query: when did the ottoman empire take over jerusalem

pos: History of Jerusalem Saint Saviour (known as Dayr al Ātīn دير الاتين دير اللاتين Arabic)) In 1517, Jerusalem was taken over by the Ottoman Empire and enjoyed a period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent, including the construction of the walls of what is now known as the Old City of Jerusalem (although some foundations were remains of genuine antique walls). The rule of Suleiman and subsequent Ottoman Sultans brought an age of "religious peace"; Jew, Christian and Muslim enjoyed freedom of religion and it was possible to find a synagogue, a church and a mosque on the same street. The

pos: Kingdom of Jerusalem territory in the Levant in 1291, there were late attempts at further crusades, nominally proposing to recapture Jerusalem, but with the rise of the Ottoman Empire their character was more and more that of a desperate defensive war rarely reaching beyond the Balkans (Alexandrian Crusade, Smyrniote crusades). Henry IV of England made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1393/4, and he later vowed to lead a crusade to recapture the city, but he did not undertake such a campaign before his death in 1413. The Levant remained under Ottoman control from 1517 until the Partition of the Ottoman Empire in 1918.

pos: Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491) Mamluks remained in stalemate during the beginning of the 16th century, until Mamluk power was dramatically challenged by the incursion of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean from 1505, thereby threatening Mamluk traditional trade routes and a major source of revenue, and leading to the catastrophic Portuguese-Mamluk War. The Ottoman Empire would ultimately take over the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517. Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491) An Ottoman-Mamluk war took place from 1485 to 1491, when the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate territories of Anatolia and Syria. This war was an essential event in the Ottoman

pos: Status of Jerusalem European Union. From the end of the Ottoman–Mamluk War in 1517 until the First World War, Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire. Since the 1860s, Jews have formed the largest religious group in the city and since around 1887, Jews have been in the majority. In the 19th century, European powers vied for influence in the city, usually on the basis of extending protection over Christian churches and Holy Places. A number of these countries also established consulates in Jerusalem. In 1917 and following the First World War, Great Britain was in control of Jerusalem; from 1923 as part

pos: History of Jerusalem Saint Saviour (known as Dayr al Ātīn دير الاتين دير اللاتين Arabic)) In 1517, Jerusalem was taken over by the Ottoman Empire and enjoyed a period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent, including the construction of the walls of what is now known as the Old City of Jerusalem (although some foundations were remains of genuine antique walls). The rule of Suleiman and subsequent Ottoman Sultans brought an age of "religious peace"; Jew, Christian and Muslim enjoyed freedom of religion and it was possible to find a synagogue, a church and a mosque on the same street. The

pos: History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire In AD 1453, the city of Constantinople, the capital and last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries. Jerusalem had been conquered by the Umayyad Muslims in 638, won back by Rome in 1099 under the First Crusade and then reconquered by Saladin's forces during the Siege of Jerusalem in 1187. It was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. Orthodoxy, however, was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an autocephalous status; and

pos: Khulda Imwas, prior to the 12th century CE, it lay on the border between the Greek archbishopric of Lydda and the ecclesiastical division of Emmaus, the latter of which was governed directly by archpriest of the Patriarch of Jerusalem. During the period of Mamluk rule over Palestine, Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaymi narrates how the under-Governor of Ramleh in 1495 had to take refuge against marauding Bedouin in a small fort which then existed at Khulda. Khulda, like the rest of Palestine, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 and in 1596, it formed part of the "nahiya" ("subdistrict") of Ramla, in

pos: Nablus of the Ottoman Empire in 1517, along with the whole of Palestine. The Ottomans divided Palestine into six "sanjaqs" ("districts"): Safad, Jenin, Jerusalem, Gaza, Ajlun and Nablus, all of which were part of Ottoman Syria. These five "sanjaqs" were subdistricts of the Vilayet of Damascus. Sanjaq Nablus was further subdivided into five "nahiya" (subdistricts), in addition to the city itself. The Ottomans did not attempt to restructure the political configuration of the region on the local level such that the borders of the "nahiya" were drawn to coincide with the historic strongholds of certain families. Nablus was only one among

neg: Israel Electric Corporation environs. The plant produced much of the energy consumed in Mandatory Palestine until the 1948 Palestine war. Other power plants were built in Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Tiberias. Jerusalem was the only part of Mandatory Palestine not supplied by Rutenberg's plants. Mavromatis defended the concession for Jerusalem granted to him by Ottoman authorities, and resisted Rutenberg's attempts to build a power station that would serve Jerusalem. Only in 1942, when his British-Jerusalem Electric Corporation failed to supply the demands of the city, did the Mandatory government ask the Palestine Electric Company to take over the supply of electricity to Jerusalem.

neg: Gaza Strip Knights Templar during the Kingdom of Jerusalem; it was traded back and forth several times between Christian and Muslim rule during the 12th century, before the Crusaders were driven out permanently and the land became part of the Ayyubid dynasty's lands for a century until the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan destroyed the city. In the wake of the Mongols, the Mamluk Sultanate established control over Egypt and the eastern Levant, and would control Gaza until the 16th century, when the Ottoman Empire absorbed the Mamluk territories. Ottoman rule continued until the years following World War I, when the Ottoman Empire

neg: Pinhas Rutenberg Empire to Greek Euripides Mavromatis. After Palestine was conquered by British forces, Mavromatis resisted Palestine Electric Company's attempts of building a power station that would serve Jerusalem. Only in 1942, when his British-Jerusalem Electric Corporation failed to supply the demands of the city, did the Mandatory government ask the Palestine Electric Company to take over the responsibility for supplying electricity to Jerusalem. Rutenberg died in 1942 in Jerusalem. A large modern power station near Ashkelon is named after him. Additionally, streets in Ramat Gan and Netanya are named in his honor. Pinhas Rutenberg Pinhas Rutenberg (5 February 1879 – 3

