallachia

neg: Prose of the Ottoman Empire Prose of the Ottoman Empire Roughly speaking, the prose of the Ottoman Empire can be divided along the lines of two broad periods: early Ottoman prose, written prior to the 19th century CE and exclusively nonfictional in nature; and later Ottoman prose, which extended from the mid-19th century Tanzimat period of reform to the final fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, and in which prose fiction was first introduced. Early Ottoman prose, before the 19th century CE, never developed to the extent that the contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much

neg: Convention of Mat Convention of Mat The Convention of Mat was organized on November 7, 1594 by Albanian leaders fighting against the Ottoman Empire. Mat was chosen as the place of the meeting due to its role in Albanian revolts of the 16th century. The aim was a better organization of the revolts to achieve independence from the Ottoman Empire. The convention decided that help should be sought from the Pope, and for negotiations were chosen Tom Plezha, Mark Gjini and Nikollë Mekajshi. However, the Pope refused to give help, claiming that it was not the right time to fight the Ottoman Empire.

neg: Moldavian Magnate Wars This was seen by many as very dangerous step because Ottomans were preparing to place their own candidate on Moldavian throne. Zamoyski contacted grand vizier Sinan Pasha and negotiated with the Ottoman governor on the Black Sea island of Tyahyn (near the Dniepr river) and convinced them of his peaceful intentions and that he did not want to fight with the Ottoman Empire. However, the Khan of Crimea, Ğazı II Giray, reacted and entered Moldavia with about 20,000 men (but no cannons and few janissaries). Zamoyski fortified his camp near Cecora at Prut river, withstood a three-day siege (17–20 October),

neg: Greek War of Independence peoples of the Ottoman Empire. The Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians (who did not fight against the Ottomans but against their Balkan neighbours), Romanians and Armenians all subsequently fought for and won their independence. Shortly after the war ended, the people of the Russian-dependent Poland, encouraged by the Greek victory, started the November Uprising, hoping to regain their independence. The uprising, however, failed, and Polish independence had to wait until 1918. The newly established Greek state would become a catalyst for further expansion and, over the course of a century, parts of Macedonia, Crete, Epirus, many Aegean Islands and other Greek-speaking territories

neg: Religion in Albania Albania were members of the Archbishopric of Ohrid which was officially recognized by the Ottoman Empire. Those Albanian Orthodox, who, in the fashion of 19th century Balkan nationalism, sought to see their church as an "Albanian" rather than "Greek" body, were frequently excommunicated by the Greek-speaking hierarchy. Considering that identity during the Ottoman centuries was defined primarily by religious affiliations, such questions in the post-Ottoman period loomed large in the burgeoning national and cultural identities. After the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople lost in 1870 jurisdictional control over the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire, the Patriarchate did not desire further schisms

neg: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman policies were praised by British economists such as J. R. McCulloch in his "Dictionary of Commerce" (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate: Domestic trade vastly exceeded international trade in both value and volume though researchers have little in direct measurements. Much of Ottoman history has been based on European archives that did not document the empire's internal trade resulting in it being underestimated. Quataert illustrates the size of internal trade by

neg: Rise of the Ottoman Empire Uroš and the powerful noble Vukasin Mrnjavcevic, who held Prilep in Macedonia. Far from preserving Serb unity, Uroš's loosely amalgamated domains were wracked by constant civil war among the regional nobles, leaving Serbia vulnerable to the rising Ottoman threat. Murad I did rise to the power of the Ottoman Empire in 1362. By 1370 Murad controlled most of Thrace, bringing him into direct contact with Bulgaria and the southeastern Serbian lands ruled by Uglješa. Uglješa, the most powerful Serb regional ruler, unsuccessfully attempted to forge an anti-Ottoman alliance of Balkan states in 1371. Byzantium, vulnerable to the Turks because of

