query: which layer of the digestive tract is in direct contact with digested food

pos: Gastrointestinal wall all this in place are the mesenteries which suspend the intestine in the abdominal cavity and stop it being disturbed when a person is physically active. The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy. The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the lumen of the tract, and comes into direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa itself is made up of three layers: The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract to deal with the different conditions. The most

pos: Gastrointestinal tract gut. The blood vessels supplying these structures remain constant throughout development. The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy. The GI tract can be divided into four concentric layers in the following order: The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. The mucosa surrounds the lumen, or open space within the tube. This layer comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa is made up of: The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract to deal with the different conditions. The

pos: Human digestive system secreted by innumerable gastric glands in the stomach, to provide a slimy protective layer against the damaging effects of the chemicals on the inner layers of the stomach. At the same time that protein is being digested, mechanical churning occurs through the action of peristalsis, waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Gastric lipase secreted by the chief cells in the fundic glands in the gastric mucosa of the stomach, is an acidic lipase, in contrast with the alkaline pancreatic lipase. This breaks down

pos: Human digestive system in the peritoneum, the lining of the gastrointestinal tract extending from the esophagus to the anus. These neurons are collected into two plexuses - the myenteric (or Auerbach's) plexus that lies between the longitudinal and the smooth muscle layers, and the submucosal (or Meissner's) plexus that lies between the circular smooth muscle layer and the mucosa. Parasympathetic innervation to the ascending colon is supplied by the vagus nerve. Sympathetic innervation is supplied by the splanchnic nerves that join the celiac ganglia. Most of the digestive tract is innervated by the two large celiac ganglia, with the upper part of each

neg: Fish physiology food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it

neg: Sinocalliopteryx a length of 1.2 metres (3.9 ft). The 2012 study also reported newly discovered remains of prey animals. Above the dromaeosaurid leg, feathers are visible. Below it two clusters of digested food can be seen. It was suggested that the feathers had belonged to a bird and were with the leg still present in the stomach. The digested food would, using the preserved digestive tract of "Scipionyx" as a reference, have been positioned in the duodenum. The C-shaped abdominal contents of this specimen appear to reflect of the original contour of the digestive tract. In addition to the dromaeosaurid leg,

neg: Methanogens in digestive tract of ruminants cellulose breakdown occupy the rumen. They initiate the fermentation process.The animal observes the fatty acids, vitamins and nutrient content on passing the partially digested food from rumen to omasum which, decreases the pH level and thus initiates the release of enzymes for further break down the food which is later passed to the abomasumthat absorbs remaining nutrients before excretion.This process takes about 9–12 hours. Some of the microbes in ruminant digestive system are: Methanogens in digestive tract of ruminants Methanogens are a group of microorganisms that can produce methane as a byproduct of their metabolism.They hold an important place in

neg: Gastrointestinal wall layer prevents food from travelling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The thickness of the muscular layer varies in each part of the tract: The outermost layer of the GI tract consists of several layers of connective tissue and is either "adventitia" or "serosa". Intraperitoneal regions of the digestive tract (aka those parts suspended by peritoneum) are covered with serosa. This structure consists of connective tissue covered by a simple squamous epithelium, called the mesothelium, which reduces frictional forces during digestive movements. The intraperitoneal regions include most of the stomach, first part of the duodenum, all of the

neg: Hepatopancreas Hepatopancreas The hepatopancreas, digestive gland or midgut gland is an organ of the digestive tract of arthropods and molluscs. It provides the functions which in mammals are provided separately by the liver and pancreas, including the production of digestive enzymes, and absorption of digested food. Arthropods, especially detritivores in the Order Isopoda, Suborder Oniscidea (woodlice), have been shown to be able to store heavy metals in their hepatopancreas. This could lead to bioaccumulation through the food chain and implications for food web destruction, if the accumulation gets high enough in polluted areas; for example, high metal concentrations are seen in

neg: Elysia chlorotica the ciliated velum to swim as well as to bring food to its mouth. The veliger larva feed on phytoplankton in the sea-water column. After the food is brought to the mouth by the ciliated velum, it is moved down the digestive tract to the stomach. In the stomach, food is sorted and then moved on to the digestive gland where the food is digested and the nutrients are absorbed by the epithelial cells of the digestive gland. Elysia chlorotica Elysia chlorotica (common name the eastern emerald elysia) is a small-to-medium-sized species of green sea slug, a marine opisthobranch gastropod

neg: Hepatopancreas spiders of the genus "Dysdera" which feed on woodlice, including their hepatopancreas, the major metal storage organ of isopods in polluted sites. The hepatopancreas is a centre for lipid metabolism and for storage of lipids in gastropods. Some species in the genus "Phyllodesmium" contains active zooxanthellae of the genus "Symbiodinium" in the hepatopancreas. Hepatopancreas The hepatopancreas, digestive gland or midgut gland is an organ of the digestive tract of arthropods and molluscs. It provides the functions which in mammals are provided separately by the liver and pancreas, including the production of digestive enzymes, and absorption of digested food. Arthropods, especially

neg: Coprophagia so to allow tough plant materials to be digested more efficiently by passing twice through the digestive tract. Other species may do so only under unusual conditions. Coprophagia has been observed in some people with schizophrenia and pica. Coprophagous insects consume and redigest the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested food, particularly in the case of herbivores, owing to the inefficiency of the large animals' digestive systems. Two feces-eating insects are certain species of fly and the dung beetle. In regards to the dung beetle, their diet is mainly in the form of the microorganism-rich

