query: nissl 's granules are present in which part of neuron

pos: Nissl body Nissl body A Nissl body, also known as Nissl substance and Nissl material, is a large granular body found in neurons. These granules are of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) with rosettes of free ribosomes, and are the site of protein synthesis. It was named after Franz Nissl, a German neuropathologist who invented the Nissl staining method. Nissl bodies can be demonstrated by a method of selective staining developed by Nissl (Nissl staining), using an aniline stain to label extranuclear RNA granules. This staining method is useful to localize the cell body, as it can be seen in the soma and

pos: Soma (biology) The soma of a neuron (i.e., the main part of the neuron in which the dendrites branch off of) contains many organelles, including granules called Nissl granules, which are composed largely of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free polyribosomes. The cell nucleus is a key feature of the soma. The nucleus is the source of most of the RNA that is produced in neurons. In general, most proteins are produced from mRNAs that do not travel far from the cell nucleus. This creates a challenge for supplying new proteins to axon endings that can be a meter or more away from

pos: Nissl body Nissl body A Nissl body, also known as Nissl substance and Nissl material, is a large granular body found in neurons. These granules are of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) with rosettes of free ribosomes, and are the site of protein synthesis. It was named after Franz Nissl, a German neuropathologist who invented the Nissl staining method. Nissl bodies can be demonstrated by a method of selective staining developed by Nissl (Nissl staining), using an aniline stain to label extranuclear RNA granules. This staining method is useful to localize the cell body, as it can be seen in the soma and

pos: Soma (biology) the soma. Axons contain microtubule-associated motor proteins that transport protein-containing vesicles between the soma and the synapses at the axon terminals. Such transport of molecules towards and away from the soma maintains critical cell functions. The axon hillock is a specialized domain of the neuronal cell body from which the axon originates. A high amount of protein synthesis occurs in this region, as it contains a large number of Nissl granules (which are ribosomes wrapped in RER) and polyribosomes. Within the axon hillock, materials are sorted as either items that will enter the axon (like the components of the cytoskeletal

pos: Neuronal lineage marker soma, axon and dendrites of the neuron. Thus, it was possible to identify different types of neurons, as Golgi Cell, Golgi I and Golgi II. In 1885 there was a German medical researcher called Franz Nissl who developed another staining technique now known by Nissl staining. This technique is slightly different from Golgi staining since it stains the cell body and the endoplasmic reticulum. In 1887, a Spanish scientist called Santiago Ramon y Cajal learned the staining technique with Golgi and started his famous work of neuroanatomy. With this technique he made an extensive study of several areas of the

pos: Apical dendrite with the nucleus and the nissl bodies displaced toward the apical dendrites. Examples of neuron metabolic storage diseases are the sphingolipid storage diseases which typically involve malfunctioning hydrolases in the lysosomes responsible for the degradation of these lipids: This swelling is shown, for instance, in Tay-Sachs, a GM2 accumulation due to defective Beta-Hexosaminidase. Visible in this disorder are large mega-neurite formations. It has been indicated that there is a “chicken and egg” issue in the study of models relating to epilepsy because on the one hand the models are used to study the genesis of epilepsy and on the other

pos: Axotomy response without any neuronal death. In both cases, autophagy is observed to markedly increase. Autophagy could either clear the way for neuronal degeneration or it could be a medium for cell destruction. Upon injury of a peripheral axon, the entire neuron immediately reacts in order to regenerate the axon. This reaction requires an increased metabolic activity and is initiated by chromatolysis. Chromatolysis is characterized as the dissolution of protein-producing structures in the cell body of a neuron and is a term used to characterize apoptosis of neuronal cells. During chromatolysis, the soma and nucleus round and enlarge, the Nissl bodies

pos: Neuron doctrine histological work of Albert von Kölliker, Camillo Golgi, Franz Nissl, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Auguste Forel and others. Theodor Schwann proposed in 1839 that the tissues of all organisms are composed of cells. Schwann was expanding on the proposal of his good friend Matthias Jakob Schleiden the previous year that all plant tissues were composed of cells. The nervous system stood as an exception. Although nerve cells had been described in tissue by numerous investigators including Jan Purkinje, Gabriel Valentin, and Robert Remak, the relationship between the nerve cells and other features such as dendrites and axons was not clear.

pos: Nissl body dendrites of neurons, though not in the axon or axon hillock. Due to RNA's basophilic ("base-loving") properties it is stained blue by this method. Nissl bodies show changes under various physiological conditions and in pathological conditions they may dissolve and disappear (chromatolysis). The functions of Nissl bodies is thought to be the same as that of the rest of the ER and the Golgi apparatus: the manufacture and release of proteins and amino acids. The ultrastructure of Nissl bodies suggests they are primarily concerned with the synthesis of proteins for intercellular use. Nissl body A Nissl body, also known as

pos: Neuron pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines), and lipofuscin (a yellowish-brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age. Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are actin and the tubulin of microtubules. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development. There the actin dynamics can be modulated via an interplay with microtubule. There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Typical axons almost never contain ribosomes, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, in diminishing amounts

pos: Homosynaptic plasticity proteins help stabilize the structural changes induced by homosynaptic plasticity. There is evidence of ribosomes in dendrites, which can manufacture these proteins. Furthermore, there is also evidence of granules of RNA in dendrites, which indicates the presence of newly made proteins. LTP can be induced from dendrites severed from the soma of the post-synaptic target neuron. Contrarily, LTP can be blocked in these dendrites by protein synthesis blockers, such as Endomyacin, which further indicates a site for local protein synthesis. This evidence shows local protein synthesis is necessary for L-LTP to be stabilized and maintained. Homosynaptic plasticity Homosynaptic plasticity is

pos: Phagocyte during an infection neutrophil precursors called myelocytes and promyelocytes are released. The intra-cellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein-destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages. Neutrophil secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds involved in intracellular killing. Secretions from the primary granules of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of IgG-antibody-coated bacteria. Dendritic cells are specialized antigen-presenting cells that have long outgrowths called dendrites, that help to engulf microbes and other invaders. Dendritic cells are present in the tissues that are in contact with the external environment,

pos: Efferent nerve fiber are involved in muscle control, both skeletal and smooth muscle. The cell body of the motor neuron is connected to a single, long axon and several shorter dendrites projecting out of the cell body itself. This axon then forms a neuromuscular junction with the effectors. The cell body of the motor neuron is satellite-shaped. The motor neuron is present in the grey matter of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata, and forms an electrochemical pathway to the effector organ or muscle. Besides motor nerves, there are efferent sensory nerves that often serve to adjust the sensitivity of the signal relayed