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire genocide. Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite

neg: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite shape

neg: Treaty of Balta Liman Africa and seized Algeria from weak Ottoman rule, just prior to the treaty. France also had strong diplomatic ties with Mehmet Ali Pasha. The British now feared Russia’s growing influence over the Ottoman Empire. The UK could not permit Russia to take over the Ottoman Empire, because that expansion would pose as a major threat to Western Europe. After the Hunkar Iskelesi treaty, England considered the survival of the Ottoman Empire a worthwhile cause. French and British diplomats were even more alarmed at Russia’s involvement in the Ottoman Empire when the Munchengratz Agreement was signed in 1833. The Munchengratz Agreement

neg: Demographic history of Jerusalem (see Armenians, for example). The Ottoman millet system, whereby minorities in the Ottoman Empire were given the authority to govern themselves within the framework of the broader system, allowed these groups to retain autonomy and remain separate from other religious and national groups. Some Palestinian residents of the city prefer to use the term "Maqdisi" or "Qudsi" as a Palestinian demonym. The tables below provide data on demographic change over time in Jerusalem, with an emphasis on the Jewish population. Readers should be aware that the boundaries of Jerusalem have changed many times over the years and that Jerusalem may

neg: Battle of Jerusalem them, along with the moral prestige of effecting a Christian occupation of Jerusalem. It was a huge blow to the Ottoman Empire, which had suffered the loss of yet another Muslim Holy Place (having already lost Mecca and Baghdad). During the fighting advance to Jerusalem from Beersheba and Gaza, the total British Empire casualties were 18,000, with the Ottoman suffering 25,000 casualties. British casualties during the Battle of Jerusalem from 25 November to 10 December were 1,667. In the same period 1,800 Ottoman prisoners were taken. Eleven Ottoman infantry divisions had been forced to retire, suffering 28,443 casualties; some 12,000

neg: Consulate General of France in Jerusalem four centuries – and unbroken except for World War I – over the 'Latin' Christians of the former Ottoman Empire disappeared. The era of the privileged French presence in Palestine and more specifically in Jerusalem (...) had come to a close." Despite the official end of the French protectorate and a lesser role recognized by the ruling authority in Palestine, France was not inclined to diminish its influence in the region. Dominique Trimbur wrote "Paris and its representatives acted as if France still occupied the place of protective power which it had at the time of the Ottoman Empire." France

neg: Koja Zaharia buffer zone between his Zeta and the Ottoman Empire), but Zaharia refused to allow the Venetians to take control over Sati. When Koja captured the castle of Dagnum in 1396 he proclaimed himself the Lord of Sati and Dagnum "("dominus Sabatensis et Dagnensis")" and from there he ruled the territory around it as an Ottoman vassal. In October 1400 Koja proposed to the Venetians to simulate a battle in which he and his cousin Dhimitër Jonima would pretend to lose their possessions to the Venetians, in exchange for provision of 500 ducats annually. The Venetians did not promptly respond and

neg: History of Jerusalem as the Naqib al-Ashraf Revolt. During the course of the revolt, Jerusalem's residents administered their own affairs, engaging in virtual self-rule, until the central Ottoman authorities restored their control over the city. In the mid-19th century, with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the city was a backwater, with a population that did not exceed 8,000. Nevertheless, it was, even then, an extremely heterogeneous city because of its significance to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The population was divided into four major communities – Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Armenian – and the first three of these could be further divided into

neg: Jaffa–Jerusalem railway the fact that it was done in the Ottoman Empire, which according to him had been attempting at all costs to keep out Western civilization. Land value increased dramatically near the route of the railway, even before its completion. Despite this, the actual area around the Jerusalem Railway Station did not develop quickly, partly because flat and high areas were preferred for construction. The line did however assist German construction in Jerusalem in the 1890s, allowing them to bring more construction materials more quickly. By the start of the 20th century, the German Colony became an attractive spot for those

neg: Islamic leadership in Jerusalem to increase as the Ottoman Empire became more secular from the mid-nineteenth century on. The legal role of the Qadi began to diminish in importance. The elevation of the muftis' status was made legal on 26 April 1913 with the passing of the "Temporary Law Concerning the Appointment of Shari'a Judges and Officials", which noted that "the muftis head the ulama' of their locality". During the Ottoman period, the Mufti of Jerusalem was subordinated to Istanbul's Shaykh al-Islām, and his role was limited to local vicinity of Jerusalem and later the wider Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem. When the British authorities took

neg: Arshad al-Umari of Jamil Pasha the Lord Mayor of Istanbul. Jamil Pasha and Rafi'a Khanim's father was Dhia Pasha who occupied several prominent positions in the Ottoman Empire, the most important of which was the personal supervision of the renovation of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, ordered by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II. He lived with his family several years in Jerusalem to carry out this job. After World War I when the Arab countries including Iraq were separated from the Ottoman Empire, al-Umari returned from Istanbul to Mosul, in 1919, with his wife, where he was appointed chief engineer

neg: Consulate General of France in Jerusalem Consulate General of France in Jerusalem The Consulate General of France in Jerusalem () began its tumultuous history in the early 17th century. In 1535, the date of the first Capitulation between France and the Ottoman Empire, France was granted the right to appoint consuls in the cities of the Empire. The Capitulations constituted the legal basis of the French protectorate over the Holy Places, Catholic Christians, and by extension, Orthodox Christians. In 1623, King Louis XIII appointed the first consul in Jerusalem "for the Glory of God and to relieve the pious pilgrims whom by devotion visit the Holy

neg: Consulate General of France in Jerusalem authority of the "Consul for Palestine, Galilee, Judea And Samaria", In Residence In Syria Consulate General of France in Jerusalem The Consulate General of France in Jerusalem () began its tumultuous history in the early 17th century. In 1535, the date of the first Capitulation between France and the Ottoman Empire, France was granted the right to appoint consuls in the cities of the Empire. The Capitulations constituted the legal basis of the French protectorate over the Holy Places, Catholic Christians, and by extension, Orthodox Christians. In 1623, King Louis XIII appointed the first consul in Jerusalem "for the Glory

neg: Armenian Highlands 1468. The pastoral culture of the Kara Koyunlu Turks undermined agricultural practices in Armenia. In 1468, the Ak Koyunlu Turks assumed power; their reign lasted until 1502 when the Safavids place Armenia under Iranian rule. The Ottoman Turks don't take control of the highland region until 1514, several decades after Armenians in the Ottoman Empire are given "millet" status. The highlands come under Ottoman control following the defeat of the Safavids at the Battle of Chalderon; they appointed Kurdish tribesman to rule over the highlands' local administrative affairs. By 1516, the Ottoman Empire has conquered all of the formerly Armenian

neg: Abu Ghosh clan family and some other historians hold the view that the AbuGhoshes came originally from the Arab Peninsula. They were four Emirs of Yemen, who were brothers, when they arrived to Egypt. From Egypt they came to Palestine with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman at the beginning of the Ottoman Empire and were entrusted with the control of the pilgrimage route to the holy places of Jerusalem (see the Egyptian royal manuscripts). The AbuGhoshes were settled in the sixteenth century AD on the mountains of Jerusalem, about 10 km west of the Jerusalem city, where they still reside now. There is no

neg: Qadi written certificate of investiture, which obviated the need for the appointee to appear in the presence of the superior. The appointment was essentially unilateral rather than contractual and did not require acceptance on the part of the appointee in order to be effective. It could be revoked at any time. The Jews living in the Ottoman Empire sometimes used qadi courts to settle disputes. Under the Ottoman system, Jews throughout the Empire retained the formal right to oversee their own courts and apply their own religious law. The motivation for bringing Jewish cases to qadi courts varied. In sixteenth-century Jerusalem,

neg: Battle of Jerusalem of Jaffa and Jerusalem, together with the loss of of territory during the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) advance from Gaza, after the capture of Beersheba, Gaza, Hareira and Sheria, Tel el Khuweilfe and the Battle of Mughar Ridge, constituted a grave setback for the Ottoman Army and the Ottoman Empire. As a result of these victories, British Empire forces captured Jerusalem and established a new strategically strong fortified line. This line ran from well to the north of Jaffa on the maritime plain, across the Judean Hills to Bireh north of Jerusalem, and continued eastwards of the Mount of Olives.

