query: which president introduced the philadelphia plan which provided the framework for affirmative action

pos: Affirmative action in the United States the Nixon administration formed their adapted definition of affirmative action and became the official policy of the US government. The plan was defined as "racial goals and timetables, not quotas" After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along." Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus.

pos: Affirmative action in the United States as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment." It was through the Philadelphia Plan that

pos: Peter J. Brennan rate and cost New York City millions of dollars in increased costs. In 1968, the Lindsay administration issued Executive Order 1971, which required city contractors to sign a non-discriminatory hiring action plan and develop affirmative action plans. If the contractors did not comply with the executive order, they could not bid for city work. Brennan was strongly opposed and promised to take action to have the order rescinded. The Nixon Administration, under Labor Secretary George P. Shultz, announced the Philadelphia Plan in the summer of 1969 to increase minority membership of skilled building trades to twenty per cent within five

pos: Presidency of Richard Nixon v. Bradley". Nixon established the Office of Minority Business Enterprise to promote the encourage the establishment of minority-owned businesses. The administration also worked to increase the number of racial minorities hired across the nation in various construction trades, implementing the first affirmative action in the United States. The Philadelphia Plan required government contractors in Philadelphia to hire a minimum number of minority workers. In 1970, Nixon extended the Philadelphia Plan to encompass all federal contracts worth more than $50,000, and in 1971 he expanded the plan to encompass women as well as racial minorities. Nixon and Attorney General Mitchell also

pos: Richard Nixon with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use. In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized

pos: George Wallace "moderate" on racial matters. This position was an echo of Nixon, who in 1969 had instituted the first Affirmative Action program, the Philadelphia Plan that established goals and timetables. However, Wallace (similarly to Nixon) expressed continued opposition to desegregation busing. For the next four months, Wallace's campaign proceeded extremely well. However, it came to an abrupt halt on May 15, 1972, when he was shot five times by Arthur Bremer while campaigning at the Laurel Shopping Center in Laurel, Maryland, at a time when he was receiving high ratings in national opinion polls. Bremer was seen at a Wallace rally

pos: Peter J. Brennan for plans affecting federal contracts. Furthermore, he froze federal funding for all building work in New York City until the city returned to the New York Plan. The federal government won the ensuing legal battle and New York City's fiscal crisis meant that it had to abandon its affirmative action plans. The Watergate crisis meant that the Nixon administration was unable to do much other than focus on survival. Brennan was unable to develop new initiatives during President Nixon's abbreviated second term. President Gerald Ford instituted a general housecleaning among Cabinet officers, and asked Brennan to resign. Brennan did so

neg: Affirmative action in the United States which reports suggest produced corresponding unfair advantages for whites and males. They first emerged from debates over non-discrimination policies in the 1940s and during the civil rights movement. These debates led to federal executive orders requiring non-discrimination in the employment policies of some government agencies and contractors in the 1940s and onward, and to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibited racial discrimination in firms with over 25 employees. The first federal policy of race-conscious affirmative action was the Revised Philadelphia Plan, implemented in 1969, which required certain government contractors to set "goals and timetables" for

neg: Otis G. Pike revolution would result in a change of government in South Africa. At the same meeting, he also stated that "politicians keep their ear so close to the ground that an ant can jump in" referring to their ability to know what their constituents are thinking. He decided not to seek a 10th term in 1978 and retired from Congress in January 1979. As a member of congress Pike was generally in favor of military funding. He voted to end the Philadelphia Plan which provided for affirmative action in hiring practices of construction firms on government projects. After the Church Committee

neg: Johnson v. Transportation Agency of" male employees. Finally, the plan must be temporary. Supporters of affirmative action for women justify the need for such plans on the basis of historical discrimination and lack of opportunity for women in many traditionally male dominated fields. Under a substantive equality framework, affirmative action for women is a way of acknowledging that men and women are not always similarly situated with respect to employment because of women's historical exclusion from traditionally male occupations. By this way of thinking, affirmative action can help level the playing field for women trying to break into a male-dominated field. Some supporters argue

neg: Peter J. Brennan years. Brennan and the skilled labor unions were determined to stop the introduction of such a system. They persuaded George Meany, President of the AFL-CIO and a former plumbing union official in New York City, to sponsor Congressional and legal challenges to the plans, but these efforts failed. In February 1970, the Labor Department announced that it would support local construction industry affirmative action hiring plans provided that they were consistent with the Philadelphia Plan. Brennan was having a great deal of trouble persuading either the Department of Labor or the Lindsay administration to his way of thinking. The Lindsay

neg: Affirmative action Non-aboriginal people who were born in the NWT or have resided half of their life there are considered a P2, as well as women and people with disabilities. The concept of affirmative action was introduced in the early 1960s in the United States, as a way to combat racial discrimination in the hiring process, with the concept later expanded to address gender discrimination. Affirmative action was first created from Executive Order 10925, which was signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961 and required that government employers "not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of

neg: Disadvantage the brink, but the affirmative team's plan will push us "over the edge." A politics disadvantage is unique in the way that it links to affirmative plan . Rather than linking to the specific plan action, it links to the fact that a plan passes at all. Politics disadvantages typically will say that a plan will pass through Congress, thus causing a shift in the "political capital" of either the President, or a political party, which will affect the ability of the affected group to pass other bills. An example of a politics disadvantage would be: Uniqueness: Immigration Reform will

neg: Boyce F. Martin Jr. constitutional manner or our legislatures abolish the penalty. But lest there be any doubt, the idea that the death penalty is fairly and rationally imposed in this country is a farce. Martin authored the affirmative action case "Grutter v. Bollinger", which held that the University of Michigan Law School could take into account an applicant's race in making admission decisions. Grutter and its sister case "Gratz v. Bollinger", which challenged the University of Michigan's undergraduate affirmative action plan, eventually were appealed to the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme Court affirmed Grutter and the Law School's affirmative action plan, while