neg: Franz Nissl This is done by using various basic dyes (e.g. aniline, thionine, or cresyl violet) to stain the negatively charged RNA blue, and is used to highlight important structural features of neurons. The Nissl substance (rough endoplasmic reticulum) appears dark blue due to the staining of ribosomal RNA, giving the cytoplasm a mottled appearance. Individual granules of extranuclear RNA are named Nissl granules (ribosomes). DNA present in the nucleus stains a similar color. Franz Nissl Franz Alexander Nissl (9 September 1860, Frankenthal – 11 August 1919, Munich) was a German psychiatrist and medical researcher. He was a noted neuropathologist. Nissl was

neg: Chromatolysis identical to chromatolysis. Central chromatolysis is the most common form of chromatolysis and is characterized by the loss or dispersion of the Nissl bodies starting near the nucleus at the center of the neuron, and then extending peripherally towards the plasma membrane. Also characteristic of central chromatolysis is the displacement of the nucleus towards the periphery of the perikaryon. Other cellular changes are observed during the process of the central chromatolysis. The process of Nissl dissolution is less apparent toward periphery of the cell body of the neuron, where normal-looking Nissl bodies may be present. Hyperplasia of neurofilaments is frequently

neg: Neuron the spinal cord, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5–1 millimeters thick, several centimeters long). Fully differentiated neurons are permanently postmitotic however, stem cells present in the adult brain may regenerate functional neurons throughout the life of an organism (see neurogenesis). Numerous microscopic clumps called Nissl bodies (or Nissl substance) are seen when nerve cell bodies are stained with a

neg: Red neuron Red neuron A "red neuron" (acidophilic or "eosinophilic" neuron) is a pathological finding in neurons, generally of the central nervous system, indicative of acute neuronal injury and subsequent apoptosis or necrosis. Acidophilic neurons are often found in the first 12–24 hours after an ischemic injury such as a stroke. Since neurons are permanent cells, they are most susceptible to hypoxic injury. The red coloration is due to pyknosis or degradation of the nucleus and loss of Nissl bodies which are normally stained blue (basophilic) on hematoxylin & eosin staining (H&E stain). This leaves only the degraded proteins which stains red

neg: Red neuron (eosinophilic). Acidophilic neurons also can be stained with acidic dyes other than eosin (e.g. acid fuchsin and light green yellowish). Red neuron A "red neuron" (acidophilic or "eosinophilic" neuron) is a pathological finding in neurons, generally of the central nervous system, indicative of acute neuronal injury and subsequent apoptosis or necrosis. Acidophilic neurons are often found in the first 12–24 hours after an ischemic injury such as a stroke. Since neurons are permanent cells, they are most susceptible to hypoxic injury. The red coloration is due to pyknosis or degradation of the nucleus and loss of Nissl bodies which are

neg: Posterior thoracic nucleus present coarse Nissl granules and have characteristic eccentric nuclei. Axonal projections from neurons in this nucleus give rise to the dorsal spinocerebellar tract which ascends ipsilaterally through the spinal cord and ends as mossy fibers in the ipsilateral cerebellar cortex after passing through the inferior cerebellar peduncle. Axons originating from the posterior thoracic nucleus which ascend contralaterally through the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord are named ventral spinocerebellar tract which cross over again within the brainstem to end on the ipsilateral side. The posterior thoracic nucleus is a major relay center for unconscious proprioception. Sensory information from muscle spindles

neg: Neuron basophilic ("base-loving") dye. These structures consist of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomal RNA. Named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Franz Nissl (1860–1919), they are involved in protein synthesis and their prominence can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are very metabolically active. Basophilic dyes such as aniline or (weakly) haematoxylin highlight negatively charged components, and so bind to the phosphate backbone of the ribosomal RNA. The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which together with neurotubules (neuronal microtubules) are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain

neg: Axon the initial segment, the rest of the axon, and the axon telodendria, and axon terminals. It also includes the myelin sheath. The Nissl bodies that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region. Proteins needed for the growth of the axon, and the removal of waste materials, need a framework for transport. This axonal transport is provided for in the axoplasm. The axon hillock is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon. It precedes the initial segment. The received action potentials that are summed in the neuron are

neg: Neutral red Neutral red Neutral red (toluylene red, Basic Red 5, or C.I. 50040) is a eurhodin dye used for staining in histology. It stains lysosomes red. It is used as a general stain in histology, as a counterstain in combination with other dyes, and for many staining methods. Together with Janus Green B, it is used to stain embryonal tissues and supravital staining of blood. Can be used for staining Golgi apparatus in cells and Nissl granules in neurons. In microbiology, it is used in the MacConkey agar to differentiate bacteria for lactose fermentation. Neutral red can be used as a

neg: Diabetes insipidus supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. After synthesis, the hormone is transported in neurosecretory granules down the axon of the hypothalamic neuron to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, where it is stored for later release. In addition, the hypothalamus regulates the sensation of thirst in the ventromedial nucleus by sensing increases in serum osmolarity and relaying this information to the cortex. Neurogenic/central DI results from a lack of ADH; occasionally it can present with decreased thirst as regulation of thirst and ADH production occur in close proximity in the hypothalamus. It is encountered as a result of hypoxic encephalopathy, neurosurgery,

neg: Franz Nissl an hour until Nissl had finished the piano sonata that he was playing. The conversation lasted until daybreak. Nissl was possibly the greatest neuropathologist of his day and also a fine clinician who popularised the use of spinal puncture, which had been introduced by Heinrich Quincke. Nissl also examined the neural connections between the human cortex and thalamic nuclei; he was in the midst of this study at the time of his death. An example of his research philosophy is taken from his 1896 writings: The Nissl method refers to staining of the cell body, and in particular endoplasmic reticulum.

neg: Franz Nissl Nissl accepted, and remained in that post from 1885 until 1888. There was a small laboratory at the castle, which enabled Nissl to continue with his neuropathological research. In 1888 Nissl moved to the Institution Blankenheim. In 1889 he went to Frankfurt as second in position under Emil Sioli (1852–1922) at the Städtische Irrenanstalt. There he met neurologist Ludwig Edinger and neuropathologist Karl Weigert, who was developing a neuroglial stain. This work motivated Nissl to study mental and nervous diseases by relating them to observable changes in glial cells, blood elements, blood vessels and brain tissue in general. In Frankfurt

neg: Granulation (jewellery) Granulation (jewellery) Granulation is a jewellery manufacturing technique whereby a surface is covered in spherules or granules of precious metal. The technique is thought to have its origins in Sumer about 5,000 years ago. In the first millennium B.C. the technique was used by Etruscans living in present-day Italy. Greek craftsmen also employed the technique, but it was the work coming from Etruria which became famous, in part due to the mysteries surrounding the process. There are three basic techniques that may be used to attach granules to a metal surface: hard soldering, fusing and colloidal soldering. The metals used

neg: Supraoptic nucleus nerve endings. The secretory granules are also stored in packets along the axon called Herring bodies. Similar magnocellular neurons are also found in the paraventricular nucleus. Each neuron in the nucleus has one long axon that projects to the posterior pituitary gland, where it gives rise to about 10,000 neurosecretory nerve terminals. The magnocellular neurons are electrically excitable: In response to afferent stimuli from other neurons, they generate action potentials, which propagate down the axons. When an action potential invades a neurosecretory terminal, the terminal is depolarised, and calcium enters the terminal through voltage-gated channels. The calcium entry triggers the

