query: when did they change the voting age to 18

pos: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution 94–0 in favor of proposing a Constitutional amendment to guarantee that the minimum voting age could not be higher than 18. On March 23, 1971, the House of Representatives voted 401–19 in favor of the proposed amendment. Having been passed by the 92nd United States Congress, the proposed Twenty-sixth Amendment was sent to the state legislatures for their consideration. Ratification was completed on July 1, 1971, after the amendment had been ratified by the following thirty-eight states: Having been ratified by three-fourths of the States (38), the Twenty-sixth Amendment became part of the Constitution. On July 5, 1971, the Administrator

pos: Youth suffrage States Constitution, ratified on July 1, 1971, lowered that age to 18. The primary impetus for this change was the fact that young men were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War before they were old enough to vote. There have been many proposals to lower the voting age even further. In 2004, California State Senator John Vasconcellos (D-Santa Clara) proposed a youth suffrage constitutional amendment called Training Wheels for Citizenship that would give 14-year-olds a quarter vote, 16-year-olds a half vote, and 17-year-olds a full vote. In 2013, Takoma Park, Maryland became the first U.S. city to allow

neg: Voting age Voting age A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain before they become eligible to vote in a public election. Today, the most common voting age is 18 years; however, voting ages as low as 16 and as high as 25 currently exist (see list below). Most countries have set a minimum voting age, often set in their constitution. In a number of countries voting is compulsory for those eligible to vote, while in most it is optional. When the right to vote was being established in democracies, the voting age was generally

neg: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1970), the Supreme Court considered whether the voting-age provisions Congress added to the Voting Rights Act in 1970 were constitutional. The Court struck down the provisions that established 18 as the voting age in state and local elections. However, the Court upheld the provision establishing the voting age as 18 in federal elections. The Court was deeply divided in this case, and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding. The decision resulted in states being able to maintain 21 as the voting age in state and local elections, but being required to establish separate

neg: Voting age voting age. Many countries, particularly in Western Europe, reduced their voting ages to 18 years during the 1970s, starting with the United Kingdom (1969), with the United States (26th Amendment) (1971), Canada, West Germany (1972), Australia (1974), France (1974), and others following soon afterwards. By the end of the 20th century, 18 had become by far the most common voting age. However, a few countries maintain a voting age of 20 years or higher. It was argued that young men could be drafted to go to war at 18, and many people felt they should be able to vote at

neg: Voting age the age of 18. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries voting ages were lowered to 16 in India, Switzerland, Austria, and Morocco. Japan lowered its voting age from 20 to 18 in June 2016. a dispute continued in the Maldives. Around the year 2000, a number of countries began to consider whether the voting age ought to be reduced further, with arguments most often being made in favour of a reduction to 16. The earliest moves came during the 1990s, when the voting age for municipal elections in some States of Germany was lowered to 16. Lower Saxony

neg: Birch Bayh the 1950s, Bayh unsuccessfully worked to lower the voting age in Indiana. He continued his effort in the Senate Judiciary Committee, where he also met opposition. In 1970, a new provision was added to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, lowering the voting age to 18 in all federal, state, and local elections. Then with the 1971 "Oregon v. Mitchell" decision, the Supreme Court ruled that state and local elections did not have to abide by the lowered voting age, though there would have to be dual elections in the 47 states where the lower federal voting age was not

neg: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution Voting Rights Act, but the Supreme Court subsequently held in the case of "Oregon v. Mitchell" that Congress could not lower the voting age for state and local elections. Shortly after that ruling, Congress proposed and the states ratified the Twenty-sixth Amendment, which constitutionally enshrined voting rights for individuals between 18 and 21 years old. Senator Harley Kilgore began advocating for a lowered voting age in 1941 in the 77th Congress. Despite the support of fellow senators, representatives, and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, Congress failed to pass any national change. However, public interest in lowering the vote became a topic

neg: Voting age No political party had decreed that its members should all follow the party line about lowering voting age policy, resulting in public differences of view. Most parties had splits in their members and supporters, taking different sides. Voting age A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain before they become eligible to vote in a public election. Today, the most common voting age is 18 years; however, voting ages as low as 16 and as high as 25 currently exist (see list below). Most countries have set a minimum voting age, often set

neg: Voter suppression a significant number of voters are intimidated or disenfranchised. In 2013, the United States Supreme Court ruled in "Shelby v. Holder" that voting laws had resulted in voter suppression and discrimination. In Australia, it is mandatory for citizens to enroll to vote and it is their responsibility to update their enrollment when they change their address. Even so, it is estimated that about 6% of eligible Australian voters are not enrolled, or are enrolled incorrectly. These are disproportionately younger voters, many of whom might neglect to enroll when they attain voting age. In 2006, the Howard Government legislated to close

neg: 2011 Canadian federal election voter suppression scandal noticed that the change-of-location voting information was erroneous and discussed it on their breaks. When hearing another RMG employee use a script that identified himself as from Elections Canada, Desgagne said, "Dude, you're not from Elections Canada." RMG's spokesperson said that they did not call anyone but Conservative Party supporters, and that their scripts honestly and correctly identified themselves as from the Conservative Party. RMG further insisted that they made no change-of-address calls regarding voting locations. In August 2012, RMG CEO Andrew Langhorne filed an affidavit which called Desgagne's story "categorically false", and denied that the company even called opposition

neg: 1970 United States Virgin Islands voting age referendum 1970 United States Virgin Islands voting age referendum A referendum on the voting age was held in the United States Virgin Islands on 3 November 1970. After the Legislature of the Islands requested a referendum take place, it was approved by the United States Congress on 6 October 1970. Voters were given the options of 18, 19, 20 or 21, and the winning option had to receive an absolute majority of the vote. Although the results saw 55.67% vote in favour of setting the voting age at 18, when the blank votes were included, this dropped to 46.71%. A lawsuit