neg: Affirmative action that the concept of affirmative action is continually evolving. There is affirmative action in education for minority nationalities. This may equate to lowering minimum requirements for the National University Entrance Examination, which is a mandatory exam for all students to enter university. Some universities set quotas for minority (non-Han) student intake. Further, minority students enrolled in ethnic minority-oriented specialties (e.g. language and literature programs) are provided with scholarships and/or pay no tuition, and are granted a monthly stipend. A class-based affirmative action policy was incorporated into the admission practices of the four most selective universities in Israel during the early

neg: Affirmative action Kennedy on 6 March 1961, which included a provision that government contractors "take "affirmative action" to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin". It was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to take "affirmative action" to "hire without regard to race, religion and national origin". This prevented employers from discriminating against members of disadvantaged groups. In 1967, gender was added to the anti-discrimination list. Affirmative action is intended to promote the

neg: Affirmative action in the United States Hispanic majority. As of January 1, 2012 (House Bill 623), affirmative action is not allowed in college admissions and employment. During November 6, 2012 election poll, majority of Oklahoma voters voted 'yes' to Oklahoma Affirmative Action Ban Amendment which will end affirmative action in college admissions and employment. President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons,

neg: Counterplan status quo for the negative; the plan and/or the permutation for the affirmative. This formulation has the benefit of avoiding the irrational decisionmaker problem of "unconditionality", which would require the judge to vote for a plan that is a bad idea to avoid a counterplan that is a worse idea. More recently, "dispositionality" has become an umbrella term for an express contract between the teams, generally clarified in 1NC cross-examination. The agreement usually entails a negative commitment to the counterplan provided that the affirmative is willing to compare it to the affirmative without making any conditional statements. The negative can

neg: Climate change adaptation in Bangladesh It has recently drafted a ‘National Plan for Disaster Management (2016-2020)’ with a detail institutional framework on disaster management. According to the NPDM, disaster management policy and activities is guided by several drivers including, ‘a) Disaster Management Act 2012; b) Standing Orders on Disasters (SOD) first introduced in 1997 and then revised in 2010; (SOD) first introduced in 1997 and then revised in 2010; c) National Plan for Disaster Management 2010-2015; d) Disaster Policy Act 2015; e) SAARC Framework for Action (SFA) 2006-2015; f) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2016-2030; g) Asian Regional Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction

neg: Malaysian Chinese and Sarawak and the legitimate interests of other communities" and goes on to specify ways to do this, such as establishing quotas for entry into the civil service, public scholarships and public education. Partly in line with the constitution, Malaysia has devised a long-standing policy of providing affirmative action to Bumiputeras (ethnic Malays and indigenous people of East Malaysia) which spans over four decades. Affirmative action is provided in the form of the Malaysian New Economic Policy or what is now known as the National Development Policy Under such affirmative action, various concessions are made to Bumiputeras. Amongst many other

neg: United Steelworkers v. Weber Supreme Court held that the affirmative action plan was lawful. The majority (Brennan, Stewart, White, Marshall and Blackmun JJ) held that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not prohibit all kinds of affirmative action programs. They held that the plan of affirmative action must first be transitional in nature and serve in fact to correct situations of imbalance by restoring equality at the starting point and should not set out to reproduce them artificially even when the effects of past discrimination have been wiped out. An affirmative action plan has to be (1) necessary (2) aiming to correct a

neg: Hawke Government Funding for public housing and disadvantaged students was also considerably increased. Various measures were also introduced which enhanced the rights of women in the workplace. The Sex Discrimination Act of 1984 prohibited sex discrimination in employment while the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act of 1986 required all higher education institutions and all private companies with more than 100 employees to introduce affirmative action programmes on behalf of women. A year later, equal opportunity legislation for the Commonwealth Public Service was introduced. In 1986, a Disability Services Act was passed to expand opportunities for the participation of disabled

neg: Presidency of Fidel Ramos abroad, and the projection of a good image of the country abroad. President Ramos boosted foreign trade, investments and official development assistance to the Philippines through his state visits and summit meetings. In 1996, the Philippines successfully hosted the APEC Leaders' Summit, which resulted in the Manila Action Plan for APEC 1996 (MAPA '96). The Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (R.A. 8042) provided a framework for stronger protection of Filipino workers abroad, with the creation of the Legal Assistance Fund and the Assistance-to-Nationals Fund, and the designation in the DFA of a Legal Assistant for Migrant Workers'

neg: Bob Rae variety of socially progressive measures during its time in office, though its success in this field was mixed. In 1994, the government introduced legislation, Bill 167, which would have provided for same-sex partnership benefits in the province. At the time, this legislation was seen as a revolutionary step forward for same-sex recognition. It was defeated, however, when twelve NDP MPPs (including two junior ministers) voted against it, while the opposition Liberals led by Lyn McLeod also withdrew their support. The Rae government established an employment equity commission in 1991, and two years later introduced affirmative action to improve the numbers

neg: Medicine in Azerbaijan 40 countries. In addition, the Sanitation and Epidemiological Service Development Program for 2015-2020 has been developed, which took appropriate measures to prevent infectious diseases. An Action Plan covering 2013-2020 on combating non-infectious diseases (such as smoking, obesity, physical activity, alcohol abuse, etc.) and National Action Plan on Early Prevention and Treatment of Childhood Disorders (2014-2020) have been implemented. In 2009, a new approach was introduced which seeks to define the number and type of staff needed in the system based on demographic criteria. In July 2009, the government issued a new law on education. Within the framework of the law

neg: Whitney Young to cities, proposing a domestic "Marshall Plan". This plan, which called for $145 billion in spending over 10 years, was partially incorporated into President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty. Young described his proposals for integration, social programs, and affirmative action in his two books, "To Be Equal" (1964) and "Beyond Racism" (1969). As executive director of the League, Young pushed major corporations to hire more blacks. In doing so, he fostered close relationships with CEOs such as Henry Ford II, leading some blacks to charge that Young had sold out to the white establishment. Young denied these charges and

