query: who coined the term chunk for memory researchers

pos: Chunking (psychology) suggested by George Miller can be seen from the following example: While recalling a mobile phone number such as 9849523450, we might break this into 98 495 234 50. Thus, instead of remembering 10 separate digits that is beyond the "seven plus-or-minus two" memory span, we are remembering four groups of numbers. A modality effect is present in chunking. That is, the mechanism used to convey the list of items to the individual affects how much "chunking" occurs. Experimentally, it has been found that auditory presentation results in a larger amount of grouping in the responses of individuals, as compared

neg: Storage (memory) measured in terms of the items that are being remembered, but they chunks that they are put into. This type of memory storage is typically effective, as it has been found that with the appearance of the first item in a chunk, the other items can be immediately recalled. Though errors may occur, it if more common for the errors to occur at the beginning of the chunk than in the middle of the chunk. Chunks can be recalled with long-term or working memory. Simple chunks of information can be recalled without having to go through long term memory, such

neg: Short-term memory about four different units in short-term memory, chunking can greatly increase a person's recall capacity. For example, in recalling a phone number, the person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456), and, last, a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering phone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits. Practice and the usage of existing information in long-term memory can lead to additional improvements in one's ability to use chunking. In one testing session, an American cross-country runner was able to

neg: Memory rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk

neg: Storage (memory) was a collection of similar items and when that chunk was named, it allowed for the items in that chunk to be more easily recalled. Other researchers described the items in these chunks as being strongly connected to each other, but not to the other items in other chunks. Each chunk, in their findings, would hold only the items pertaining to that topic, and not have it be relatable to any other chunk or items in that chunk. The menu for a restaurant would display this type of chucking, as the entrée category would not display anything from the dessert

neg: Lexical decision task Lexical decision task The lexical decision task (LDT) is a procedure used in many psychology and psycholinguistics experiments. The basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords. Although versions of the task had been used by researchers for a number of years, the term "lexical decision task" was coined by David E. Meyer and Roger W. Schvaneveldt, who brought the task to prominence in a series of studies on semantic memory and word recognition in the early 1970s. Since then, the task has been used in thousands of studies, investigating semantic memory and lexical access

neg: Recovered-memory therapy listed in DSM-IV nor is it recommended by mainstream ethical and professional mental health associations. The term "false-memory syndrome" was coined between 1992 and 1993 by psychologists and sociologists associated with the False Memory Syndrome Foundation, an organization which advocates on behalf of individuals who claim to have been falsely accused of perpetrating child sexual abuse. These researchers argue that RMT can result in patients recalling instances of sexual abuse from their childhood which had not actually occurred. While not a therapeutic technique in and of itself, RMT generally is applied to such methods as hypnosis, age regression, drug-assisted interviewing

neg: Echoic memory the presentation of auditory stimuli. Echoic memory encrypts only moderately primitive aspects of the stimuli, for example pitch, which specifies localization to the non-association brain regions. Shortly after George Sperling's partial report studies of the visual sensory memory store, researchers began investigating its counterpart in the auditory domain. The term echoic memory was coined in 1967 by Ulric Neisser to describe this brief representation of acoustic information. It was initially studied using similar partial report paradigms to those utilized by Sperling; however, modern neuropsychological techniques have enabled the development of estimations of the capacity, duration, and location of the echoic

neg: George Armitage Miller the average limit to be seven items. He had mixed feelings about the focus on his work on the exact number seven for quantifying short-term memory, and felt it had been misquoted often. He stated, introducing the paper on the research for the first time, that he was being persecuted by an integer. Miller invented the term chunk to characterize the highly variable units to which the limit on memory applied. A chunk might be a single letter or a familiar word or even a larger familiar unit. Miller himself saw no relationship among the disparate tasks of immediate memory

neg: Indirect tests of memory letter string develops along a hierarchy of "chunks", beginning with bigrams (two letters), leading to trigrams, four-grams, and so on. "Chunk strength" refers to the frequency of occurrence of any given chunk during the learning phase. The higher the chunk strength of an item, the more likely it is to be determined grammatical. Some researchers don't believe that AGL can be explained using only one of the theories mentioned above. A hybrid theory claims that a knowledge of the abstract grammar rules as well as of the surface features of the letter strings are obtained while learning the artificial grammar,

neg: Chunking (psychology) used. This usage derives from Miller's (1956) idea of chunking as grouping, but the emphasis is now on long-term memory rather than only on short-term memory. A chunk can then be defined as "a collection of elements having strong associations with one another, but weak associations with elements within other chunks" (Gobet et al., 2001, p. 236). Chase and Simon (1973) and later Gobet, Retschitzki and de Voogt (2004) showed that chunking could explain several phenomena linked to expertise in chess. To be more specific, more skilled chess players have a larger chunk size. Several successful computational models of learning

neg: Working memory be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations. Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's

neg: Working memory Working memory Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience. The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram,

neg: Cognitive load traced to the beginning of Cognitive Science in the 1950s and the work of G.A. Miller. In his classic paper, Miller was perhaps the first to suggest our working memory capacity has inherent limits. His experimental results suggested that humans are generally able to hold only seven plus or minus two units of information in short-term memory. And in the early 1970s Simon and Chase were the first to use the term "chunk" to describe how people might organize information in short-term memory. This chunking of memory components has also been described as schema construction. In the late 1980s John

neg: Effect of caffeine on memory of this and any drug, potential ethical restraints on human study procedures may lead researchers to conduct studies involving animal subjects in addition to human subjects. Researchers have found that long-term consumption of low dose caffeine slowed hippocampus-dependent learning and impaired long-term memory in mice. Caffeine consumption for 4 weeks also significantly reduced hippocampal neurogenesis compared to controls during the experiment. The conclusion was that long-term consumption of caffeine could inhibit hippocampus-dependent learning and memory partially through inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis. Positive effects of caffeine on long-term memory have been shown in a study analyzing habitual caffeine intake of coffee

