query: what brought great wealth and power to italian city states in the 14th century

pos: Italian city-states cities, including Venice, Milan, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Lucca, Cremona, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, and many others, had become large trading metropoles, able to obtain independence from their formal sovereigns. Among the earliest city-states of Italy was the Duchy of Naples from 661 which, although nominally under Byzantine control, was effectively independent. Later, the Republic of Venice, which also "de facto" broke apart from the Byzantine Empire from 742 (when the Doge title was finally subtracted from the appointment of the Byzantine emperor), becoming also "de jure" independent in the following centuries. The other first Italian city-states to appear in

pos: Silk was the Italian city-state of Lucca which largely financed itself through silk-production and silk-trading, beginning in the 12th century. Other Italian cities involved in silk production were Genoa, Venice and Florence. The Silk Exchange in Valencia from the 15th century—where previously in 1348 also "perxal" (percale) was traded as some kind of silk—illustrates the power and wealth of one of the great Mediterranean mercantile cities. Silk was produced in and exported from the province of Granada, Spain, especially the Alpujarras region, until the Moriscos, whose industry it was, were expelled from Granada in 1571. Since the 15th century, silk production

pos: Luwu various ethnic groups, united by trading relationships. Luwu’s political economy was based on the smelting of iron ore brought down, via the Lémolang-speaking polity of Baebunta, to Malangke on the central coastal plain. Here the smelted iron was worked into weapons and agricultural tools and exported to the rice-growing southern lowlands. This brought the kingdom great wealth, and by the 14th century Luwu had become the feared overlord of large parts of the southwest and southeast peninsula. The first ruler for which we have any real information was Dewaraja (ruled "c." 1495-1520). Stories current today in South Sulawesi tell of

pos: Christianity in the 14th century since the days of Rome had significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades prepared Europe for travel, but also because many wanted to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian city-states from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory. Increased trade brought many things to Europeans that were once unknown or extremely rare

pos: Italian city-states the Mediterranean Sea. It found a new niche in luxury items like ceramics, glassware, lace and silk as well an experiencing a temporary rebirth in the woolen industry. However, Italy would never regain its strong hold on textiles. And though it was the birthplace of banking, by the 16th century German and Dutch banks began taking away business. Discovery of the Americas as well as new trade routes to Africa and India by the Portuguese (which made Portugal the leading trading power) brought about the shift of economic power from Italy to Portugal in the 16th century; from Portugal to

pos: Stock market funds. Bankers in Pisa, Verona, Genoa and Florence also began trading in government securities during the 14th century. This was only possible because these were independent city-states not ruled by a duke but a council of influential citizens. Italian companies were also the first to issue shares. Companies in England and the Low Countries followed in the 16th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch pioneered several financial innovations that helped lay the foundations of the modern financial system. While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they did not develop the other ingredient necessary to

pos: Hinduism in Singapore states of Malaysia and Indonesia, Singapore places no restrictions on religious freedoms of Hindus. Population of resident ethnic group registered as Hindus 2015. Hindu religion and culture in Singapore can be traced back to the 7th century Hindu Srivijaya empire when Temasek was a small trading post. By the 10th century, Tamil Chola influence arrived. With Islam's expansion in the region from 14th through 17th century, the Hindu-Buddhist influence, in and around Singapore, faded. The colonial era brought major changes in the seats of power and religious influence in the region. The early 19th century saw a wave of Hindu

pos: Yangzhou Katarina Vilioni, member of an Italian trading family in Yangzhou, does, however, suggest the existence of a thriving Italian community in the city in the 14th century. There were also Arabic inscriptions from the 13th and 14th centuries, indicating the presence of a Muslim community. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) until the 19th century Yangzhou acted as a major trade exchange center for salt (a government regulated commodity), rice, and silk. The Ming were largely responsible for building the city as it now stands and surrounding it with of walls. After the fall of Beijing and northern China to the

pos: Republic systems of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states, like the Italian city-states and the Hanseatic League, in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by the Renaissance, Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics. Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in the important trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The

neg: Italians place from roughly 12th century. Modern standard Italian derives from the written vernacular of Tuscan writers of the 12th century. The recognition of Italian vernaculars as literary languages in their own right begins with "De vulgari eloquentia", an essay written by Dante Alighieri at the beginning of the 14th century. During the 14th and 15th centuries, some Italian city-states ranked among the most important powers of Europe. Venice, in particular, had become a major maritime power, and the city-states as a group acted as a conduit for goods from the Byzantine and Islamic empires. In this capacity, they provided great

neg: Commercial Revolution gold florins the title of Duke of Milan from the emperor Wenceslaus. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Milan, Venice, and Florence were able to conquer other city-states, creating regional states. The 1454 Peace of Lodi ended their struggle for hegemony in Italy, attaining a balance of power and creating the conditions for the artistic and intellectual changes produced by the Italian Renaissance. The deterioration of the climate that brought about the end of the medieval warm period (or medieval weather anomaly) caused an economic decline at the beginning of the 14th century (see Great Famine). However, demographic expansion continued

neg: Italian city-states town revolts led to the foundation of city-states throughout medieval Europe, such as in Russia (Novgorod Republic, 12th century), in Flanders (Battle of Golden Spurs, 14th century) in Switzerland (the towns of the Old Swiss Confederacy, 14th century), in Germany (the Hanseatic League, 14th–15th century), and in Prussia (Thirteen Years' War, 15th century). Some Italian city-states became great military powers very early on. Venice and Genoa acquired vast naval empires in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, some of which threatened those of the growing Ottoman Empire. During the Fourth Crusade (1204), Venice conquered a quarter of the Byzantine Empire. The

neg: Commercial Revolution revolts led to the foundation of city-states throughout medieval Europe, such as in Russia (Novgorod Republic, 12th century), in Flanders (Battle of Golden Spurs, 14th century) in Switzerland (the towns of the Old Swiss Confederacy, 14th century), in Germany (the Hanseatic League, 14th–15th century), and in Prussia (Thirteen Years' War, 15th century). Some Italian city-states became great military powers very early on. Venice and Genoa acquired vast naval empires in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, some of which threatened those of the growing Ottoman Empire. During the Fourth Crusade (1204), Venice conquered a quarter of the Byzantine Empire. The Maritime