neg: Stomach Stomach The stomach (from ancient Greek στόμαχος, "stomachos," "stoma" means mouth) is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital digestive organ. In the digestive system the stomach is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing). In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from

neg: Earthworm mammalian intestine, an earthworm's intestine increases surface area to increase nutrient absorption by having many folds running along its length. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like the body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. The earthworm has a dual circulatory system in which both the coelomic fluid and a closed circulatory system carry the food, waste, and respiratory gases. The closed circulatory system has five main blood vessels: the dorsal (top) vessel, which runs above the digestive tract; the ventral (bottom) vessel, which runs below the digestive tract; the subneural

neg: Agni (Ayurveda) quantity of food. This state of Agni is a result of the dominance of Kapha. Agni (Ayurveda) Agni in Samskrita means "fire", and according to Ayurveda Agni happens to be the entity that is responsible for all digestive and metabolic processes in the human beings. Depending upon the stage of metabolism where a specific Agni is functionally active, Agni has been classified into three sub-classes: 'Jaṭharāgni', 'Bhūtāgni' and 'Dhātvagni'. While Jaṭharāgni acts on the food in the digestive tract and converts it into absorbable form, the Bhūtāgni acts after the digested material has been absorbed. Bhūtāgni is of 5 types.

neg: Trichomonas and cats. In humans, it can be found in the urogenital tract and in the oral cavity. It is estimated that 276 million new cases of urogenital infections occur each year. Depending on the "Trichomonas" species, it can either be transmitted through direct sexual contact or through contaminated water sources. In birds, it can be found in the upper digestive tract and is transmitted when adult birds regurgitate food to feed their young, when a bird of prey feeds on an infected bird, and through contaminated food or water. "Trichomonas" is around 10 µm in length and is normally pear-shaped.

neg: Agni (Ayurveda) Agni (Ayurveda) Agni in Samskrita means "fire", and according to Ayurveda Agni happens to be the entity that is responsible for all digestive and metabolic processes in the human beings. Depending upon the stage of metabolism where a specific Agni is functionally active, Agni has been classified into three sub-classes: 'Jaṭharāgni', 'Bhūtāgni' and 'Dhātvagni'. While Jaṭharāgni acts on the food in the digestive tract and converts it into absorbable form, the Bhūtāgni acts after the digested material has been absorbed. Bhūtāgni is of 5 types. Each of these 5 acts on the 5 primordial constituents of the absorbed food: Earth,

neg: Gastrointestinal tract peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to its self-contained enteric nervous system. The rate can be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers

neg: Preserved lemon an increase in the production of B-vitamins. Through fermentation B-vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, and probiotics are made. B-vitamins have shown to be good for the gut. Additionally, food that is normally indigestible can be digested once the food has been fermented due to bacterial synthesis which allows the digestive tract to absorb more nutrients from the food (increased bioavailability). In contrast to the unpeeled lemon, the amount of vitamins within the preserved lemons is reduced, along with a loss of minerals and simple carbohydrates such as sugar and starch. It can be concluded that due to the preservation procedure of

neg: Mammal to bacteria that ferment these complex substances, and make them available for digestion, which are either housed in the multichambered [[stomach]] or in a large cecum. Some mammals are [[coprophagous]], consuming [[feces]] to absorb the nutrients not digested when the food was first ingested. An [[omnivore]] eats both prey and plants. Carnivorous mammals have a simple [[digestive system|digestive tract]] because the [[protein]]s, [[lipid]]s and [[mineral]]s found in meat require little in the way of specialized digestion. Exceptions to this include [[baleen whale]]s who also house [[gut flora]] in a multi-chambered stomach, like terrestrial herbivores. The size of an animal is

neg: Electromagnetic articulography custom-fitted artificial palate containing electrodes that measure contact. While able to record multiple contacts, the artificial palate may obstruct or interfere with articulation, and each subject requires a custom-fitted palate. Video fluoroscopy uses x-ray radiation to produce moving pictures of the mouth during articulation or swallowing. It is considered the gold standard in studies of dysphagia because of its ability to take videos of the entire digestive tract during swallowing events. It is often used to study and treat aspiration of food, what parts of the digestive tract are malfunctioning during swallowing, and positions in which swallowing is easiest. Only

neg: Cat food it integral to overall health. Therefore, feeding your cat for optimal digestive health is key for a healthy cat. Research shows fiber, prebiotics, probiotics, antioxidants and fatty acids are important in maintaining gastrointestinal health. The addition of fiber at optimal levels in a diet is essential for the normal function and health of the gastrointestinal tract. Dietary fibers are plant carbohydrates which cannot be digested by mammalian enzymes. These structural plant carbohydrates include pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, muclinage, and gums. Different types of fibers have varying levels of solubility and fermentation; this ranges from pectin which is highly fermentable, to

neg: Kopi Luwak are eaten by a civet for their fruit pulp. After spending about a day and a half in the civet's digestive tract the beans are then defecated in clumps, having kept their shape and still covered with some of the fleshy berry's inner layers. Despite being in contact with faeces and pathogenic organisms, the beans contain negligible amounts of the enteric (pathogenic) organisms associated with feces. Moreover, the "cherry" or endocarp surrounding the bean is not completely digested by the luwak, and after being collected, the farmer performs thorough washing and removes the endocarp. The final roasting of the beans