neg: King v Jones resisted calls to follow the states in lowering the age. In 1972, Susan King, the 18-year-old daughter of the Attorney-General of South Australia, attempted to enroll to vote at her local electoral office in the Division of Boothby. King was eligible to enroll to vote in South Australian elections, since she was over the voting age of 18, as required by the "Age of Majority (Reduction) Act 1970". However, the electoral registrar there, Ernest Jones, did not enroll her because she was not over the age of 21, the minimum voting age under the "Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918". Another provision

neg: Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 1961. The act took the form of a series of amendments to the Electoral Consolidation Act, 1946, and was therefore repealed on 1 February 1980 when that act was repealed and replaced by the Electoral Act, 1979. Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 The Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 (Act No. 30 of 1958) was an act of the Parliament of South Africa which reduced the voting age for white voters from 21 to 18. It did not reduce the voting age for black and coloured voters (under the Representation of Natives Act and the Separate Representation of Voters Act respectively)

neg: Electoral reform in Oregon of the kind of Constitutional support it would have provided, 47 did not take effect. Portland, Oregon also has a publicly financed campaign option for its city elections known as Clean Elections. Oregon election laws were amended in 2007 by HB 2910 to allow 17-year-olds to "pre-register" to vote, ensuring they receive a ballot when they turn 18 and thereby increasing their likelihood of voting. There have been proposals for lowering the age threshold by one year to allow 16-year-olds to "pre-register". The state used to allow Election Day voter registration up until 1984, but a 1986 ballot measure in

neg: MDP Youth Wing sections of the country from major national decision making processes, and thereby campaigned the Special Majlis, with success, to lower the voting age to 18. The national democratic reform process demonstrated the influence and the extent to which the youth of the country were invested in the future of a democratic Maldives, when youth from across the nation joined together in activities such as ‘Badhalakah Emmen’, ‘Youth for Change’, and ‘Wathan Edhey’, combining young people’s opinions, energy, and creativity in a powerful effort to bring change. The establishment of the MDP’s youth wing in 2010 sought to institutionalise youth involvement

neg: Voting age constitution, lowering the official voting age from 18 to 16, making Malta the second state in the EU to lower its voting age to 16. The New Zealand Green Party MP Sue Bradford announced on 21 June 2007 that she intended to introduce her "Civics Education and Voting Age Bill" on the next occasion upon which a place became available for the consideration of Members' Bills. When this happened on 25 July Bradford abandoned the idea, citing an adverse public reaction. The Bill would have sought to reduce the voting age to 16 in New Zealand and make civics education

neg: Voting age concerning the "Briefwahl", or postal vote, and the extension of the legislative period for the National Council from four to five years. A further uncontroversial inclusion was a reduction in the candidacy age from 19 to 18. The Federal Council approved the Bill on 21 June, with no party voting against it. The voting age was reduced when the Bill's provisions came into force on 1 July 2007. Austria thus became the first member of the European Union, and the first of the developed world democracies, to adopt a voting age of 16 for all purposes. Lowering the voting age

neg: Voter turnout term the voting-eligible population. In 1972, noncitizens and ineligible felons (depending on state law) constituted about 2% of the voting-age population. By 2004, ineligible voters constituted nearly 10%. Ineligible voters are not evenly distributed across the country – 20% of California's voting-age population is ineligible to vote – which confounds comparisons of states. Furthermore, they argue that an examination of the Census Bureau's Current Population Survey shows that turnout is low but not declining among the youth, when the high youth turnout of 1972 (the first year 18- to 20-year-olds were eligible to vote in most states) is removed from

neg: LGBT rights in Texas for transgender people to change their legal gender on their birth certificates, they must undergo sex reassignment surgery and a name change. In August 2017, the Texas Legislature adjourned without voting on a "transgender bathroom bill", which would have restricted transgender people's access to public bathrooms. Governor Greg Abbott had made it a priority to pass the legislation. The Texas Department of State Health Services has developed model education programs on AIDS and HIV; however, Texas law requires that the "materials in the education programs intended for persons younger than 18 years of age ... state that homosexual conduct is

neg: Voting age of the "Representation of the People Act 1918" which also allowed some women over the age of 30 to vote. The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 brought the voting age for women down to 21. The reduction of the voting age to 16 in the United Kingdom was first given serious consideration on 15 December 1999, when the House of Commons considered in Committee an amendment proposed by Simon Hughes to the "Representation of the People Bill". This was the first time the reduction of a voting age below 18 had ever been put to a vote

neg: Suffrage in Australia the armed services had the vote in some states, and in World War II, the Commonwealth and some states did the same. The voting age for all federal elections was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1973. The states had lowered the voting age to 18 by 1973, the first being Western Australian in 1970. At Federation, the "Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902" disenfranchised those "attainted of treason, or who had been convicted and is under sentence or subject to be sentenced for any offence … punishable by imprisonment for one year or longer." In 1983, this disenfranchisement was relaxed and

neg: 1976 Italian general election 1976 Italian general election General elections were held in Italy on 20 June 1976, to select the Seventh Republican Parliament. They were the first after the voting age was lowered to 18. If Christian Democracy remained stable with around 38% of votes, Enrico Berlinguer's Italian Communist Party made a great jump winning 7 points more than four years before: this result, which was quite homogeneous in the entire society because confirmed by the electors of the age-restricted Senate, began to show the possibility of a future change of the Italian government leadership. All minor parties lost a lot of votes

neg: Voting age set at 21 or higher. In the 1970s many countries reduced the voting age to 18. The debate is ongoing in a number of countries on proposals to reduce the voting age to or below 18. In 1890, Law No. 5, 1890, of the South African Republic set a voting age there of 16 years. Before the Second World War of 1939–1945, the voting age in almost all countries was 21 years or higher. In 1946 Czechoslovakia became the first state to reduce the voting age to 20 years, and by 1968 a total of 17 countries had lowered their

neg: Voting age encouraged political interest in young people in Austria. More sixteen- and seventeen-year-olds voted than eighteen-to-twenty-one-year-olds in Austria. Brazil lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 in the 1988 constitution. The presidential election of 1989 was the first with the lower voting age. People between the ages 18 and 70 are required to vote. Iran had been unique in awarding suffrage at 15, but raised the age to 18 in January 2007 despite the opposition of the Government. In May 2007 the Iranian Cabinet proposed a bill to reverse the increase. Luxembourg has compulsory voting from the age of 18.