neg: The Medici Effect field into another. He also recommends assembling diverse teams of people to collaborate on innovation. The name of the book is derived from the Medici Dynasty, an Italian banking family that came to power in the 14th century. The family's wealth was able to support artists that led to The Renaissance. The book looks at examples of how Renaissance painters, sculptors, poets, philanthropists, scientists, philosophers, financiers, and architects, shaped historical eras of innovation. The Medici family did not intend the Renaissance, but contributed to it with what Johansson coins as the "Medici Effect." The book became the foundation for the

neg: Khambhat Italian traveler, Marino Sanudo, said that Cambeth was one of India’s main two ocean ports. Another Italian, visiting in about 1440, Niccolò de' Conti, mentions that the walls of the city were twelve miles in circumference. The Kothi gateway believed to be constructed by the English factory is in fact a 14th century gate, probably dating to the 1330s, of Tughluq era. The Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa visited the city, which he calls Cambaia, in the early sixteenth century. His description of the city is very full. He states: "Entering by Cuindarim, which is the internal river, there is great

neg: Turkic peoples eastern & southern Central Asian section of the Mongol Empire in what is today part or whole of Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Xinjiang ("Uyghurstan"). Like the Moghulistan and Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate became a Muslim state in the 14th century. The Timurid Empire were an Uzbek-based Turkic empire founded in the late 14th century by Timurlane, a descendant of Genghis Khan. Timur, although a self-proclaimed devout Muslim, brought great slaughter in his conquest of fellow Muslims in neighboring Islamic territory and contributed to the ultimate demise of many Muslim states, including the Golden Horde. The Mughal

neg: Old Pahang Kingdom left by the collapse of Srivijaya was filled by the rise of Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom, commonly known in Malay tradition as 'Ligor'. By the 13th century, the kingdom succeeded to incorporate most of the Malay Peninsula including Pahang under its mandala. During this period, Pahang, designated as "Muaeng Pahang" was established as one of the twelve naksat city states of Ligor. In the early 14th century, the fortune of Ligor was in turn eclipsed by the rise of Thai Buddhist power, and the expansion southwards by Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhotai who brought it under Thai hegemony. The 14th century,

neg: Seljuk architecture Anatolia. Seljuk power extended (briefly) as far as the Aegean coast, so there are Seljuk türbes (tombs) even in—appropriately—the town of Selçuk, next to Ephesus, south of İzmir. The great caravanserais, or hans, are among the finest and most characteristic of Seljuk buildings. Built during the 13th century to encourage trade throughout the empire, several dozen survive in good condition. After the Mongol invasions of the mid-13th century, the wealth and power of the Seljuk empire declined. The few late 13th century-early 14th century buildings that survive include the bimarhane (madhouse) in Amasya, and the "Süngür Bey Mosque" in Nigde.

neg: Kaunas Kaunas castle garrison, with 36 men, tried to break through, but was taken prisoner. It was one of the largest and important military victories of the Teutonic Knights in the 14th century against Lithuania. The Kaunas castle was rebuilt at the beginning of the 15th century. In 1408, the town was granted Magdeburg Rights by Vytautas the Great and became a centre of Kaunas Powiat in Trakai Voivodeship in 1413. Vytautas ceded Kaunas the right to own the scales used for weighing the goods brought to the city or packed on site, wax processing, and woolen cloth-trimming facilities. The power

neg: Malays (ethnic group) The Islamic faith arrived on the shores of what are now the states of Kedah, Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu, from around the 12th century. The earliest archaeological evidence of Islam from the Malay peninsula is the Terengganu Inscription Stone dating from the 14th century found in Terengganu state, Malaysia. By the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate, whose hegemony reached over much of the western Malay Archipelago, had become the centre of Islamisation in the east. As a Malaccan state religion, Islam brought many great transformation into the Malaccan society and culture, and It became the primary instrument in the evolution

neg: Italian literature second half of the 18th century the Italian language was specially full of French expressions. There was great indifference about fitness, still more about elegance of style. Prose needed to be restored for the sake of national dignity, and it was believed that this could not be done except by going back to the writers of the 14th century, to the "aurei trecentisti", as they were called, or else to the classics of Italian literature. One of the promoters of the new school was Antonio Cesari of Verona, who republished ancient authors, and brought out a new edition, with additions,

neg: Italy in the Middle Ages Italian Humanists. In the 11th century began a political development unique to Italy, the transformation of medieval communes into powerful city states modelled on ancient Roman Republicanism. The republics of Venice, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, among others, rose to great political power and paved the way for the Italian Renaissance and ultimately the "European miracle", the resurgence of Western civilization from comparative obscurity in the Early Modern period. On the other hand, the Italian city states were in a state of constant warfare, adding to and overlapping with the persistent conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. Each city

neg: Castle of Olbreuse Poitou by Henri Beauchet-Filleau finds their traces as far back as the 14th century. Olbreuse does not present itself as one of these splendid homes by which the nobles could show their power and wealth. Such constructions are also rare in the region. While it is very different today from what it was in the Middle Ages, it continues to be what it always was, a small castle, unpretentious and well integrated into the rural world, a distinguished home but remains however in the scale of a landscape of nuances and balance. By the thirteenth century until the late Middle

neg: Munkeliv Abbey the arrival of the Black Death in the mid-14th century brought about a decline. In addition, the buildings suffered great damage in 1393 when the abbey was attacked by pirates known as the Victual Brothers ("vitaliebrødrene"). Thanks to its great wealth it managed to survive these catastrophes, but could not avoid a further decline. In the 1420s it was taken over by the Bridgettines, with the Pope's approval, and was occupied as a double house by both monks and nuns. This was a very disturbed period: the abbey was again damaged by fire in 1455, when it was attacked by

neg: Christianity in the 15th century in disguise; he was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July. The Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, refused to come to Constance; nor would he consider resignation. The council finally deposed him in July 1417. The council in Constance, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes, elected Pope Martin V as pope in November. The Italian Renaissance was a period of great cultural change and achievement, marked in Italy by a classical orientation and an increase of wealth through mercantile trade. The city of Rome, the Papacy, and the