neg: Intracellular digestion digested by the lysosome's enzymes. Intracellular digestion can also refer to the process in which animals that "lack" a digestive tract bring food items into the cell for the purposes of digestion for nutritional needs. This kind of intracellular digestion occurs in many unicellular protozoans, in Pycnogonida, in some molluscs, Cnidaria and Porifera. There is another type of digestion, called extracellular digestion. In amphioxus, digestion is both extracellular and intracellular. Intracellular digestion is divided into heterophagic digestion and autophagic digestion. These two types take place in the lysosome and they both have very specific functions. Heterophagic intracellular digestion has an

neg: Motion (physics) cavae have been found between . additionally, the smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are moving. The most familiar would be the occurrence of peristalsis which is where digested food is forced throughout the digestive tract. Though different foods travel through the body at different rates, an average speed through the human small intestine is . The human lymphatic system is also constantly causing movements of excess fluids, lipids, and immune system related products around the body. The lymph fluid has been found to move through a lymph capillary of the skin at approximately 0.0000097 m/s. The cells of the

neg: Stomach disease the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different viruses or bacteria can increase the amount of liquid that is secreted and moves too quickly through the digestive tract for the water to be absorbed. Diarrhea comes in two types: acute diarrhea and chronic diarrhea. The acute diagnosis can last for a few days up to a week of time. Chronic diarrhea lasts for several days or longer periods of time lasting a few weeks.

neg: Grasshopper and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops. The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes. Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive

neg: Digestive rate model related to a large intraspecific difference in the digestive tract of the knots. Digestive rate model The digestive rate model (DRM) (of foraging) is related to optimal foraging theory in that the model describes the diet selection that animals should perform in order to maximize the energy (or nutrients) available to them. It differs from the main body of Optimal Foraging Theory in stating that animals can select food in order to make optimal use of their digestive tract (maximize digestion rate) rather than the maximization of the food ingestion rate, which is the base of Optimal foraging theory. The

neg: Indiana pouch digested matter from re-entering the small intestine. Originally, it was thought that removing the ileocecal valve from the digestive tract would likely result in diarrhea, but this has not shown to be the case. After a period of several weeks, the body adjusts to the absence of this valve (from the digestive tract) by absorbing more liquids and nutrients. Importantly, this valve, in its new capacity, will now effectively prevent the escape of urine from the stoma. The passage of the conduit through the abdominal wall allows the rectus abdominis muscle to aid with continence. The surgery itself along with

neg: Gallbladder enters the digestive tract, it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct, eventually draining into the duodenum. The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts, and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body. The bile that is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is

neg: Methanogens in digestive tract of ruminants Methanogens in digestive tract of ruminants Methanogens are a group of microorganisms that can produce methane as a byproduct of their metabolism.They hold an important place in the digestive system of ruminants. The digestive tract of ruminants contain four major parts, they are abomasum, rumen, omasum and reticulum.The food with saliva is first passed to the rumen for breaking them into smaller particles and then it moves to the reticulum where the food is broken into further smaller particles and the indigestable particles are sent back for rechewing and then to rumen. The majority of the anaerobic microbes assisting the

neg: Extracellular digestion system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion. Specializing occurs when the digestive tract or alimentary canal has a separate mouth and anus so that transport of food is one-way. The most primitive digestive tract is seen in nematodes (phylum Nematode), where it is simply a tubular gut lined by an epithelial membrane. Earthworms (phylum Annelids) have a digestive tract specialized in different regions for the ingestion, storage, fragmentation, digestion and absorption of food. All more complex animal groups, including all vertebrates, show similar specializations. The ingested food may be stored in a specialized region of

neg: Human digestive system cleaving it to form trypsin; further cleavage results in chymotripsin. The lower gastrointestinal tract (GI), includes the small intestine and all of the large intestine. The intestine is also called the bowel or the gut. The lower GI starts at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and finishes at the anus. The small intestine is subdivided into the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. The cecum marks the division between the small and large intestine. The large intestine includes the rectum and anal canal. Partially digested food starts to arrive in the small intestine as semi-liquid chyme, one hour after

neg: Elysia crispata little over a month. Also known as chloroplast symbiosis, kleptoplasty is the energy-providing mechanism that gives the Sacoglossan’s the nickname, “solar-powered sea slugs”, and "E. crispata" the name, “lettuce sea slug.” As algal food is being digested, the chloroplasts are absorbed into the cells lining the digestive tract and up into their parapodia. How many chloroplasts the slug sequesters and the length of retention depends on the individual species of slug. Chloroplast retention in "E. crispata" tends to last around 40 days. Given the variation in their diet, chloroplasts from different algal species have been found to be taken up

neg: Mucus mucociliary clearance. In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the esophagus. Mucus is extremely important in the intestinal tract. It forms an essential layer in the colon and in the small intestine that helps reduce intestinal inflammation by decreasing bacterial interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. A layer of mucus along the inner walls of the stomach is vital to protect the cell linings of that organ from the highly acidic environment within it. Mucus is also secreted from glands within the rectum due to stimulation

neg: Fetal pig have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the gallbladder, pancreas and spleen are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system because they contain digestive enzymes that will perform chemical digestion of food. After food is digested and nutrients are absorbed,

neg: Pinniped the intestine may be an adaptation to frequent deep diving, as the increased volume of the digestive tract serves as an extended storage compartment for partially digested food during submersion. Pinnipeds do not have an appendix. As in most marine mammals, the kidneys are divided into small lobes and can effectively absorb water and filter out excess salt. Pinnipeds have two pairs of flippers on the front and back, the fore-flippers and hind-flippers. The elbows and ankles are enclosed within the body. Pinnipeds tend to be slower swimmers than cetaceans, typically cruising at compared to around for several species of