neg: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire to communities of Hellenistic and Byzantine Jews. The Ottoman Empire became a safe haven for Iberian Jews fleeing persecution. The First and Second Aliyah brought an increased Jewish presence to Ottoman Palestine. The Ottoman successor state of modern Turkey continues to be home to a small Jewish population today. At the time of the Battle of Yarmuk when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh’chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, as well as many other cities. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the Shulchan Aruch was compiled there as well as many

neg: Mayor of Jerusalem Mayor of Jerusalem The Mayor of the City of Jerusalem is head of the executive branch of the political system in Jerusalem, Israel. The Jerusalem Municipality. The mayor's office administers all city services, public property, most public agencies, and enforces all city and state laws within Jerusalem. The mayor's office is located in Safra Square; it has jurisdiction over all the city's neighborhoods. The mayor appoints a large number of officials, including Directors who head city departments, and his or her deputy mayors. The Jerusalem City Council was established in 1863 during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. From 1948

neg: Battle of Jerusalem A US newspaper also made reference to the Crusades, specifically the "New York Herald" (see picture), referring to the last time Jerusalem was under non-Muslim rule in 1244 AD when a Khwarezmian army under Al-Salih Ayyub, defeated the Franks. Britain would hold Jerusalem until the end of Mandatory Palestine in 1948. Battle of Jerusalem The Battle of Jerusalem occurred during the British Empire's "Jerusalem Operations" against the Ottoman Empire, when fighting for the city developed from 17 November, continuing after the surrender until 30 December 1917, to secure the final objective of the Southern Palestine Offensive during the Sinai and

neg: Mehmed VI "padishah". His father was Sultan Abdulmejid I and mother was Gülüstü Hanım (1830 – 1865), an ethnic Abkhazian, daughter of Prince Tahir Bey Çaçba and his wife Afişe Lakerba, originally named Fatma Çaçba. Mehmed was removed from the throne when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922. Mehmed VI was born at the Dolmabahçe Palace, in Constantinople. The First World War was a disaster for the Ottoman Empire. British and allied forces had conquered Baghdad, Damascus, and Jerusalem during the war and most of the Ottoman Empire was divided amongst the European allies. At the San Remo conference of April

neg: Sharafat, East Jerusalem drought. Sharafat is listed in the "Daftar-i Mufassal", a book of the Ottoman Empire that recorded tax related information for the villages in the area in 1596–1597. It had a population of 12 Muslim families. A 16th-century Ottoman map situates Sharafat in the green belt around Jerusalem. In 1838 it was described as a Muslim village, located in the "Beni Hasan" district, west of Jerusalem. James Finn, the British consul to Jerusalem during Ottoman rule, writes of visiting Sharafat between 1853 and 1856. He describes it as a small village perched on high hill to the southwest of Jerusalem which

neg: History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire Ottoman governmental repression of various Eastern and Oriental Orthodox groups. In the first two decades of the 20th century, there were massacres of Greeks, Slavs, and Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Armenian, Greek and Assyrian genocides. History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire In AD 1453, the city of Constantinople, the capital and last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries. Jerusalem had been conquered by the Umayyad Muslims in 638, won back by Rome in 1099 under

neg: Walls of Jerusalem Walls of Jerusalem The Walls of Jerusalem (; ) surround the Old City of Jerusalem (approx. 1 km²). In 1535, when Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Suleiman I ordered the ruined city walls to be rebuilt. The work took some four years, between 1537 and 1541. The length of the walls is 4,018 meters (2.4966 mi), their average height is 12 meters (39.37 feet) and the average thickness is 2.5 meters (8.2 feet). The walls contain 34 watchtowers and seven main gates open for traffic, with two minor gates reopened by archaeologists. In 1981, the Jerusalem walls

neg: Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt and frightened by GHQ's reaction to his envoys. Lawrence was in Jerusalem during the Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt operations and claimed no knowledge of the Beni Sakhr, or their leader. British Empire aircraft flying over the plains around Madaba saw large numbers of Bedouin ploughing their fields and grazing their animals, until they decamped across the Hejaz railway when attack on Shunet Nimrin began. At this time the headquarters of the German commander in chief of the Ottoman armies in Palestine, Otto Liman von Sanders, was at Nazareth. The headquarters of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies remained at

neg: Abu Ghosh clan Abu Ghosh clan The Abughoshes history originates during the Ottoman Empire. The Abu Ghoshes (also written AbuGosh/ AbouGhawsh), known as “ancien seigneurs feodaux”, are an old wealthy landowning family, who ruled the Jerusalem mountains and controlled the pilgrimage route from the coast to Jerusalem during the Ottoman Empire. Some historians are of the opinion that the AbuGhoshes came from East Europe. Others believe that the AbuGhoshes’ origins go back to the Crusaders who came to Jerusalem with Richard Coeur de Lion in the 12th century AD (probably because many of them have blond hair and blue eyes). Members of the

neg: Abu Ghosh clan to the Jews to create a homeland in Palestine). Lord AbuGhosh died in 1936 and was buried in his estate. Abu Ghosh clan The Abughoshes history originates during the Ottoman Empire. The Abu Ghoshes (also written AbuGosh/ AbouGhawsh), known as “ancien seigneurs feodaux”, are an old wealthy landowning family, who ruled the Jerusalem mountains and controlled the pilgrimage route from the coast to Jerusalem during the Ottoman Empire. Some historians are of the opinion that the AbuGhoshes came from East Europe. Others believe that the AbuGhoshes’ origins go back to the Crusaders who came to Jerusalem with Richard Coeur de

neg: Schmidt's Girls College and the Ottoman Empire. The only requirement was to include Turkish as a teaching language. After the capture of Jerusalem by the British forces in 1918 the college closed down for three years. When it reopened, under the British Mandate of Palestine, English replaced German as the main teaching language. However, German was later used again. By adopting Palestinian learning plans, the pupils could receive Palestinian certificates of secondary education alongside their German ones, as well as take a teaching exam. Initially, the college taught 27 pupils split between two classes and a kindergarten group. Because of the small number