neg: History of Europe Christine de Pizan (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter, although an Italian (Venice), relocated to France, writing in French. (See Reconquista for the latter two countries.) Elsewhere, the Holy Roman Empire, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal. The 14th century, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the "Age of the Mongols". Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save

neg: History of Europe the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the European colonisation of the Americas and the European witch-hunts. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman as well as more recent Arabic texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early

neg: Jolof Empire seeds of the empire's destruction had already been sown by the prospects of Atlantic trade. Virtually everything that had given rise to the great Jolof Empire was now tearing it apart. Coastal trade, for instance, had brought extra wealth to the empire. But the rulers of the vassal states on the coast got the lion's share of the benefits, which eventually allowed them to eclipse and undermine what little power the emperor had. There was also the matter of external forces such as the breakup of the Mali Empire. Mali's slipping grip on its far-flung empire, thanks to the growth

neg: Punic Wars the mid-3rd century BC, Carthage was a large city located on the coast of modern Tunisia. Founded by the Phoenicians in the mid-9th century BC, it was a powerful thalassocratic city-state with a vast commercial network. Of the great city-states in the western Mediterranean, only Rome rivaled it in power, wealth, and population. While Carthage's navy was the largest in the ancient world at the time, it did not maintain a large, permanent, standing army. Instead, Carthage relied mostly on mercenaries, especially the indigenous Numidians, to fight its wars. These mercenaries were primarily led by officers who were Carthaginian citizens.

neg: High Middle Ages in most of Europe, the ascent of the great Italian city-states and the rise and fall of the Muslim civilization of Al-Andalus. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers of the period to expand Scholasticism, a combination of Catholicism and ancient philosophy. For much of this period, Constantinople remained Europe's most populous city, and Byzantine art reached a peak in the 12th century. In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed around this period. The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages began at the start of the 14th century

neg: History of Rome overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome went through a significant population expansion as Italian farmers, driven from their ancestral farmlands by the advent of massive, slave-operated farms called latifundia, flocked to the city in great numbers. The victory over Carthage in the First Punic War brought the first two provinces outside the Italian peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. Parts of Spain (Hispania) followed, and in the beginning of the 2nd century the Romans got involved in the affairs of the Greek world. By then all Hellenistic kingdoms and the Greek city-states were in decline,

neg: Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire) Lombard League was the most famous example of this situation; though not a declared separatist movement, it openly challenged the emperor's claim to power. By the 15th century, the power of the city-states was largely broken. A series of wars in Lombardy from 1423 to 1454 further reduced the number of competing states in Italy. The next forty years were relatively peaceful in Italy, but in 1494 the peninsula was invaded by France. The resulting Great Italian Wars lasted until 1559 as control of most of the Italian states passed to King Philip II of Spain. The Peace of Westphalia,

neg: Great Company (German) Great Company (German) The Great Company was a group of mercenaries, chiefly of German origin but operating in the Italian peninsula, who flourished in the mid-14th century. At its height, the company numbered approximately 10,000-12,000 men, chiefly armored cavalry. The Great Company's power set the pattern for later condottieri who came to dominate Renaissance Italian warfare. The company was founded in 1342 by Werner von Urslingen, whose reputed motto was "Enemy of God, Enemy of Piety, Enemy of Pity", with some writers even reporting the phrase inscribed on his breastplate. Urslingen was inspired by Lodrisio Visconti's Compagnia di San Giorgio,

neg: The Allegory of Good and Bad Government series consists of six different scenes (the titles are all modern conveniences): "The Allegory and Effects of Good and Bad Government" series was commissioned entirely by a civic group, the Council of Nine (the city council). Unlike most art at the time, the subject matter is civic rather than religious. The Republic of Siena was one of the most powerful of the 14th-century Italian city-states, an urban hub filled with bankers and merchants with many international contacts. The 14th century was a turbulent time for politics in the Italian cities due to constant violent party struggles; governments were overthrown, and

neg: English longbow for the effective use of the longbow was a challenge. A standing army was an expensive proposition to a medieval ruler. Mainland European armies seldom trained a significant longbow corps. Due to their specialized training, English longbowmen were sought as mercenaries in other European countries, most notably in the Italian city-states and in Spain. The White Company, comprising men-at-arms and longbowmen and commanded by Sir John Hawkwood, is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century. The powerful Hungarian king, Louis the Great, is an example of someone who used longbowmen in his Italian campaigns. Longbows remained in

neg: Italian city-states that the per capita income of northern Italy nearly tripled from the 11th century to the 15th century. This was a highly mobile, demographically expanding society, fueled by the rapidly expanding Renaissance commerce. In the 14th century, just as the Italian Renaissance was beginning, Italy was the economic capital of Western Europe: the Italian States were the top manufacturers of finished woolen products. However, with the Bubonic Plague in 1348, the birth of the English woolen industry and general warfare, Italy temporarily lost its economic advantage. However, by the late 15th century Italy was again in control of trade along

neg: Canton of Bern acquired by the city of Bern mostly between the 14th and the 16th century during the original Swiss Confederacy period, both by conquest and purchase.<br> Acquired districts, with dates of acquisition, include: In the Middle Ages, upwards mobility and access to public offices was relatively easy for successful traders and craftsmen, but Bernese society became ever more stratified and aristocratic as the power and wealth of the city grew. By the 17th century in the Early Modern period, citizenship had become an inherited prerogative, all political bodies elected one another and officials were elected for life. In effect, public offices

neg: M'Bona Cult on the origin of the Maravi people, but many accept that there was a mingling of early settlers and a later ruling group. The former, sometimes known as the Chipeta, had moved into the area around the south of Lake Malawi early in the second millennium, perhaps from the 11th century and, although they did not form centralised states, their leaders had the clan name Banda. The later ruling group were migrants from the Katanga region who, sometime between the 14th and 16th centuries, brought ideas of chiefly power into what had been a stateless population. These newcomers belonged the

neg: Barnstaple Barnstaple Barnstaple ( or ) is the main town of North Devon, England and possibly the oldest borough in the United Kingdom. It is a former river port, located at the lowest crossing point of the River Taw, flowing into the Bristol Channel. From the 14th century, it was licensed to export wool, since the merchants claimed that the town had been declared a free borough in Saxon times. This brought great wealth to Barnstaple, whose town centre still preserves a medieval layout and character. Later the town became an importer of Irish wool, but its harbour silted up, and