neg: Enviropig is stably transmitted in a Mendelian fashion. An editorial entitled "Genetically engineered meat close to your table" was published with online video and audio explaining the digestive capability of the Enviropig. Approximately 50-75% of the phosphorus present in cereal grains, corn, and soybeans is present in an indigestible compound called phytate that passes through the pig digestive tract and is enriched in the manure approx. 4-fold because the protein and carbohydrates in cereals are digested and absorbed. When manure from conventional pigs is spread on land in areas of intense swine production, there is a buildup of phosphorus in the

neg: Human digestive system Human digestive system The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The process of digestion has many stages. The first stage is the cephalic phase of digestion which begins with gastric secretions in response to the sight and smell of food. The next stage starts in the mouth. Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces

neg: Dual inheritance theory brains compared to other great apes. This is due to food processing. Early examples of food processing include pounding, marinating and most notably cooking. Pounding meat breaks down the muscle fibres, hence taking away some of the job from the mouth, teeth and jaw. Marinating emulates the action of the stomach with high acid levels. Cooking partially breaks down food making it more easily digestible. Food enters the body effectively partly digested, and as such food processing reduces the work that the digestive system has to do. This means that there is selection for smaller digestive organs as the tissue

neg: Stimulus (physiology) to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response. Chemoreceptors and mechanorceptors, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine. The digestive system is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or enteric nervous system alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and

neg: Trilobite suggested, with the cephalic legs used to disturb the sediment to make food available. A large glabella, (implying a large stomach), coupled with an impendent hypostome has been used as evidence of more complex food sources, i.e. possibly a carnivorous lifestyle. While there is direct and implied evidence for the presence and location of the mouth, stomach and digestive tract (see above) the presence of heart, brain and liver are only implied (although "present" in many reconstructions) with little direct geological evidence. Although rarely preserved, long lateral muscles extended from the cephalon to midway down the pygidium, attaching to the

neg: Oligochaeta they form the clitellum, which is important in reproduction. Most oligochaetes are detritus feeders, although some genera are predaceous, such as "Agriodrilus" and "Phagodrilus". The digestive tract is essentially a tube running the length of the body, but has a powerful muscular pharynx immediately behind the mouth cavity. In many species, the pharynx simply helps the worm suck in food, but in many aquatic species, it can be turned inside out and placed over food like a suction cup before being pulled back in. The remainder of the digestive tract may include a crop for storage of food, and a

neg: Emperor angelfish taken away on currents. This allows the eggs to disperse and sends them away from predators dwelling in the reefs below. The emperor angelfish is omnivorous, feeding on both small invertebrates and plants. Sponges and algae make up its primary diet. The fish has bulky, strong jaws for chewing up the sponges, which are made up of tiny, needle-like pieces of silica. The digestive tract coats the food with a layer of mucus to protect the gut from the sharp silica. Emperor angelfish The emperor angelfish ("Pomacanthus imperator") is a species of marine angelfish. It is a reef-associated fish, native

neg: Cattle the cud, is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines, allowing

neg: Platecarpus is similar to that of cetaceans. Part of the digestive tract is also preserved and is filled with mid-sized fish remains. The shape of these remains may outline the true shape of the corresponding part of the digestive tract, most likely the colon. The presence of scales and undigested bones in the colon suggests that "Platecarpus" and other mosasaurs processed food quickly and did not thoroughly digest and absorb all food in the gastrointestinal tract. Coprolites from the mosasaur "Globidens" are also suggestive of low digestion and absorption rates as they contain masses of crushed bivalve shells. The caudal, or

neg: Chyme Chyme Chyme or chymus (; from Greek χυμός "khymos", "juice") is the semi-fluid mass of partly digested food that is expelled by the stomach, through the pyloric valve, into the duodenum (the beginning of the small intestine). Chyme results from the mechanical and chemical breakdown of a bolus and consists of partially digested food, water, hydrochloric acid, and various digestive enzymes. Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme in anywhere between 40 minutes

neg: Motility as well as to some mechanisms of fluid flow in multicellular organs and tissue. Motile marine animals are commonly called free-swimming, and motile non-parasitic organisms are called free-living. Motility also refers to an organism's ability to move food through its digestive tract. There are two types of intestinal motility – peristalsis and segmentation. This motility is brought about by the contraction of smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal tract which mix the luminal contents with various secretions (segmentation) and move contents through the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus (peristalsis). At the cellular level, different modes of motility exist:

neg: Gastrointestinal physiology nervous system (ENS) and reflexes from GI peptides working in harmony with each other. Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response

neg: Digestive rate model Digestive rate model The digestive rate model (DRM) (of foraging) is related to optimal foraging theory in that the model describes the diet selection that animals should perform in order to maximize the energy (or nutrients) available to them. It differs from the main body of Optimal Foraging Theory in stating that animals can select food in order to make optimal use of their digestive tract (maximize digestion rate) rather than the maximization of the food ingestion rate, which is the base of Optimal foraging theory. The basic tenet of the DRM is that the intake of energy by an

neg: Daphnia factors such as temperature and the abundance of predators, but can be 13–14 months in some cold, oligotrophic fish-free lakes. In typical conditions, however, the life cycle is much shorter, not usually exceeding 5–6 months. "Daphnia" are typically filter feeders, ingesting mainly unicellular algae and various sorts of organic detritus including protists and bacteria Beating of the legs produces a constant current through the carapace which brings such material into the digestive tract. The trapped food particles are formed into a food "bolus" which then moves down the digestive tract until voided through the anus located on the ventral surface