neg: Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) Seventh Army was ordered to advanced across the desert in order to bring pressure to bear upon Allenby's inland flank in Palestine. While Allenby attacked the Ottoman Eighth Army, his Australian Mounted Division was sent to hold back the advance of the Seventh Army. The Seventh Army did manage to force the Australians to retreat by several miles but ultimately the Australians held their line. After the British victory in the Battle of Mughar Ridge on 13 November (which did not directly involve the Seventh Army), Fevsi decided to withdraw the Seventh Army to guard Jerusalem. In January 1918, the

neg: Battle of Jerusalem boost for the British Empire. British General Edmund Allenby, Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF), had won a decisive victory against the German General Erich von Falkenhayn, commander of Ottoman forces in Palestine, at the Battle of Mughar Ridge on 13 November. The British Empire victory forced von Falkenhayn to withdraw his Seventh and Eighth Armies (commanded by Fevzi Pasha and Kress von Kressenstein respectively) and move his headquarters from Jerusalem to Nablus on 14 November. As the Ottoman III Corps (Seventh Army) reached Jerusalem via the Hebron road after its defeat at Beersheba, it was ordered to develop

neg: Battle of Jerusalem the southern flank of the 60th (London) Division, forcing the Londoners to pause during daylight, as enfilading fire would have made any advance extremely costly. During almost continuous rain on 8 December, Jerusalem ceased to be protected by the Ottoman Empire. Chetwode (commander of XX Corps), who had relieved Bulfin (commander of XXI Corps), launched the final advance taking the heights to the west of Jerusalem on 8 December. The Ottoman Seventh Army retreated during the evening and the city surrendered the following day. The mayor of Jerusalem, Hussein Salim al-Husseini, attempted to deliver the Ottoman Governor's letter surrendering the

neg: Walls of Jerusalem idols with his power and strength, he whom alone God has enabled to enslave the necks of kings in countries (far and wide) and deservedly acquire the throne of the Caliphate, the Sultan son of the Sultan son of the Sultan son of the Sultan, Suleyman. Walls of Jerusalem The Walls of Jerusalem (; ) surround the Old City of Jerusalem (approx. 1 km²). In 1535, when Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Suleiman I ordered the ruined city walls to be rebuilt. The work took some four years, between 1537 and 1541. The length of the walls

neg: Talaat Pasha the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, a post equivalent to that of prime minister, but was unable to reverse the downward spiral of Ottoman fortunes in his new position. Over the next year, Jerusalem and Baghdad were lost. On January 11, 1918, the special decree "On Armenia" was signed by Lenin and Stalin which rearmed and repatriated over 100,000 Armenians from the former Tsar's Army to be sent to the Caucasus for operations against Ottoman interests. At the beginning of January 1918 with the Tsarist Army of the Caucasus departing, he had been influential in pursuing an offensive policy,

neg: Antiochian Greek Christians considered as part of the Rum Millet (millet-i Rûm), or "Roman nation" by the Ottoman authorities. As soon as the Greek revolution commenced, Rûm throughout the Empire were targeted for persecutions, and Syria did not escape Ottoman Turkish wrath. Fearing that the Rûm of Syria might aid the Greek Revolution, the Porte issued an order that they should be disarmed. In Jerusalem, the city’s Christian population, who were estimated to make up around 20% of the city's total (with the majority being Rûm), were also forced by the Ottoman authorities to relinquish their weapons, wear black, and help improve the

neg: Islamic leadership in Jerusalem Islamic leadership in Jerusalem Islamic Leadership in Jerusalem refers to the leading cleric (ulema) of the Muslim community in Jerusalem. Historically, the primary religious leader was the Qadi. During the late Ottoman Empire, the Muftis became pre-eminent, particularly the Mufti of the Hanafi school, and during the British military administration the post of Grand Mufti of Jerusalem was created, which continues today. For most of the Ottoman period, until the late nineteenth century and the creation of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, the muftis of the Jerusalem were considered to be outranked by the Qadis. The status of the mufti began

neg: Armenians in Lebanon the Seleucids and made it part of his short-lived Armenian Empire. When the Roman Empire established its rule over both Armenia and ancient Lebanon, some Roman troops of Armenian origin went there in order to accomplish their duties as Romans. After Armenia converted to Christianity in 301, Armenian pilgrims established contact with Lebanon and its people on their way to Jerusalem; some of whom would settle there. The Armenian presence in Lebanon during the Ottoman period was minimal; however, there was a large influx of Armenians after the Armenian Genocide of 1915. Other Armenians inhabited the area of Karantina (literally

neg: Battle of Jerusalem Battle of Jerusalem The Battle of Jerusalem occurred during the British Empire's "Jerusalem Operations" against the Ottoman Empire, when fighting for the city developed from 17 November, continuing after the surrender until 30 December 1917, to secure the final objective of the Southern Palestine Offensive during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Before Jerusalem could be secured, two battles were recognised by the British as being fought in the Judean Hills to the north and east of the Hebron–Junction Station line. These were the Battle of Nebi Samwill from 17 to 24 November and the Defence of

neg: Islamic leadership in Jerusalem control, they severed the link with Istanbul, and widened the jurisdiction of the Mufti to cover the whole of Mandatory Palestine. The position of Qadi was usually a one-year role, and was appointed by the central Ottoman government, whilst the muftis were usually a member for a notable family in the town. When Mohammed Tahir al-Husayni died in 1908, his son Kamil al-Husayni succeeded him and served with approval of the British authorities once the British conquered Jerusalem in December 1917. However, during World War I, the Ottoman Empire claimed that al-Husayni was a British stooge and that As'ad Shuqeiri-who

neg: Moses ben Joseph di Trani some fifty-five years, when he eventually moved to Jerusalem. According to a 16th-century Jewish traveler who visited Safed in 1567, Rabbi Moses di Trani was still living in Safed: Moses di Trani was the author of: Moses ben Joseph di Trani Moses ben Joseph di Trani () known by his acronym Mabit (Salonica, Rumelia Eyalet in Ottoman Greece 1505 – Jerusalem, Ottoman Empire 1585) was a 16th-century rabbi in Safed. His father had fled to Salonica from Apulia three years prior to his birth. While still a boy Moses was sent to Adrianople to pursue the study of the Talmud

neg: Jean de La Forêt French law courts, churches and valuables would all remain extraterritorial in the Ottoman Empire. In a sense, French possessions in the Ottoman Empire would become the first foreign possessions of the French Crown, effectively a Crown Colony of France. The French protectorate also extended to the Holy Places of Jerusalem. By 1620, one third of France's foreign trade was done with the Ottoman Empire. The commercial treaty actually was something of a façade for Jean de La Forêt, whose main role was actually to coordinate military collaboration between France and the Ottoman Empire. The commercial treaty however would become prominent