neg: 14th & 15th century Africa century was primarily Coptic Christianity, with the abuna's, or bishops, coming from Egypt. In the 14th century there was a break-off from the traditional Coptic Church in the form of Sabbatarians, who believed that they had purified their Christianity. These people would later be known as the "Beta Israel", following a distinct pre-Talmudic faith. 14th & 15th century Africa In the 14th and 15th century the main civilizations and kingdoms in Africa were the Mali Empire, Kingdom of Kongo, Benin Kingdom, Hausa City-states, Great Zimbabwe, Ethiopian Empire, Kilwa Sultanate and the Ajuran Sultanate. These kingdoms flourished in the 14th century,

neg: Western world centuries later; before AD 1100, the Catholic Church suppressed what they believed to be heresy, usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment, but without using torture, and seldom resorting to executions. This much profitable Central European Fourth Crusade had prompted 14th century Renaissance (translated as 'Rebirth') of Italian city-states including Papal States, ushering the following Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation (which established the Roman Inquisition after the Medieval Inquisition) of the 1500s by discovery of the American continent, and consequent dissolution of West Christendom as even a theoretical unitary political body, later resulting in the religious Eighty Years War

neg: Great Divergence growth in per capita incomes for the first time in human history. After the Viking, Muslim and Magyar invasions waned in the 10th century, Europe entered a period of prosperity, population growth and territorial expansion known as the High Middle Ages. Trade and commerce revived, with increased specialization between areas and between the countryside and artisans in towns. By the 13th century the best land had been occupied and agricultural income began to fall, though trade and commerce continued to expand, especially in Venice and other northern Italian cities. The 14th century brought a series of calamities: famines, wars, the

neg: Obizzi come to the National Gallery in Prague. The remainder at Catajo, property the late archduke's heir, Karl I, the last Emperor and King of Austria-Hungary, was sequestered as war reparations by the Italian State, which resold it in 1926 to the Dalla Francesca family, who currently open it to the public. Obizzi The Obizzi, who claimed descent from the Frankish Counts of Burgundy, were a prominent Italian noble family of Padua, who amassed great political power and wealth as feudatories of the Este, and are noted as early as the eleventh century. The Marquesses "degli Obizzi del Catajo", ending with

neg: 2003 Phnom Penh riots extremely fluid, reflecting the region's division into city states rather than nation states. These city states were bound together into empires by more or less strong political, military and tributary ties. In the 14th century, the centre of Thai power passed from Sukhothai to the more southerly Ayutthaya, in territory which had formed part of the Khmer empire. The threat posed by Ayutthaya to Angkor increased as its power grew, and in the 15th century Angkor itself was sacked. The ensuing centuries saw numerous further incursions by the Siamese. For much of the 19th century, northern Cambodia, including Angkor, was

neg: 14th & 15th century Africa 14th & 15th century Africa In the 14th and 15th century the main civilizations and kingdoms in Africa were the Mali Empire, Kingdom of Kongo, Benin Kingdom, Hausa City-states, Great Zimbabwe, Ethiopian Empire, Kilwa Sultanate and the Ajuran Sultanate. These kingdoms flourished in the 14th century, especially the Mali Empire, who saw a cultural flowering within their empire centred on the University of Timbuktu. The 12th through the 16th centuries were known as the “golden age” of trade, when West African gold was in high demand. This led to an increase in the need and use for trade routes. Before,

neg: Italian city-states 100,000 gold florins the title of Duke of Milan from the emperor Wenceslaus. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Milan, Venice, and Florence were able to conquer other city-states, creating regional states. The 1454 Peace of Lodi ended their struggle for hegemony in Italy, attaining a balance of power (see Italian Renaissance). At the beginning of the 16th century, apart from some minor city-states like Lucca or San Marino, only the republican Venice was able to preserve its independence and to match the European monarchies of France and Spain and the Ottoman Empire (see Italian Wars). Italian city-states The Italian

neg: 14th & 15th century Africa its influence to the Northern and Eastern coast of Africa. After the Nomadic Almohad peoples overthrew the Almoravids of Spain and North Africa, by the 13th century its government had collapsed from within and split into 3 different states, consisting of both Almoravid and Almohad groups. Then in 1415 the Spanish Reconquista forced the most of the Muslims out of Spain and into North Africa. During this transition from the Almohad empire to the Muslim tri-state era, trade between Europe and North Africa increased the wealth of the primarily Muslim region, as well as their ability to maintain power in

neg: Commercial Revolution Niall Ferguson points out that Florence and Venice, as well as several other Italian city-states, played a crucial innovative role in world financial developments, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization. It is estimated that the per capita income of northern Italy nearly tripled from the 11th century to the 15th century. This was a highly mobile, demographically expanding society, fueled by the rapidly expanding Renaissance commerce. In the 14th century, just as the Italian Renaissance was beginning, Italy was the economic capital of Western Europe: the Italian

neg: Obizzi Obizzi The Obizzi, who claimed descent from the Frankish Counts of Burgundy, were a prominent Italian noble family of Padua, who amassed great political power and wealth as feudatories of the Este, and are noted as early as the eleventh century. The Marquesses "degli Obizzi del Catajo", ending with the death in 1805 of marquess Tommaso degli Obizzi, have been the heads of the great Guelf family. The Obizzi family is noted for its military triumphs; they even provided a private army to protect the Pope. Tommaso degli Obizzi, who was a general of Pope Urban V and was appointed

neg: The Three Mothers prequel. The plotline of the Three Mothers is explored in Luca Guadagnino's 2018 remake of "Suspiria". The story of the Three Mothers begins at the dawn of the 11th century, when three sisters created the pernicious art of witchcraft on the coast of the Black Sea. In the years that followed, they wandered the world and amassed great personal wealth and power, leaving only death in their wake. Both Mater Suspiriorum and Tenebrarum have claimed that the Mothers are Death personified. In the late 19th century the women commissioned E. Varelli, an Italian architect based in London, to design and