neg: Hawke–Keating Government also introduced which enhanced the rights of women in the workplace. The Sex Discrimination Act of 1984 prohibited sex discrimination in employment while the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act of 1986 required all higher education institutions and all private companies with more than 100 employees to introduce affirmative action programmes on behalf of women. A year later, equal opportunity legislation for the Commonwealth Public Service was introduced. In 1986, a Disability Services Act was passed to expand opportunities for the participation of disabled persons in local communities. A major cash benefit for low-income working households, known as

neg: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction in the twenty- first century.”4 The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation provided UNISDR and the Inter-Agency Task Force with a concrete set of objectives for integrating and mainstreaming risk reduction into development policies and processes. 2005 Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction and the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan and adopted the “Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters”, which is currently serving as the guiding document in strengthening and building international cooperation to ensure that disaster risk reduction is used as

neg: Topicality (policy debate) topical. A plan can arguably be extra-topical, not topical and FX-topical all at once: Its arguably topical plank may both not be topical no matter the causal links and rely on causal links to get to its arguable topicality, as well as having non-topical planks. Under the competing interpretations framework, if the negative presents a better interpretation than the affirmative's (which the affirmative does not meet), the negative wins. In other words, the affirmative's burden is to meet the best interpretation in the round. The usual affirmative answer is "reasonability", that is, that if the affirmative meets a good definition

neg: Affirmative action which provided advantages to certain groups and characteristics of people. This in due course was the motivation to introduce affirmative action in South Africa, following the end of apartheid. Following the transition to democracy in 1994, the African National Congress-led government chose to implement affirmative action legislation to correct previous imbalances (a policy known as employment equity). As such, all employers were compelled by law to employ previously disenfranchised groups (blacks, Indians, and Coloureds). A related, but distinct concept is Black Economic Empowerment. The Employment Equity Act and the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act aim to promote and achieve

neg: Disadvantage if the negative runs a Counterplan in addition to the Disadvantage (which commonly occurs) the affirmative can make a permutation and say that the combination of the counterplan and plan shields the link to the disadvantage. For example: the plan repeals the Hyde Amendment to allow abortion funding through federal sources by using congress; the negative runs a courts counterplan that repels the hyde amendment and runs a politics disadvantage that says the plan will drain the political capital of the president which causes a certain bill not to be passed; the affirmative would claim that the "perm shields the

neg: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action framework was reached on 2 April 2015. Under this framework Iran agreed tentatively to accept restrictions on its nuclear program, all of which would last for at least a decade and some longer, and to submit to an increased intensity of international inspections under a framework deal. These details were to be negotiated by the end of June 2015. The negotiations toward a Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action were extended several times until the final agreement, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, was finally reached on 14 July 2015. The JCPOA is based on the framework agreement from three months

neg: Access to public information in Turkey was introduced in the framework of the negotiations for accession to the European Union. On September 21, 2016, the Open Government Partnership (OGP) Steering Committee designated the inactive status of Turkey with regard to the OGP action plan which included, among other objectives, an improvement of the possibility to access public information for Turkish citizens. The Steering Committee found that the Turkish government acted contrary to OGP process for two consecutive action plan cycles. In addition to Law No: 4982, in 2004 a circular by the Prime Minister on “The exercise of the right of petition and access to information”

neg: Affirmative action in the United States seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions. This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations. This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It

neg: Rangpur City the development of the city; c) Identify the probable fields where public and private partnership development projects will bring maximum benefit to the citizens; d) Adopt suitable standards for all urban amenities which can be provided at affordable price; e) Provide framework for Detailed Area Plan/Action Plan; f) Indicate the basis of coordination between government agencies in the implementation of various schemes for the physical development which will directly or indirectly influence the growth of the city; g) Formulate in details various policies to guide development and development control of the city. h) Also provide adequate policy frame work for

neg: Stephen D. Schutt affirmative action, and communications operations; co-director of its initiative to revitalize West Philadelphia; and principal advisor to the President. Stephen D. Schutt Stephen D. Schutt (born 1954) is the 13th president of Lake Forest College. Before coming to Lake Forest in 2001, Steve served as Vice President & Chief of Staff at the University of Pennsylvania. Schutt began his career as a journalist, practiced law with a large Philadelphia firm, supervised a 5,000-employee agency as Deputy Secretary for the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, and served as Chief of Staff to United States Senator Harris Wofford. At the University

neg: Political positions of Fred Thompson people. But we shouldn't set up special categories for anybody. And I'm for the rights of everybody, including gays, but not any special rights." He believes that, "marriage is between a man and a woman, and I don't believe judges ought to come along and change that." In 1995, Thompson voted against Senate amendment 1825 to H.R. 1854 (the "Gramm Amendment") which would have banned affirmative action in the awarding of federal contracts. Thompson also voted against amendment 1826 to H.R. 1854 (the "Murray Amendment") which reaffirmed the use of affirmative action programs in federal contracts provided that the beneficiaries

neg: Anwar Ibrahim in 2008 after his disqualification expired. Anwar was critical of government policies after his release from prison, most notably the controversial New Economic Policy (NEP), which provided affirmative action for the Bumiputras. The policy set a number of quotas, such as for units of housing and initial public offerings, that must be met. Before he became re-entitled to run for Parliament in 2008, he acted as an "advisor" of Parti Keadilan Rakyat, the party of which his wife Dr. Wan Azizah is president. He was in the forefront in organising a November 2007 mass rally, called the 2007 Bersih Rally,

neg: Frank Rizzo was supported by Camiel. In the November election, Rizzo defeated independent candidate Charles Bowser, a leading black attorney and former City Councilman at Large, and Thomas M. Foglietta, who later represented a large portion of the city in Congress. During Rizzo's second term, black community activist and future Philadelphia Mayor W. Wilson Goode sued the city in federal court, alleging racial discrimination in the police and fire departments. The fire department was headed by Joseph Rizzo, the mayor's brother. The suit led to the adoption of the influential "Philadelphia Plan", calling for affirmative action in civil service hiring and promotions.