neg: Austrian post offices in the Ottoman Empire are known in French currency. Only one 10 soldi lettercard was issued in 1886. Four different 1 Piaster lettercards were issued in 1888, 1890, 1900 and 1908. During the period of Turkish currency three different newspaper wrappers were issued in 1899, 1900 and 1908. One newspaper 5 Centimes wrapper was issued in 1908 for Jerusalem. Austrian post offices in the Ottoman Empire Austria and other European nations maintained an extensive system of post offices in the Ottoman Empire, typically motivated by the unreliable postal system of the Ottomans. Austria gained permission in 1721 from the Ottoman Empire to operate a

neg: Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire used anthems since its foundation in the late 13th century, but did not use a specific imperial or national anthem until the 19th century. During the reign of Mahmud II, when the military and imperial band were re-organized along Western lines, Giuseppe Donizetti was invited to head the process. Donizetti Pasha, as he was known in the Ottoman Empire, composed the first Western-style imperial anthem, the "Mahmudiye Marşı". Like in many other monarchies of its time, the anthem of the Ottoman Empire was an imperial anthem, not a national one. Hence

neg: Velika attacks (1879) Velika attacks (1879) During the implementation of the Congress of Berlin, when the Principality of Montenegro had received Plav and Gusinje (along with other places), the surrounding Albanian populace under the guise of the Ottomans attacked the Montenegrin forces in Velika at two occasions, on October 9 and November 22, 1879. The Ottomans were defeated. According to the decisions of Berlin Congress the territories of Plav and Gusinje (then Scutari Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire) were awarded to Montenegro. Still, the Ottomans did not provide conditions for Montenegro to take over Plav and Gusinje. Officially, they intended to respect the

neg: Mission of the Vixen Mission of the Vixen The mission of the "Vixen" was a conflict between the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom that occurred in 1836. Under the treaty of Adrianople the Russian Empire had been granted the East coast of the Black Sea by the Ottoman Empire. However Russia did not have complete control over these territories (the Circassian Coast) from Anapa in the north to Sochi in the south. The "mountaineers" (the Circassian [Adyghe] people) resisted the Russian authorities and did not admit Russian Control over their country Circassia, because Circassia was not part of the Ottoman Empire and the

neg: Persian Campaign cities. Tabriz was occupied in 1909; Urmia and Khoi in 1910. This measure enabled the Russians not only to control Persia, but also to secure the road from their rail-head at Djoulfa to the Van Province of the Ottoman Empire through Khoi. On July 28, 1914, World War I began. First the Ottoman Empire did not take any serious action. However, the security of the region began to decline even before the Russian-Ottoman conflicts. Disturbances began along the border. A notable attack was made on Urmia, ostensibly by Kurdish Tribesmen. About the same time the Russians closed the Ottoman consulates

neg: History of the Russo-Turkish wars Russia agreed a settlement under the Treaty of San Stefano on March 3, by which the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of its former provinces Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and autonomy of Bulgaria. The Congress of Berlin also allowed Austria to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and Great Britain to take over Cyprus. During the Greek uprising, the Russian empire reached the Ottoman borders in the Caucasus, which were located in the southwest of the region, as well as northeastern Anatolia. Under the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople, the Ottoman Empire recognized Russian sovereignty over western Georgia, which was formerly

neg: Armash, Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire. Patriarch of Constantinople Malachia Ormanian and Patriarchate of Jerusalem Yeghishe Tourian both served as deans of the seminary. During the Armenian Genocide, Armash's Armenian population was rounded up by Ottoman authorities and sent on death marches to Syria. The seminary was looted of its priceless artifacts and the Monastery of the Holy Mother of God was demolished and later replaced with a mosque. According to Vrej Nersessian, a great number of graduates from the monastery who "had become the primates or diocesan bishops in the provinces of Turkish Armenia" also perished during the death marches. Armash, Ottoman Empire

neg: Islamic leadership in Jerusalem was appointed by the Ottoman Empire as the Qadi 1914-1918-was the rightful Islamic leader of the region. Shuqeiri was the father of Ahmad Shukeiri (1908–1980), the first leader of the Palestine Liberation Organisation. Shortly after the 1917 Battle of Jerusalem, newly appointed British Military Governor Ronald Storrs met with Hussein al-Husayni, who explained that the majority of Jerusalem's 11,000 Muslim residents were followers of the official Ottoman Hanafi rite, with a minority following the Shafi’i school which had been predominant prior to the Ottoman conquest. At the time there was a Hanafi mufti and a Shari'a mufti of Jerusalem. Storrs

neg: Yousef al-Khalidi Yousef al-Khalidi Yusuf Dia Pasha al-Khalidi (1829–1906; , ) was a prominent Ottoman Empire politician and mayor of Jerusalem between 1870–1876 and 1878–1879. He was born in 1829 in Jerusalem and represented the city in the Ottoman Parliament of 1877. Born in Jerusalem, al-Khalidi attended an English school in Malta where he studied English and French, and then continued to study Semitic languages in the Oriental Academy of Vienna. Al-Khalidi played a key role in the opposing political factions established to prohibit the Ottoman Empire's attempts to violate the constitution. He also wrote the first Kurdish-Arabic dictionary. In 1899 he

neg: Polish–Prussian alliance Russian Empire, as well as the its ally, the Austrian Empire, and there were expectations of a war between the Alliance and Russia (and possibly Austria) around 1791. Prussia tried to take opportunity of the Russian Empire's wars with the Ottoman Empire and Sweden and move the weak Commonwealth into its sphere of influence. Some factions in the Commonwealth deemed this as an opportunity to shake free from decades of Russian control. That said, Prussia did not expect much from the alliance, not even that it would pass. When the treaty was first proposed to the Great Sejm by Prussian

neg: Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe the direction of the Beersheba to Jerusalem road by a troop of the Worcestershire Yeomanry (5th Mounted Brigade), came under heavy rifle fire at 06:00, forcing them to return to Ras en Naqb. The regiment was relieved half an hour later by the Gloucester Yeomanry, although the Worcestershire Regiment remained close by, saddled up in the wadi with the led horses. At 14:00, they returned to take over the line again from the Gloucester Yeomanry. By 15:00, intermittent Ottoman shelling was increasing in volume, when an additional Ottoman battery came into action on the right, and a strong counterattack developed.