neg: Short-term memory for words from earlier in the list (it is presumed, stored in long-term memory) unaffected; other manipulations (e.g., semantic similarity of the words) affect only memory for earlier list words, but do not affect memory for the last few words in a list. These results show that different factors affect short-term recall (disruption of rehearsal) and long-term recall (semantic similarity). Together, these findings show that long-term memory and short-term memory can vary independently of each other. Not all researchers agree that short-term and long-term memory are separate systems. Some theorists propose that memory is unitary over all time scales, from

neg: Chunking (psychology) information (how new information is stored in long-term memory), and how it is retrieved during subsequent recall. Output chunks reflect the organization of over-learned motor programs that are generated on-line in working memory. Sakai et al. (2003) showed that participants spontaneously organize a sequence into a number of chunks across few sets, and that these chunks were distinct among participants tested on the same sequence. Sakai et al. (2003) showed that performance of a shuffled sequence was poorer when the chunk patterns were disrupted than when the chunk patterns were preserved. Chunking patterns also seem to depend on the effectors

neg: Existential migration well as psychological and social science researchers, though there remains precious little in print about these fundamental existential motivations for migration. The concept has commonalities with some of the work on cosmopolitanism by the anthropologist Nigel Rapport. A book on the subject, entitled "The End of Belonging", is available publicly. The research is increasingly cited by new international researchers and artists exploring the experience of voluntary migration. Existential migration Existential migration is a term coined by Greg Madison (2006) in "Existential Analysis", the journal of the Society for Existential Analysis. Madison's term describes expatriates (voluntary emigrants) who supposedly have an

neg: Exceptional memory which is an automatic and obsessive process. Moreover, individuals with hyperthymesia do not focus on practiced mnemonic strategies. For example, "AJ", who has the first documented case of hyperthymesia, has difficulty consciously applying her memory strategies to help her memorize new knowledge, making her rote memorization abilities below average. Because it is a recently discovered memory capability, neuroscientific explanations of hyperthymesia are scarce. McGaugh, who coined the term, provides mostly speculation in "A Case of Unusual Autobiographical Remembering". He suggests that "AJ"'s superior autobiographical memory is largely the result of specific impairments rather than enhancements. Her sensitivity to cues that

neg: Memory play describe film, such as John Ford's "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance", described by Scott Eyman as containing "under populated sets" and "archetypal characters". In a 2007 essay entitled "Some Memory Plays Before the 'Memory Play'", academic and director Attilio Favorini identifies Ibsen, Strindberg, Pirandello and O'Neill as early 20th-century exponents of the memory play, arguing the influence of Freud and Jung on their work. Memory play A memory play is a play in which a lead character narrates the events of the play, which are drawn from the character's memory. The term was coined by playwright Tennessee Williams, describing

neg: Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion term "BLEVE" was coined by three researchers at Factory Mutual, in the analysis of an accident there in 1957 involving a chemical reactor vessel. Anthony Santos was one of the Factory Mutual chemical engineers who coined the term. On August 18, 1959, the Kansas City Fire Department suffered its second largest loss of life in the line of duty, when a 25,000 gallon (95,000 liter) gasoline tank exploded during a fire on Southwest Boulevard, killing five firefighters. Later incidents have included: Some fire mitigation measures are listed under liquefied petroleum gas. Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion A boiling liquid expanding

neg: Chunking (psychology) part of the sequence inaccessible, since the control nodes (chunk nodes) at the higher level would still be able to facilitate access to the lower level nodes. Chunks in motor learning are identified by pauses between successive actions (Terrace, 2001). He also suggested that during the sequence performance stage (after learning), participants download list items as chunks during pauses. Terrace also argued for an operational definition of chunks suggesting a distinction between the notions of input and output chunks from the ideas of short-term and long-term memory. Input chunks reflect the limitation of working memory during the encoding of new

neg: Semantic memory Control of Thought) (and later ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational)) theory of cognition represents declarative memory (of which semantic memory is a part) with "chunks", which consist of a label, a set of defined relationships to other chunks (i.e., "this is a _", or "this has a _"), and any number of chunk-specific properties. Chunks, then, can be mapped as a semantic network, given that each node is a chunk with its unique properties, and each link is the chunk's relationship to another chunk. In ACT, a chunk's activation decreases as a function of the time since the chunk was

neg: Bilingual memory the use of that second language for inner speech becomes more habitual. As well, it has been reported that bilinguals who suffer from psychosis experience hallucinations or reduced linguistic competence in only one language. Semantic memory is a term coined by Tulving and is closely related to episodic memory, it is a kind of mental dictionary containing all the attributes of event-free knowledge. It relates to general facts about the world (e.g., the sky is blue, 2+2=4) and it has no concern with time or space. Semantic memory does not require conscious thought, as it generally is automatic; it is

neg: Transsaccadic memory statements have been made concerning the relationship between transsaccadic memory and visual short-term memory. Researchers have noted several similar characteristics between the two systems, leading several to believe that transsaccadic memory is in fact visual short-term memory or a part of visual short-term memory. Transsaccadic memory has a limited capacity of three to four items, a slow decay rate and maskable characteristics. Basically, transsaccadic memory can hold three to four items for each saccade, and the retention of items decays or disappears from consciousness slowly after the presentation of the stimulus. However, once a mask stimulus, such as a blank

neg: Distributed file system for cloud names, directories, and the mapping of files to the list of chunks that contain each file’s data. The metadata is kept in the master server's main memory, along with the mapping of files to chunks. Updates to this data are logged to an operation log on disk. This operation log is replicated onto remote machines. When the log become too large, a checkpoint is made and the main-memory data is stored in a B-tree structure to facilitate mapping back into main memory. To facilitate fault tolerance, each chunk is replicated onto multiple (default, three) chunk servers. A chunk is available