neg: Cytoarchitecture used for determining the cytoarchitectonics of neuroanatomical structures, using common agents such as thionin, cresyl violet, or neutral red. These dyes intensely stain "Nissl bodies" (rough endoplasmic reticulum), which are abundant in neurons and reveal specific patterns of cytoarchitecture in the brain. Other common staining techniques used by histologists in other tissues (such as the hematoxylin and eosin or "H&E stain") leave brain tissue appearing largely homogeneous and do not reveal the level of organization apparent in a Nissl stain. Nissl staining reveals details ranging from the macroscopic, such as the laminar pattern of the cerebral cortex or the interlocking

neg: Microglia species, which help to direct the immune response. Additionally, they are instrumental in the resolution of the inflammatory response, through the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Microglia have also been extensively studied for their harmful roles in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Multiple sclerosis, as well as cardiac diseases, glaucoma, and viral and bacterial infections. The ability to view and characterize different neural cells including microglia began in 1880 when Nissl staining was developed by Franz Nissl. Franz Nissl and F. Robertson first described microglial cells during their histology experiments. The cell staining techniques in the 1880s showed

neg: Birbeck granules Birbeck granules Birbeck granules, also known as Birbeck bodies, are rod shaped or "tennis-racket" cytoplasmic organelles with a central linear density and a striated appearance. First described in 1961 (where they were simply termed "characteristic granules"), they are solely found in Langerhans cells. Although part of normal Langerhans cell histology, they also provide a mechanism to differentiate Langerhans cell histiocytoses (which are a group of rare conditions collectively known as histiocytoses) from proliferative disorders caused by other cell lines. Formation is induced by langerin. The function of Birbeck granules is debated, but one theory is that they migrate to the

neg: Edward Flatau pathologic anatomy of the V, VII, and VIII (cochlear) cranial nerves was included, created much discussion and was adversely criticized by Franz Nissl, who opposed the neuron theory. He modified Golgi's method of tissue staining and on the basis of studies of physiological effects of transverse intersection of the spinal cord in dogs carried out together with Johannes Gad, he provided criticism of the Bastian–Bruns sign of disappearance Patellar reflex as a result of this treatment (1896). Together with his friend Louis Jacobsohn-Lask, he continued anatomy work. In 1895 and 1896, Flatau and Jacobsohn received 1500 marks from duchess Louise

neg: Lower motor neuron lesion Lower motor neuron lesion A lower motor neuron lesion is a lesion which affects nerve fibers traveling from the ventral horn or anterior grey column of the spinal cord to the relevant muscle(s) – the lower motor neuron. One major characteristic used to identify a lower motor neuron lesion is flaccid paralysis – paralysis accompanied by loss of muscle tone. This is in contrast to an upper motor neuron lesion, which often presents with spastic paralysis – paralysis accompanied by severe hypertonia. The extensor Babinski reflex is usually absent. Muscle paresis/paralysis, hypotonia/atonia, and hyporeflexia/areflexia are usually seen immediately following an

neg: Franz Nissl Franz Nissl Franz Alexander Nissl (9 September 1860, Frankenthal – 11 August 1919, Munich) was a German psychiatrist and medical researcher. He was a noted neuropathologist. Nissl was born in Frankenthal to Theodor Nissl and Maria Haas. Theodor taught Latin in a Catholic school and wanted Franz to become a priest. However Franz entered the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich to study medicine. Later, he specialized in Psychiatry. One of Nissl's university professors was Bernhard von Gudden. His assistant, Sigbert Josef Maria Ganser suggested that Nissl write an essay on the pathology of the cells of the cortex of the

neg: Starch analysis enough to provide clear images of starch granules as small as a few micrometres in diameter. Starch granules show different sizes. For example; but all are generally under 100 micrometres in size, and are, therefore, best observed under compound microscopes equipped with various lighting conditions and magnifications from x200 to x800. The starch grains are also compared to standard reference collections for comparison. Archaeologists and researchers can consider four issues in classification of the plant(s) and its use(s): Starch granules retrieved from sediments are used to reconstruct the habitats associated with human land use. Such studies address two areas of

neg: RPTOR lowest levels occur in the spleen. In the cell, RPTOR is present in cytoplasm, lysosomes, and cytoplasmic granules. Amino acid availability determines RPTOR targeting to lysosomes. In stressed cells, RPTOR associates with SPAG5 and accumulates in stress granules, which significantly reduces its presence in lysosomes... "RPTOR" encodes part of a signaling pathway regulating cell growth which responds to nutrient and insulin levels. RPTOR is an evolutionarily conserved protein with multiple roles in the mTOR pathway. The adapter protein and mTOR kinase form a stoichiometric complex. The encoded protein also associates with eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein-1 and ribosomal protein S6

neg: Neurotransmitter the binding of the endogenous substance. An agonist of a neurotransmitter will thus initiate the same receptor response as the transmitter. In neurons, an agonist drug may activate neurotransmitter receptors either directly or indirectly. Direct-binding agonists can be further characterized as full agonists, partial agonists, inverse agonists. Direct agonists act similar to a neurotransmitter by binding directly to its associated receptor site(s), which may be located on the presynaptic neuron or postsynaptic neuron, or both. Typically, neurotransmitter receptors are located on the postsynaptic neuron, while neurotransmitter autoreceptors are located on the presynaptic neuron, as is the case for monoamine neurotransmitters;

neg: Franz Nissl and made sure that Kraepelin heard that he could be found lying under his desk, dead drunk. Nissl was a competent pianist. Hugo Spatz (1888–1969) told of his first meeting, when Spatz applied for a position in Nissl's laboratory. Nissl was busy that morning and asked the student to come to his home at twelve. When Spatz came to the house at noon, Nissl was not there, and the housekeeper finally opined that the Professor must have meant twelve midnight, so Spatz returned that night. Nissl was at home then, but Spatz had to wait in the anteroom for half

neg: District Museum Brigittenau mechanics and telegraph construction in Vienna in 1880. In 1884, the electrical engineer Franz Nissl (1852-1942) took a stake in the company, which was now called "Telephon- und Telegraphenfabrik Czeija, Nissl & Co. The company played a major role in the development of the telephone network of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and built the first radio stations and radios in series from 1923. The company had been located on Dresdner Strasse since 1907 and used the Bertram-Schlössl. From 1957 the company was called "Standard Telephon- und Telegraphen-AG Czeija, Nissl & Co. (STT)", which became "ITT Austria GmbH" in 1970 (since 1987