neg: Affirmative action race, creed, color, or national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin". On 24 September 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Executive Order 11246, thereby replacing Executive Order 10925 and affirming Federal Government's commitment "to promote the full realization of equal employment opportunity through a positive, continuing program in each executive department and agency". Affirmative action was extended to women by Executive Order 11375 which amended Executive Order 11246 on 13 October 1967, by adding "sex" to the list

neg: National Action Plan (Pakistan) National Action Plan (Pakistan) The National Action Plan is an action plan that was established by the Government of Pakistan in January 2015 to crack down on terrorism and to supplement the ongoing anti-terrorist offensive in North-Western Pakistan. It is considered as a major coordinated state retaliation following the deadly Peshawar school attack. The plan received unprecedented levels of support and co-operation across the country's political spectrum, inclusive of the federal and provincial governments. It combines foreign and domestic policy initiatives aimed to crack down on and eventually eliminate across the country. The plan was provided as the framework for

neg: Robert A. Agresta was president. Voting in the affirmative with the majority, Agresta and the council cut $87,000 from the school budget without elimination of any additional programs. Council President Robert Agresta said the prevailing interest is that of the kids and he was happy their cut was "far less of a proposal than a lot of our neighboring towns." In July 2010, Agresta, as Chairman of the Finance Committee, introduced the 2010 municipal budget. The budget, which represented a $588 increase over the borough's 2009 spending plan, carried a $10.5 million tax levy. A taxpayer with a home assessed at $1.25 million,

neg: Glossary of policy debate terms one of the deadliest negative strategies. PICs include agent counterplans which propose to do the affirmative plan with a different agent, and exclusionary counterplans which exclude part of the affirmative plan. For example, if the affirmative plan was to "Pass the farm bill" a PIC would be to "Pass parts A and B of the farm bill". "Post-fiat" arguments attempt to show that the consequences of passing and enacting the affirmative plan would be in some way worse than the harms described by the affirmative. Such arguments are labelled "post-fiat" because they require the supposition of a world where the

neg: Texas House Bill 588 admissions was permissible, effectively overruling "Hopwood". UT Austin then reinstated affirmative action for the seats not filled by the Top Ten Percent law. The law only guarantees "admission" into university. Students must still find the means to pay, and may not achieve their desired choice of major. (Another existing law, which preceded 588, provides a full tuition scholarship for the class valedictorian of a Texas high school for their freshman year at a state public school.) The Texas "Top 10% Plan" is a transition from a race based policy known as affirmative action. Under a policy such as Texas' Top

neg: William J. Guste for scrutiny, and lower courts ruled that intelligent design too is "not science" but a form of "religion" in the name of "science." Guste pleased liberals by being a strong defender of affirmative action. He submitted an "amicus curiae" brief in the 1986-1987 case "Johnson v. Transportation Agency of Santa Clara County, California" on behalf of a female county employee who was promoted over an equally-qualified male employee. The plan provided that, in making promotions to positions within a traditionally segregated job classification in which women have been significantly underrepresented, the transportation agency was authorized to consider as "one factor"

neg: Affirmative action in the United States within their own companies and corporations. "Further information": John F. Kennedy In the 1960 presidential election, Democratic candidate and eventual winner John F. Kennedy "criticized President Eisenhower for not ending discrimination in federally supported housing" and "advocated a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission". Shortly after taking office, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in March 1961, requiring government contractors to "consider and recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination…. The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated

neg: Affirmative action in the United States black students would attend less prestigious schools where they would be more closely matched in abilities with their classmates and thus perform relatively better. Sander helped to develop a socioeconomically-based affirmative action plan for the UCLA School of Law after the passage of Proposition 209 in 1996, which prohibited the use of racial preferences by public universities in California. This change occurred after studies showed that the graduation rate of blacks at UCLA was 41%, compared to 73% for whites. A study in 2007 by Mark Long, an economics professor at the University of Washington, demonstrated that the alternatives of

neg: Affirmative action in the United States and other forms of higher education. Race, ethnicity, native language, social class, geographical origin, parental attendance of the university in question (legacy admissions), and/or gender are sometimes taken into account when the university assesses an applicant's grades and test scores. Individuals can also be awarded scholarships and have fees paid on the basis of criteria listed above. In the early 1970s, Walter J. Leonard, an administrator at Harvard University, invented the Harvard Plan, "one of the country's earliest and most effective affirmative-action programs, which became a model for other universities around the country." In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled in

neg: Glossary of policy debate terms word "substantially" which appears in most resolutions, and one can argue that Significance has been subsumed by the option for the negative to use a Topicality violation on that word. Solvency is a stock issue in policy debate, referring to the effectiveness of the affirmative plan or the negative counterplan in solving the harms or problems of the status quo. A good solvency mechanism will have a solvency advocate: a qualified professional specifically advocating the proposed course of action. After the First Affirmative Constructive speech (1AC), it is assumed that the Affirmative team can completely solve all of their harms

neg: Neo-Nazi marches in Dresden the Nazi-march in February 2009 provided the setting for the "Dresden Nazifrei" alliance in fall of 2009. It was announced on an "action conference" organized by "No Pasaran" in Dresden. The conference announced a public call to block the Nazi march. It said: "We will use the tactic of mass blockades in which everybody can participate to prevent the Nazi-march" and it called for the creation of a "framework to plan and coordinate the necessary actions". This framework was created with the official announcement of the creation of the alliance "Dresden Nazifrei" (Dresden without Nazis) in the first week of

neg: Affirmative action review of affirmative action and the occupational advancement of minorities and women during 1973-2003 showed that the effect of affirmative action on advancing black, Hispanic, and white women into management, professional, and technical occupations occurred primarily during the 1970s and early 1980s. During this period, contractors grew their shares of these groups more rapidly than noncontractors because of the implementation of affirmative action. But the positive effect of affirmative action vanished entirely in the late 1980s, which Kurtulus says may be due to the slowdown into advanced occupation for women and minorities because of the political shift of affirmative action

neg: EarthCheck Assessed by 182 heads of state at the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 and provided a set of principles for local, state, national and international action on sustainable development. This resulted in "Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry: Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development", which listed an action plan for a number of overall objectives for the industry. EarthCheck Assessed is designed for businesses that want to start addressing Sustainability and Climate Change. The programme provides businesses with an online Health Check Framework that assesses Key Environmental Performances Areas such as energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, water consumption and waste production.