neg: Datablitz also provides higher-layer interfaces for grouping related data items, and performing scans as well as associative access (via indices) on data items in a group... Each database file in DataBlitz consists of segments, which are contiguous page-aligned units of allocation, similar to clusters in a file system. Chunk is a collection of segments. Recovery characteristics of memory (transient, zeroed, or persistent) are specified on a per-chunk basis at the time of chunk creation. Zeroed memory remains allocated upon recovery but each byte is set to zero. With transient memory, the data are no longer allocated upon recovery. Users allocate within

neg: Short-term memory part of many theories of short-term memory, the most notable one being Baddeley's model of working memory. The decay assumption is usually paired with the idea of rapid covert rehearsal: In order to overcome the limitation of short-term memory, and retain information for longer, information must be periodically repeated or rehearsed—either by articulating it out loud or by mentally simulating such articulation. In this way, the information is likely to re-enter the short-term store and be retained for a further period. Several researchers; however, dispute that spontaneous decay plays any significant role in forgetting over the short-term, and the evidence

neg: CHREST children's development of language. In this respect, the simulations carried out with CHREST have a flavor closer to those carried out with connectionist models than with traditional symbolic models. The architecture contains a number of capacity parameters (e.g., capacity of visual short-term memory, set at three chunks) and time parameters (e.g., time to learn a chunk or time to put information into short-term memory). This makes it possible to derive precise and quantitative predictions about human behaviour. Models based on CHREST have been used, among other things, to simulate data on the acquisition of chess expertise from novice to grandmaster,

neg: Mental time travel Mental time travel In psychology, mental time travel (also called "chronosthesia") is the capacity to mentally reconstruct personal events from the past (episodic memory) as well as to imagine possible scenarios in the future (episodic foresight / episodic future thinking). The term was coined by Thomas Suddendorf and Michael Corballis in 1997. The synonymous term chronesthesia was coined by Endel Tulving. Mental time travel has been studied by psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, philosophers and in a variety of other academic disciplines. Major areas of interest include the nature of the relationship between memory and foresight, the evolution of the ability (including

neg: Mental time travel of verbal ability. Mental time travel In psychology, mental time travel (also called "chronosthesia") is the capacity to mentally reconstruct personal events from the past (episodic memory) as well as to imagine possible scenarios in the future (episodic foresight / episodic future thinking). The term was coined by Thomas Suddendorf and Michael Corballis in 1997. The synonymous term chronesthesia was coined by Endel Tulving. Mental time travel has been studied by psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, philosophers and in a variety of other academic disciplines. Major areas of interest include the nature of the relationship between memory and foresight, the evolution of

neg: Dissociative identity disorder patients who only switch alters after a period of sleep — which is commonly how DID is presented by the media within that country. The therapy-caused cases of DID, it is argued, are strongly linked to false memory syndrome, a concept and term coined by members of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation in reaction to memories of abuse they allege were recovered by a range of controversial therapies whose effectiveness is unproven. Such a memory could be used to make a false allegation of child sexual abuse. There is little agreement between those who see therapy as a cause and

neg: Short-term memory study which compiled normative French data for three short-term memory tasks (Verbal, visual and spatial). They found impairments present in participants between the ages of 55 and 85 years of age. Memory distortion in Alzheimer's disease is a very common disorder found in older adults. Performance of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease was compared with the performance of age matched healthy adults. Researchers concluded the study with findings that showed reduced short-term memory recall for Alzheimer's patients. Episodic memory and semantic abilities deteriorate early in Alzheimer's disease. Since the cognitive system includes interconnected and reciprocally influenced neuronal networks,

neg: Exceptional memory sacrifices global processing in the process. An emotional or flashbulb memory refers to the memory of a personal significant event with distinctly vivid and long-lasting detailed information. These events are usually shocking and with photographic quality. Brown and Kulik, who coined the term found that many highly emotional memories can be recalled with very accurate details, even when there is a delay after the event. A Flashbulb memory is said to be less accurate and less permanent than photographic memories, but its forgetting curve is less affected by time in comparing to other types of memories. One important aspect of

neg: Amiga Zorro III the MC68K family used in the Amiga did not have a separate I/O address mechanism). Just as with Zorro II on 24-bit systems, Zorro III reserved a large chunk of 32-bit real memory address space for large memory mapped cards, a smaller chunk with smaller allocation granularity for "I/O" type board. Zorro III was never supported on 24-bit address or 16-bit data devices—it required a full 32-bit CPU. The CPU could directly address any Zorro III device as memory, so Zorro memory expansions could be made (and were made) as well as it being possible to use video memory on

neg: Procedural memory Therefore, this study shows that grammatical processing is a function of procedural memory. According to a study carried out in 2010 by Dalhousie University researchers, spoken languages which require the use of helping words or suffixes, rather than word order, to explain subject-object relationships rely on procedural memory. Word-order dependent languages rely on short-term memory for equivalent tasks. Procedural memory Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory (unconscious memory) and long-term memory which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Procedural memory guides the processes we perform and most frequently resides

neg: Effect of caffeine on memory can be seen through a number of memory types (short-term, long-term, etc.), with various theories accounting for these differing effects. Caffeine has been shown to have an impairing effect on females (but not males) in a word-list test of short-term memory. One prevailing theory which aims to explain this sex difference identifies estrogen levels in the body as an important factor relating to caffeine’s effect on memory performance As a result, the female menstrual cycle (which influences overall estrogen levels in the body) may play a role in modifying the effect of caffeine on memory. Following this theory, researchers tested

neg: Working memory memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance. The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green

neg: Adopted child syndrome Adopted child syndrome Adopted child syndrome is a controversial term that has been used to explain behaviors in adopted children that are claimed to be related to their adoptive status. Specifically, these include problems in bonding, attachment disorders, lying, stealing, defiance of authority, and acts of violence. The term has never achieved acceptance in the professional community. The term is not found in the American Psychiatric Association's "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual", 4th edition, TR. David Kirschner, who coined the term, says that most adoptees are not disturbed and that the syndrome only applies to "a small clinical subgroup". Researchers Brodizinsky,

neg: The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two a word is a single chunk for a speaker of the language but is many chunks for someone who is totally unfamiliar with the language and sees the word as a collection of phonetic segments. Miller recognized that the correspondence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and of short-term memory span was only a coincidence, because only the first limit, not the second, can be characterized in information-theoretic terms (i.e., as a roughly constant number of bits). Therefore, there is nothing "magical" about the number seven, and Miller used the expression only rhetorically. Nevertheless, the idea of a "magical

neg: Memory (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers. Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D).