neg: Granin Granin Granin (chromogranin and secretogranin) is a protein family of regulated secretory proteins ubiquitously found in the cores of amine and peptide hormone and neurotransmitter dense-core secretory vesicles. Granins (chromogranins or secretogranins) are acidic proteins and are present in the secretory granules of a wide variety of endocrine and neuro-endocrine cells. The exact function(s) of these proteins is not yet settled but there is evidence that granins function as pro-hormones, giving rise to an array of peptide fragments for which autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine activities have been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. The intracellular biochemistry of granins includes binding

neg: Granin also proposed to belong to the granins on the basis of their physico-chemical properties. Granin Granin (chromogranin and secretogranin) is a protein family of regulated secretory proteins ubiquitously found in the cores of amine and peptide hormone and neurotransmitter dense-core secretory vesicles. Granins (chromogranins or secretogranins) are acidic proteins and are present in the secretory granules of a wide variety of endocrine and neuro-endocrine cells. The exact function(s) of these proteins is not yet settled but there is evidence that granins function as pro-hormones, giving rise to an array of peptide fragments for which autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine activities have

neg: Myeloblast progenitors are concentrated in the subcortical regions of these hemopoietic cords. Myeloblasts are rather small cells with a diameter between 14 and 18μm. The major part is occupied by a large oval nucleus composed of very fine nonaggregated chromatin and possesses 3 or more nucleoli. The cytoplasm has basophilic character and is devoid of granules, which is a major difference with its successor, the promyelocyte. The nucleolus is the site of assembly of ribosomal proteins, which are located in various particles dispersed over the cytoplasm. Mitochondria are present but have a rather small size. The main features that distinguish a

neg: Cytoarchitecture nuclear patterns of the diencephalon and brainstem, to the microscopic, such as the distinctions between individual neurons and glia in any subregion of the central nervous system. Many other neuroanatomic and cytoarchitectonic techniques are available to supplement Nissl cytoarchitectonics, including immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, which allow one to label any gene or protein expressed in any group of cells in the brain. However, Nissl cytoarchitecture remains a reliable, inexpensive, and familiar starting or reference point for neuroscientists wishing to examine or communicate their findings in a widely recognized anatomical framework and/or in reference to neuroanatomical atlases which use the

neg: Granulation (jewellery) burn off and release the copper salt. At the eutectic temperature (890 °C) the copper diffuses into the granules and base, joining them together. Granulation (jewellery) Granulation is a jewellery manufacturing technique whereby a surface is covered in spherules or granules of precious metal. The technique is thought to have its origins in Sumer about 5,000 years ago. In the first millennium B.C. the technique was used by Etruscans living in present-day Italy. Greek craftsmen also employed the technique, but it was the work coming from Etruria which became famous, in part due to the mysteries surrounding the process. There

neg: Bipolar neuron processes emerge at the same point. In some cases where two fibers are apparently connected with a cell, one of the fibers is really derived from an adjoining nerve cell and is passing to end in a ramification around the ganglion cell, or, again, it may be coiled helically around the nerve process which is issuing from the cell. Bipolar neuron A bipolar neuron or bipolar cell, is a type of neuron which has two extensions (one axon and one dendrite). Bipolar cells are specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of special senses. As such, they are part of the

neg: Pioneer neuron Pioneer neuron A pioneer neuron is a cell that is a derivative of the preplate in the early stages of corticogenesis of the brain. Pioneer neurons settle in the marginal zone of the cortex and project to sub-cortical levels. In the rat, pioneer neurons are only present in prenatal brains. Unlike Cajal-Retzius cells, these neurons are reelin-negative. Pioneer neurons are born in the ventricular neuroepithelium all over the cortical primordium. In the rat cortex, they appear at embryonic day (E) 11.5 in the lateral aspect of the telencephalic vesicle and cover its whole surface on E12. These cells, which show

neg: Myelocyte Myelocyte A myelocyte is a young cell of the granulocytic series, occurring normally in bone marrow (can be found in circulating blood when caused by certain diseases). When stained with the usual dyes, the cytoplasm is distinctly basophilic and relatively more abundant than in myeloblasts or promyelocytes, even though myelocytes are smaller cells. Numerous cytoplasmic granules are present in the more mature forms of myelocytes. Neutrophilic and eosinophilic granules are peroxidase-positive, while basophilic granules are not. The nuclear chromatin is coarser than that observed in myelocyte, but it is relatively faintly stained and lacks a well defined membrane. The nucleus

neg: Pioneer neuron and are not present in the adult. Pioneer neuron A pioneer neuron is a cell that is a derivative of the preplate in the early stages of corticogenesis of the brain. Pioneer neurons settle in the marginal zone of the cortex and project to sub-cortical levels. In the rat, pioneer neurons are only present in prenatal brains. Unlike Cajal-Retzius cells, these neurons are reelin-negative. Pioneer neurons are born in the ventricular neuroepithelium all over the cortical primordium. In the rat cortex, they appear at embryonic day (E) 11.5 in the lateral aspect of the telencephalic vesicle and cover its whole

neg: Dopamine into two families, known as D1-like and D2-like. For receptors located on neurons in the nervous system, the ultimate effect of D1-like activation (D1 and D5) can be excitation (via opening of sodium channels) or inhibition (via opening of potassium channels); the ultimate effect of D2-like activation (D2, D3, and D4) is usually inhibition of the target neuron. Consequently, it is incorrect to describe dopamine itself as either excitatory or inhibitory: its effect on a target neuron depends on which types of receptors are present on the membrane of that neuron and on the internal responses of that neuron to

neg: Parathyroid chief cell spend most time inactive due to normal calcium level conditions. These inactive cells are classified as cuboidal. They have low levels of secretory granules, as opposed to active chief cells. These granules can contain acid phosphatase. Acid phosphatase is only found in larger secretory granules, 400 to 900 nm in diameter, and is less prevalent in smaller granules. This acid phosphatase is also present in the Golgi apparatus of the chief cell. However, the Golgi apparatus areas associated with parathyroid hormone packaging contained little or no acid phosphatase. The chief cells become active in response to low calcium in the

neg: Dysarthria the lower motor neuron), ataxic (resulting from damage to cerebellum), unilateral upper motor neuron (presenting milder symptoms than bilateral UMN damage), hyperkinetic and hypokinetic (resulting from damage to parts of the basal ganglia, such as in Huntington's disease or Parkinsonism), and the mixed dysarthrias (where symptoms of more than one type of dysarthria are present). The majority of dysarthric patients are diagnosed as having 'mixed' dysarthria, as neural damage resulting in dysarthria is rarely contained to one part of the nervous system — for example, multiple strokes, traumatic brain injury, and some kinds of degenerative illnesses (such as amyotrophic lateral

neg: Chloragogen cell in along with food are deposited in the chloragogen cells. Chloragogen cell Chloragogen cells, also called as "y cells", are cells in annelids that function similarly to the liver in vertebrates. The cells store glycogen and neutralize toxins, are yellowish in colour due to the presence of yellow granules called chloragosomes and are present in coelomic fluid of some annelids. These cells are derived from the inner coelomic epithelium, and help in excretory functions, as most commonly demonstrated in earthworms. They have characteristic vesicular bulging which store and transport substances like glycogen and nitrogenous wastes. They take part in the