neg: Wasif Jawhariyyeh period; primarily on effects of modernization and the role of ethnicity and sectarian identities during the period. The city of Jerusalem, at the start of Jawhariyyeh's writing in 1904, was described as, "a relative backwater of the Ottoman Empire. As such, the city was a rather late entrant into what might be called the 'great nineteenth-century transformation,' and Jawhariyyeh was a witness to that transformation." The modernization of Jerusalem resulted in the proliferation of new classes of society such as "absentee landowners" and "the establishment of municipal councils in cities around the Ottoman Empire, by the close of the nineteenth

neg: Tiran Nersoyan Tiran Nersoyan Tiran Nersoyan (August 23, 1904 in Antep, Cilicia, Ottoman Empire – September 1, 1989 in New York City) was an Armenian Apostolic clergyman. He was Patriarch-elect of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem very briefly in 1957–1958 but never received his position as Patriarch. Born in Antep in the Ottoman Empire, he was forced to leave to Syria because of the Armenian Genocide. Trained at the Seminary at Jerusalem, he was ordained priest in 1928. He served during the Second World War as priest in London. In 1943, Nersoyan was elected Archbishop Primate of the Eastern Diocese of the

neg: Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2000 books in the Turkish language were printed using the Armenian script. Not only did Armenians read Armeno-Turkish, but so did the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. The Armenian script was also used alongside the Arabic script on official documents of the Ottoman Empire written in Ottoman Turkish. For instance, the first novel to be written in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 "Akabi Hikayesi", written in the Armenian script. Also, when the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in

neg: Polish–Ottoman alliance Polish–Ottoman alliance A Polish–Ottoman alliance, based on several treaties, occurred during the 16th century between the kingdom of Poland-Lithuania and the Ottoman Empire, as the Ottomans were expanding into Central Europe. Poland and the Ottoman Empire had been at war since the end of the 15th century following Jagiellonian attempts to take control over Hungary and Bohemia. The Jagiellon king Vladislas II of Hungary was occupying the throne of Hungary and Bohemia. The Jagiellons also allied with Stephen III of Moldavia in 1484-87 to recover territories from the Ottomans, and later invaded Moldavia in 1497. In 1498, an Ottoman army

neg: Consulate General of France in Jerusalem Montluc, Ambassador of King Francis I to Constantinople, France was granted the right to protect its subjects residing or trading in the Ottoman Empire, the Christian Holy Places in the Empire, particularly those in the Holy Land, and to appoint consuls in the cities of the Empire. The capitulations constituted the legal basis of the French protectorate exercised over the Holy places, Catholic Christians, and by extension over Orthodox Christians. France was then granted a special status in the Holy Land. After an incident involving the Franciscans and the Armenians at the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, King Louis

neg: Polish–Ottoman alliance Difficulties arose when Jan Zamoyski took advantage of the Ottoman–Habsburg war in Hungary to invade Moldavia in 1595, in the Moldavian Magnate Wars. The Treaty of Jaruga was signed in 1617, restraining Polish interventions in the Danubian principalities, but open conflict later erupted with the Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621). Polish–Ottoman alliance A Polish–Ottoman alliance, based on several treaties, occurred during the 16th century between the kingdom of Poland-Lithuania and the Ottoman Empire, as the Ottomans were expanding into Central Europe. Poland and the Ottoman Empire had been at war since the end of the 15th century following Jagiellonian attempts to take

neg: Haseki Sultan Imaret children remained unfed. Consequently, the imaret not only revealed the social hierarchy of Jerusalem, but was an effective method of keeping people in line. There were strong political motives for building a soup kitchen in Jerusalem. It was “an integral component of the Ottoman project of settlement, colonization, legitimization and urban development.” The Hasseki Sultan Imaret demonstrated the far-reaching strength and power of the Ottoman Empire and was also an effective means of controlling its subjects in Jerusalem. By granting the administrator position to the most important families of Jerusalem, the Sultan used the extensive influences and connections of the

neg: Grand Mufti in some Muslim areas under their control and accorded the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem the highest political stature in Palestine. During World War I (1914–1918), there were two competing Grand Muftis of Jerusalem, one endorsed by the British and one by the Ottoman Empire. When Palestine was under British rule, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem was a position appointed by the British Mandate authorities. In the Palestinian National Authority, the administrative organization established to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the Grand Mufti is appointed by the president. The Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, with office created

neg: Shawish clan In the 13th century after Saladin victory over the crusaders, Al-Husayni clan settled in Jerusalem, expanded to thousands of members and gained power and influence. During the periods of Ottoman Empire and British Mandate of Palestine, and due to significant historical and political events in Jerusalem, some of Al-Husayni individuals adopted new surnames drawn from their professions. Within the Shawish family, it is widely believed that the name Shawish (meaning Police or Army Sergeant) started from a policeman in the Old City of Jerusalem at that time, around the end of the 19th century. An early record of the surname

neg: Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby the crusader imagery, banned his press officers from using the terms "crusade" and "crusader" in their press releases and always went out of his way to insist that he was fighting merely the Ottoman Empire, not Islam. “[The citizens of Jerusalem were] at first welcoming because they were glad the Ottomans were gone and they wanted a good relationship with the British. [They were] also cautious as they did not want the British to stay.” Asked again after the Fall of Jerusalem, Allenby wrote that he would need 16–18 divisions for a further advance of 250 miles to Aleppo (the

neg: James Finn James Finn James Finn (1806–1872) was a British Consul in Jerusalem, in the then Ottoman Empire (1846–1863). He arrived in 1845 with his wife Elizabeth Anne Finn. Finn was a devout Christian, who belonged to the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, but who did not engage in missionary work during his years in Jerusalem. Finn was a writer and philanthropist. He was a great believer in productivity, an ideology that was very much in vogue at the time, and in 1853 purchased for £250 Karm al-Khalil (Arabic for "Abraham's Vineyard", lit. "vineyard of the loved one", which

neg: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire Portugal. This expulsion came about as a result of the Alhambra Decree in 1492, declared by the King and Queen of Spain Ferdinand II and Isabelle I. This was part of a larger trend of anti-Semitism resurging throughout Europe that the Ottomans would take advantage of. The Spanish Jews (Sephardic Jews) were allowed to settle in the wealthier cities of the empire, especially in the European provinces (cities such as: Istanbul, Sarajevo, Salonica, Adrianople and Nicopolis), Western and Northern Anatolia (Bursa, Aydın, Tokat and Amasya), but also in the Mediterranean coastal regions (for example: Jerusalem, Safed, Damascus, Egypt). Izmir was

neg: Modern history Magdhaba]]), 1917.12 (British troops take Jerusalem from the Ottoman Empire), and 1918.11.11 (World War I ends: Germany signs an armistice agreement with the Allies).Allies and Central Powers in the First World War Allied powers and areas Central powers and colonies or occupied territory Neutral countries]] [[File:General gouraud french army world war i machinegun marne 1918.JPEG|thumb|French Army, 1918]] The First World War began in 1914 and lasted to the final [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice]] in 1918. The [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]], led by the [[Britain in World War I|British Empire]], [[French Third Republic|France]], Russia until March 1918, Japan and