neg: Memory span focus on stimulus cues, thus as a person ages, these abilities diminish, which reduces memory. Musical training improves the verbal memory span, but there is no consensus among researchers if it improves visual working memory capacity. The more training received the better the memory improvement. Preschoolers given short-term musical training showed improvement in their executive function and verbal memory span. Sixty to eighty-five year-olds who received piano lessons showed a decrease of age-based memory decline, as well as improved executive function and working memory. Musicians also perform significantly better on the rhythm span test (the results of which correlate significantly

neg: Semantic memory created and increases with the number of times the chunk has been retrieved from memory. Chunks can also receive activation from Gaussian noise, and from their similarity to other chunks. For example, if "chicken" is used as a retrieval cue, "canary" will receive activation by virtue of its similarity to the cue (i.e., both are birds, etc.). When retrieving items from memory, ACT looks at the most active chunk in memory; if it is above threshold, it is retrieved, otherwise an "error of omission" has occurred, i.e., the item has been forgotten. There is, additionally, a retrieval latency, which varies

neg: Music-related memory allowed for experimenters to test verbal and musical associations. When presented with song titles CH was able to successfully play the correct song 100% of the time, and when presented with the melody she chose the appropriate title from several distractors with a 90% success rate. Interference occurs when information in short-term memory interferes with or obstructs the retrieval of other information. Some researchers believe that interference in memory for pitch is due to a general limited capacity of the short-term memory system, regardless of the type of information that it retains. However, Deutsch has shown that memory for pitch

neg: The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) strongly depends on the time it takes to speak the contents aloud. Some researchers have therefore proposed that the limited capacity of short-term memory for verbal material is not a "magic number" but rather a "magic spell". Baddeley used this finding to postulate that one component of his model of working memory, the phonological loop, is capable of holding around 2 seconds of sound. However, the limit of short-term memory cannot easily be characterized as a constant "magic spell" either, because memory span also depends on other factors

neg: Sex differences in cognition women and their abilities within their short-term memory. For example, a study conducted by Lowe, Mayfield, and Reynolds (2003) examined gender differences among children and adolescents on various short-term memory measures. This study included 1,279 children and adolescents, 637 males and 642 females, between the ages of 5 and 19. They found that females scored higher on two verbal subtests: Word Selective Reminding and Object Recall, and males scored higher on the Memory for Location and Abstract Visual Memory subtests, the key spatial memory tasks. In two different studies researchers have found that women perform higher on verbal tasks and

neg: Complex instruction set computer Complex instruction set computer A complex instruction set computer (CISC ) is a computer in which single instructions can execute several low-level operations (such as a load from memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store) or are capable of multi-step operations or addressing modes within single instructions. The term was retroactively coined in contrast to reduced instruction set computer (RISC) and has therefore become something of an umbrella term for everything that is not RISC, from large and complex mainframe computers to simplistic microcontrollers where memory load and store operations are not separated from arithmetic instructions. A modern RISC

neg: Destination memory Craik, and Hasher coined the term destination amnesia to refer to this deterioration in destination memory. It is unclear as to what is specifically responsible for destination amnesia during aging; however, it is speculated that it is due to the general decline in memory. One's theory of mind ability is a significant predictor of destination memory ability in aging adults, as they both are positively correlated and depend upon executive functioning. Little research has been conducted to understand why destination memory deteriorates or what could slow the demise; however, older adults demonstrate improved destination memory performance when relaying information to

neg: The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two immediately after presentation. Miller observed that memory span of young adults is approximately seven items. He noticed that memory span is approximately the same for stimuli with vastly different amount of information—for instance, binary digits have 1 bit each; decimal digits have 3.32 bits each; words have about 10 bits each. Miller concluded that memory span is not limited in terms of bits but rather in terms of chunks. A chunk is the largest meaningful unit in the presented material that the person recognizes—thus, what counts as a chunk depends on the knowledge of the person being tested. For instance,

neg: Memory rehearsal the parietal and temporal lobes specialized for perceptual processing (Jondies, Lacey & Nee, 2005). Maintenance rehearsal has the potential to assist in long-term memory in certain situations. In a previous study, researchers looked at the difference in recall for a set of words between participants who knew they were going to be asked to recall the words, in which they repeated the words multiple times and the participants who did not know they were going to recall the words, in which they only repeated the words once. The group that were told they would have to recall the words at

neg: Unified Emulator Format for archival. "State snapshot" UEF files include standardised chunks to store the major portions of an Acorn Electron or BBC Micro's state: main, shadow and expansion bus memory, the CPU and the WD1770 floppy drive controller; also the Electron ULA and the Slogger Master RAM Board, a common Electron add-on. A "patch memory" chunk rewrites a block of memory at any address, allowing the UEF format to package pokes. To store state elements not accommodated in the standard chunks, emulators can define their own chunks. A "private use area" of chunk IDs is reserved for this or any other purpose,

neg: Internal sort two by two so that each recombined chunk is in order. This approach minimises the number or reads and writes of data-chunks from disk, and is a popular external sort method. Internal sort An internal sort is any data sorting process that takes place entirely within the main memory of a computer. This is possible whenever the data to be sorted is small enough to all be held in the main memory. For sorting larger datasets, it may be necessary to hold only a chunk of data in memory at a time, since it won’t all fit. The rest of

neg: Decay theory to no effect on how many items they are able to remember. Looking solely at verbal short-term memory within studies that control against participants' use of rehearsal processes, a very small temporal decay effect coupled with a much larger interference decay effect can be found. No evidence for temporal decay in verbal short-term memory has been found in recent studies of serial recall tasks. Regarding the word-length effect in short-term memory, which states that lists of longer word are harder to recall than lists of short words, researchers argue that interference plays a larger role due to articulation duration being