neg: Parasesarma pictum crab is smooth, although many ridges and fine granules are present on the movable portion; these ridges and granules are smaller in female and juvenile crabs than in adult males. The top portion (merus) of the walking legs of this crab are broad relative to the lower limb. Parasesarma pictum Parasesarma pictum is a mudflat crab, belonging to the Sesarmidae family (subfamily Sesarminae), which is endemic to East Asia. This crab typically inhabits mangrove swamps, preferring the upper intertidal region of estuaries, and living in small crevices and abandoned holes made by other species. It eats leaf litter and other

neg: Platelet alpha-granule The other type of granules within platelets are called dense granules. A deficiency of alpha granules is known as gray platelet syndrome. Platelet alpha-granule Alpha granules (or α-granules) are a cellular component of platelets. Platelets contain different types of granules that perform different functions including alpha granules, dense granules, and lysosomes. Of these alpha granules are the most common. The term "alpha granules" is used to describe granules containing several growth factors. Contents include insulin-like growth factor 1, platelet-derived growth factors, TGFβ, platelet factor 4 (which is a heparin-binding chemokine) and other clotting proteins (such as thrombospondin, fibronectin, factor V,

neg: Bipolar neuron Bipolar neuron A bipolar neuron or bipolar cell, is a type of neuron which has two extensions (one axon and one dendrite). Bipolar cells are specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of special senses. As such, they are part of the sensory pathways for smell, sight, taste, hearing and vestibular functions. Common examples are the bipolar cell of the retina, the ganglia of the vestibulocochlear nerve, and the extensive use of bipolar cells to transmit efferent (motor) signals to control muscles. Oftentimes found in the retina, bipolar cells are crucial as they serve as both direct and indirect cell pathways.

neg: Chloragogen cell Chloragogen cell Chloragogen cells, also called as "y cells", are cells in annelids that function similarly to the liver in vertebrates. The cells store glycogen and neutralize toxins, are yellowish in colour due to the presence of yellow granules called chloragosomes and are present in coelomic fluid of some annelids. These cells are derived from the inner coelomic epithelium, and help in excretory functions, as most commonly demonstrated in earthworms. They have characteristic vesicular bulging which store and transport substances like glycogen and nitrogenous wastes. They take part in the deamination of amino acids and synthesis of urea. Silicates taken

neg: Lower motor neuron lesion motor neuron degeneration is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lower motor neuron lesion A lower motor neuron lesion is a lesion which affects nerve fibers traveling from the ventral horn or anterior grey column of the spinal cord to the relevant muscle(s) – the lower motor neuron. One major characteristic used to identify a lower motor neuron lesion is flaccid paralysis – paralysis accompanied by loss of muscle tone. This is in contrast to an upper motor neuron lesion, which often presents with spastic paralysis – paralysis accompanied by severe hypertonia. The extensor Babinski reflex is usually absent. Muscle paresis/paralysis, hypotonia/atonia, and

neg: Neuron doctrine 1950s with the development of electron microscopy by which it was unambiguously demonstrated that nerve cells were individual cells interconnected through synapses to form a nervous system, thereby validating the neuron theory. Neuron theory is an example of consilience where low level theories are absorbed into higher level theories that explain the base data as part of higher order structure. As a result the neuron doctrine has multiple elements, each of which were the subject of low level theories, debate, and primary data collection. Some of these elements are imposed by the necessity of cell theory that Waldeyer was trying

neg: Franz Nissl a large military hospital. In 1918 Kraepelin again invited Nissl to accept a research position at the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in Munich. After one year at that position, where he performed research alongside Korbinian Brodmann and Walther Spielmeyer, he died in 1919 of kidney disease. Nissl was of small stature, with poor posture. He had a birthmark on his left face. He never married, and his life revolved entirely around his work. One day, for a practical joke, Nissl (who was an active campaigner against human consumption of alcohol) placed a row of empty beer bottles outside his laboratory

neg: Self-organizing map towards the input vector. The magnitude of the change decreases with time and with the grid-distance from the BMU. The update formula for a neuron v with weight vector W(s) is where s is the step index, t an index into the training sample, u is the index of the BMU for D(t), α(s) is a monotonically decreasing learning coefficient and D(t) is the input vector; Θ(u, v, s) is the neighborhood function which gives the distance between the neuron u and the neuron v in step s. Depending on the implementations, t can scan the training data set systematically

neg: Escrick ring It weights 10.2 g.. The central cabochon gem is surrounded by four triangular cells. Where these meet, small round cells have been set. Glass slips are still present in one of the triangular cells and four of the interstitial spaces. The square frame of the bezel is set onto an eight-lobed base. The lobes are alternately embellished by gold granules and by beaded wire enclosing further gold granules. Where this platform meets the round-sectioned hoop, three further gold granules are set. The underside of the lobed platform is plain. Analyis of the metal using X-ray fluorescence indicated a gold content

neg: Franz Nissl Nissl became acquainted with Alois Alzheimer, and they collaborated over seven years. They became close friends, jointly editing the Histologische und histopathologische Arbeiten über die Grosshirnrinde (1904–1921). In 1895 Emil Kraepelin invited Nissl to become assistant physician at the University of Heidelberg. By 1904 he was a full professor at that institution, and became director of the Department of Psychiatry when Kraepelin moved to Munich. The burden of teaching and administration, combined with poor research facilities, forced Nissl to leave many scientific projects unfinished. He also suffered from a kidney disease. During World War I he was charged with administering

neg: Outer nuclear layer Outer nuclear layer The outer nuclear layer (or layer of outer granules or external nuclear layer), is one of the layers of the vertebrate retina, the light-detecting portion of the eye. Like the inner nuclear layer, the outer nuclear layer contains several strata of oval nuclear bodies; they are of two kinds, viz.: rod and cone granules, so named on account of their being respectively connected with the rods and cones of the next layer. The spherical rod granules are much the more numerous, and are placed at different levels throughout the layer. Their nuclei present a peculiar cross-striped appearance,

neg: Granular computing Granular computing Granular computing (GrC) is an emerging computing paradigm of information processing that concerns the processing of complex information entities called "information granules", which arise in the process of data abstraction and derivation of knowledge from information or data. Generally speaking, information granules are collections of entities that usually originate at the numeric level and are arranged together due to their similarity, functional or physical adjacency, indistinguishability, coherency, or the like. At present, granular computing is more a "theoretical perspective" than a coherent set of methods or principles. As a theoretical perspective, it encourages an approach to data that

neg: Franz Nissl brain. When the medical faculty offered a competition for a prize in neurology in 1884, Nissl undertook the brain-cortex study. He used alcohol as a fixative and developed a staining technique that allowed the demonstration of several new nerve-cell constituents. Nissl won the prize, and wrote his doctoral dissertation on the same topic in 1885. Professor von Gudden was the judge in Nissl's college-essay competition, and he was so impressed with the study that he offered Nissl an assistantship at the Furstenried castle southwest of Munich, where one of his responsibilities would be to care for the mad Prince Otto.