neg: Constitutional colorblindness the act of being unemployed and homeless. Affirmative action is an act, policy, plan, or program designed to remedy the negative effects of wrongful discrimination. "Affirmative action" can remedy the perceived injustice of discrimination on the basis of a person's race, national origin, ethnicity, language, sex, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or affiliation. Also known as "positive discrimination", affirmative action is a law that was signed by John F. Kennedy in 1961 that helps and favors those who have to deal with discrimination; work or education related. As a civil rights policy affecting African Americans, "affirmative action" most often denotes race-conscious

neg: Political positions of Ted Kennedy should do all we can to help women avoid the need to face that decision." He voted against the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act. Kennedy supported affirmative action. In 1996 he called Patrick Chavis a "perfect example" of how affirmative action worked. Kennedy introduced and was a strong supporter of the 1965 Hart-Celler Actsigned into law by President Lyndon B. Johnsonwhich dramatically changed U.S. immigration policy. Kennedy said, "The bill will not flood our cities with immigrants. It will not upset the ethnic mix of our society. It will not relax the standards of admission. It will not cause American workers

neg: History of the University of California, Los Angeles the implementation of affirmative action in the state. In 1988 poor race relations on campus lead to student riots over the disqualification of Lloyd Monserratt as student body president in a campaign that pitted a coalition of minority students against the candidates put forth by members of the Greek system (this antagonism continues today). In the 1990s, student activists tended to focus on university and statewide concerns, such as union recognition for graduate teaching assistants, the expansion of the Chicano Studies Center, Proposition 187, which denied social services to illegal immigrants, and Proposition 209, which ended affirmative action in California.

neg: Affirmative action Union Commission approved a plan for women to constitute 40% of non-executive board directorships in large listed companies in Europe by 2020. In Sweden, the Supreme Court has ruled that "affirmative action" ethnic quotas in universities are discrimination and hence unlawful. It said that the requirements for the intake should be the same for all. The justice minister said that the decision left no room for uncertainty. In some countries that have laws on racial equality, affirmative action is rendered illegal because it does not treat all races equally. This approach of equal treatment is sometimes described as being "color

neg: Affirmative action in the United States action counter-productive. One argument for reverse discrimination is the idea that affirmative action encourages mediocrity and incompetence. Job positions would not be offered to the applicants who are the most qualified, but to applicants with a special trait such as a certain race, ethnicity, or gender. For example, opponents say affirmative action causes unprepared applicants to be accepted in highly demanding educational institutions or jobs which result in eventual failure (see, for example, Richard Sander's study of affirmative action in Law School, bar exam and eventual performance at law firms). Other opponents say that affirmative action lowers the bar and

neg: Byron White an education setting in the famous "Regents of the University of California v. Bakke" case of 1978. Though White voted to uphold federal affirmative action programs in cases such as "Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC", 497 U.S. 547 (1990) (later overruled by "Adarand Constructors v. Peña", 515 U.S. 200 (1995)), he voted to strike down an affirmative action plan regarding state contracts in "Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co." (1989). White dissented in "Runyon v. McCrary" (1976), which held that federal law prohibited private schools from discriminating on the basis of race. He argued that the legislative history of Title 42

neg: Executive Order 10925 overreaches by the federal government into the private business' of America. Executive Order 10925 Executive Order 10925, signed by President John F. Kennedy on March 6, 1961, required government contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), which was chaired by then Vice President Lyndon Johnson. Vice Chair and Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg was in charge of the Committee's operations. This first implementation of affirmative action was intended to

neg: Executive Order 10925 Executive Order 10925 Executive Order 10925, signed by President John F. Kennedy on March 6, 1961, required government contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), which was chaired by then Vice President Lyndon Johnson. Vice Chair and Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg was in charge of the Committee's operations. This first implementation of affirmative action was intended to give equal opportunities in the workforce to all U.S. citizens, not

neg: Ruddy-headed Goose Memorandum of Understanding Chile. The workshop reviewed the implementation of the MoU in the two countries and revised the bilateral Action Plan. During the workshop, the Action Plan, drawn up in 2009, was revised. The Action Plan provides a road map to guide the implementation of conservation action for the ruddy-headed goose in both countries. The secretariat functions are provided by the signatories on a rotational base. The CMS Secretariat only acts as depositary to the MoU. Several activities have been undertaken in Chile including hunting controls and other protection measures in breeding areas. In Argentina, activities take place in the framework of

neg: Johnson v. Transportation Agency of the plan, stating that fixed end dates were only required if the plan sets aside a specific number or percentage of positions for women. Justice Stevens joined the majority opinion, but also wrote a concurring opinion to make clear that the majority opinion should not be construed as "establish[ing] the permissible outer limits of voluntary" affirmative action plans. Justice O'Connor concurred in the judgment without joining the majority opinion. O'Connor argued that a public employer's voluntary affirmative action plan should be evaluated using the same test as that used for Equal Protection claims. O'Connor would have required that the

neg: Affirmative action bake sale Affirmative action bake sale An affirmative action bake sale is a type of campus protest event used by student groups to performatively criticize affirmative action policies by charging students different prices depending on which social or racial group they belong to. It has also been used to raise awareness of racial or sexual wage gaps. The bake sales offer to sell cookies at different prices depending on the customer's race and sex, imitating racial and sexual orientation practices of affirmative action. For example, one such bake sale at the University of New Mexico charged $1.50 for Asian customers, $1 for

neg: Walter J. Leonard degree from the Howard University School of Law in 1968. Leonard began his career as the assistant dean of the Howard University School of Law in 1968. He joined the Harvard Law School as "assistant dean and assistant admissions director" in 1969. In 1971, he became special assistant to Harvard University's President Derek Bok. He worked on the Harvard Plan, "one of the country's earliest and most effective affirmative-action programs, which became a model for other universities around the country." Leonard was also the chairman of the founding committee of the W. E. B. Du Bois Institute at Harvard University.