neg: National Minimum Drinking Age Act people sending them off to risk their lives. "Old enough to fight, old enough to vote," was a common slogan used by proponents of lowering the voting age. The slogan traced its roots to World War II, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt lowered the military draft age to 18. With the lowering of the voting age to 18, the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) was similarly lowered under the notion that by being able to vote (and for males, be subject to being involuntarily drafted into the enlisted ranks of the military), one should also be able to legally consume

neg: Youth vote in the United States in the United States. The voting process has two steps. An eligible voter - a U.S. citizen over the age of 18 - must first register to vote and then commit the act of voting. The voting process is regulated by each state individually and therefore varies from state to state. The process of registering to vote is different depending on the state. Pre-registration is available to youth under the age of 18 in 20 states and Washington D.C. Potential voters may also register on Election Day - or on the day on which they vote early - in 10

neg: Jerry Fowler elections for more than four decades: "Reformers, embarrassed by the triviality of the title "custodian of voting machines" managed in the 1970s to change the name to Commissioner of Elections. But they did not change the duties much: Louisiana's citizens continued to go to the polls every four years to pick a constitutional officer whose job consisted largely of buying and repairing machinery and remembering to deliver it to the right polling place when it was needed. "It was not only a cushy job, it was also the personal possession of a single family. When Long created the post, he

neg: Voting rights in the United States federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17-year-olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election. Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state.

neg: Voting Rights Act of 1965 to voter qualifications and prerequisites to voting. The Court upheld Section 202, which prohibits any state or local jurisdiction from requiring people to live in their borders for longer than 30 days before allowing them to vote in a presidential election. Additionally, the Court upheld the provision lowering the minimum voting age to 18 in federal elections, but it held that Congress exceeded its power by lowering the voting age to 18 in state elections; this precipitated the ratification of the Twenty-sixth Amendment the following year, which lowered the voting age in all elections to 18. The Court was deeply

neg: History of voting in New Zealand addresses shown as their ship. For most of New Zealand's early history, voters needed to have attained at least 21 years of age in order to vote. At times, legislative changes (in 1919 and 1940) temporarily extended voting rights to people younger than this, such as in World War I and World War II (when serving military personnel could vote regardless of age and despite not being resident at an address in New Zealand). Later, Parliament reduced the voting age further; in 1969 to 20 years of age, and in 1974 to 18. This extension of the franchise occurred in

neg: Youth set at 18 years; however, ages as low as 16 and as high as 21 exist (see list below). Studies show that 21% of all 18 year olds have experience with voting. This is an important right since, by voting they can support politics selected by themselves and not only by people of older generations. Age of candidacy is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it also determines the age at which a person may be eligible to stand for an election or be granted ballot access.

neg: 1471 Papal conclave by voting for others until the morning of August 9th, when along with d'Estouteville and Barbo they changed their votes to della Rovere in the "accessus", giving him a total of 13 votes. The cardinals voting for della Rovere in the scrutiny were: Monferrato, Zeno, Michiel, Agnifilo, Roverella,Forteguerri, Bessarion, Calandrini, and Orsini. Contrary to the perennial tradition, the five remaining cardinals did not change their votes to della Rovere in the "accessus" to make the election "unanimous". 1471 Papal conclave The papal conclave of 1471 (August 6–9) elected Pope Sixtus IV following the death of Pope Paul II. With the

neg: Political positions of Ron Paul participation for minorities. Paul has indicated that he did not object to the voting rights clauses, but rather to restrictions placed on property rights by the bill. He felt the federal interference mandated by the bill was costly and unjustified because the situation for minorities voting is very different from when the bill was passed 40 years ago. Many of Texas' Republican representatives voted against the bill, because they believe it specifically singles out some Southern states, including Texas, for federal Justice Department oversight that makes it difficult for localities to change the location of a polling place or other

neg: Ernad Deni Čomaga voters from 18 to 22 years of age to vote in the upcoming elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By implementing this project the organization created the impact that will later lead to the change of government in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This project was repeated in the general elections in 2014 in Bosnia and Herzegovina where they managed to educate 8000 secondary school students on voting issues. One of the most important activities of the organization was the petition to force the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina to participate in the Erasmus plus program of the European Union. Together with other

neg: Voting age it was registered at the Court of Guernsey on 19 December. It came into force immediately, and the voting age was accordingly reduced in time for the Guernsey general election, 2008. Alderney and Sark, each part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, have autonomy in deciding the question. Both have yet to favour a reduction to 16. In the United States, the debate about lowering voting age from 21 to 18 began during World War II and intensified during the Vietnam War, when most of those subjected to the draft were too young to vote, and the image of young men

neg: Elections in Belgium the voter's ID and voting card, now stamped as proof of having voted. Voters are Belgian citizens over the age of 18 and residing in Belgium. They are automatically registered on the electoral rolls on reaching the age of 18 and are subject to compulsory voting. EU citizens aged 18 or older may register to vote in Belgium for European and municipal elections, a right established by European treaties. Non-EU citizens may register to vote in Belgium for municipal elections only, if living in Belgium for at least five years; this right was introduced in 2004 after extensive political debate.