neg: Lira da braccio lyra"), also describing its tuning: [c-c' / g-g'-d'-a'-e]. Lira was devised to accompany humanist sung verse by poets, such as the 14th century Petrarch and his later imitators, and was popular in the North Italian city-states such as Florence, Ferrara, Mantua, Venice and so on. In this role, the Lira enjoyed a prestige among instruments that it was never quite to achieve again. Amongst its exponents at the time were several great painters, notably Leonardo da Vinci, who according to Emmanuel Winternitz, was widely held to be the doyen among performers upon the Lira. The rise of the Madrigal, and

neg: Eastern Arabia the main regional power at the time, the Persian princes in Hormuz, who took control of Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. However, the Hormuzi rulers did not seem to have firm control of the islands, and during the 14th century Bahrain was disputed as numerous neighbours sought tribute from the wealth accumulated from its pearl fisheries. In the 15th century another branch of the Banu Amir emerged, the Jabrids, who built a more stable polity in eastern Arabia. The Jarwanid Dynasty was a Shia dynasty that ruled eastern Arabia in the 14th century. It was founded by Jerwan I bin

neg: Padanian Etruria the as much legendary "Ocnus". The latter colonization involved the reorganization of the entire Padanian region in order to increase its utility for the etruscan businesses and trades. During the 6th century BC Etruria experienced significant social, political and economic transformations. The formative process of the city-states had concluded, within these polities the power of the great aristocratic families was matched and then replaced by that of a new social class of men whose wealth was based mainly on trade. The protagonists of this process were people of the northern cities of Tuscany. The Padanian Etruria is transformed in best

neg: James Balfour (died 1845) along with a house in Grosvenor Square, London. His property in Fife, including Balgonie Castle, was left to his second son Charles, while his daughters Mary and Anna had each been given a dowry of £40,000 (equivalent to £ in 2019). Until the Reform Act in 1832, political power in Britain had been dominated for centuries by a land-owning oligarchy, and for another century they shared power with the rising bourgeoisie. The Balfour family straddled both groups. James Balfour's new wealth brought new vigour to the ancient family, with many of his grandchildren and great-grandchildren achieving notability. They include: As

neg: Catalan nationalism and 14th centuries, these merchants accrued so much wealth and political sway that they were able to place a significant check on the power of the Aragonese crown. By the 15th century the Aragonese monarch ""was not considered legitimate until he had sworn to respect the basic law of the land in the presence of the "Corts""" (Balcells 9). This balance of power is a classic example of "pactisme", or contractualism, which seems to be a defining feature of the Catalan political culture. Along with political and economic success, Catalan culture flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During this

neg: Commercial Revolution the key contribution of the medieval period to European history was the creation of a commercial economy between the 10th and the 14th century, centered at first in the Italo-Byzantine eastern Mediterranean, but eventually extending to the Italian city-states and over the rest of Europe. This kind of economy ran from approximately the 14th century through the 18th century. Walt Whitman Rostow placed the beginning "arbitrarily" in 1488, the year the first European sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. Most historians, including scholars such as Robert S. Lopez, Angeliki Laiou, Irving W. Raymond, and Peter Spufford indicate that there

neg: History of capitalism enjoyed power, ranging from lawmaking, military, and treaty-making privileges. Characterized by its colonial and expansionary powers by states, powerful nation-states sought to accumulate precious metals, and military conflicts arose. During this era, merchants, who had previously traded on their own, invested capital in the East India Companies and other colonies, seeking a return on investment. Mercantilism declined in Great Britain in the mid-18th century, when a new group of economic theorists, led by Adam Smith, challenged fundamental mercantilist doctrines as the belief that the amount of the world's wealth remained constant and that a state could only increase its wealth

neg: History of Seville Vespucci, the 'pilot major' (chief of navigation), to train new pilots for ocean voyages. Vespucci, who made at least two voyages to the New World, worked at the Casa de Contratación until his death in 1512. With its monopoly on the West Indies trade, Seville saw a great influx of wealth. This wealth drew Italian artists such as Pietro Torrigiano, a classmate rival of Michelangelo in the garden of the Medici. Torrigiano executed magnificent sculptures at the monastery of Saint Jerome and elsewhere in Seville, as well as notable tombs and other works which brought the influence of the Italian

neg: Ifriqiya A key factor in the success of any hopeful party was securing wealth to fund a push for dominance. One form of great wealth was the lucrative gold-mining areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. The existence of these gold mines made expansion into Africa a very worthwhile endeavor. The Muslim Empires pushed for influence and control of both the Northern and Southern parts of Africa. By the end of the 11th century Islam had firmly established itself along the Mediterranean. The Muslims, like the Europeans, felt the brutal effects of the Black Death in the 14th Century when it arrived in Western

neg: Weimar Schmalkaldic War in 1547, their capital Wittenberg went also to the Albertines, so that they needed a new residence. As the ruler returned from captivity, Weimar became his residence in 1552 and remained as such until the end of the monarchy in 1918. The first Ernestine territorial partition in 1572 was followed by various ones, nevertheless Weimar stayed the capital of different Saxe-Weimar states. The court and its staff brought some wealth to the city, so that it saw a first construction boom in the 16th century. The 17th century brought decline to Weimar, because of changing trade conditions (as

neg: Zaamslag after their abolishment in 1312. In the 14th century, it was apparently used as a fortress in the conflict between Flemish and other rulers. A newspaper, which dates from the 1880s, tells us that there were two bodies found there. It should have been a burial, maybe two Templar lords. They maybe also built the Hospital of the Knights of St. John; excavations in 2009 and 2010 revealed foundations of this ancient building. When the Templar preceptory was decreasing, the Hospital was increasing in power and wealth (starting from the 14th century). The building must have had a hall for

neg: History of gunpowder models in the 16th century. The development of large artillery pieces and larger guns began with Burgundy. Originally a minor power, it grew to become one of the most powerful states in 14th-century Europe, and a great innovator in siege warfare. The Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Bold (1363-1404), based his power on the effective use of big guns and promoted research and development in all aspects of gunpowder weaponry technology. Philip established manufacturers and employed more cannon casters than any European power before him, however he wasn't the first to build large guns. The first appeared in 1375 when