neg: Glossary of policy debate terms of renewable energy – the plan could use the Department of Energy. Sometimes the Negative will use a counterplan to solve for the harms of the affirmative and the most common method of doing so is by the use of an agent counterplan, which simply does the mandates of the Affirmative plan through the use of another agent. Sometimes, the Negative will even use another country. If the Affirmative plan were to send peacekeeping troops to Congo, then the Negative would have Bangladesh (or any other country), do it. In policy debate, the affirmative (AFF) is the team which affirms

neg: Rand Paul fix the program. Paul confirmed in an October 2017 intetview he would not vote for the Republican budget in the Senate unless billions in spending were removed from the plan: "If leadership is unwilling to compromise with somebody who is concerned about the debt, then they deserve to lose." In February 2018, Republican Senators introduced immigration framework akin to that proposed by President Trump and with his support that called for a 25 billion being provided for border security in exchange for a pathway to citizenship for 1.8 million immigrants brought into the US illegally. Paul was one of fourteen

neg: Johnson v. Transportation Agency are subject to strict scrutiny review. However, the Court has yet to hear an Equal Protection challenge to a sex based affirmative action plan, at least in the employment context. In the context of Equal Protection, sex based classifications are subject to intermediate scrutiny, a lesser standard of review than strict scrutiny, which is applied to race-based classifications. Consequently, there is a circuit split on whether sex based affirmative action plans should be subject to strict scrutiny review or the lesser intermediate scrutiny review. The Sixth Circuit and the Federal Circuit apply strict scrutiny while the Third, Fifth, Ninth, and

neg: Affirmative action opportunities of defined minority groups within a society to give them equal access to that of the majority population. It is often instituted for government and educational settings to ensure that certain designated "minority groups" within a society are able to participate in all provided opportunities including promotional, educational, and training opportunities. The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents is that it helps to compensate for past discrimination, persecution or exploitation by the ruling class of a culture, and to address existing discrimination. Several different studies investigated the effect of affirmative action on women. Kurtulus (2012) in her

neg: Robert Lipshutz regarding affirmative action that was ultimately accepted by the Supreme Court of the United States in its decision in the case "Regents of the University of California v. Bakke" regarding a race-based admission policy at the UC Davis School of Medicine that the plaintiff claimed cost him a spot at the school in which the court ruled that racial quotas were unacceptable, but that affirmative action was allowed. During the negotiations between Egyptian Anwar El Sadat and of Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin at Camp David, Lipshutz provided input from leaders of major Jewish organizations regarding the peace process. In

neg: Affirmative action in the United States where it referred not to issues of racial discrimination, but instead to available recourse for violations of unfair labor practices. Agencies such as the National Labor Relations Board were empowered to require employers found in violation of employment policies to take "affirmative action" on behalf of the victim(s) of those violations, such as reinstatement or back pay. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy became the first to utilize the term "affirmative action" in its contemporary sense in Executive Order 10925 to ensure that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment,

neg: Occupational therapy the Canadian Practice Process Framework (CPPF) as the core process of occupational enablement in Canada.The Canadian Practice Process Framework (CPPF) has eight action points and three contextual element which are: set the stage, evaluate, agree on objective plan, implement plan, monitor/modify, and evaluate outcome. A central element of this process model is the focus on identifying both client and therapists strengths and resources prior to developing the outcomes and action plan. According to the American Occupational Therapy Association’s (AOTA) Occupational Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process, 3rd Edition (OTPF-3), an occupation is defined as any type of meaningful activity in

neg: Priority Enforcement Program asking it "not" to prosecute some classes of removable aliens, the June 2012 executive action involved creating an affirmative program, managed by United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), to which some aliens could apply. In November 2014, a number of announcements were made by the administration of then United States president Barack Obama surrounding changes to immigration enforcement. The most famous of these announcements was Deferred Action for Parents of Americans (DAPA). Like DACA, the goal of DAPA was to create an affirmative program (under USCIS) that some removable aliens could apply to in order to have their removal

neg: Affirmative action at the University of Michigan Bakke". She went on to discuss that in the future (around 25 years) this racial affirmative action plan would not be necessary, however, for the time being it would be helpful in promoting diversity in the law school. While Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg and Breyer concurred with O'Connor, Rehnquist, Kennedy, Scalia and Thomas dissented. The dissent argued that using race as a factor in admission decisions was in fact a way to promote a quota system and that it should be illegal now, not in 25 years to use racial affirmative action plans. Before this case, the compelling interest required to

neg: Presidency of Jimmy Carter Carter supported policy of affirmative action, and his administration submitted an amicus curiae brief to the Supreme Court while it heard the case of "Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke." The Supreme Court's holding, delivered in 1978, upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action but prohibited the use of racial quotas in college admissions. First Lady Rosalynn Carter publicly campaigned for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, and the president supported the extension of the ratification period for that amendment. Carter presided over the deregulation of several industries, which proponents hoped would help revive the sluggish economy. The

neg: Substantive equality definition. Substantive equality has also been criticized for its lack of ability to protect individuals from discrimination and for placing too much emphasis on compensation rather than preventing discrimination from occurring. Welfare and affirmative action programs have been recognized as areas of concern, as the way in which they are delivered can be discriminatory in nature because they can reinforce and perpetuate stigmas that are held within society. Substantive equality is a well contested concept in which scholars, nations, and the law must work together in order to agree on a definition and appropriate framework for implementation. Substantive equality Substantive

neg: Corruption in Azerbaijan asset disclosure of Members of Parliament weakens the anti-corruption framework: the report recommends that anti-corruption efforts be deepened and institutionalized in the field of asset declaration and conflicts of interest. Azerbaijan has signed the Istanbul Anti-Corruption Action Plan (Istanbul Action Plan, or IAP) which covers Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan and the other ACN countries in 2003. The Implementation of the plan includes regular and systematic peer review of the legal, and institutional framework for fighting corruption in the covered countries by the signing parties. Since then Azerbaijan has actively taken part in the monitoring

neg: Affirmative action in the United States Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor, Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. He wanted a phrase that "gave a sense of positivity to performance under the order." He was torn between the words "positive action" and "affirmative action," and selected the later due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power.