neg: Čolak-Anta in Turkish) when, in 1806, during a fight with an Ottoman commander in Ostruznica on the bank of the river Sava, he was hit with a sabre and lost the usage of his left hand.. At the beginning of the 19th century Serbia has been ruled by the Ottoman Empire for almost three centuries; In late 1801 renegade Janissary leaders (soldiers of the Ottoman sultan see janissary) ruled over that northern edge of the Ottoman Empire known as the Sanjak of Smederevo or Pashalik of Belgrade, with unrestrained brutality, the four were known as the Dahijas. Their cruelty had made

neg: Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire used anthems since its foundation in the late 13th century, but did not use a specific imperial or national anthem until the 19th century. During the reign of Mahmud II, when the military and imperial band were re-organized along Western lines, Giuseppe Donizetti was invited to head the process. Donizetti Pasha, as he was known in the Ottoman Empire, composed the first Western-style imperial anthem, the "Mahmudiye Marşı". Like in many other monarchies of its time, the anthem of the Ottoman Empire was an imperial anthem, not a national one. Hence

neg: Ottoman–German alliance signature from the House of Osman as the Sultan Mehmed V did not sign it. According to the Constitution, the Sultan was the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, and this made the legitimacy of the Alliance questionable. This meant that the army was not able to fight on behalf of the Sultan. The Sultan himself had wanted the Empire to remain neutral. He did not wish to command a war himself and as such left the Cabinet to do much of his bidding. The third member of the cabinet of the Three Pashas Djemal Pasha also did not sign the treaty

neg: Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire Skanderbeg ("İskender Bey"), an Albanian noble and a former member of the Ottoman ruling elite, prevented the Ottoman expansion into the Italian peninsula. Skanderbeg had united the Albanian Principalities in a fight against the Empire in the League of Lezhë in 1444. Mehmed II couldn't subjugate Albania and Skanderbeg while the latter was alive, even though twice (1466 and 1467) he led the Ottoman armies himself against Krujë. After death of Skanderbeg in 1468, Albanians couldn't find a leader to replace him and Mehmed II eventually conquered Krujë and Albania in 1478. The final act of his Albanian campaigns was

neg: Iraqi Army which claimed the Ottoman vilayet of Mosul as part of their country, led the British to form the Iraqi Army on 6 January 1921. The Mussa Al-Kadhum Brigade consisted of ex-Iraqi-Ottoman officers, whose barracks were located in Kadhimyah. The United Kingdom provided support and training to the Iraqi Army and the Iraqi Air Force through a small military mission based in Baghdad. Iraqi Army Day celebrates the soldiers that fight for Iraq. From 1533 to 1918, Iraq was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, and fought as part of the Military of the Ottoman Empire. After 1917, the United

neg: Ottoman illumination and photography did not have as much negative influences as it did in the case of Ottoman miniature painting. This was because both people and the ruling elites in Ottoman Empire were eager to continue the tradition of illuminating religious texts that came not only as books (like illuminated Qurans) but also as plates to adorn and sanctify their houses and work places. In the 20th century, after the end of Ottoman Empire, the intelligentsia of the newly born Turkish Republic was under the influence of Western art and aesthetics. The Ottoman Book Arts were unfortunately estimated as not as

neg: Abulafia (surname) and settled mostly in the Ottoman Empire (a Turkic Muslim sultanate), where the Turkish Muslim Ottoman sultan offered the Abulafias and other Sephardic Jews refuge. The surname did not entirely disappear in Spain itself, and there are still Spanish Catholics named Abolafio. Those Abulafias who left in 1492 and settled as Jews in Italy often became known as Abolaffio, Bolaffio and Bolaffi. The Abulafias – as with most other Sephardi expellees – settled mostly in the European portions of the Ottoman Empire, largely in what is today Thessaloniki (in modern Greece), and Istanbul in modern northwestern Turkey. This area is

neg: Himara to his marriage with the daughter of John Komnenos Asen. After the death of Balša II, his widow and his daughter (who married Mrkša Žarković) managed to keep the possession of the region up to 1417 when the Ottomans captured Vlora. The Ottoman Empire overran northern Epirus from the late 14th century, but being a natural fortress, Himara was the only region that did not submit to Ottoman rule. It became a symbol of resistance to the Ottomans but suffered from an almost continuous state of warfare. Himariotes participated in Skanderbeg's resistance against the Ottoman Empire. In the summer of