neg: History of gardening natural locations, forested manor homes could symbolize status, wealth and power if they appeared to have all amenities. After the Industrial Revolution, Britain’s forest industry shrank until it no longer existed. In response, the Garden City Movement brought urban planning into industrialized areas in the early 20th century to offset negative industrial effects such as pollution. There were several traditions that influenced English gardening in the 18th century, the first of which was to plant woods around homes. By the mid-17th century, coppice planting became consistent and was considered visually and aesthetically pleasing. Whereas forested areas were more useful for

neg: Baku Shirvanshah’s court moved to Baku in 1191. The Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of what is present-day Azerbaijan. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, massive fortifications were undertaken in Baku and the surrounding towns. The Maiden Tower, the Ramana Tower, the Nardaran Fortress, the Shagan Castle, the Mardakan Castle, the Round Castle and also the famous Sabayil Castle on the island of the Bay of Baku was built during this period. The city walls of Baku were also rebuilt and strengthened. By the early 16th century Baku's wealth and strategic position attracted the focus of its larger

neg: Louisiana called maroons, could easily hide in the backcountry of the bayous and survive in small settlements. The word "maroon" comes from the French "marron," meaning "feral" or "fugitive." In the late 18th century, the last Spanish governor of the Louisiana territory wrote: Truly, it is impossible for lower Louisiana to get along without slaves and with the use of slaves, the colony had been making great strides toward prosperity and wealth. When the United States purchased Louisiana in 1803, it was soon accepted that enslaved Africans could be brought to Louisiana as easily as they were brought to neighboring Mississippi,

neg: Kremenets Castle to the order of Khan Boroldai's tumen, the stronghold was disassembled by Volyn' landlord, Vasyl’ko Romanovich (1203–1269). Life on the castle hill revived only 20 years later, in the 1290s, to those days' initiative of Volyn' ruler, lord Mstislav Danilovych, in the years following 1292. Difficult fortunes plagued that fringed fastness in the 14th century, since the downfall of Galicia-Volyn' dominion brought about power struggle of neighboring sovereigns, as Poland, Hungary, Lithuanian challenged each other. Kremenets Castle dilapidated at the century winding. Having turned out in the year of 1396 year to the hands of great Lithuanian prince Vytautas, the

neg: Manchester the world does tomorrow." Manchester's golden age was perhaps the last quarter of the 19th century. Many of the great public buildings (including Manchester Town Hall) date from then. The city's cosmopolitan atmosphere contributed to a vibrant culture, which included the Hallé Orchestra. In 1889, when county councils were created in England, the municipal borough became a county borough with even greater autonomy. Although the Industrial Revolution brought wealth to the city, it also brought poverty and squalor to a large part of the population. Historian Simon Schama noted that "Manchester was the very best and the very worst taken

neg: Vecna in this battle by clerics channeling the power of Pholtus, the god of light. The clerics unleashed a great burst of light, which hit Vecna primarily on his left side. Vecna was rescued and brought to safety by one of his wizard generals, a cambion named Acererak (who would one day himself become a mighty demilich). Vecna eventually recovered. On the verge of conquering Fleeth, the officials of the city came before him to beg for mercy. They offered up the entire city and her wealth if only Vecna would spare the lives of her citizens. When Vecna was not

neg: Caunes-Minervois from the 12th century, its arches incorporating intricate carvings. The roof of the porch was augmented by rib vaulting in sharp relief in the early 13th century. The nave itself was rebuilt in the 14th century and mock vaulted arches added in the 1770, however tall medieval windows remain and allow light in from the south side. Much of the internal decoration is in marble as befits a town partly built on the wealth of quarrying this stone. The high altar combines red Caunes and white Carrara marble and was carved by Italian craftsmen in the 18th century. Other notable

neg: Venice Sea, Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by the Great Council, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate

neg: Duecento Duecento Duecento was the Italian word for the Italian culture during the 13th century. In the 13th century, much of Europe experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. The city-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire; outside European powers kept their armies out of Italy.

neg: History of gardening initially came from the Italian Renaissance garden of the 14th and 15th centuries and ideas of French philosopher René Descartes (1576–1650). At this time the French opened the garden up to enormous proportions compared to their Italian predecessor. Their gardens epitomize monarch and 'man' dominating and manipulating nature to show his authority, wealth, and power. Renée Descartes, the founder of analytical geometry, believed that the natural world was objectively measurable and that space is infinitely divisible. His belief that "all movement is a straight line therefore space is a universal grid of mathematical coordinates and everything can be located on

neg: History of Bahrain Hormuz. According to historian Juan Cole it was under Sunni rule that Twelver Shiaism became established in Bahrain, as Shia Bahrainis gradually moved away from the radical, egalitarian Ismaili Qarmatian sect to the more quietist Twelver or Imami branch, a process which the Sunni rulers encouraged. But even in the 14th century, the North African traveller Ibn Battuta visiting Qatif around 1331, found it inhabited by Arabs whom he described as "extremist Shi'is" (rafidiyya ghulat), which Cole presumes is how a 14th-century Sunni would describe Ismailis. Ibn Battuta also noted the great wealth of the area thanks to the pearling

neg: History of Italy was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves—this occurred on a number of occasions. At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the "terrafirma" as the Venetian Renaissance

neg: Glarentza activity, a city in the modern sense of the word". It was a cosmopolitan city, frequented by emissaries from Italy, soldiers and merchants, chiefly Venetians. Trade brought great prosperity, as evidenced by the fact that it used its own system of weights and measures in the 14th century. It featured a hospital as well as banks, lodgings for the mariners, and a Franciscan monastery. Based on a 1391 list of fiefs, the town counted ca. 300 hearths, making it among the largest in the Principality. The town was also the site of the princely mint, which from the 13th century

neg: Factor endowment and Engerman's article "History Lessons: Institutions, Factors Endowments, and Paths of Development in the New World," not only the United States had relatively equal distribution of wealth, it had relatively homogeneous population, political power and human capital. United States and Canada's relatively equal distribution of wealth, amount of human capital and political power ultimately affected development of institution, extent of franchise, and public education that persist and influence growth of the country. The open franchise in the United States and Canada was possible due to the large voting body of middle class and small elites. The open franchise brought elimination