neg: Pharyngeal reflex and the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex, which occurs mainly during gastroesophageal reflux episodes. All either forcibly close the glottis or allow the pharynx to remove particles into the digestive tract that may have been forced back up by both this tract and the upper respiratory tract. These reflexes can also protect the airways from any food or liquids that may spill over from the hypopharynx. The hypopharynx is the bottom part of pharynx, and can be considered the first area where the digestive tract splits from the airways. However, if the maximum capacity of fluids that the hypopharynx can

neg: Planarian organ systems. The digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, and a gastrovascular cavity. The mouth is located in the center of the underside of the body. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the mouth to begin external digestion. The pharynx connects the mouth to the gastrovascular cavity. This structure branches throughout the body allowing nutrients from food to reach all extremities. Planaria eat living or dead small animals that they suck up with their muscular mouths. Food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the intestines where it is digested by the cells lining the intestines. Then its nutrients

neg: Nuruk necessary for normal digestive function and protect the flora of gut from harmful organisms. Fermented foods also have been broken down or “pre-digested" and therefore, unlike ordinary carbohydrates, place a lighter burden on the digestion system. They have many additional benefits (Helmenstine 25-28). Fermented food and drink such as Shindari are said to improve the immune system, prevent cancer, and increase beneficial bacteria in the digestive system, balancing the production of stomach acid and aiding nutrient absorption. Traditional fermented food helps the body to produce acetylcholine. It is especially beneficial for people with diabetes. Nuruk Nuruk () is a traditional

neg: Digestion that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small

neg: Digestion cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation. The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and

neg: Germ layer it, and forms a new layer, called the endoderm, pushing the hypoblast out of the way (this goes on to form the amnion.) The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The top layer is now called the ectoderm. The endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm. The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tract except part of the

neg: Intestinal mucosal barrier case of the colon) that separates the bulk of the luminal contents from the intestinal epithelium. The mucus consists of a highly glycosylated hydrated gel formed by mucin molecules that are secreted by goblet cells. The mucus prevents large particles from contacting the epithelial cell layer while allowing small molecules to pass. The mucus also facilitates passage of the luminal contents along the length of the intestines, protects the epithelial cells from digestive enzymes, and prevents the direct contact of microorganisms with the epithelial layer. The intestinal epithelium is the foremost component of the intestinal mucosal barrier. It consists of

neg: Human digestive system blood in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion (feces) are defecated from the anus via the rectum. There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food. The organs known as the accessory digestive glands are the liver, gall bladder and pancreas. Other components include the mouth, salivary glands, tongue, teeth and epiglottis. The largest structure of the digestive system is the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). This starts at the mouth and ends at the anus, covering a distance of about nine (9) metres. The largest part of the GI tract is

neg: Otolith therefore be used to back-calculate prey size and biomass, useful when trying to estimate marine mammal prey consumption, and potential impacts on fish stocks. Otoliths cannot be used alone to reliably estimate cetacean or pinniped diets, however. They may suffer partial or complete erosion in the digestive tract, skewing measurements of prey number and biomass. Species with fragile, easily digested otoliths may be underestimated in the diet. To address these biases, otolith correction factors have been developed through captive feeding experiments, in which seals are fed fish of known size, and the degree of otolith erosion is quantified for different

neg: Exercise induced anaphylaxis observed following exercise, and are comparable to changes occurring in atopic patients following exposure to an allergen. Theories for the pathophysiology of EIAn include increased gastrointestinal permeability, increased tissue enzyme activity, and blood flow redistribution. Exercise is known to increase absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. It is theorised that increased or altered gastrointestinal permeability enhances contact of allergens with the gut-associated immune system. In some FDEIAn patients, the appearance and/or severity of symptoms depends on the amount of the patient's trigger food ingested. An increase in gut permeability may also increase the risk of absorption of 'partially digested allergenic proteins'.

neg: Amoebiasis eating and digesting bacteria and food particles in the gut, a part of the gastrointestinal tract. It does not usually come in contact with the intestine itself due to the protective layer of mucus that lines the gut. Disease occurs when amoeba comes in contact with the cells lining the intestine. It then secretes the same substances it uses to digest bacteria, which include enzymes that destroy cell membranes and proteins. This process can lead to penetration and digestion of human tissues, resulting first in flask-shaped ulcerations in the intestine. "Entamoeba histolytica" ingests the destroyed cells by phagocytosis and is

neg: Human digestive system chewing pieces of food into smaller and smaller pieces. This results in a much larger surface area for the action of digestive enzymes. The teeth are named after their particular roles in the process of mastication—incisors are used for cutting or biting off pieces of food; canines, are used for tearing, premolars and molars are used for chewing and grinding. Mastication of the food with the help of saliva and mucus results in the formation of a soft bolus which can then be swallowed to make its way down the upper gastrointestinal tract to the stomach. The digestive enzymes in

neg: Gastrointestinal wall longitudinal or circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The circular muscle

neg: Defecation Defecation Defecation is the final act of digestion, by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid, or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus. Humans expel feces with a frequency varying from a few times daily to a few times weekly. Waves of muscular contraction (known as "peristalsis") in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum. Undigested food may also be expelled this way, in a process called "egestion". Open defecation, the practice of defecating outside without using a toilet of any kind, is still widespread in some developing countries, for