neg: Decay theory that older memories (in long-term memory) are often more resistant to shocks or physical attacks on the brain. It is also thought that the passage of time alone cannot cause forgetting, and that decay theory must also take into account some processes that occur as more time passes. The term "decay theory" was first coined by Edward Thorndike in his book "The Psychology of Learning" in 1914. This simply states that if a person does not access and use the memory representation they have formed the memory trace will fade or decay over time. This theory was based on the

neg: Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in short-term memory, the stronger its memory trace will be in long-term memory. Some extraneous variables include: participant differences (Personal ability of an individual, these differentiate each participant and their capacity levels), demand characteristics (Which is the participants knowledge about experiment and what they bring to the experiment), experimenter effect (which is the effects the researchers have on participants through their expectations and possibility of bias behavior for self-fulfillment results), non-standardized instructions and procedures (The effect on participants if they receive different instructions, and if no consistency in procedure, also impacts from variations of conditions). Atkinson and Shiffrin cite evidence

neg: Memory play Memory play A memory play is a play in which a lead character narrates the events of the play, which are drawn from the character's memory. The term was coined by playwright Tennessee Williams, describing his work "The Glass Menagerie". In his production notes, Williams says, "Being a 'memory play', "The Glass Menagerie" can be presented with unusual freedom of convention." In a widening of the definition, it has been argued that Harold Pinter's plays "Old Times", "No Man's Land" and "Betrayal" are memory plays, where "memory becomes a weapon". Brian Friel's "Dancing at Lughnasa" is a late 20th-century example

neg: Behavioral sink and general unpleasantness. He declared to have found no appreciable negative effects in 1975. Researchers argued that "Calhoun's work was not simply about density in a physical sense, as number of individuals-per-square-unit-area, but was about degrees of social interaction." Behavioral sink The ethologist John B. Calhoun coined the term "behavioral sink" to describe the collapse in behavior which resulted from overcrowding. Over a number of years, Calhoun conducted over-population experiments on Norway rats (in 1958–1962) and mice (in 1968–1972). Calhoun coined the term "behavioral sink" in his February 1, 1962 report in an article titled "Population Density and Social Pathology"

neg: Observer's paradox researchers believe that the evidence that a Hawthorne effect exists has been exaggerated. Observer's paradox In the social sciences (and physics and experimental physics), the observer's paradox refers to a situation in which the phenomenon being observed is unwittingly influenced by the presence of the observer/investigator. In the field of sociolinguistics, the term Observer’s Paradox was coined by William Labov, who stated with regards to the term: the aim of linguistic research in the community must be to find out how people talk when they are not being systematically observed; yet we can only obtain this data by systematic observation.

neg: Educology and the provision of educology courses in universities. The term educology has been in use in the English language since the seminal work in educology by Professor Lowry W. Harding at Ohio State University in the 1950s and Professor Elizabeth Steiner [Maccia] and her husband and colleague, Professor George Maccia, at Indiana University in the 1960s. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, John B. Biggs and Rachel Elder coined the term independently of Harding, Steiner and Maccia. Other researchers in the English speaking world who worked on developing and extending educology in the 1970s and 1980s included James E.

neg: Misandry use of the term "mansplaining" and other neologisms using "man" as a derogatory prefix. The term "mansplaining", according to feminist writer Rebecca Solnit, was coined soon after the appearance in 2008 of her essay "Men Explain Things to Me". Men's rights activists and other masculinist groups have criticized modern laws concerning divorce, domestic violence, and rape as examples of institutional misandry. In a study of 488 college students regarding ambivalent sexism towards men, researchers found that women who did not identify as feminists were more likely to be hostile towards men than self-identified feminists, but also more likely to hold

neg: Micro-Threads (multi core) switching any of the core's thread takes 2000 micro-seconds in best cases. Some software techniques like double or multi-buffering may solve the memory latency problem. However, they can be used in regular algorithms, where the program knows where is the next data chunk to retrieve from memory; in this case it sends request to memory while it is processing previously request data. However, this technique won't work if it the program does not know the next data chunk to retrieve from memory. In other words, it won't work in combinatorial algorithms, such as tree spanning or random list ranking. In

neg: Educational technology While retaining the empirical framework of behaviorism, cognitive psychology theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning by considering how human memory works to promote learning. The Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as theoretical frameworks. Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on

neg: Maladaptive daydreaming Maladaptive daydreaming Maladaptive daydreaming is a disordered form of dissociative absorption associated with vivid and excessive fantasy activity that often involves elaborate and fanciful scenarios. It can result in distress, can replace human interaction and may interfere with normal functioning such as social life or work. People who suffer from maladaptive daydreaming can spend more than half their days in "vivid alternative universes." Maladaptive daydreaming is typically associated with stereotypical movements, such as pacing or rocking, and the need for musical stimulation. One of the lead researchers of Maladaptive daydreaming and the person who coined the term is University of

neg: Fluid and crystallized intelligence David Geary, Gf and Gc can be traced to two separate brain systems. Fluid intelligence involves both the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and other systems related to attention and short-term memory. Crystallized intelligence appears to be a function of brain regions that involve the storage and usage of long-term memories, such as the hippocampus. Some researchers question whether the results of training are long lasting and transferable, especially when these techniques are used by healthy children and adults without cognitive deficiencies. A recent meta-analytical review conducted by researchers from the University of Oslo concluded that "memory training

neg: Biofeedback conference at the Surfrider Inn in Santa Monica coined the term biofeedback from Wiener's feedback. The conference resulted in the founding of the Bio-Feedback Research Society, which permitted normally isolated researchers to contact and collaborate with each other, as well as popularizing the term "biofeedback." The work of B.F. Skinner led researchers to apply operant conditioning to biofeedback, decide which responses could be voluntarily controlled and which could not. In the first experimental demonstration of biofeedback Shearn used these procedures with heart rate. The effects of the perception of autonomic nervous system activity was initially explored by George Mandler's group