neg: Ottoman Ayan Ottoman Ayan The Ottoman ayan (singlular: ayn) were local notables or dynasts that maintained different extents of administrative control over swaths of land in the Ottoman Empire from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. These dynasts held significant autonomy from the central Ottoman government but did not challenge the state. Though the title could only be earned by Muslims, their leadership was secular. This elite class consisted of, “Wealthy merchants, heads of Janissary garrisons, leaders of important craft guilds, those who had bought the right to collect taxes for the government in Istanbul, and those who supervised the distributions

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play

neg: Otto Liman von Sanders Liman von Sanders. Early in 1915, the previous head of the German military mission to the Ottoman Empire, Baron von der Goltz, arrived in Istanbul as military advisor to the (essentially powerless) Sultan, Mehmed V. The old Baron did not get along with Liman von Sanders and did not like the three Pashas (Enver Pasha, Cemal Pasha and Talat) who ran the Ottoman Empire during the war. The Baron proposed some major offensives against the British, but these proposals came to nothing in the face of Allied offensives against the Ottomans on three fronts (the Dardanelles, the Caucasus Front, and

neg: Occupation of the Ottoman Bank Hamid, massacres commonly known as the Hamidian massacres. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation sought to stop the murder of Armenians and planned the bank takeover to gain the attention and intervention of world powers. The plan to occupy the Ottoman Bank was masterminded by Papken Siuni, who would lead the operation along with his head assistant, Hrach Tiryakian. When Armen Garo accepted to take part in the act in February 1896, the arrangements to raid the bank started. From the start, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation handed out fliers to the general population of the Ottoman Empire stating that their fight was

neg: Resm-i bennâk Resm-i bennâk The resm-i bennâk was a tax on peasants who had little or no land - those who did not pay the resm-i çift - in the Ottoman Empire. The name is probably a loanword of Armenian origin; in the Ottoman Empire, "bennâk" came to mean a landless peasant, or a man who had married but not yet established his own household. ""Bennâk"" was also a term for a small area of farmland, less than half a çift. The resm-i bennâk was usually paid annually, on 1 March, by the head of a family who is either landless or

neg: Albania under the Ottoman Empire Sanjak of Albania after Gjergj Arianiti defeated the Ottomans between 1431-1435. The Ottomans allowed Albanian clan chiefs to maintain their positions, rule and property, but they had to pay tribute, and sometimes send their sons to the Ottoman court as hostages, and provide the Ottoman army with auxiliary troops. However many Albanian clans and Principalities did not recognize the Ottoman authority and did not pay tribute. The Albanians' resistance to the Ottomans in the 14th century and especially in the 15th century won them acclaim all over Europe. Gjon Kastrioti of Krujë was one of the Albanian clan leaders who

neg: Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2000 books in the Turkish language were printed using the Armenian script. Not only did Armenians read Armeno-Turkish, but so did the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. The Armenian script was also used alongside the Arabic script on official documents of the Ottoman Empire written in Ottoman Turkish. For instance, the first novel to be written in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 "Akabi Hikayesi", written in the Armenian script. Also, when the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in

neg: Military Frontier from the Croatian Parliament and the ban. The Territory of the Frontier had a large Serb population, who fled from their south-eastern lands, and tried to fight the Ottoman forces, making a refuge in Habsburg Croatia. As freedom of faith was granted to them, they preserved their Orthodox faith in spite of their living in a Catholic country. Eventually, the whole male population of the Military Frontier became professional soldiers who served the Empire on several fronts and through many European wars, even after the relaxation of the Ottoman threat. During the 17th century territory of the Military Frontier was