neg: Voting age population Voting age population Voting age population (VAP) refers to the set of individuals that have reached the minimum voting age for a particular geographical or political unit. The presumption is that they are therefore generally eligible to vote, although other additional factors may cause them to be ineligible, such as lack of citizenship or a prior felony conviction. In estimating voter turnout the voting age population for a political unit is often used as the denominator for the number of individuals eligible to vote in a given election; this method has been shown to lose in accuracy when a larger

neg: Presidency of Richard Nixon Control Act and the Consumer Product Safety Act. When Congress extended the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in 1970 it included a provision lowering the age qualification to vote in all elections—federal, state, and local—to 18. Later that year, in "Oregon v. Mitchell" (1970), the Supreme Court held that Congress had the authority to lower the voting age qualification in federal elections, but not the authority to do so in state and local elections. Nixon sent a letter to Congress supporting a constitutional amendment to lower the voting age, and Congress quickly moved forward with a proposed constitutional amendment guaranteeing

neg: Voting rights in the United States Voting rights in the United States The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history. Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights cannot be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 18; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787–1870. In the absence of a specific federal

neg: 2009 Mauritanian presidential election The election, held on 18 July 2009, was monitored by more than 200 elections observers, including those from the African Union and the Arab League. Voting opened at 7:00 a.m. UTC and lasted for twelve hours. Some Mauritanians living outside of the nation who had registered for the election were unable to vote because their names did not appear on voting lists. They say it is because they opposed the 2008 Mauritanian coup d'état. One such Mauritanian, Mohamed Sidatt, said that 300 people, including himself, who had registered to vote did not have their names on the final voting lists.

neg: Voting age In 2015, federal Opposition Leader Bill Shorten said that the voting age should be lowered to 16. In 2007, Austria became the first member of the European Union to adopt a voting age of 16 for most purposes. The voting age had been reduced in Austria from 19 to 18 at all levels in 1992. At that time a voting age of 16 was proposed by the Green Party, but was not adopted. The voting age for municipal elections in some states was lowered to 16 shortly after 2000. Three states had made the reduction by 2003 (Burgenland, Carinthia and

neg: Electoral system of New Zealand general election becomes the Government. In 1893, New Zealand was the first country in the world to give women the right to vote. This meant that theoretically, New Zealand had universal suffrage from 1893, meaning all adults 21 years of age and older were allowed to vote (in 1969 the voting age was lowered from 21 to 20. It was lowered again to 18 in 1974). However, the voting rules that applied to the European settlers did not apply to Māori, and their situation is still unique in that a number of seats in the New Zealand Parliament are elected

neg: Voting age being forced to risk their lives in the military without the privileges of voting successfully pressured legislators to lower the voting age nationally and in many states. By 1968, several states had lowered the voting age below 21 years: Alaska and Hawaii's minimum age was 20, Kentucky's was 19, and Georgia's was 18. In 1970, the Supreme Court in "Oregon v. Mitchell" ruled that Congress had the right to regulate the minimum voting age in federal elections; however, not at local and state level. The 26th Amendment (passed and ratified in 1971) prevents states from setting a voting age higher

neg: Electoral roll after house-to-house enquiries. The register then comes into force the following February after time for appeals and additions. A supplementary register is published which allows voters to make alterations (usually change of address or becoming 18 years of age) prior to voting day. Postal votes are restricted to certain occupations, students and the disabled or elderly resident away from their home. There is also provision for special voters that are usually physically disabled. While all residents can be registered voting in Ireland depends on citizenship. All residents are entitled to vote in local authority elections. Irish and EU citizens may

neg: History of the Constitution of the United Kingdom Life Peerages Act 1958 allowed the creation of life peers which gave the Prime Minister the ability to change the composition of the House of Lords. Between 1832 and 1928, numerous Acts of Parliament repealed voting restrictions and expanded the franchise from just 5% of the adult population to universal suffrage for all male and female adults aged 21 and over. The Representation of the People Act 1969 lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. William Ewart Gladstone's UK Midlothian campaign between 1878-80 began the move towards modern political campaigning. In 1912, the House of Lords managed to delay

neg: Howard Moscoe a municipal motion to include Toronto councillors and the mayor under the terms of a planned 12.25% salary increase for the city's unionized employees. Some members of council later said that they did not notice the change, and were unaware that they were voting themselves a pay increase when they approved the bill. Moscoe denied that any trickery was involved, and suggested that certain councillors were disingenuously trying to appear disinterested in their salaries. He added, "I think we deserve the same raises everybody else got - modest though they may be. I'm not in the slightest bit embarrassed." He

neg: Floor crossing (South Africa) Floor crossing (South Africa) Floor crossing was a system introduced to the post-apartheid South African political system in 2002, under which members of Parliament, members of provincial legislatures and local government councillors could change political party (or form a new party) and take their seats with them when they did so. Floor crossing in South Africa was abolished in January 2009. Floor crossing was controversial because post-1994 South African elections generally use party-list proportional representation with voters voting for a political party rather than an individual candidate, and floor crossing allowed politicians elected in this way to change parties, with

neg: 2012 Caymanian electoral system referendum 2012 Caymanian electoral system referendum A referendum on changing the electoral system was held in the Cayman Islands on 18 July 2012. Voters were asked whether they wish to change the electoral system from one using multi-member constituencies to one with single member constituencies. Although the proposal was approved by a majority of those voting, the quorum of half of registered voters voting in favour was not met. The ruling United Democratic Party (UDP) had promised to hold a referendum on the change to the system alongside the general elections in 2013. However, a citizens' initiative group sought an earlier

neg: Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 The Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 (Act No. 30 of 1958) was an act of the Parliament of South Africa which reduced the voting age for white voters from 21 to 18. It did not reduce the voting age for black and coloured voters (under the Representation of Natives Act and the Separate Representation of Voters Act respectively) and hence had the effect of further reducing their (already limited) electoral power. The act came into force on 15 September 1958. The next subsequent general election of the House of Assembly was held on 8 October

neg: Oregon v. Mitchell the next year, which lowered the voting age for citizens to 18 for all elections at the federal level and in all states. Though "Oregon v. Mitchell" affirmed the federal government's power to set a minimum voting age for federal elections, no case has tested whether the federal government possesses the power to prevent states from lowering their voting age below 18, since the federal government has not tried to prohibit states from doing so. Oregon v. Mitchell Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970), was a Supreme Court case which held that the United States Congress could set voting