neg: Arthur Fletcher In point of fact, however, the motto was created by Forest Long, of the advertising agency Young & Rubicam, in partnership with the Ad Council. Fletcher was a United States Army veteran during World War II and upon his death in 2005 was buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Arthur Fletcher Arthur Allen Fletcher (December 22, 1924 – July 12, 2005) was an American government official, widely referred to as the "father of affirmative action" as he was largely responsible for the Revised Philadelphia Plan. Arthur Fletcher, a Republican, graduated from Washburn University and obtained a degree from distance learning school

neg: Arthur Fletcher Arthur Fletcher Arthur Allen Fletcher (December 22, 1924 – July 12, 2005) was an American government official, widely referred to as the "father of affirmative action" as he was largely responsible for the Revised Philadelphia Plan. Arthur Fletcher, a Republican, graduated from Washburn University and obtained a degree from distance learning school La Salle Extension University. Fletcher moved with his wife, Bernyce, and two youngest children to Pasco, Washington, where he took a job with the Hanford Atomic Energy Project. He also organized a community self-help program in predominantly black East Pasco, and landed a seat on the Pasco City

neg: Johnson v. Transportation Agency adopted by employers and educational institutions that allow for the consideration of sex as one factor in employment actions or university admissions. Because Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in employment actions on the basis of sex, affirmative action plans must meet the test laid out by the Supreme Court in "United Steelworkers v. Weber" (1979). In the context of sex based affirmative action, the "Weber" test requires that the plan must be aimed at "eliminat[ing] manifest . . . imbalances in traditionally segregated job categories." Furthermore, the plan must not "unnecessarily trammel the interests

neg: Affirmative action at increasing minority representation on college campuses were "a good thing", compared to 30% who thought they were "a bad thing". The following year, Gallup released a poll showing that 67% of Americans supported affirmative action programs aimed at increasing female representation, compared to 58% who supported such programs aimed at increasing the representation of racial minorities. Opponents of affirmative action such as George Sher believe that affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of people who are chosen based on the social group to which they belong rather than their qualifications, thus rendering affirmative action counterproductive. Opponents, who sometimes say that

neg: Affirmative action at the University of Michigan a new, $10 million multicultural center that would be embedded in the heart of campus. Planning and construction for this project has continued to progress in 2017. President Schlissel, throughout his first few years at the University of Michigan, has continued to affirm is commitment to harboring diversity. In 2016, when the Supreme Court ruled in favor of affirmative action at the University of Texas at Austin, President Schlissel released a statement in support of the ruling. In this statement he highlighted the importance of diversity in order for universities to succeed. In response to Michigan's court cases regarding affirmative

neg: Affirmative action race as a factor when admitting students while prohibiting the use of quotas. In other countries, such as the UK, affirmative action is rendered illegal because it does not treat all races equally. This approach to equal treatment is described as being "color blind". In such countries, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join the police force. This is sometimes described as "positive action". The term "affirmative action" was first used in the United States in "Executive Order No. 10925", signed by President John F.

neg: Johnson v. Transportation Agency Johnson v. Transportation Agency Johnson v. Transportation Agency, 480 U.S. 616 (1987), is the only United States Supreme Court case to address a sex-based affirmative action plan in the employment context. The case was brought by Paul Johnson, a male Santa Clara Transportation Agency employee, who was passed over for a promotion in favor of Diane Joyce, a female employee who Johnson argued was less qualified. The Court found that the plan did not violate the protection against discrimination on the basis of sex in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII. Sex based affirmative action refers to policies

neg: Harvey Mansfield was not contemporary social science research but the great books of the Western tradition (Plato, Tocqueville, Rousseau, etc.). Mansfield has voiced criticism of grade inflation at Harvard University, which he claims is due in part to affirmative action. Mansfield also participated in a debate on affirmative action between Cornel West and Michael Sandel (arguing for affirmative action) with Ruth Wisse and himself (arguing against affirmative action). The debate attracted a "massive audience" of a thousand Harvard students, requiring its campus venue to be changed twice before it could take place on November 3, 1997, in Harvard's Sanders Theater, prompting Professor

neg: Vision 2020: New York City Comprehensive Waterfront Plan Plan. The plan recently won the American Planning Association’s National Planning Excellence Award 2012: The Daniel Burnham Award for a Comprehensive Plan. Vision 2020: New York City Comprehensive Waterfront Plan The Vision 2020: New York City Comprehensive Waterfront Plan was introduced in March 2011 by Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg, City Council Speaker Christine C. Quinn, and the Director of the New York City Department of City Planning, Amanda Burden, this plan provides a framework for the next ten years of waterfront development in New York City. The plan has two components: a three-year action agenda comprising 130 funded projects, including

neg: Affirmative action in the United States orders- one from 2011 and another from 2016- which strengthened the ability to use race-related affirmative action to enroll in elementary and secondary education. Affirmative action in the United States Affirmative action in the United States is a set of laws, policies, guidelines and administrative practices "intended to end and correct the effects of a specific form of discrimination" that include government-mandated, government-sanctioned and voluntary private programs. The programs tend to focus on access to education and employment, granting special consideration to historically excluded groups, specifically racial minorities or women. The impetus toward affirmative action is redressing the disadvantages associated

neg: Affirmative action violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which ensures equal protection of the law and the citizen's privilege as a citizen of United States. The constitutionality of affirmative action in college admissions is now back before the Supreme Court in the case "Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)". American economist and social and political commentator, Thomas Sowell identified some negative results of race-based affirmative action in his book, "Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study". Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups (i.e., primary beneficiaries of