neg: Gastrointestinal tract calf-intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIP), and are used to make goldbeater's skin. Other uses are: Many birds and other animals have a specialised stomach in the digestive tract called a gizzard used for grinding up food. Another feature not found in the human but found in a range of other animals is the crop. In birds this is found as a pouch alongside the esophagus. Other animals including amphibians, birds, reptiles, and egg-laying mammals have a major difference in their GI tract in that it ends in a cloaca and not an anus. Gastrointestinal tract The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional

neg: Baleen whale to prevent damage to the intestinal tract. Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing

neg: Azinphos-methyl left is pure azinphos-methyl in form of white crystals. Azinphos-methyl can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact. Ingestion of azinphos-methyl is responsible for the low-dose exposure to a large part of the population, due to their presence as residues in food and drinking water. After ingestion it can be absorbed from the digestive tract. By skin contact, AzM can also enter the body through dermal cells. Absorption through the skin is responsible for the occupational exposure to relatively high doses, mainly in agriculture workers. Once azinphos-methyl is absorbed it can cause neurotoxic effects, like other organophosphate insecticides.

neg: Sardines as food removed before packing. They may also be eviscerated before packing (typically the larger varieties). If not, they should be purged of undigested or partially digested food or feces by holding the live fish in a tank long enough for them to empty their digestive systems. Sardines are typically tightly packed in a small can which is scored for easy opening, either with a pull tab (similar to how a beverage can is opened), or with a key attached to the side of the can. Thus, it has the benefit of being an easily portable, nonperishable, self-contained food. The close packing

neg: Sham feeding absorbed into the body, the process of chewing still stimulates digestive system nerves which trigger the release of gastrointestinal hormones, and also increase the production of both saliva and pancreatic secretions. In human studies a process known as modified sham feeding (MSF) is typically used, which involves smelling, tasting and chewing food, then spitting it out when it would normally be swallowed. Sham feeding Sham feeding is any procedure that mimics normal food consumption but where food and drink are not actually digested or absorbed. It is generally used in experiments studying hunger, eating or digestion, and is a predominant

neg: Anus Anus The anus (from Latin "anus" meaning "ring", "circle") is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may include: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as bones; food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same

neg: Octopus made of chitin. Food is broken down and is forced into the oesophagus by two lateral extensions of the esophageal side walls in addition to the radula. From there it is transferred to the gastrointestinal tract, which is mostly suspended from the roof of the mantle cavity by numerous membranes. The tract consists of a crop, where the food is stored; a stomach, where food is ground down; a caecum where the now sludgy food is sorted into fluids and particles and which plays an important role in absorption; the digestive gland, where liver cells break down and absorb the

neg: Calcium citrate sulfuric acid. In many individuals, bioavailability of calcium citrate is found to be equal to that of the cheaper calcium carbonate. However, alterations to the digestive tract may change how calcium is digested and absorbed. Unlike calcium carbonate, which is basic and neutralizes stomach acid, calcium citrate has no effect on stomach acid. Calcium carbonate is harder to digest than calcium citrate, and calcium carbonate carries a risk of "acid rebound" (the stomach overcompensates by producing more acid), so individuals who are sensitive to antacids or who have difficulty producing adequate stomach acid may choose calcium citrate over calcium carbonate

neg: Gastrointestinal tract Gastrointestinal tract The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces. The mouth, esophagus, stomach and intestines are part of the gastrointestinal tract. "Gastrointestinal" is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal.

neg: Listeria Quaternary ammonium can be used in conjunction with alcohol as a food-contact safe sanitizer with increased duration of the sanitizing action. Refrigerated foods in the home should be kept below 4 °C (39 °F) to discourage bacterial growth. Consumption of unpasteurized dairy products should be avoided. All raw meats (including beef, pork, poultry, and seafood) should be cooked to a safe internal temperature, typically 73 °C (165 °F) to properly kill the food-borne pathogen. Uncooked vegetables and fruits are just as likely to carry Listeria as uncooked meats. In non-invasive listeriosis, the bacteria often remain within the digestive tract, causing

neg: Human digestive system predispose for certain digestive disorders. Gestational diabetes can develop in the mother as a result of pregnancy and while this often presents with few symptoms it can lead to pre-eclampsia. Human digestive system The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The process of digestion has many stages. The first stage is the cephalic phase of digestion which begins with gastric secretions in response

neg: Fish pumps the blood, first to the fourth part, bulbus arteriosus, a large tube, and then out of the heart. The bulbus arteriosus connects to the aorta, through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation. Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals

neg: Gastrointestinal physiology relaxing while circular muscles contract at alternating sections thereby mixing the food. This mixing allows food and digestive enzymes to maintain a uniform composition, as well as to ensure contact with the epithelium for proper absorption. Every day, seven liters of fluid are secreted by the digestive system. This fluid is composed of four primary components: ions, digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the digestive system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells. The

neg: Food allergy can begin when the respiratory tract or blood circulation is affected. The former can be indicated through wheezing and cyanosis. Poor blood circulation leads to a weak pulse, pale skin and fainting. A severe case of an allergic reaction, caused by symptoms affecting the respiratory tract and blood circulation, is called anaphylaxis. When symptoms are related to a drop in blood pressure, the person is said to be in anaphylactic shock. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show symptoms. Those with asthma