neg: Input enhancement used in the deliberate teaching of a language and the latter employing ordinary events or situations. The term "input enhancement" was designed to replace the term 'grammatical consciousness-raising' (CR) because the older term did not allow for enhanced learning that occurs in a natural or accidental setting instead of an academic or purposefully educational setting. Input enhancement Input enhancement (IE) is a concept in second language acquisition. Mike Sharwood Smith coined the term to cover techniques used by researchers to make salient selected features of a language for students such as word order, parts of words that express tense, agreement

neg: Forensic developmental psychology Forensic developmental psychology Forensic developmental psychology is a field of psychology that focuses on "children's actions and reactions in a forensic context" and "children's reports that they were victims or witnesses of a crime". Bruck and Poole (2002) first coined the term "forensic developmental psychology". Although forensic developmental psychology specifically focuses on a child's reliability, credibility, and competency in the courtroom setting, it also includes topics such as autobiographical memory, memory distortion, eyewitness identification, narrative construction, personality, and attachment. Similar to adults, children who testify must undergo a testimony process in order to determine their relative competency, reliability, and credibility.

neg: Metaplasticity correlate with a loss of memory but instead a loss of learning potential. Metaplasticity Metaplasticity is a term originally coined by W.C. Abraham and M.F. Bear to refer to the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Until that time synaptic plasticity had referred to the plastic nature of "individual" synapses. However this new form referred to the plasticity of the plasticity itself, thus the term "meta"-plasticity. The idea is that the synapse's previous history of activity determines its current plasticity. This may play a role in some of the underlying mechanisms thought to be important in memory and learning such as long-term

neg: Nancy Dorian where they were more than a third of the population. Although traditional practice calls for anthropologists to change fieldwork settings, health challenges led Dorian to continue study of East Sutherland language development, a situation that had the beneficial side effect of producing a study of unprecedented scope and continuity. Previous researchers had focused on the NORM (non-mobile old rural male) speakers, who had more conservative language, at the expense of the wider speech community. She coined the term "semi-speaker" for those, mostly from the younger generations, who could speak Gaelic but imperfectly. Her attention to the way that speech competence

neg: Universal memory SRAM as the CPU cache, several gigabytes of slower DRAM for program memory, and multiple hundreds of gigabytes of the slow but non-volatile flash memory or a few terabytes of "spinning platters" hard disk drive for long term storage. For example, a university recommended students entering in 2015–2016 to have a PC with: Researchers seek to replace these different memory types with one single type to reduce the cost and increase performance. For a memory technology to be considered a universal memory, it would need to have best characteristics of several memory technologies. It would need to: Many types of

neg: Continuous memory Continuous memory The term continuous memory was coined by Hewlett-Packard (HP) to describe a unique feature of certain HP calculators whereby the calculator could internally sustain most, or in later models - all, of the contents of user memory (via battery-backed CMOS memory). Since its introduction on the HP-25C, this feature slowly evolved by model to eventually mean maintaining the contents of nearly all calculator memory, including system and scratch RAM, options, settings, flags, and other calculator state information. Before the introduction of the HP-25C in 1976, all calculator random-access memory (RAM) was volatile, i.e. its contents (esp. user data

neg: Cognitive neuropsychology the areas responsible for converting short term memory to long term memory. Much of the early work of cognitive neuropsychology was carried out with limited reference to the detailed localisation of brain pathology. Neuroimaging was relatively imprecise and other anatomically based techniques were also limited. The emphasis of many researchers as late as 1990 was on the analysis of patterns of cognitive deficit rather than on where the injury was located. Despite the lack of detailed anatomical data, studies of reading, language and memory had a number of important implications. The first is that certain cognitive processes (such as language)

neg: Music-related memory with mixed hand preference outperform righthanders in tests of short-term memory for pitch. This may be due to more storage of information on both sides of the brain by the mixed lefthanded group. Experts have tremendous experience through practice and education in a particular field. Musical experts use some of the same strategies as do many experts in fields that require large amounts of memorization: chunking, organization and practice. For example, musical experts may organize notes into scales or create a hierarchical retrieval scheme to facilitate retrieval from long-term memory. In a case study on an expert pianist, researchers Chaffin

neg: Maus cats, and the Nazis with attack dogs. To Marianne Hirsch, Spiegelman's life is "dominated by memories that are not his own". His work is one not of memory but of "postmemory"—a term she coined after encountering "Maus". This describes the relation of the children of survivors with the survivors themselves. While these children have not had their parents' experiences, they grow up with their parents' memories—the memory of another's memory—until the stories become so powerful that for these children they become memories in their own right. The children's proximity creates a "deep personal connection" with the memory, though separated from

neg: Flashbulb memory of autobiographical memory because they rely on elements of personal importance, consequentiality, emotion, and surprise. Others believe that ordinary memories can also be accurate and long-lasting if they are highly distinctive, personally significant, or repeatedly rehearsed. Flashbulb memories have six characteristic features: place, ongoing activity, informant, own effect, other effect, and aftermath. Arguably, the principal determinants of a flashbulb memory are a high level of surprise, a high level of consequentiality, and perhaps emotional arousal. The term flashbulb memory was coined by Brown and Kulik in 1977. They formed the special-mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of a special

neg: Socioeconomic status and memory Disturbance in attention can decrease both working memory and retrieval of long-term memories. If concentration is disturbed during recall, the memories that surface may be susceptible to reconsolidation, and the false memories that are created, due to lack of concentration, may solidify into inaccurate long-term memories. In a research model that looked at children living in environments of domestic violence and their relationship with memory, researchers found that children exposed to familial trauma displayed a poorer performance of working memory. Low working memory is becoming more of an issue today with children in the public school system. The education system