neg: Oregon v. Mitchell Justice Blackmun, agreed with Harlan that the Constitution gives states the power to set voting qualifications. Enforcement of this ruling would have proven to be problematic, since states not lowering the voting age to the age of 18 for state elections would have had to provide special federal-election only ballots to citizens between 18 and 20 voting in federal elections. States would have had to maintain two sets of voting registries, one for those between the ages of 18 to 20 and another for those 21 and older. The question became moot with the prompt ratification of the Twenty-sixth Amendment

neg: 18 (number) 18 (number) 18 (eighteen) is the natural number following 17 and preceding 19. In English speech, the numbers 18 and 80 are sometimes confused, as they sound very similar. Eighteen is a composite number, its divisors being 1, 2, 3, 6 and 9. Three of these divisors (3, 6 and 9) add up to 18, hence 18 is a semiperfect number. Eighteen is the first inverted square-prime of the form "p"·"q". In most countries, 18 is the age of majority (adulthood) and also the voting age. In eleven states of the United States, 18 is the age of sexual consent.

neg: Voting age the voting age remain at 18. On 29 November 2005 the House of Commons voted 136-128 (on a free vote) against a Private Member's Bill for a reduction in the voting age to 16 proposed by Liberal Democrat MP Stephen Williams. Parliament chose not to include a provision reducing the voting age in the Electoral Administration Act during its passage in 2006. On 27 February 2006, the report of the Power Inquiry called for a reduction of the voting age, and of the candidacy age for the House of Commons, to 16. On the same day the Chancellor of the

neg: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution to lower the voting age from 21 to 18 grew across the country during the 1960s, driven in large part by the military draft held during the Vietnam War, as well as the student activism movement. The draft conscripted young men between the ages of 18 and 21 into the armed forces, primarily the U.S. Army, to serve in or support military combat operations in Vietnam. A common slogan of proponents of lowering the voting age was "old enough to fight, old enough to vote." Congress lowered the national voting age to 18 in a 1970 bill that extended the

neg: Right of expatriates to vote in their country of origin the measure to stall. Brazilian citizens living abroad aged between 18 and 70 must vote, as Brazil's policy of compulsory voting includes expatriate Brazilians. Voting is possible, but not mandatory, for Brazilian expatriates aged over 70 or under 18 (Brazil's minimum voting age is 16). Per Bill C-76, Canadian expatriates may vote in federal elections by post or in person, no matter how long they've lived outside the country. Previously, Canadian law dictated that citizens living abroad could only vote by post if they had lived outside the country for less than five consecutive years (citizens that worked for the

neg: Voting in the Council of the European Union allocated previously to the EU-9 did not change. Greece was allocated 5 votes. Article 148 of the EEC Treaty, specifying the qualified majority voting system of the Council, was amended by Article 14 of the Accession Treaty regulating the enlargement of the community by Portugal and Spain. Acts of the Council now required for their adoption: The votes allocated previously to the EU-10 did not change. To the new members, the following votes were allocated: The Treaty of Maastricht established the European Community Treaty (EC Treaty) where the qualified majority voting system was detailed in Article 148. While this treaty

neg: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution voter rolls so that voters between 18 and 20 years old could vote in federal elections. Although the Twenty-sixth Amendment passed faster than any other constitutional amendment, about 17 states refused to pass measures to lower their minimum voting ages after Nixon signed the 1970 extension to the Voting Rights Act. Opponents to extending the vote to youths questioned the maturity and responsibility of people at the age of 18. Professor William G. Carleton wondered why the vote was proposed for youth at a time when the period of adolescence had grown so substantially rather than in the past when

neg: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state the minimum age for "consumption" of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same. As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered

neg: Young voter turnout in Canada voting. Personal reasons come first than voting as Gloria Galloway from "The Globe And Mail" comments, "But many of the respondents also cited personal circumstances. They were too busy, they said, with work, school or family." Respondents from age 22 to 29 with household income of under $20,000 showed less voting behaviour than did those with household income of $60,000 or more. Results show that young voters hold a different set of priorities than their older cohorts. The young adults in low-income households had "almost 50% lower odds of voting than those in high-income households." "Low income was also a

neg: 1992 Liechtenstein referendums by 55.8% of voters, with a voter turnout of 87%. Despite the vote in favour, when the EEA subsequently came into existence in 1994, Liechtenstein did not join until after a second referendum in 1995. 1992 Liechtenstein referendums Five referendums were held in Liechtenstein during 1992. The first was held on 15 March on whether referendums should be introduced to approve international treaties, and was approved by 71.4% of voters. The second on 28 June concerned lowering the voting age from 20 to 18, but was rejected by 56.3% of voters. Two were held on 8 November on abolishing the

neg: Voting Rights Act of 1965 to frighten whites into supporting King. The next day, King was released and a letter he wrote addressing voting rights, "Letter From A Selma Jail", appeared in "The New York Times". With the nation paying increasing attention to Selma and voting rights, President Johnson reversed his decision to delay voting rights legislation, and on February 6, he announced he would send a proposal to Congress. However, he did not reveal the proposal's content or when it would come before Congress. On February 18 in Marion, Alabama, state troopers violently broke up a nighttime voting-rights march during which officer James Bonard

neg: Constitutional Convention (Ireland) citizens' assembly of 100 randomly selected citizens at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham. In February 2012, the government proposed that the convention would have 100 members, as follows: The plan did not envisage direct participation by social partners or other interest groups, but they would be able to make written submissions. The government also proposed that the first two items for consideration would be lowering the voting age from 18 to 17, and reducing the President's term of office. Issues upon which the government had already committed to holding a referendum would not be within the Convention's remit. Fianna Fáil, Sinn