neg: Lymphopoiesis that are readily visible even upon staining. However NK cells are the exception. They do have numerous granules which provide their ability to kill cells and these granules are why NK cells have an alternate name, LGL, Large Granular Lymphocytes. NK cells not only have a catchy movie-title name (Natural Killer) but are also the only lymphocytes considered part of the innate immune system (in contrast to the adaptive immune system. Yet they are much more closely related to T cells (part of the adaptive immune system) than to other cells of the innate immune system. NK cells not only

neg: Platelet alpha-granule Platelet alpha-granule Alpha granules (or α-granules) are a cellular component of platelets. Platelets contain different types of granules that perform different functions including alpha granules, dense granules, and lysosomes. Of these alpha granules are the most common. The term "alpha granules" is used to describe granules containing several growth factors. Contents include insulin-like growth factor 1, platelet-derived growth factors, TGFβ, platelet factor 4 (which is a heparin-binding chemokine) and other clotting proteins (such as thrombospondin, fibronectin, factor V, and von Willebrand factor). The alpha granules express the adhesion molecule P-selectin and CD63. These are transferred to the membrane after synthesis.

neg: Motor neuron disease word fluency, decision-making, and memory) are also seen. There can be lower motor neuron findings (e.g. muscle wasting, muscle twitching), upper motor neuron findings (e.g. brisk reflexes, Babinski reflex, Hoffman's reflex, increased muscle tone), or both.Motor neuron diseases are seen both in children and in adults. Those that affect children tend to be inherited or familial, and their symptoms are either present at birth or appear before learning to walk. Those that affect adults tend to appear after age 40. The clinical course depends on the specific disease, but most progress or worsen over the course of months. Some are

neg: Neural modeling fields gave rise to a signal from a particular retinal neuron. Therefore a partial similarity measure is constructed so that it treats each model as an alternative (a sum over concept-models) for each input neuron signal. Its constituent elements are conditional partial similarities between signal X(n) and model M, l(X(n)|m). This measure is “conditional” on object m being present, therefore, when combining these quantities into the overall similarity measure, L, they are multiplied by r(m), which represent a probabilistic measure of object m actually being present. Combining these elements with the two principles noted above, a similarity measure is constructed as

neg: Bacterial cell structure in times of plenty for use in times of want. For example, many bacteria store excess carbon in the form of polyhydroxyalkanoates or glycogen. Some microbes store soluble nutrients such as nitrate in vacuoles. Sulfur is most often stored as elemental (S) granules which can be deposited either intra- or extracellularly. Sulfur granules are especially common in bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide as an electron source. Most of the above-mentioned examples can be viewed using a microscope and are surrounded by a thin nonunit membrane to separate them from the cytoplasm. Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the

neg: EIF2S1 ternary complex is modulated by the phosphorylation state of eIF2α. After reperfusion following brain ischemia, there is inhibition of neuron protein synthesis due to phosphorylation of eIF2α. There is colocalization between phosphorylated eIF2α and cytosolic cytochrome c, which is released from mitochondria in apoptosis. Phosphorylated Eif2-alpha appeared before cytochrome c release, suggesting that phosphorylation of eIF2α triggers cytochrome c release during apoptotic cell death. Mice heterozygous for the S51A mutation become obese and diabetic on a high-fat diet. Glucose intolerance resulted from reduced insulin secretion, defective transport of proinsulin, and a reduced number of insulin granules in beta cells. Hence

neg: Filaggrin Filaggrin Filaggrin (filament aggregating protein) is a filament-associated protein that binds to keratin fibers in epithelial cells. Ten to twelve filaggrin units are post-translationally hydrolyzed from a large profilaggrin precursor protein during terminal differentiation of epidermal cells. In humans, profilaggrin is encoded by the "FLG" gene, which is part of the S100 fused-type protein (SFTP) family within the epidermal differentiation complex on chromosome 1q21. Filaggrin monomers are tandemly clustered into a large, 350kDa protein precursor known as profilaggrin. In the epidermis, these structures are present in the keratohyalin granules in cells of the stratum granulosum. Profilaggrin undergoes proteolytic processing to

neg: Astralium provisorium granules, below the tubercles. The last row of granules runs uninterrupted and is succeeded towards the keel by short plications, which have about the same direction as the wrinkles. Moreover the upper surface of this whorl is covered by spiral lirae, only visible under a lens. The whorls are inflated at their upper part, concave at the lower portion and are then again broader, thus covering the sutures and even part of the subsequent whorls. The keel is very sharp, with short spines, about 1 to 7 in number, if seen from the base. These spines are compressed, and open

neg: Muscle tone high (hypertonia) muscle tone. Another form of hypertonia is paratonia, which is associated with dementia. Hypotonia is seen in lower motor neuron disease like poliomyelitis. Hypotonia can present clinically as muscle flaccidity, where the limbs appear floppy, stretch reflex responses are decreased, and the limb's resistance to passive movement is also decreased. Hypertonia is seen in upper motor neuron diseases like lesions in pyramidal tract and extrapyramidal tract. Hypertonia can present clinically as either spasticity or rigidity. While spasticity is velocity-dependent resistance to passive stretch (i.e. passively moving an elbow quickly will elicit increased muscle tone, but passively moving elbow

neg: Coagulation to determine which (if any) factor is present as aberrant concentrations. Deficiencies of fibrinogen (quantitative or qualitative) will affect all screening tests. Coagulation defects may cause hemorrhage or thrombosis, and occasionally both, depending on the nature of the defect. Platelet conditions may be congenital or acquired. Some inborn platelet pathologies are Glanzmann's thrombasthenia, Bernard-Soulier syndrome (abnormal glycoprotein Ib-IX-V complex), gray platelet syndrome (deficient alpha granules), and delta storage pool deficiency (deficient dense granules). Most are rare conditions. Most inborn platelet pathologies predispose to hemorrhage. Von Willebrand disease is due to deficiency or abnormal function of von Willebrand factor, and leads

neg: Taphrina caerulescens by a thin cytoplasmic layer with endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts with well-developed grana, starch granules, and osmophilic globules. Other organelles are infrequently present as well. Epidermal cells of diseased tissue have highly irregular cell walls. The most dramatic changes were within the cell. The large central vacuole is replaced with a number of small irregularly shaped vacuoles containing a highly electron dense material. Nuclei are enlarged, plus a 2-3 fold increase in the number of organelles normally present in these cell types. Chloroplasts become large and irregular with large starch granules inside of them as well as other internal alterations to