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire the takeover was reported positively in the European press, praising the men for their courage and the objectives they attempted to accomplish. The years between 1894 and 1896 ended, with estimates of the dead ranging from 80,000 to 300,000. The Hamidian massacres are named for Sultan Abdul Hamid II, whose efforts to reinforce the territorial integrity of the embattled Ottoman Empire resulted in the massacres. Ottoman officials involved in the Sasun uprising, who were previously defeated in the First Zeitoun Rebellion, did not want the formation of another semi-autonomous Armenian region in the "Eastern" vilayets. In Sasun, Armenian activists were

neg: Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire) of Yaşar Paker, a member of the Jewish community of early 20th century Ankara who was drafted to the Labour Battalions twice, first during the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) and then again during World War II, a war in which Turkey did not take part. Neyzi's paper on the basis of Paker's diary published by Jewish Social Studies presents an overall picture for the conditions in these battalions, which were composed entirely of non-Muslims. Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire) Ottoman labour battalions (, , Greek: Τάγματα Εργασίας, "Tagmata Ergasias", but more often the transliterated Turkish name αμελέ ταμπουρού is used) was a

neg: Demographics of the Ottoman Empire Demographics of the Ottoman Empire This article is about the demographics of the Ottoman Empire, including population density, ethnicity, education level, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographic data for most of the history of the Ottoman Empire is not quite precise. For most of the five centuries of its existence, the empire did not have easily computable valid data except figures for the number of employed citizens. Until the first official census (1881–1893), data was derived from extending the taxation values to the total population. Because of the use of taxation data to infer population size, detailed

neg: Resm-i bennâk There were even cases of people forging certificates of ancestry in order to claim tax exemptions. Resm-i bennâk The resm-i bennâk was a tax on peasants who had little or no land - those who did not pay the resm-i çift - in the Ottoman Empire. The name is probably a loanword of Armenian origin; in the Ottoman Empire, "bennâk" came to mean a landless peasant, or a man who had married but not yet established his own household. ""Bennâk"" was also a term for a small area of farmland, less than half a çift. The resm-i bennâk was usually

neg: Naum Faiq freedom of speech were lifted. In 1910, Naum began publishing a newspaper for the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant Syriac communities, entitled "Kawkab Madnho" ("Star of the East"). While written entirely in the Syriac alphabet, "Star of the East" was actually tri-lingual with articles in Ottoman Turkish, classical Syriac and Arabic. This newspaper, along with that of Ashur Yousif, signaled the emergence of Assyrian nationalism in the Syriac Christian communities of the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman Empire and Italy began to fight over the province of Libya in 1911, Naum like other Christians in the region felt a backlash from

neg: Ottoman Ayan the most significant providers of social mobility to non-Muslim groups in the Empire. The ayan became such a powerful, landed elite class that many formed their own armies. Technically, these armies were at the service of the Sultan and could be called upon to fight for the Ottoman Empire (which they often were during the Ottomans’ many wars in the 17th and 18th centuries.) However, they also had significant freedom to operate. “While, on the one hand, they were military vassals to the sultan, serving in Ottoman armies during times of war, they remained, on the other hand, effectively autonomous

neg: Anđelko Aleksić slaughterhouse." The Serbian Foreign Minister felt the Četnik Campaign would upset their delicate negotiations with the Ottoman Empire. Anđelko Aleksić Anđelko Aleksić (; 1876 – 27 May 1904) was a Macedonian Serb Chetnik commander ("voivode"). He and Đorđe Cvetković led the first two armed bands of the Serbian Chetnik Organization, sent from the Kingdom of Serbia into Ottoman Macedonia to fight for the liberation of Macedonia. Anđelko Aleksić was born in Midinci, which at the time was part of the Ottoman Empire. He was a "pečalbar" (seasonal worker) in Belgrade, and had come since being a youngster. In 1897 he