neg: History of Bern In the Middle Ages, upwards mobility and access to public offices was relatively easy for successful traders and craftsmen, but Bernese society became ever more stratified and aristocratic as the power and wealth of the city grew. By the 17th century, citizenship had become an inherited prerogative, all political bodies elected one another and officials were elected for life. Bern now styled itself as a Republic (', ') rather than a ", following the example of the Italian city republics. In effect, public offices were now the exclusive prerogative of the ', the "merciful lords", as the small number of

neg: Dāna Indian language. It discusses charity, dedicating Chapter 23 of Book 1 on Virtues to it. "Tirukkuṛaḷ" suggests charity is necessary for an virtuous life and happiness. He states in Chapter 23: "Giving to the poor is true charity, all other giving expects some return"; "Great, indeed, is the power to endure hunger. Greater still is the power to relieve other's hunger"; "Giving alms is a great reward in itself to one who gives". In Chapter 101, he states: "Believing wealth is everything, yet giving away nothing, is a miserable state of mind"; "Vast wealth can be a curse to one

neg: Le Puy Cathedral at the crossing forming a lantern; the choir and transepts are barrel vaulted. The four galleries of the striking parti-coloured cloister were constructed from the Carolingian period to the 12th century. It is connected to the remains of 13th-century fortifications that separated the cathedral precincts from the rest of the city. Near the cathedral, the 11th-century Baptistry of Saint John is built on Roman foundations. The cathedral became very early on a centre of the cult of Our Lady and a place of pilgrimage—Charlemagne made the pilgrimage to Le Puy twice—which brought it great wealth and influence. Its treasures escaped

neg: Derbent Derbent and brought it into great repute as a seat of the arts and commerce. According to Arab historians, Derbent, with population exceeding 50,000, was the largest city of the 9th century Caucasus. In the 10th century, with the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, Derbent became the capital of an emirate. This emirate often fought losing wars with the neighboring Christian state of Sarir, allowing Sarir to manipulate Derbent's politics on occasion. Despite that, the emirate outlived its rival and continued to flourish at the time of the Mongol invasion in 1239. In the 14th century, Derbent was occupied by

neg: Arras by Ypres and eventually Bruges would become the centres of the wool industry and trade. However, by the 14th century Arras still was renowned and drew considerable wealth from the cloth and wool industry, and was particularly well known for its production of fine tapestries—so much so that in English and Italian the word "Arras" ("Arazzi" in Italian) was adopted to refer to tapestries in general. The patronage of wealthy cloth merchants ensured that the town became an important cultural center, with major figures such as the poet Jean Bodel and the trouvère Adam de la Halle making their homes

neg: Italian martial arts and were armed according to the Roman standard or like some of Rome's enemies. This allowed for experimentation with different weapons and styles of combat. Some of the weapons were unusual, such as the net used by the Retiarius. Roman writers described methods and techniques for training and using the gladius, for example Vegetius in his De Re Militari. Thanks to this wealth of information the art of gladiatorial combat has been resurrected and the discipline of “Gladiatura Moderna” is now being practiced by numerous practitioners. The Renaissance (14th to 17th century AD) saw frequent warfare on Italian soil and

neg: Nordhausen power of Nordhausen gave hidden support to the Brandenburgs, so that Nordhausen tried to keep its independence through the protection by the Hanovers. After the Brandenburg-Prussians had occupied Nordhausen between 1703 and 1714, the city got protection of Hanover resp. England, which paid 50,000 Talers to the Prussians to leave Nordhausen, which was moreover destroyed by two town fires in 1710 and 1712. Under the protection of Hanover, the economy improved again and the production of tobacco since mid-18th century brought new wealth to Nordhausen. During the Napoleonic Wars, Prussian troops occupied Nordhausen on 2 August 1802; the city lost

neg: Church of Santo André (Melgaço) projects. The wealth of the Convent of Fiães was so great that a popular refrain existed that ""after the King, there was no one as rich as the abbot of Fiães"". An accord between the convent and municipality of Melgaço in 1245 established a cost-sharing agreement for the maintenance of the wall around the city. The clergy at the time could afford to be generous, records from 1320 showed that the convent produced 400 pounds from lands rents. In the 14th century, the tomb of Fernão Anes de Lima was installed at the church. In 1490, a fire in the

neg: Kyōgen Kyōgen "Kyōgen" together with "Nō" is part of "Nōgaku" theatre. "Kyōgen" is sometimes compared to the Italian comic form of commedia dell'arte, which developed around the same period (14th century) and likewise features stock characters. It also has parallels with the Greek satyr play, a short, comical play performed between tragedies. Kyōgen is thought to derive from a form of Chinese entertainment that was brought to Japan around the 8th century. This entertainment form became known as "sarugaku" and initially encompassed both serious drama and comedy. By the 14th century, these forms of "sarugaku" had become known as Noh and

neg: Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor themselves. Italian unity under German rule was more myth than truth. Despite proclamations of German hegemony, the pope was the most powerful force in Italy. When Frederick returned to Germany after his defeat in northern Italy, he was a bitter and exhausted man. The German princes, far from being subordinated to royal control, were intensifying their hold on wealth and power in Germany and entrenching their positions. There began to be a generalized social desire to "create greater Germany" by conquering the Slavs to the east. Although the Italian city states had achieved a measure of independence from Frederick as

neg: Cluj-Napoca Carlowitz in 1699, it became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In the 17th century, Cluj suffered from great calamities, suffering from epidemics of the plague and devastating fires. The end of this century brought the end of Turkish sovereignty, but found the city bereft of much of its wealth, municipal freedom, cultural centrality, political significance and even population. It gradually regained its important position within Transylvania as the headquarters of the Gubernium and the Diets between 1719 and 1732, and again from 1790 until the revolution of 1848, when the Gubernium moved to Nagyszeben (Hermannstadt), present-day Sibiu). In 1791, a

neg: Italian city-states Italian territory, especially after the year 1177, was "de facto" only nominal; instead there emerged the autonomous (sometime "de facto" independent) city-states. While those Roman, urban, republican sensibilities persisted, there were many movements and changes afoot. Italy first felt the changes in Europe from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Typically there was: In recent writing on the city states, American scholar Rodney Stark emphasizes that they married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. He argues that these states were mostly republics, unlike the great European monarchies of France and Spain, where absolute power was vested in rulers