neg: Sarcoscypha coccinea while specimens from North America invariably have one. The asci are long and cylindrical, and taper into a short stem-like base; they measure 300–375 by 14–16 µm. Although in most Pezizales all of the ascospores are formed simultaneously through delimitation by an inner and outer membrane, in "S. coccinea" the ascospores located in the basal parts of the ascus develop faster. The paraphyses (sterile filamentous hyphae present in the hymenium) are about 3 µm wide (and only slightly thickened at the apex), and contain red pigment granules. Anamorphic or imperfect fungi are those that seem to lack a sexual stage

neg: Albert von Kölliker striated muscle over a period of years beginning around 1850. These granules were later called sarcosomes by Retzius in 1890. These sarcosomes have come to be known as the mitochondria-the power houses of the cell. In the words of Lehninger, "Kölliker should also be credited with the first separation of mitochondria from cell structure. In 1888 he teased these granules from insect muscle, in which they are very profuse, found them to swell in water, and showed them to possess a membrane." In the case of almost every tissue, our present knowledge contains information first discovered by Kölliker – it

neg: Granule (cell biology) Granule (cell biology) In cell biology, a granule is a small particle. It can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle. A group of leukocytes called granulocytes contain granules and play an important role in the immune system. The granules of certain cells, such as natural killer cells, contain components which can lead to the lysis of neighboring cells. The granules of leukocytes are classified as azurophilic granules or specific granules. Leukocyte granules are released in response to immunological stimuli during a process known as degranulation. The granules

neg: Mirror neuron Jalal and V. S. Ramachandran have hypothesized that the mirror neuron system is important in giving rise to the intruder hallucination and out-of-body experiences during sleep paralysis. According to this theory, sleep paralysis leads to disinhibition of the mirror neuron system, paving the way for hallucinations of human-like shadowy beings. The deafferentation of sensory information during sleep paralysis is proposed as the mechanism for such mirror neuron disinhibition. The authors suggest that their hypothesis on the role of the mirror neuron system could be tested: Recent research, which measured mu-wave suppression, suggests that mirror neuron activity is positively correlated with

neg: MMP8 stored in secondary granules within neutrophils and is activated by autolytic cleavage. Its function is degradation of type I, II and III collagens. The gene is part of a cluster of MMP genes which localize to chromosome 11q22.3. MMP8 Neutrophil collagenase, also known as matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8) or PMNL collagenase (MNL-CL), is a collagen cleaving enzyme which is present in the connective tissue of most mammals. In humans, the MMP-8 protein is encoded by the "MMP8" gene. Proteins of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family are involved in the breakdown of extracellular matrix in normal physiological processes, such as embryonic development,

neg: HSD2 neurons NTS neurons. The close association between sodium deprivation and HSD2 neuron activation—and between salt ingestion and HSD2 neuron "in"activation—led to the suggestion that these neurons are important for driving sodium appetite. Other functional roles have been hypothesized. For discussion, see reviews in and. At present, however, no data exist to show whether these neurons are necessary or sufficient for any particular neurologic or physiologic function. HSD2 neurons HSD2 neurons are a small group of neurons in the brainstem which are uniquely sensitive to the mineralocorticosteroid hormone aldosterone, through expression of HSD11B2. They are located within the caudal medulla oblongata, in

neg: Clonus oscillatory movements in the affected limb. In order for self re-excitation to exist, both an increase in motor neuron excitability and nerve signal delay are required. Increased motor neuron excitability is likely accomplished by alterations to the net inhibition of neurons occurring as a result of injury to the CNS (stroke/ spinal cord injury). This lack of inhibition biases neurons to a net excitatory state, therefore increasing total signal conduction. Signaling delay is present due to an increased nerve conduction time. Long delays are primarily due to long reflex pathways, which are common in distal joints and muscles. This may

neg: Malt granules Malt granules Malt granules are granules produced from malt, via a dried liquid wort, which can then be used for in production of beverages and food products. Malt granules are dissolved in water before use, and have a range of different applications, especially in beverage production. The first step in malt granule production is to produce a wort in a brewery. This wort is then dried (using a process such as the fluid bed technique, yielding the wort in a dried, granular form). Dissolving these granules will reproduce the original wort, retaining aroma compounds. This reconstituted wort can then be

neg: Blastocystis granules are observed in the central vacuole and / or cytoplasm. Within the central vacuole, these granules appear in different forms too. Three types were suggested – metabolic, lipid, and reproductive granules. Metabolic granules play a role in chemical processes that are necessary for the maintenance of life in the organism. It was also put forward that reproductive granules were involved in the development of progeny cells. These hypotheses were made based on microscopy alone, which may be deemed misleading, hence more need to be done before making a definite conclusion. It has also been suggested that the granules may

neg: Maresin a neuron ion channel, TRPV1, and thereby blocking capsaicin-induced inward currents and neuron excitation. Mar2 possess at least some of the activities ascribed to MaR1. It enhances human macrophage phagocytosis of particles and efferocytosis of apoptotic human neutrophils and reduces neutrophil infiltration into the inflamed peritoneum of mice. Its potencies ins producing these responses are similar to those of MaR1. 13("S"),14("S")-epoxy-maresin inhibits the production of the arachidonic acid metabolite, Leukotriene B4 (LTB), by directly inactivating the enzyme, Leukotriene-A4 hydrolase, which converts the LTB precursor, Leukotriene A4, to LTB; this effect may contribute to the resolution of inflammatory responses by reducing

neg: Artificial neuron through "w". Usually, the "x" input is assigned the value +1, which makes it a "bias" input with "w" = "b". This leaves only "m" actual inputs to the neuron: from "x" to "x". The output of the "k"th neuron is: Where formula_2 (phi) is the transfer function. The output is analogous to the axon of a biological neuron, and its value propagates to the input of the next layer, through a synapse. It may also exit the system, possibly as part of an output vector. It has no learning process as such. Its transfer function weights are calculated and

neg: Sialadenitis increased numbers of eosinophils. There are two features relatively inconsistent with diagnosis of IgG4-related disease which are the presence of epithelioid cell granulomas and a prominent neutrophilic infiltrate. Sclerosing polycystic sialadenitis histologically resembles sclerosing adenosis/fibrocystic change of breast tissue. It composes of acini and ductal elements embedded in dense sclerotic stroma, and has a characteristic finding of large acinar cells present with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasmic granules. In addition, it may also present ductal epithelial proliferation which could range from hyperplasia, atypia to DCIS-like. Its stroma may show focal adipose tissue with myxoid change and variable radial scar. At present, there

neg: Molecular neuroscience cDNA library which could be used to clone the channel protein. Cloning the channel itself allowed for applications such as identifying the same channels in other animals. Sodium channels are known for working in concert with potassium channels during the development of graded potentials and action potentials. Sodium channels allow an influx of Na ions into a neuron, resulting in a depolarization from the resting membrane potential of a neuron to lead to a graded potential or action potential, depending on the degree of depolarization. Potassium channels come in a variety of forms, are present in most eukaryotic cells, and