neg: Voter registration are above 18 years of age and do not suffer from a mental illness can register as voters. Imprisoned people can also register and vote since the laws prohibiting them from voting was ruled unconstitutional in 2009 and are able to vote since mid-2010 as the electoral roll is updated annually. The registration process is voluntary. In 2002 around 1.6 million permanent residents did not register. All citizens of Iceland are registered in a central database at birth, which is maintained by Registers Iceland. They do not need to register separately to vote. The Government of India conducts a revision

neg: Voting at the Eurovision Song Contest contest had its first semifinal, with a slight change in voting: countries which did not qualify from the semifinal would be allowed to cast votes in the final. This resulted in Ukraine's Ruslana finishing first, with a record 280 points. If the voting had been conducted as it had been from 1956 to 2003 (when only finalist countries could vote), Serbia and Montenegro's Željko Joksimović would have won the contest with 190 points: a 15-point lead over Ruslana, who would have scored 175 points. To date, non-qualifying countries are still allowed to vote in the final. In 2006, Serbia and

neg: Henry Cary, 1st Viscount Falkland of age. However she did not acknowledge the change in her opinions till twenty years afterwards. Elizabeth accompanied her husband to Dublin, where she took a great interest in the establishment of industrial schools. When Cary learned of her change of faith they quarreled, and she left Dublin in 1625. The Privy Council allowed her a separate maintenance of £500 a year. After her husband's return to England they became reconciled, but continued to live separately. On account of her change of faith her father probably passed her over in his will (for the circumstances see under Lucius Cary). When

neg: Social influence bias votes, they were unaware of the experiment. Due to randomization, comments in the control and the treatment group was not different in terms of expected rating. The treated comments were viewed more than 10 million times and rated 308 515 times by successive users. The up-vote treatment increased the probability of up-voting by the first viewer by 32% over the control group (Figure 1A), while the probability of down-voting did not change compared to the control group, which means that users did not correct the random positive rating. The upward bias remained inplace for the observed 5-month period. The accumulating

neg: Electoral reform in Texas Electoral reform in Texas Electoral reform in Texas refers to efforts to change the voting and election laws in the State of Texas. In 2001, State Representative Ron Wilson proposed lowering the state’s voting age to 14, and in 2003, he proposed lowering the state’s voting age to 16. Both of these measures died in committee. The city of Amarillo adopted cumulative voting systems, in which voters can cast one vote per seat, in 2002, allowing for broader representation on the local school boards. Again in 2003, some Democratic state legislators were caught crossing into Oklahoma to avoid voting on

neg: Clarksville, Tennessee families and 16.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.4% of those under age 18 and 11.5% of those age 65 or over. Major industrial employers in Clarksville include: In 1907, Clarksville was among several cities in Tennessee that gained legislative approval to adopt a board of commission form of government, with commissioners elected by at-large voting. Its population was 9,000. Other cities adopting a board of commission were Chattanooga and Knoxville in 1911, Nashville in 1913, and Jackson, Tennessee in 1915. The result of this change favored election of candidates favored by the majority in each

neg: Age of candidacy in any federal election. In Thailand the minimum age to be elected to the National Assembly is 35 years. The 1876 constitution set the age for parliamentary elections as 30. This remained unchanged until 13 October 2006, when it was lowered to 25 through a constitutional amendment. In 2017, it was further lowered to 18, the same as the voting age. The Prime Minister of Turkey has to be a member of the parliament, hence it has the same requirements as parliamentary eligibility. The age of candidacy for the President is 18. Due to new laws being voted in as

neg: Voting age to vote in state, regional or municipal elections. The only known maximum voting age is in the Holy See, where the franchise for electing a new Pope is restricted to Cardinals under the age of 80. The following is an alphabetical list of voting ages in the various countries of the world. The following is a chronological list of the dates upon which countries lowered the voting age to 18; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 21. In some cases the age was lowered decrementally, and so the "staging points" are also given. Some information is also included on

neg: Ginger Group (Queensland) of power. The first indications of trouble came in 1963, when the Liberals insisted on the introduction of preferential voting in Queensland. The Country Party resisted this move, fearing that a change in the electoral system would work against their electoral interests. These fears were confirmed to be baseless at the 1963 election, when it was shown that preferential voting did not noticeably alter the outcome in all but a few seats, and the Country Party dropped its opposition. Nevertheless, the dispute showed that there was the potential for disagreement between the two electoral allies. The first overt opposition to

neg: Romanian orphans of living in an orphanage, children faced further displacement when they were moved from one orphanage to another, without being told in advance. Usually children had to change institutions first when they reached 3 years of age, and again when they reached 6 years of age. The harshest fate was reserved to children deemed as "irrecuperable" who were considered "unproductive" and assigned to the Labor Ministry. After the fall of the regime, former staff claimed corporal punishment of all children was practised and encouraged as appropriate discipline, and staff who did not beat the children were considered weak. The true

neg: Voting age was the first state to make such a reduction, in 1995, and four other states did likewise. Arguments against lowering the voting age to sixteen include lack of political maturity. On the other hand, one of the major arguments for lowering the voting age to 16 is that at this age in most countries a person has reached the legal working age for most jobs and is liable to pay taxes and therefore should not have to pay taxes without the right to political representation. During the 2000s several proposals for a reduced voting age were put forward in U.S.

neg: Training Wheels for Citizenship but in the face of our current fiscal crisis, it's an obscenity." The historical basis for the Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, was that 18-year-olds were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War; the argument was made that no such compelling reason exists for lowering the voting age to 14 or 16. Some supporters of youth suffrage felt that voting should be all-or-nothing; for instance, 15-year-old Elliot Aglioni, a member of Berkeley High School's Progressive Club said, "We're just as much of a person as someone who's 18."