neg: Battle of Baku In May, on the Persian Front, a military mission under Nuri Pasha, brother of Enver Pasha, settled in Tabriz to organize the Islamic Army of the Caucasus to fight not only Armenians but also the Bolsheviks. Nuri Pasha's army occupied large parts of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic without much opposition, influencing the fragile structure of the newly formed state. Ottoman interference led some elements of Azerbaijani society to oppose Turks. On 4 June 1918, Azerbaijan and the Ottoman Empire signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation, clause 4 of which held that the Ottoman Empire would provide military assistance to

neg: Mehmed Selim Pasha garrison of Jannisaries rose in revolt against him, Selim Pasha sought refuge into the Citadel of Damascus. After a siege lasting 40 days he was promised safe passage but murdered before he could leave the city. Mehmed Selim Pasha Mehmed Selim Pasha or Mehmed Selim Sırrı Pasha (1771 Bender, Moldova – 1831 Damascus, Ottoman Empire, nickname: "Benderli") was an Ottoman statesman. He was Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 14 September 1824 to 24 October 1828 as Grand Vizier of sultan Mahmud II and failed in the fight against the Greek War of Independence. The Auspicious Incident

neg: Iraq–Turkey relations I, contemporary Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire. Iraq under Ottoman rule did not have political unity. There were three administrative provinces (vilayet) in current Iraq, organised by Land Law of 1858 and Vilayet Law of 1864 of Ottoman Empire: Basra, Baghdad and Mosul provinces. Political unity of these three provinces came to fruition as a result of World War I and the invasion by the UK of this region. The Ottoman Empire lost World War I and signed the armistice of Moudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918. According to this armistice, the Ottoman Empire's southern border

neg: History of Singapore Singapore donated generously to Tongmenghui, which organised the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that led to the establishment of the Republic of China. World War I (1914–1918) did not deeply affect Singapore: the conflict did not spread to Southeast Asia. The only significant local military event during the war was a 1915 mutiny by the British Muslim Indian sepoys garrisoned in Singapore. After hearing rumors of plans to send them to fight the Ottoman Empire, the soldiers revolted, killing their officers and several British civilians before troops arriving from Johor and Burma suppressed the unrest. After the war, the British government devoted

neg: Census in the Ottoman Empire was an important paper to hold for the subject of the Ottoman Empire. During census each person recorded and counted in return with a signed and sealed Population Certificate (Nufus Tezkeresi), more or less a receipt for the registration, which contained the same information set down in the register. All practical purpose Population Certificate served both as birth certificate and identity card and had to be produced in all governmental and legal dealings. Census in the Ottoman Empire The Ottomans, rulers of Ottoman Empire, did develop a reasonably efficient system for counting the empire's population only a quarter century after

neg: Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire the "Mahmudiye Marşı" anthem. Only the "Hamidiye Marşı" and "Reşadiye Marşı" have lyrics, the first three anthems being instrumental. Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire used anthems since its foundation in the late 13th century, but did not use a specific imperial or national anthem until the 19th century. During the reign of Mahmud II, when the military and imperial band were re-organized along Western lines, Giuseppe Donizetti was invited to head the process. Donizetti Pasha, as he was known in the Ottoman Empire, composed the first Western-style imperial anthem, the "Mahmudiye Marşı". Like in many other

neg: Siege of Trebizond (1461) "reluctance to pay tribute and the intermarriages with Hassan and the Georgian court provoked the Sultan to invade the Empire." On the other hand, Halil İnalcık cites a passage from the 15th-century Ottoman historian Kemal Pasha-zade, who wrote: By the 1450s, the Ottoman Empire either occupied or had established hegemony over much of the territories the Eastern Roman Empire held before the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople in 1204. Many of Mehmed's campaigns in that period can be explained by assuming he was taking possession of the bits and fragments that he still did not rule directly: Enos fell after a

neg: Tetovo After the dissolution of the Serbian Empire, the Mrnjavčević house took the region. This did not last as the Ottomans made their way to the region. The initial Ottoman occupation did not last as Skanderbeg and his Albanian force with aid from Tetovo, took on the Ottoman forces led by Ibrahim Pasha in the Battle of Pollog. Skanderbeg slayed Ibrahim Pasha, who was an old friend of his during his time with the Ottomans. Tetovo came under Albanian control. In August 1462, After Skanderbeg defeated Ottoman forces under Hasan bey in Mokra, Isuf bey went to move against Skanderbeg. Isuf