neg: Gastroparesis patients may have marked gastroparesis with few, if any, serious complications. In other cases or if the x-ray is inconclusive, the physician may have the patient eat a meal of beef containing barium so they can watch as it is being digested and see how slowly the digestive tract is moving. This can be helpful for diagnosing patients who are able to digest liquids but not solid foods. In cases of postinfectious gastroparesis, patients have symptoms and go undiagnosed for an average of 3 weeks to 6 months before their illness is identified correctly and treatment begins. Current treatment is

neg: Urticating hair during molts and can be wind-borne, so that direct contact with live or dead larvae is not required to trigger a rash. In spite of such defenses, some species of birds feed avidly on hairy caterpillars. Usually they grab them in their beaks and scrub them on the ground till the majority of the hairs have been stripped or damaged, but at least some species of cuckoos apparently collect the hairs in the digestive tract until they form pellets that can be regurgitated. Examples of avian predators other than cuckoos that feed on hairy caterpillars include at least tens of

neg: Canadian health claims for food and esophagus) and fruit and vegetable consumption. An EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) study was conducted during 1992-1998 in which 345,904 people were studied using a dietary questionnaire. During 1998 data was collected and an inverse association was found between fruit and vegetable intake and upper aero-digestive tract cancer occurrence. The large study recommends an increase of fruit and vegetable consumption in order to reduce the risk of cancers of the upper aero-digestive tract. Some fruits and vegetables contain antioxidants which are also linked with cancer reduction risks. Micronutrient antioxidants (Vitamin E, Vitamin C, Vitamin A, B-carotene,

neg: Chyme will be absorbed along with other nutrients. Chyme has a low pH that is countered by the production of bile, helping to further digest food. Chyme is part liquid and part solid: a thick semifluid mass of partially digested food and digestive secretions that is formed in the stomach and small intestine during digestion. Chyme also contains cells from the mouth and esophagus that slough off from the mechanical action of chewing and swallowing. After hours of mechanical and chemical digestion, food has been reduced into chyme. As particles of food become small enough, they are passed out of the

neg: Scallop mucus. Next, the cilia on the structure move the food toward the mouth. Then, the food is digested in the digestive gland, an organ sometimes misleadingly referred to as the "liver", but which envelops part of the oesophagus, intestine, and the entire stomach. Waste is passed on through the intestine (the terminus of which, like that of many mollusks, enters and leaves the animal's heart) and exits via the anus. Like all bivalves, scallops lack actual brains. Instead, their nervous system is controlled by three paired ganglia located at various points throughout their anatomy, the cerebral or cerebropleural ganglia, the

neg: Origin of language Lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent, resulting in a curved tongue and two-tube vocal tract with 1:1 proportions. Uniquely in the human case, simple contact between the epiglottis and velum is no longer possible, disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing. Since this entails substantial costs—increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food—we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs. The obvious benefit—so it is claimed—must have been speech. But this idea has been vigorously contested. One objection

neg: Toxocara cati and eating a host animal (such as rodents) can also lead to infection of the felines. The consumption of infected carrion also leads to contraction of the parasites, which is some of the food that members of Felidae consume. The eggs hatch in the intestines and the larvae are then released into the cat’s digestive tract. The larvae are capable of migrating through the tissues and are found in the liver, lungs, tracheal washings and muscles as well as in the digestive tract. From there, they move up to the trachea where they are swallowed causing hacking and other problems.

neg: Gastrointestinal tract is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch. Whilst the muscularis externa is similar throughout the entire gastrointestinal tract, an exception is the stomach which has an additional inner oblique muscular layer to aid with grinding and mixing of food. The muscularis externa of the stomach is composed of the inner oblique layer, middle circular layer and outer longitudinal layer . Between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers is the myenteric plexus. This controls peristalsis. Activity is initiated by the pacemaker cells, (myenteric interstitial cells of Cajal). The gut has intrinsic

neg: Enterocoely form, creating another layer between the endoderm and ectoderm, the mesoderm. These pockets gradually expand to form the coelom. In protostomes, the body cavity is formed by schizocoely. Enterocoely Enterocoely (adjective forms: enterocoelic and enterocoelous) is a process by which some animal embryos develop. In enterocoely, a mesoderm (middle layer) is formed in a developing embryo, in which the coelom forms from pouches "pinched" off of the digestive tract (also known as the embryonic gut, or archenteron). This type of coelom formation occurs in deuterostome animals, which for this reason are also known as enterocoelomates. Enterocoelous development begins once the

neg: Stevia According to basic research, steviol glycosides and steviol interact with a protein channel called TRPM5, potentiating the signal from the sweet or bitter receptors, amplifying the taste of other sweet, bitter and umami tastants. The synergetic effect of the glycosides on the sweet receptor and TRPM5 explains the sweetness sensation. Some steviol glycosides (rebaudioside A) are perceived sweeter than others (stevioside). Steviol cannot be further digested in the digestive tract and is taken up into the bloodstream, metabolised by the liver to steviol glucuronide, and excreted in the urine. A 2011 review found that the use of stevia sweeteners as

neg: Kopi Luwak Kopi Luwak Kopi luwak (), or civet coffee, is coffee that includes partially digested coffee cherries, eaten and defecated by the Asian palm civet ("Paradoxurus hermaphroditus"). Fermentation occurs as the cherries pass through a civet's intestines, and after being defecated with other fecal matter, they are collected. Producers of the coffee beans argue that the process may improve coffee through two mechanisms, selection – civets choosing to eat only certain cherries – and digestion – biological or chemical mechanisms in the animal's digestive tract altering the composition of the coffee cherries. The traditional method of collecting feces from wild civets