neg: Voter turnout in the United States presidential elections 1972 has not actually declined when calculated for those eligible to vote, what they term the voting-eligible population. In 1972, noncitizens and ineligible felons (depending on state law) constituted about 2% of the voting-age population. By 2004, ineligible voters constituted nearly 10%. Ineligible voters are not evenly distributed across the country – 20% of California's voting-age population is ineligible to vote – which confounds comparisons of states. Note: The Bipartisan Policy Center has stated that turnout for 2012 was 57.5 percent of the eligible voters, which they claim was a decline from 2008. They estimate that as a percent of

neg: Three-Fifths Compromise basis of the total populations. These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era, inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president. The disenfranchisement of black citizens eventually attracted the attention of Congress, and in 1900 some members proposed stripping the South of seats, related to the number of people who were barred from voting. In the end, Congress did not act to change apportionment, largely because of the

neg: Lafayette Parish, Louisiana median income of $36,428 versus $22,751 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $19,371. About 11.80% of families and 15.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.20% of those under age 18 and 15.60% of those age 65 or over. The parish voters often supported Democratic presidential candidates before the 1970s, but the majority of white conservatives have trended Republican since that time. Before 1965 and passage of the Voting Rights Act by Congress, most African Americans were disenfranchised, as they had been since 1898, when Louisiana passed a new constitution establishing barriers to

neg: Electoral system of Germany many of the advantages of both the plurality and the proportional voting system. Time has proven that this voting system mainly allows for a proportional distribution of seats, stable governments, change of governments, the possibility of new parties joining the parliament, and in comparison to the Reichstag, the precursor parliament of the Bundestag in the Weimar Republic, it allows for a parliament capable of acting. Presently, the big parties are not considering introducing a majority voting system like they did at the beginning of the first grand coalition in 1966. However, there has been major criticism of the federal election

neg: Rio Arriba County, New Mexico the population were below the poverty line, including 20.6% of those under age 18 and 18.3% of those age 65 or over. From New Mexico’s statehood to the early 1940s Rio Arriba was a traditional Republican county. That would later change and the county would become a Democratic stronghold from the 1960s to the present day. The last Republican Presidential candidate to carry the county was Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956. No Republican candidate for governor has won the county since at least 1966. It is located in New Mexico's 3rd congressional district, which has a Cook Partisan Voting Index

neg: Voting age the relevant legal instruments involved. This is a further list, similar to the above but of the dates upon which countries or territories lowered the voting age to 16; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 18. The following are political parties and other campaigning organisations that have either endorsed a lower voting age or who favour its removal. In 2013, the Constitutional Convention was asked to consider reducing the voting age to 17 and recommended lowering it to 16. The then government agreed to hold a referendum, but in 2015 postponed it indefinitely to give priority to other referendums.

neg: Voting age reducing the voting age to 16 years for the referendum on the membership in the European Union in 2016. The Scottish National Party conference voted unanimously on 27 October 2007 for a policy of reducing the voting age to 16, as well as in favour of a campaign for the necessary power to be devolved to the Scottish Parliament. In September 2011, it was announced that the voting age was likely to be reduced from 18 to 16 for the Scottish independence referendum. This was approved by the Scottish Parliament in June 2013. In June 2015, the Scottish Parliament voted

neg: Voting age is the most common voting age, with a small minority of countries differing from this rule. Those with a national minimum age of 17 include East Timor, Greece, Indonesia, North Korea, South Sudan and Sudan. The minimum age is 16 in Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua and the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (three self-governing British Crown Dependencies). People aged 16–18 can vote in Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro if employed. The highest minimum voting age is 21 in several nations. Some countries have variable provision for the minimum voting age, whereby a lower age is set for eligibility

neg: 1970 United States Virgin Islands voting age referendum was subsequently filed on 1 December 1970, and on 21 January 1971 a court decided that the blank ballots should be discarded, giving the 18 option an absolute majority of votes. 1970 United States Virgin Islands voting age referendum A referendum on the voting age was held in the United States Virgin Islands on 3 November 1970. After the Legislature of the Islands requested a referendum take place, it was approved by the United States Congress on 6 October 1970. Voters were given the options of 18, 19, 20 or 21, and the winning option had to receive an absolute

neg: 1996 European Parliament election in Austria to the party, irrespective of their position on the list. The lists of candidates had to be signed by three members of the national parliament, or by one Member of the European Parliament, or by 2600 voters. The minimum voting age was 18. European citizens residing in Austria were entitled to vote provided that they did not vote in their country of origin in the June 1994 European elections. 7205 European citizens registered and fulfilled that condition. The following political parties entered lists for the European elections on 13 October 1996: 1996 European Parliament election in Austria The European Parliament

neg: Wilcox County, Alabama of the population were below the poverty line, including 48.40% of those under age 18 and 32.10% of those age 65 or over. Similarly to all of the Black Belt, Wilcox County leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. The only Republican to carry the county since 1900 has been Barry Goldwater in 1964 – when little to none of the county’s black majority had voted for over seven decades and opposition by the voting white minority to Civil Rights meant that national Democrat Lyndon Johnson was not allowed on the ballot. Even after the Voting Rights Act of 1965, black

neg: Youth in the Dominican Republic Law for the System of Protection regulates the treatment of minors from birth to age 18. This law states that children under the age of 13 are not criminally liable, while youth ages 13–18 are. The electoral participation rate in the Dominican Republic is higher than the Latin America average, as over 77.3 percent indicated they had voted in the last election. Younger residents between the ages of 18-25 had a 29.2 percent voting rate, compared to 75.6 percent in the 26-35 year age range. Youth Civic Participation Programs attempt to foster youths' positive civic participation and reduce negative and

neg: Age of candidacy voting age of 18 years" in National Assembly elections; Sections 106 and 105 provide the same for provincial legislatures. In Sweden, any citizen at least 18 years old, who resides, or who has resided in the realm can be elected to parliament. Citizens of Sweden, the Europeans Union, Norway or Iceland aged 18 and over may be elected to county or municipal council. Citizens of other countries may also be elected to council, provided they have resided in the realm for at least three years. In Switzerland, any citizen aged 18 or over can become a candidate and be elected