neg: Individual Partnership Action Plan Individual Partnership Action Plan Individual Partnership Action Plans (IPAP) are plans developed between NATO and different countries which outline the objectives and the communication framework for dialogue and cooperation between both parties. NATO launched the IPAPs initiative at the 2002 Prague Summit. Individual Partnership Action Plans (IPAPs) are in implementation with the following countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Moldova and Serbia have stated they have no current intention to join NATO, however these states do participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace program. Georgia is currently undergoing Intensified Dialogue for NATO membership while Bosnia and Herzegovina has a Membership Action Plan and

neg: Case (policy debate) Case (policy debate) In policy debate, which is a form of argument competition, a case, sometimes known as plan, is a textual advocacy presented, in form of speech, by the affirmative team as a normative or ""should"" statement; it is generally presented in the First Affirmative Constructive (1AC). A case will often include either the resolution or a rephrasing of it. The case is the advocacy established by the affirmative in the First affirmative constructive speech, often constructed around the support of a policy recommendation known as the affirmative plan. While the 1AC defines the parameters for the bulk of

neg: John Edward Jacob During his tenure as Urban League president, Jacob fought cutbacks in federal social programs and the weakening of civil rights enforcement under the Reagan Administration. In particular, he objected to the appointment of a conservative majority to the Civil Rights Commission that was hostile to vigorous protection of civil rights, as well as the Justice Department's prosecutions of other public agencies engaged in affirmative action. In the early 1980s, Jacob helped develop a plan for urban recovery similar to the 1947 Marshall Plan initiated to assist European nations after World War II. Aid was sought from private sectors to facilitate

neg: Pik Botha politics in 1996 when F. W. de Klerk withdrew the National Party from the government of national unity. In 2000, Botha declared his support for President Thabo Mbeki. Botha expressed criticism for the government's affirmative action policies saying that the South African government of 1994 would never have reached a constitutional settlement with the ANC had it insisted on its current affirmative action programme. In an interview on affirmative action, Botha publicly declared that he had never been a member of the ANC, and would not join under its current policies. On 12 December 2013, Botha appeared on the BBC's

neg: Affirmative action in the United States integrating and diversifying their workforce. Similar policies emerged through a mix of voluntary practices and federal and state policies in employment and education. Affirmative action as a practice was partially upheld by the Supreme Court in "Grutter v. Bollinger "(2003), while the use of racial or gender quotas for college admissions was concurrently ruled unconstitutional by the Court in "Gratz v. Bollinger" (2003). Affirmative action is controversial in American politics. Opponents of affirmative action argue that these policies amount to reverse discrimination which entails favoring one group over another based upon racial preference rather than achievement, and many believe that

neg: Affirmative action in the United States of the populations they serve. In the United States, affirmative action tends to emphasize not specific quotas but rather "targeted goals" to address past discrimination in a particular institution or in broader society through "good-faith efforts ... to identify, select, and train potentially qualified minorities and women." For example, many higher education institutions have voluntarily adopted policies which seek to increase recruitment of racial minorities. Outreach campaigns, targeted recruitment, employee and management development, and employee support programs are examples of affirmative action in employment. Affirmative action policies were developed to address long histories of discrimination faced by minorities and women,

neg: Lincoln–Douglas debate format circuits. A theory shell consists of 4 parts: the interpretation, violation, standards and the voters. A theory shell most often uses fairness and education to weigh the round, but many other standards and values are used when debating on them. Sometimes, the affirmative advocates for a plan, which is a certain specified action which falls under the resolution. For example, with the January/February 2015 Topic (Resolved: Just governments ought to require that employers pay a living wage) a plan could have been to bring the Asia Floor Wage to a living wage level. These arguments are often countered by theory

neg: Glossary of policy debate terms other team has made is wrong. The turn can be used against virtually any argument that includes a link and impact (or something equivalent), including disadvantages, kritiks, and advantages to the affirmative case. For example, if the negative said "The plan increases poverty," the affirmative could turn with "the plan decreases poverty" or take-out by proving the plan didn't increase poverty. There are four types of turns: Glossary of policy debate terms This is a glossary of policy debate terms. In debate an actor is an entity that enacts a certain policy action. If a plan were to have the

neg: Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign Clinton stated that she would like to nominate justices who would overturn the decision in "Citizens United v. FEC", a case allowing corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts of money on political campaigns. Clinton also voiced support for judges who would vote favorably regarding abortion rights, unions, affirmative action, same-sex marriage, and President Obama's Clean Power Plan and Deferred Action for Parents of Americans program. Clinton also stated that she would look for a nominee who represents the diversity of the country and has professional experience outside of working for large law firms and serving as a judge. Potential

neg: Public debate first speaker they must define the resolution that they selected earlier. For instance, if the resolution is " Resolved: this house would abandon the use of torture on enemy combatants." the Leader of the Affirmative would be responsible for defining the meaning of " this house ", "enemy combatants" and any other key pieces of the resolution. Whatever they fail to define the Leader of the Opposition is then free to define, which can spell disaster for the Affirmative. The Leader of the Affirmative is also responsible for presenting the "plan". the "plan" is the way that the Affirmative will

neg: Muhammad Kenyatta Kenyatta thought the affirmative action controversy at the Law School was only a part of a national problem. He felt economic issues were the most important concern for Blacks in America at the time and that affirmative action was "a key concept" to help Blacks escape poverty. Kenyatta ran for the Democratic nomination for Mayor of Philadelphia in 1975. At the time, Frank L. Rizzo—whom Kenyatta called "the George Wallace of the North"—was up for reelection and being challenged by a white liberal state senator, Louis G. Hill, for the party's nomination. Hill was counting on support from the city's

neg: Affirmative action in the United States and grant it to black families, which became the "Forty acres and a mule" policy. The proposal was never widely adopted due to strong political opposition, and Sherman's orders were soon revoked by President Andrew Johnson. Nearly a century later (1950s–1960s), the discussion of policies to assist classes of individuals reemerged during the Civil Rights Movement. Civil rights guarantees that came through the interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment affirmed the civil rights of people of color. In United States law, the term "affirmative action" appeared as early as 1935 in the National Labor Relations Act,