neg: Creatorrhea Creatorrhea Creatorrhea is the abnormal excretion of muscle fibre in feces. The term is made from the prefix "creat-" or "creato-" which comes from Greek "kreas" meaning "flesh". The suffix "-rrhea" (or "-rrhoea") comes from Greek "-rrhoia" meaning "flow," hence discharge. Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical and chemical processes. Failure to produce or secrete chemicals known as digestive enzymes can lead to failure digesting or breaking down specific components of ingested food. Where there is a failure to produce, release, or convert trypsinogen—an inactive enzyme precursor or zymogen—muscle fibres are not properly digested and are

neg: Biodiversity hypothesis of health nature are taken seriously, cost savings may be major. For example, in Finland in year 2011, total costs of asthma and allergies for the society were 1,3—1,6 billion euros. The direct costs of allergic diseases, including disability to work, have decreased by 15% in the 2000s as a result of shift in Finnish national allergy programme. In the programme, the focus was shifted from curing the symptoms to prevention, for example by emphasizing connection to natural environment. We are exposed to microbes via different ways from which the most important are respiratory tract, digestive system and skin contact. The habitat

neg: Drupe animals as a food, and the plant population benefits from the resulting dispersal of its seeds. The endocarp (pit or stone) is sometimes dropped after the fleshy part is eaten, but is often swallowed, passing through the digestive tract, and returned to the soil in feces with the seed inside unharmed. This passage through the digestive tract can reduce the thickness of the endocarp, thus can aid in germination rates. The process is known as scarification. Typical drupes include apricots, olives, peaches, plums, cherries, mangoes, and amlas (Indian gooseberries). Other examples include sloe ("Prunus spinosa") and ivy ("Hedera helix"). The

neg: Pharyngeal reflex related to the gag reflex, in which food or other foreign substances are forced back out of the pharynx, swallowing generally pushes food through the digestive system into the stomach. This reflex in particular functions as a protective system for the upper respiratory tract as it not only forces the glottis to close, thereby preventing any substances getting into the airways, but also clears the pharynx of any residual substances by a swallow. This particular reflex is simply one of several aero digestive reflexes, including also the pharyngoglottal closure reflex (in which no swallowing occurs yet the glottis still closes)

neg: Omnivore species of bear, there is generally a preference for one class of food, as plants and animals are digested differently. Wolf subspecies (including wolves, dogs, dingoes, and coyotes) eat some plant matter, but they have a general preference and are evolutionarily geared towards meat. Also, the maned wolf is a canid whose diet is naturally 50% plant matter. While most mammals may display "omnivorous" behavior patterns depending on conditions of supply, culture, season and so on, they will generally prefer a particular class of food, to which their digestive processes are adapted. Like most arboreal species, most squirrels are primarily

neg: Taenia asiatica 35. Cysticercus grows into adult in about 2.5 to 4 months, by the time gravid proglottids are found in faeces. Pigs and wild boars ingest the infective embryo while grazing. The digestive enzymes will break the thick shell of the egg and allow formation of the zygotes called "oncospheres". These oncospheres then penetrate the mucous layer of the digestive tract and enter the circulation of the host. This is where the young larval stages form a pea-sized, fluid filled cyst, also known as “cysticercus”, which migrate to visceral organs like liver, serosa and lungs in pigs, and liver in cattle.

neg: Extracellular digestion initial components of the gastrointestinal tract are the mouth and the pharynx, which is the common passage of the oral and nasal cavities. The pharynx leads to the esophagus, a muscular tube that delivers food to the stomach, where some preliminary digestion occurs; here, the digestion is extracellular. From the stomach, food passes to the small intestine, where a battery of digestive enzymes continue the digestive process. The products of digestion are absorbed across the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream. What remains is emptied into the large intestine, where some of the remaining water and minerals are absorbed;

neg: Pizza box certain kinds of paper. These can be part of scrap paper which is used in the manufacturing of packaging like the pizza box. Direct contact or evaporation can transfer DIPN from the packaging onto the packed food, contaminating it. Especially food containing fat like pizza with a layer of cheese can absorb DIPN. To date, there is no knowledge of danger to the health of the consumer. Still, paper contaminated with DIPN must not be used in the food sector in order to minimise danger of contamination. Pizza box The pizza box or pizza package is a folding box made

neg: Human digestive system longitudinal muscles, the taeniae coli, and an inner layer of circular muscles. The circular muscle keeps the material moving forward and also prevents any back flow of waste. Also of help in the action of peristalsis is the basal electrical rhythm that determines the frequency of contractions. The taeniae coli can be seen and are responsible for the bulges (haustra) present in the colon. Most parts of the GI tract are covered with serous membranes and have a mesentery. Other more muscular parts are lined with adventitia. The digestive system is supplied by the celiac artery. The celiac artery is

neg: Brachiopod passes through the mouth, muscular pharynx ("throat") and oesophagus ("gullet"), all of which are lined with cilia and cells that secrete mucus and digestive enzymes. The stomach wall has branched ceca ("pouches") where food is digested, mainly within the cells. Nutrients are transported throughout the coelom, including the mantle lobes, by cilia. The wastes produced by metabolism are broken into ammonia, which is eliminated by diffusion through the mantle and lophophore. Brachiopods have metanephridia, used by many phyla to excrete ammonia and other dissolved wastes. However, brachiopods have no sign of the podocytes, which perform the first phase of excretion