neg: Sex differences in cognition The most basic of these abilities are memory, executive function, processing speed and perception, which combine to form a larger perceptual umbrella relating to different social, affective, verbal and spatial information. Memory, which is one of the primary core of cognitive abilities can be broken down into short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory. There are also other abilities relating to perceptual information such as mental rotation, spatial visualization ability, verbal fluency and reading comprehension. Other larger perceptual umbrellas include social cognition, empathy, spatial perception and verbal abilities. Various researchers have conducted studies to determine the differences between men and

neg: Amnesia If he was given a list of words, he would forget them in about a minute's time. In fact, he would forget that he was even given a list in the first place. Once Molaison stopped thinking about the lists he was unable to recall them again from long term memory. This gave researchers evidence that short-term and long-term memory are in fact two different processes. Even though he forgot about the lists, he was still able to learn things through his implicit memory. The psychologists would ask him to draw something on a piece of paper, but to look

neg: Publication bias is more likely to be published. As a result, ""the literature of such a field consists in substantial part of false conclusions resulting from type-I errors"". Publication bias is sometimes called the "file drawer effect," or "file drawer problem." This term suggests that results not supporting the hypotheses of researchers often go no further than the researchers' file drawers, leading to a bias in published research. The term "file drawer problem" was coined by Rosenthal in 1979. Positive-results bias, a type of publication bias, occurs when authors are more likely to submit, or editors are more likely to accept, positive

neg: Elizabeth Kensinger neural processes supporting memory for emotional and nonemotional information, with a focus on how emotion influences the vividness and accuracy of memory over the lifespan. One of Kensinger's studies, conducted in collaboration with Suzanne Corkin, explored the effect of negative emotional content on working memory. The researchers asked participants to perform an n-back working memory task with negative and neutral stimuli. They found that participants' accuracy in performing the n-back task was unaffected by the emotional content of the stimuli, which suggested that the memory enhancements observed for emotional stimuli in long term memory do not extend to working memory.

neg: Flashbulb memory and flashbulb memory, although it exists for general memory. Flashbulb memory A flashbulb memory is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard. The term "flashbulb memory" suggests the surprise, indiscriminate illumination, detail, and brevity of a photograph; however flashbulb memories are only somewhat indiscriminate and are far from complete. Evidence has shown that although people are highly confident in their memories, the details of the memories can be forgotten. Flashbulb memories are one type of autobiographical memory. Some researchers believe that there

neg: Predatory conference gain submissions. Organisers of predatory meetings include the World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology and the OMICS Publishing Group; the Federal Trade Commission launched a case against OMICS regarding its predatory journals and conferences in 2016. Beall coined the term "predatory meetings" for a new activity of OMICS and others in organising scientific conferences claiming editorial boards and organising committees with prominent academics who have not agreed to participate, with high fees for attendance, and with poor reviewing standards for acceptance. The business model involves "conferences organized by revenue-seeking companies that want to exploit researchers' need to build their

neg: Polysubstance dependence well. The results of a long-term or longitudinal study on substance use led the researchers to observe that excessively using or relying on one drug increased the probability of excessively using or relying on another drug. Cognition refers to what happens in the mind, such as mental functions like "perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making." Although many studies have looked at cognitive impairments of individuals who are dependent on one drug, there are few researchers who have tried to determine the problems with cognitive functioning that are caused by dependence on multiple substances. Therefore, what is

neg: Continuous memory HP calculators (Texas Instruments would later call their identical feature "Constant Memory"). At introduction over the next 9 years (approx. 1979-1987), subsequent HP models so featured simply had designations in which the letter "C" followed the model number, e.g. the HP-34C and the Voyager series HP-10C, HP-11C, HP-12C, HP-15C and HP-16C. Continuous memory The term continuous memory was coined by Hewlett-Packard (HP) to describe a unique feature of certain HP calculators whereby the calculator could internally sustain most, or in later models - all, of the contents of user memory (via battery-backed CMOS memory). Since its introduction on the HP-25C,

neg: Matt Brown (fighter) fight with Jake Ellenberger, Brown recalled having serious post-concussion symptoms, often slurring speech and having trouble with short-term memory. His wife, Colleen Brown, has also stated that Matt's memory is "not as sharp as it once was". He stated he has doubts continuing to fight due to his concussion. Months later he was knocked out by Donald Cerrone via headkick. Brown's moniker, "The Immortal", was coined by his friends after his drug overdose and near death experience. Matt Brown (fighter) Matthew Burton Brown (born January 10, 1981) is an American mixed martial artist who competes in the Ultimate Fighting Championship,

neg: Episodic memory of the two major divisions of memory – the other is implicit memory. The term "episodic memory" was coined by Endel Tulving in 1972. He was referring to the distinction between knowing and remembering. Knowing is more factual (semantic) whereas remembering is a feeling that is located in the past (episodic). Tulving has seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection. These are a subjective sense of time (or mental time travel), connection to the self, and autonoetic consciousness. Autonoetic consciousness refers to a special kind of consciousness that accompanies the act of remembering which enables an individual to

neg: Screen memory Screen memory A screen memory is a distorted memory, generally of a visual rather than verbal nature, deriving from childhood. The term was coined by Sigmund Freud, and the concept was the subject of his 1899 paper, "Screen Memories". Freud was struck by the presence, in himself and in other adults, of vivid but bland memories standing from early childhood; and he came to believe that their strength and their preservation both derived from their association with other, less innocent infantile occurrences. As he concluded in his 1899 paper, “The falsified memory is the first that we become aware of….the

neg: Metamemory recognized if seen. Hart expanded upon limited investigations of FOK which had presupposed that FOK was accurate. The results of Hart’s study indicate that FOK is indeed a relatively accurate indicator of what is in memory. In a 1970 review of memory research, Tulving and Madigan concluded that advances in the study of memory might require the experimental investigation of “one of the truly unique characteristics of human memory: its knowledge of its own knowledge”. It was around the same time that John H. Flavell coined the term "metamemory" in a discussion on the development of memory. Since then, numerous