neg: Silesia of the Czech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia. Silesia's borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble houses and after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold power there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century and Bohemia early in the 10th century. In the 10th century, Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, and after its division in the 12th century became a Piast duchy. In the 14th century, it became a constituent part of

neg: Venice position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth; while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars, marginalising its political influence. However, the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products, and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing center. During the 18th century, Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe, greatly influencing art, architecture and literature. But the Republic lost its independence when

neg: Slovene Lands Celje and Ptuj. The area around Kočevje in Lower Carniola, known as the Gottschee County, had a predominantly German-speaking population between the 14th century and 1941 when they were resettled in an agreement between Nazi German and Fascist Italian occupation forces. A similar German "linguistic island" within an ethnically Slovene territory existed in what is now the Italian "comune" of Tarvisio, but used to belong to the Duchy of Carinthia until 1919. The city of Trieste, whose municipal territory has been regarded by Slovenes to be an integral part of the Slovene Lands, has always had a Romance-speaking majority (first

neg: Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquess of Balbases born in Genoa, the eldest son of Filippo Spinola, Marquis of Sexten and Venafro, and his wife Polissena Grimaldi, daughter of Nicolò prince of Salerno. The family of Spinola was of great antiquity, wealth and power in Genoa. Don Ambrogio's sister Donna Lelia was married to Don Giulio Cesare Squarciafico, 2nd Marquess of Galatone, from whom descend the Princes of Belmonte. In the 16th century the Italian Republic of Genoa was in practical terms a protected state of the Spanish Empire; the Genoese were the bankers of the Spanish monarchy and had control of its finances. Several of the younger

neg: Scottish people the Scottish soldiers in Muscovy referred to as early as in the 14th century. Among the 'soldiers of fortune' was the ancestor to famous Russian poet Mikhail Lermontov, called George Learmonth. A number of Scots gained wealth and fame in the times of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. These include Patrick Gordon, Paul Menzies, Samuel Greig, Charles Baird, Charles Cameron, Adam Menelaws and William Hastie. Several doctors to the Russian court were from Scotland, the best known being James Wylie. The next wave of migration established commercial links with Russia. The 19th century witnessed the immense literary cross-references

neg: Orhei District the 14th century AD. During the 14th century, the Golden Horde occupied the region; the town was conquered, and its name changed to Shehr al Jedid. From 1363 to 1365, Horde leader Abdullah Khan resided in Shehr al Jedid. At the end of the 14th century, the Horde were driven out and the empire dissolved; the eastern city evolved, acquiring Moldovan characteristics. During the reign of Stephen the Great the stone city was repaired, equipped with artillery and became the residence of Orhei's governor. During the mid-16th century, the old city was abandoned in favor of the current site, northwest.

neg: Kanchipuram district in the north to the river Kaveri in the south. The Pallavas fortified the city with ramparts, moats, etc., with wide and well laid out roads and fine temples. They were a great maritime power with contacts with far-off China, Siam, Fiji, etc., through their chief Port Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). The Cholas ruled this region from the 10th century to the 13th century. Kings of Vijayanagar dynasty ruled from the 14th century to the 17th century. Kanchi was a major seat of learning as well as an important place of pilgrimage for Buddhists, Jains and Hindus. Daṇḍin has described it to

neg: Somersham repair. They were pulled down in the middle of the 18th century. In the latter part of the 14th century, the church in Somersham was a living in possession of the English Cardinal and papal courtier Adam Easton and he relied on its wealth until his death in 1397. During the 18th century there was a Spa just outside the town that was actively promoted by one of the royal surgeons. James Hammond, an elegiac poet who died in 1742, was born and brought up in Somersham; his work remained popular throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, being reprinted several

neg: Castellamonte and Amedeo di Castellamonte were born in the town. Castellamonte Castellamonte is a "comune" (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about north of Turin. It is located in the Canavese, at the feet of a hill surmounted by a 14th-century castle, hence the name (meaning "Castle at the Mount"). Only traces remain of the latter's original structure, what is visible now dating to an 18th-century renovation. The town is also home to an unfinished rotunda designed by Alessandro Antonelli, the Baroque church of San Rocco; the Sacro Monte di Belmonte is not far,

neg: 14th century 14th century The 14th century, also known as the 1300s, was a century lasting from January 1, 1301, to December 31, 1400. Political and natural disasters ravaged both Europe and the four khanates of the Mongol Empire. Consequently, the Mongol court was driven out of China and retreated to Mongolia, the Ilkhanate collapsed in Persia, the Chaghatayid dissolved and broke into two parts and the Golden Horde lost its position as great power in Eastern Europe. In Europe, the Black Death claimed between 75 and 200 million lives, while England and France fought in the protracted Hundred Years' War after

neg: Castellamonte Castellamonte Castellamonte is a "comune" (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about north of Turin. It is located in the Canavese, at the feet of a hill surmounted by a 14th-century castle, hence the name (meaning "Castle at the Mount"). Only traces remain of the latter's original structure, what is visible now dating to an 18th-century renovation. The town is also home to an unfinished rotunda designed by Alessandro Antonelli, the Baroque church of San Rocco; the Sacro Monte di Belmonte is not far, though in the communal territory of Valperga. Architects Carlo

neg: Boncompagni family possession. The family also included five other cardinals in the 17th and 18th centuries. Gregorio II Boncompagni was lord of Piombino in 1706-1707. The family later merged with the Ludovisi family. The 19th century mathematician Baldassarre Boncompagni-Ludovisi was a member of the family. Boncompagni The Boncompagni is an Italian noble family from Assisi. The family is documented for the first time in 1133, when one Rodolfo Boncompagni, descendant of Saxon nobles, was appointed by Lothair II as lord of Assisi. In the early 14th century the family moved from Umbria to Bologna, where they gradually increased their wealth and

neg: John Mirk Abbey, Mirk's home, was a 12th-century foundation, originally intended to follow the rigorist teachings and practices of the Abbey of Arrouaise in northern France. Richard de Belmeis, one of the founders, was dean of the collegiate church of St Alkmund in Shrewsbury and was able to have the college suppressed and its wealth turned over to the abbey. This meant that Lilleshall was closely involved in the town of Shrewsbury, as much of its property was close to, and some within, the town. Lilleshall was brought to a nadir in the early 14th century by the agrarian crisis and the