neg: Metaphysics (Aristotle) studied at the Academy, which he joined at the age of about 18 in the 360s B.C. Aristotle soon expanded on the concept of forms in his "Metaphysics". He believed that in every change there is something which persists through the change (for example, Socrates), and something else which did not exist before, but comes into existence as a result of the change (musical Socrates). To explain how Socrates comes to be born (since he did not exist before he was born) Aristotle says that it is ‘matter’ ("hyle") that underlies the change. The matter has the ‘form’ of Socrates

neg: Voting age unanimously to reduce the voting age to 16 for elections for the Scottish Parliament and for Scottish local government elections. Moves to lower the voting age to 16 were successful in each of the three British Crown dependencies from 2006 to 2008. The Isle of Man was the first to amend its law, when in July 2006 it reduced the voting age to 16 for its general elections, with the House of Keys approving the move by 19 votes to 4. Jersey followed suit on 4 July 2007, when it approved in principle a reduction of the voting age to

neg: Voter turnout in the United States presidential elections As strong political opinions may be considered one of the reasons behind voting (Munsey, 2008), political apathy among young people is arguably a predictor for low voter turnout. Pomante and Schraufnagel's (2014) research demonstrated that potential young voters are more willing to commit to vote when they see pictures of younger candidates running for elections/office or voting for other candidates, surmising that young Americans are "voting at higher and similar rates to other Americans when there is a candidate under the age of 35 years running". As such, since most candidates running for office are pervasively over the age of

neg: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution of interest at the local level. In 1943 and 1955 respectively, the Georgia and Kentucky legislatures passed measures to lower the voting age to 18. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in his 1954 State of the Union address, became the first president to publicly support prohibiting age-based denials of suffrage for those 18 and older. During the 1960s, both Congress and the state legislatures came under increasing pressure to lower the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. This was in large part due to the Vietnam War, in which many young men who were ineligible to vote were conscripted to

neg: National Minimum Drinking Age Act (MLDA) of 21. Between 1970 and 1975, 29 states lowered the MLDA from 21 to 18, 19, or 20. This was primarily due to the passing of the 26th Amendment, which lowered the required voting age from 21 to 18. During the 1960s, both Congress and the state legislatures came under increasing pressure to lower the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. This was in large part due to the Vietnam War, in which many young men who were ineligible to vote (or legally drink) were conscripted to fight in the war, thus lacking any means to influence the

neg: 2007 National Hockey League All-Star Game as many times as they wished. This had created a humorous fan voting campaign around Vancouver Canucks defenceman Rory Fitzpatrick, urging many to vote him into the game as a write-in candidate, designed to show that the revised system would lead to ballot box stuffing, in an effort to get the league to change the system. Despite having no points in 18 games and one point in 22 games, Fitzpatrick had surprisingly accumulated 428,832 votes, good for second-place (and a starting spot) among the defencemen when preliminary results were released. Reaction to the campaign was mixed—supporters of the campaign saw

neg: Voting rights in the United States Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended. Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation" over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This

neg: History of voting in New Zealand strength in the House of Representatives to pass the bill. When it arrived in the Legislative Council, two previously hostile members, moved to anger at Seddon's "underhand" behaviour in getting one member to change his vote, voted in favour of the bill. Hence the bill was passed by 20 to 18, and with the Royal Assent it was signed into law on 19 September 1893. It is often said by this measure New Zealand became the first country in the world to have granted women's suffrage. In the 1893 general election women voted for the first time, although they were

neg: Watts Up With That? solution for it, since they follow proper voting procedures and legitimate science blogs don't want to make an effort to compete." He discontinued the science category in 2014. "WUWT" did not win "Best Topical Weblog of the Year" 2014 as Watts claimed, but did enter the Hall of Fame that year. Watts Up With That? Watts Up With That? (or WUWT) is a blog promoting climate change denial that was created by Anthony Watts in 2006. The blog predominantly discusses climate issues with a focus on anthropogenic climate change, generally accommodating beliefs that are in opposition to the scientific consensus

neg: Onslow County, North Carolina 10.80% of families and 12.90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.70% of those under age 18 and 14.70% of those age 65 or over. Onslow is a typical "Solid South" county in its voting patterns. Except for the 1928 election when anti-Catholic voting allowed Herbert Hoover to carry the county in 1928, it was solidly Democratic until 1968, during the FDR years by margins of as much as thirteen-to-one in 1936. However, the 1960s onwards saw Onslow turn to George Wallace in 1968 and then overwhelmingly to Richard Nixon over George McGovern in 1972. Since then,

neg: Youth in Brazil and Private agents engaging in youth, must follow these youth policy guidelines. Brazil has a compulsory voting system. Youth gain the right to vote at age 16. Voting is optional for youth age 16 to 18 and people over 70 years old. In June 2013, a student-led protest movement began in São Paulo, Brazil. The protests began when bus and subway fares were raised 10-cents. The protests was led by the Free Fare Movement (Movimento Passe Livre). As the youth protests went on, the movement grew to address other issues, including excessive amounts of money being used for the World

neg: Voting age A proposal by the government to introduce optional voting for those aged 16 and 17 was rejected by 81% of voters in a June 2015 referendum. On 20 November 2013, Malta lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 for local elections starting from 2015. The proposal had wide support from both the government and opposition, social scientists and youth organizations. On Monday 29 January 2018, the Maltese Parliament debated to lower the voting age to 16 for general elections, European Parliament Elections and referenda. On Monday, 5 March 2018, the Maltese Parliament unanimously voted in favour of amending the

neg: Battiscombe Gunn an open-minded environment. Bedales, in those days, attracted nonconformists, agnostics and liberal Jews. It had connections to Fabian intellectual circles, and to the Wedgwoods, Darwins, Huxleys and Trevelyans. At the age of 14, while still in school, he began to read hieroglyphs. He then went to a tutor in Wiesbaden, but returned to London at the age of 18, due to a change in family finances. His father expected Jack to follow him to a career in the City, but he found he hated it. He tried banking, engineering, but they did not suit him. From 1908 to 1911 he