neg: Screen memory removed from consciousness. Screen memory A screen memory is a distorted memory, generally of a visual rather than verbal nature, deriving from childhood. The term was coined by Sigmund Freud, and the concept was the subject of his 1899 paper, "Screen Memories". Freud was struck by the presence, in himself and in other adults, of vivid but bland memories standing from early childhood; and he came to believe that their strength and their preservation both derived from their association with other, less innocent infantile occurrences. As he concluded in his 1899 paper, “The falsified memory is the first that we

neg: Cultural memory This notion can easily be applied to another practice that has a specific relationship with memory: photography. Catherine Keenan explains how the act of taking a picture can underline the importance of remembering, both individually and collectively. Also she states that pictures cannot only stimulate or help memory, but can rather eclipse the actual memory – when we remember in terms of the photograph – or they can serve as a reminder of our propensity to forget. Others have argued that photographs can be incorporated in memory and therefore supplement it. Edward Chaney has coined the term 'Cultural Memorials' to

neg: Working memory training children and adults. The results closely replicated the original finding by Ericcson et al. (1980): There were short-term improvements in practiced skills. While the results were conclusive for ADHD population, there was no convincing evidence for transfer or generalization effects (indicating improved capacity) in typically developing children and healthy adults." Other researchers have studied the effects of training on children with attention issues. Among them are NYU, and the University of York. In addition, many researchers are now exploring the use of working memory training for various new applications, with studies having been completed or launched on normal and aging

neg: Marcello Truzzi Marcello belonged to the Pyrrhonian tradition, most of the rest of us belong to the Academic skeptical tradition.Truzzi was skeptical of investigators and debunkers who determined the validity of a claim prior to investigation. He accused CSICOP of increasingly unscientific behavior, for which he coined the term "pseudoskepticism". Truzzi stated: Truzzi held that CSICOP researchers sometimes also put unreasonable limits on the standards for proof regarding the study of anomalies and the paranormal. Martin Gardner writes: "In recent years he (Truzzi) has become a personal friend of Uri Geller; not that he believes Uri has psychic powers, as I understand

neg: LOHAS LOHAS Lifestyles of Health and Sustainability (LOHAS) is a demographic defining a particular market segment related to sustainable living, "green" ecological initiatives, and generally composed of a relatively upscale and well-educated population segment. The author Paul H. Ray, who coined the term "Cultural Creatives" in his book by the same name, explains that "What you're seeing is a demand for products of equal quality that are also virtuous." Included in the cultural creative demographic are consumers of New Age goods and services. Researchers have reported a range of sizes of the LOHAS market segment. For example, Worldwatch Institute reported that

neg: Effemimania women, and overly sexualizing trans women. Similar concepts are "sissyphobia" and "femmephobia". "Effemimania" is also the title of a song by the Maryland punk band War on Women. Effemimania Effemimania (from effeminacy) is a term coined by American transsexual writer and biologist Julia Serano to describe what she calls a cultural obsession with male femininity. Serano describes effemimania as "first and foremost an expression of traditional sexism", and uses as an example of it researchers who believe femininity is inferior to masculinity, and who therefore pathologize boys and men who appear to them to be inexplicably relinquishing the latter in

neg: Effemimania Effemimania Effemimania (from effeminacy) is a term coined by American transsexual writer and biologist Julia Serano to describe what she calls a cultural obsession with male femininity. Serano describes effemimania as "first and foremost an expression of traditional sexism", and uses as an example of it researchers who believe femininity is inferior to masculinity, and who therefore pathologize boys and men who appear to them to be inexplicably relinquishing the latter in favour of the former. Serano believes feminine men and boys are more culturally threatening than masculine women and girls. In her book "Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on

neg: Effects of cannabis The research team, headed by Dr Igor Grant, found that cannabis use did affect perception, but did not cause permanent brain damage. Researchers looked at data from 15 previously published controlled studies involving 704 long-term cannabis users and 484 nonusers. The results showed long-term cannabis use was only marginally harmful on the memory and learning. Other functions such as reaction time, attention, language, reasoning ability, perceptual and motor skills were unaffected. The observed effects on memory and learning, they said, showed long-term cannabis use caused "selective memory defects", but that the impact was "of a very small magnitude". A study

neg: Childhood memory that interfere with memory retrieval in adults. Success in this area has led researchers to propose mindfulness as a tool for working with children. Relaxation is a way to reduce the flow of stressful or uncontrolled thoughts. Children may show decreased symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and aggressive behaviour along with improved memory in classrooms and in sports settings. Caution is required because some children may be uncomfortable with meditation. Smaller class sizes might also be a means of improving memory by reducing stress. Operative training task to improve long term memory The renowned developmental psychologist Piaget thought that memory

neg: Sleep and memory to be facilitated by sleep or not sleep: Reconsolidation of a memory involves the retrieval of an already consolidated memory (explicit or implicit), into short-term or working memory. Here it is brought into a labile state where subsequent information can 'interfere' with what is currently in memory, therefore altering the memory. This is known as retroactive interference, and is an extremely significant issue for court and eye witness testimonies. Researchers approach the study of sleep and memory from different angles. Some studies measure the effects of sleep deprivation "after" a novel task is taught (the subject learns the task and

neg: Solid-state storage media that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Solid-state storage typically uses the NAND type of flash memory, which may be written and read in chunks much smaller than the entire size of the storage device. The size of a minimal chunk (page) for read operations is much smaller than the minimal chunk size (block) for write/erase operations, resulting in an undesirable phenomenon called write amplification that limits the random write performance and write endurance of flash-based solid-state storage devices. Another type of solid-state storage devices uses volatile random-access memory (RAM) combined with a battery that allows the contents of

neg: C dynamic memory allocation space area, making the minimum chunk size 24 bytes. Unallocated memory is grouped into "bins" of similar sizes, implemented by using a double-linked list of chunks (with pointers stored in the unallocated space inside the chunk). For requests below 256 bytes (a "smallbin" request), a simple two power best fit allocator is used. If there are no free blocks in that bin, a block from the next highest bin is split in two. For requests of 256 bytes or above but below the mmap threshold, recent versions of dlmalloc use an in-place "bitwise trie" algorithm. If there is no free