neg: Eastern Question powerless in the face of such a potent alliance. The alliance naturally proved accommodating to the Austrians, who hoped that a joint Franco-Russian attack, which would probably have utterly devastated the Ottoman Empire, could be prevented by diplomacy; but if diplomatic measures failed, the Austrian minister Klemens von Metternich decided that he would support the partition of the Ottoman Empire—a solution disadvantageous to Austria, but not as dangerous as a complete Russian takeover of Southeastern Europe. An attack on the Empire, however, did not come to pass, and the alliance concluded at Tilsit was dissolved by the French invasion of

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire genocide. Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite shape

neg: Khedive which had joined the war on the side of the Central Powers, and was subsequently deposed by the British, who declared Egypt a protectorate (which means formally adding a territory to British sovereignty under a subordinate ruler) while he was on a visit to Vienna. His uncle Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt by the British, who declared severance of the nominal ties of Egypt and Sudan to the Ottoman Empire (at least arguably invalid under international law, which did/does not allow acquisition of title to territory unless the existing sovereign, i.e., the Ottoman Empire, cedes it), and brought

neg: Jafar al-Askari and study as part of an Ottoman initiative to reform the army through the selection of officers via competition. Al-Askari stayed in this program until ordered back to the Ottoman Empire to fight in the war between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States. After the war with the Balkan states ended in 1913, Ja’far was made an instructor at the Officer Training College in Aleppo, but eight month later passed qualifications for the Staff Officers’ College in Constantinople. When World War I broke out, Ja’far first fought on the side of the Ottomans and the Triple Alliance in Libya.

neg: Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe He also called by the Ottoman Empire "kirserdar" in other words commander-in-chief (of an army) a military rank in Ottoman Empire. But he decided to be in charge on his own. In 1911, he was killed by Ottoman security forces during a fight and decapitated by his own men in order to prevent the identification of the body. Until the year 1948 his body was on the mountain where he was killed; his younger daughter Hatice Akkas brought his body to the graveside Ödemis Kayaköy where her family has a glebe. There are stories about him that he killed more

neg: History of modern Serbia History of modern Serbia History of modern Serbia or modern history of Serbia covers the history of Serbia since national awakening in the early 19th century from the Ottoman Empire, then Yugoslavia, to the present day Republic of Serbia. The era follows the early modern history of Serbia. The history of modern Serbia began with the fight for liberation from the Ottoman occupation in 1804 (Serbian Revolution). The establishment of modern Serbia was marked by the hard-fought autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in the First Serbian Uprising in 1804 and the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815, though Turkish troops continued

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I king of Arabia and in December was recognized by the British as an independent ruler. There was little the Empire could do to influence the course of events, other than try to prevent news of the uprising spreading, prevent it to demoralize the army or act as a propaganda for anti-Ottoman Arab factions. On 3 October 1918 forces of the Arab Revolt enter Damascus accompanied by British troops, ending 400 years of Ottoman rule. In order to support the other Central Powers, Enver Pasha sent 3 Army Corps or around 100,000 men to fight in Eastern Europe. The Constantinople Agreement

neg: Mehmed Selim Pasha Mehmed Selim Pasha Mehmed Selim Pasha or Mehmed Selim Sırrı Pasha (1771 Bender, Moldova – 1831 Damascus, Ottoman Empire, nickname: "Benderli") was an Ottoman statesman. He was Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 14 September 1824 to 24 October 1828 as Grand Vizier of sultan Mahmud II and failed in the fight against the Greek War of Independence. The Auspicious Incident ("Vaka-i Hayriye"), the Battle of Navarino (1827), happened during his period in office. In 1828-30 he became Wali (governor) of Rumelia Province and 1830-31 Wali of Damascus (Syria). When the citizens of Damascus and the local