neg: Renshaw cell is the inhibitory transmitter released by the Renshaw cells. In essence the Renshaw cells regulate the firing of the alpha motor neuron leaving the ventral horn. Conceptually they remove “noise” by dampening the firing frequency of over-excited neurons with a negative feedback loop, which prevents weakly excited alpha motor neurons from firing. Descending spinal cord nerves in turn regulate the Renshaw cells. The rate of discharge of the Renshaw cell is broadly proportional to the rate of discharge of the associated motor neuron(s), and the rate of discharge of the motor neuron(s) is broadly inversely proportional to the rate of

neg: Neuroprotection as options in CNS disorders, but many are found to lack efficacy or have intolerable side effects. Glutamate antagonists are a hot topic of research. Below are some of the treatments that have promising results for the future: Increased levels of oxidative stress can be caused in part by neuroinflammation, which is a highly recognized part of cerebral ischemia as well as many neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. The increased levels of oxidative stress are widely targeted in neuroprotective treatments because of their role in causing neuron apoptosis. Oxidative stress can directly cause neuron

neg: Neurotransmission own would not be sufficient to cause firing. Neurotransmission implies both a convergence and a divergence of information. First one neuron is influenced by many others, resulting in a convergence of input. When the neuron fires, the signal is sent to many other neurons, resulting in a divergence of output. Many other neurons are influenced by this neuron. Cotransmission is the release of several types of neurotransmitters from a single nerve terminal. At the nerve terminal, neurotransmitters are present within 35–50 nm membrane-encased vesicles called synaptic vesicles. To release neurotransmitters, the synaptic vesicles transiently dock and fuse at the base

neg: Gamma motor neuron Gamma motor neuron A gamma motor neuron (γ motor neuron), also called gamma motoneuron, is a type of lower motor neuron that takes part in the process of muscle contraction, and represents about 30% of (Aγ) fibers going to the muscle. Like alpha motor neurons, their cell bodies are located in the anterior grey column of the spinal cord. They receive input from the reticular formation of the pons in the brainstem. Their axons are smaller than those of the alpha motor neurons, with a diameter of only 5 μm. Unlike the alpha motor neurons, gamma motor neurons do not

neg: Foveolar cell which are a part of the neck of gastric glands along parietal cells. Surface mucous cells have large quantities of mucin granules in their apical (top) surface and project short microvilli into the lumen of the stomach. Mucins are large glycoproteins that give the mucus its gel-like properties. As mucins are lost during routine histology preparation, they stain pale, but if preserved correctly the cells stain strongly with special techniques like PAS or toluidine blue, the last representing the anionic nature of foveolar cell secretions. Below the mucin granules, surface mucous cells have a Golgi apparatus, the nucleus, and small

neg: Gamma motor neuron measure action potentials of an axon from a motor neuron in order to assess general muscle activity. Though it cannot distinguish alpha motor neurons from gamma motor neurons, it is useful in understanding whether one has abnormal motor neuron activity. With low rates of activity of the descending pathway, fewer and smaller motor neurons are activated, leading to a small amount of muscle force. This will appear on the oscilloscope as lower peaks on the y-axis. Gamma motor neuron A gamma motor neuron (γ motor neuron), also called gamma motoneuron, is a type of lower motor neuron that takes part

neg: Oskar on the posterior pole end. A second role has been discovered that relates to the formation of P granules, or germ granules. These ribonucleoprotein granules are found in every species' germ line cells. Although they are mobile, they typically localize to the nuclei and sit on nuclear pores. This positioning makes them ideal mRNA regulators, as the mRNA must pass through to exit the nucleus. Translational regulation also makes sense due to the granules' close association with ribosomes. These P granules are phase-transition entities, which means that they can display both liquid-like and hydrogel-like properties. This allows them to be

neg: Malt granules thus be coated with one or several further coatings, in particular with further flavorings. Above all flavorings can be encapsulated within the dried wort, such that the above is not lost on storage and possible transport. Malt granules Malt granules are granules produced from malt, via a dried liquid wort, which can then be used for in production of beverages and food products. Malt granules are dissolved in water before use, and have a range of different applications, especially in beverage production. The first step in malt granule production is to produce a wort in a brewery. This wort is

neg: Stress granule granules, suggesting that stress granules only influence a minority of mRNAs in the cell and may not be as important for mRNA processing as previously thought. The stress proteins that are the main component of stress granules in plant cells are molecular chaperones that sequester, protect, and possibly repair proteins that unfold during heat and other types of stress. Therefore, any association of mRNAs with stress granules may simply be a side effect of the association of partially unfolded RNA-binding proteins with stress granules, similar to the association of mRNAs with proteasomes. Environmental stressors trigger cellular signaling which eventually leads

neg: Granulocyte coated with antibodies and complement, as well as damaged cells or cellular debris. The intracellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein-destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages; these secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds involved in intracellular killing. Neutrophils have two types of granules; primary (azurophilic) granules (found in young cells) and secondary (specific) granules (which are found in more mature cells). Primary granules contain cationic proteins and defensens that are used to kill bacteria, proteolytic enzymes and cathepsin G to break down (bacterial)

neg: Motor neuron disease fatal (e.g. ALS), while others are not (e.g. PLS). Various patterns of muscle weakness occur in different motor neuron diseases. Weakness can be symmetric or asymmetric, and it can occur in body parts that are distal, proximal, or both. According to Statland et al., there are three main weakness patterns that are seen in motor neuron diseases, which are: Motor neuron diseases are on a spectrum in terms of upper and lower motor neuron involvement. Some have just lower or upper motor neuron findings, while others have a mix of both. Lower motor neuron (LMN) findings include muscle atrophy and

neg: Motor neuron disease Motor neuron disease Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) are a group of neurodegenerative disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells which control voluntary muscles of the body. Commonly, the following disorders are counted among motor neuron diseases: The term “motor neuron disease” sometimes refers to ALS, but in this article, the term refers to a group of diseases listed above, which includes ALS. Motor neuron diseases affect both children and adults. While each motor neuron disease affects patients differently, they all cause movement-related symptoms, mainly muscle weakness. Most diseases seem to occur randomly without known causes, but some forms are

neg: Purple sulfur bacteria their photosynthetic pathways. The sulfur is oxidized to produce granules of elemental sulfur. This, in turn, may be oxidized to form sulfuric acid. The purple sulfur bacteria are divided into two families, the Chromatiaceae and the Ectothiorhodospiraceae, which produce internal and external sulfur granules respectively, and show differences in the structure of their internal membranes. They make up part of the order Chromatiales, included in the gamma subdivision of the Proteobacteria. The genus "Halothiobacillus" is also included in the Chromatiales, in its own family, but it is not photosynthetic. Purple sulfur bacteria are generally found in illuminated anoxic zones of