neg: Battle of Nebi Samwil In recognition for their part in the battle, the British Empire regiments involved were awarded the battle honour Nebi Samwil. Battle of Nebi Samwil The Battle of Nebi Samwil, (17–24 November 1917), was fought during the decisive British Empire victory at the Battle of Jerusalem between the forces of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and the Ottoman Empire's Yildirim Army Group during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, in the First World War. The Battle of Jerusalem began two days after the end of the decisive EEF victory at the Battle of Mughar Ridge which occurred after the EEF defeated the Ottoman

neg: Israel ben Moses Najara published one poem in "Orient, Lit." (iv. 526; comp. 540). M. Sachs attempted to render some of Najara's piyyuṭim into German (Busch, "Jahrbücher," 1847, pp. 236–238). After the ruins of the house inhabited by R. Judah he-Ḥasid at Jerusalem were cleared away in 1836, some writings of Israel Najara of the year 1579 were found; these writings are now (as of 1906) preserved in the archives of the synagogue of Jerusalem. Israel ben Moses Najara Israel ben Moses Najara (, ""Yisrael ben Moshe Najarah""; , ""Isra'il bin Musa al-Najara""; c. 1555, Safed, Ottoman Empire – c. 1625, Gaza, Ottoman Empire)

neg: Battle of Nebi Samwil infantry could not break through the main Ottoman defensive line and the attack failed to reach its objective Jerusalem. In November 1917, the British Empire's Egyptian Expeditionary Force, commanded by General Edmund Allenby had defeated the forces of the Ottoman Empire in the Third Battle of Gaza and the Battle of Mughar Ridge. Pursuing the withdrawing Ottoman army the 75th Division captured Junction Station on 14 November. The capture of the station cut the railway line from Jerusalem and the rest of the country and provided the British forces with a fresh water source. It also split the Ottoman Seventh

neg: Greeks in Syria Greek Catholic Church regardless of ethnicity were considered as part of the Rum Millet (millet-i Rûm), or "Roman nation" by the Ottoman authorities. As soon as the Greek revolution commenced, Rûm (followers of the Greek Church traditions) throughout the Empire were targeted for persecutions, and Syria did not escape Ottoman wrath. Fearing that the Rûm of Syria might aid the Greek Revolution, the Porte issued an order that they should be disarmed. In Jerusalem, the city's Christian population, who were estimated to make up around 20% of the city's total (with the majority being Rûm), were also forced by the

neg: Arab–Israeli conflict and Bahai's. At that time, Jerusalem did not extend beyond the walled area and had a population of only a few tens of thousands. Collective farms, known as kibbutzim, were established, as was the first entirely Jewish city in modern times, Tel Aviv. During 1915–16, as World War I was underway, the British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon, secretly corresponded with Husayn ibn 'Ali, the patriarch of the Hashemite family and Ottoman governor of Mecca and Medina. McMahon convinced Husayn to lead an Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire, which was aligned with Germany against Britain and France

neg: Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire the "Mahmudiye Marşı" anthem. Only the "Hamidiye Marşı" and "Reşadiye Marşı" have lyrics, the first three anthems being instrumental. Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire used anthems since its foundation in the late 13th century, but did not use a specific imperial or national anthem until the 19th century. During the reign of Mahmud II, when the military and imperial band were re-organized along Western lines, Giuseppe Donizetti was invited to head the process. Donizetti Pasha, as he was known in the Ottoman Empire, composed the first Western-style imperial anthem, the "Mahmudiye Marşı". Like in many other

neg: History of the Eastern Orthodox Church Ottoman was precipitated by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox disputed possession of the Church of the Nativity and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. During the early 1850s, the two sides made demands which the Sultan could not possibly satisfy simultaneously. In 1853, the Sultan adjudicated in favour of the French, despite the vehement protestations of the local Orthodox monks. The ruling Ottoman siding with Rome over the Orthodox provoked outright war (see the Eastern Question). As the Ottoman Empire had been for sometime falling into political, social and economic decay (see the Sick Man of Europe) this

neg: Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire) of Yaşar Paker, a member of the Jewish community of early 20th century Ankara who was drafted to the Labour Battalions twice, first during the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) and then again during World War II, a war in which Turkey did not take part. Neyzi's paper on the basis of Paker's diary published by Jewish Social Studies presents an overall picture for the conditions in these battalions, which were composed entirely of non-Muslims. Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire) Ottoman labour battalions (, , Greek: Τάγματα Εργασίας, "Tagmata Ergasias", but more often the transliterated Turkish name αμελέ ταμπουρού is used) was a

neg: Mosque the Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region — Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture, a trend that continued with the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire, with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. Still, the Ottomans developed their own

neg: Mere Hüseyin Pasha Mere Hüseyin Pasha Mere Hüseyin Pasha (died July 1624) was an Ottoman statesman of Albanian origin. He was two times Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1622 and 1623, and previously the Ottoman governor of Egypt between 1620 and 1622. His epithet "Mere!" comes from the word for "Take it!" in Albanian; he was nicknamed so because of the many times he ordered his men to "take [the heads]" of his opponents, i.e. execute them. He was purportedly the only grand vizier who did not speak Turkish. Hüseyin Pasha was born to the Begolli Albanian family from the region

neg: Mere Hüseyin Pasha to August 30, 1623. Mere Hüseyin Pasha Mere Hüseyin Pasha (died July 1624) was an Ottoman statesman of Albanian origin. He was two times Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1622 and 1623, and previously the Ottoman governor of Egypt between 1620 and 1622. His epithet "Mere!" comes from the word for "Take it!" in Albanian; he was nicknamed so because of the many times he ordered his men to "take [the heads]" of his opponents, i.e. execute them. He was purportedly the only grand vizier who did not speak Turkish. Hüseyin Pasha was born to the Begolli Albanian

neg: Manuel III of Trebizond in the coming war with the Ottoman Turks, but somehow the Emperor avoided this demand, although he did contribute twenty galleys to Tamerlane's general effort. Bayezid and Tamerlane finally met in the Battle of Ankara, where Tamerlane crushed the Ottoman forces and made the Sultan his prisoner. For the next eight months Tamerlane moved about Anatolia, restoring the old Turkish beyliks and plundering Ottoman territories, thus dismantling the Ottoman Empire. It would not be until 1413, when Mehmet I defeated his last surviving brother, that the Ottoman Empire would once more be a threat to any of its neighbors. When

neg: Ottoman Greece in Peloponnese did not become part of the Ottoman administration, although the latter was under Ottoman suzerainty. The Eastern Roman Empire, the remnant of the ancient Roman Empire which ruled most of the Greek-speaking world for over 1100 years, had been fatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204. The Ottoman advance into Greece was preceded by victory over the Serbs to its north. First, the Ottomans won the Battle of Maritsa in 1371. The Serb forces were then led by the King Vukašin of Serbia, the father of Prince Marko and the co-ruler of

neg: Ottoman Turks expanded the principality; the empire and the people were named "Ottomans" by Europeans after him ("Ottoman" being a corruption of "Osman"). Osman's son Orhan expanded the growing Ottoman Empire, taking Nicaea (present-day İznik) and crossed the Dardanelles in 1362. The Ottoman Empire came into its own when Mehmed II captured the Byzantine Empire's capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), in 1453. The Ottoman Empire came to rule much of the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Middle East (excluding Iran), and North Africa over the course of several centuries, with an advanced army and navy. The Empire lasted until the end of the First World

neg: Paulus-Haus a headquarters and recuperation facility for German soldiers. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Jerusalem came under the control of the British Mandate of Palestine and became the seat of the high commissioner and the mandate administration. The Paulus-Haus was seized by the British Armed Forces and used as a general consulate until 1948. When the British mandate ended, the building was returned to the German Association of the Holy Land and as a result of the division of Jerusalem after the Palestine War, the Paulus-Haus now lay in the Jordanian half of Jerusalem. Due to the military action,

neg: Orme Bigland Clarke of the modern Supreme Court were sown on December 9, 1917, when Allenby entered Jerusalem and declared martial law." Clarke, who had enlisted in 1916, had been in the Middle East in 1914 before war broke out as an adviser to the Ottoman Empire. When he was enlisted he was sent to Cairo then onto Jerusalem where Allenby appointed Clarke as the man to implement a judicial system. Izenberg states that according to Brun: "he served as minister of justice, legal adviser to the government and chief prosecutor." Whilst in Palestine he fell ill with a serious case of malaria

neg: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire the Ottoman Empire fell, the city of Salonica was not depicted as a Bulgarian or Turkish city, but instead was considered a Jewish city. Additionally, some historians claim that Salonica was seen as the “New Jerusalem” and has been named the “Mother of Israel” where the Jewish Sabbath “was most vigorously observed”. Also, there were many international organizations that thought about creating a new Jewish state instead of Palestine before the state of Israel was created. "See also: History of the Jews in Thessaloniki" During the Ottoman Empire, the following newspapers served Jewish communities: History of the Jews in the

neg: Safa Khulusi that affected not only the direction of his life but influenced his literary legacy. He attacked the Arab Congress of 1913 for threatening the unity of the Ottoman Empire. He dismissed the Arab Revolt under T. E. Lawrence and satirised Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca when he seceded from the Ottoman thrall in 1916. With the defeat of the Ottomans at the end of World War I, Rusafi was compelled to leave Istanbul, travelling first to Damascus and then on to Jerusalem before finally returning to Baghdad. Rusafi was marginalised when Hussein's son Faisal, his former colleague in the

neg: Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire independence from the Ottoman Empire. After almost half a millennium of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), the Bulgarian state was reestablished as the Principality of Bulgaria, covering the land between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains (except Northern Dobrudja which was given to Romania) and the region of Sofia, which became the new state's capital. The Congress of Berlin also allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and Great Britain to take over Cyprus, while the Russian Empire annexed Southern Bessarabia and the Kars region. The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading

neg: History of Thessaly ruled by Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos and (from ) Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, who recognized Byzantine suzerainty until , when the region was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. In the south, the Florentine adventurer Nerio Acciaioli had managed to take over the Duchy of Athens from the Catalans, and in 1390 captured Neopatras as well. These territories were soon lost to the Ottoman Turks, at about the same time as the fall of Thessaly. The Ottomans first invaded Thessaly in 1386, when Gazi Evrenos took Larissa for a time, confining the Angeloi Philanthropenoi to their holdings in western Thessaly, around Trikala. In

neg: History of Palestine bore fruit during the second. Ottoman rule over the eastern Mediterranean lasted until World War I when the Ottomans sided with the German Empire and the Central Powers. During World War I, the Ottomans were driven from much of the region by the British Empire during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. In World War I, the Ottoman Empire sided with Germany. As a result, it was embroiled in a conflict with the United Kingdom. Under the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, it was envisioned that most of Palestine, when freed from Ottoman control, would become an international zone not

neg: Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem) property consisted of Muslim religious endowments, and was rented out to Jews. The population of the quarter was not homogeneously Jewish, such a rule being neither desired by the Jewish inhabitants nor enforced by the Ottoman rulers. During the Ottoman era, most of the homes in the quarter were leased from Muslim property owners. This is one of the reasons for the growth of buildings west of the city in the last years of the Ottoman Empire since land outside the city wall was freehold ("mulk") and easier to acquire. While most residents of Jerusalem in the 19th century preferred

neg: Ottoman Syria governed by a "mutasarrıf" who, according to law, had to be a non-Lebanese Christian. As part of the Tanzimat reforms, an Ottoman law passed in 1864 provided for a standard provincial administration throughout the empire with the eyalets becoming smaller "vilayets", governed by a "vali" (governor) still appointed by the imperial Porte but with new provincial assemblies participating in administration. In 1872 Jerusalem and the surrounding towns became the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, gaining a special administrative status. From 1872 until World War I subdivisions of Ottoman Syria were: The sanjak Zor and the major part of the vilayet Aleppo may

neg: Jerusalem Delivered subject matter had a fixed endpoint and could not be endlessly spun out in multiple volumes) that are lacking in other Renaissance epics. Like other works of the period that portray conflicts between Christians and Muslims, this subject matter had a topical resonance to readers of the period when the Ottoman Empire was advancing through Eastern Europe. The poem was hugely successful, and sections or moments from the story were used in works in other media all over Europe, especially in the period before the French Revolution and the Romantic movement, which provided alternative stories combining love, violence, and an

neg: Turkish folk dress Turkish folk dress Turkish folk dress is a traditional style of clothing worn primarily in the rural parts of Turkey. Within the folk style of clothing are many variations based on region, gender, ethnicity, and class of the wearer. Traditional Turkish clothing is heavily influenced by Ottoman Empire fashion. The borders of the Ottoman Empire encompassed the numerous individual cultures that existed in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Anatolia. Ottoman culture, and particularly Ottoman fashion, evolved as an amalgam of these separate cultures and religions that interacted over the centuries. Ottoman fashion did not disappear with the fall of

neg: History of the Jews in Turkey Ottoman Empire: the Muslim Turks were largely uninterested in business enterprises and accordingly left commercial occupations to members of minority religions. They also distrusted the Christian subjects whose countries had only recently been conquered by the Ottomans and therefore it was natural to prefer Jewish subjects to which this consideration did not apply. The Sephardi Jews were allowed to settle in the wealthier cities of the empire, especially in the European provinces (cities such as: Constantinople, Sarajevo, Salonica, Adrianople and Nicopolis), Western and Northern Anatolia (Bursa, Aydın, Tokat and Amasya), but also in the Mediterranean coastal regions (for example: Jerusalem,