query: what kind of charge does an object that has an excess of electrons have

pos: Electric charge of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot change. Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the nuclei of atoms. If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge is "quantized"; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, "e", about , which is the

pos: Electric charge which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa. Even when an object's net charge is zero, charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or bound polar molecules). In such cases the object is said to be polarized. The charge due to polarization is known as bound charge, while charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called "free charge". The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is known as electric current. The SI

pos: Gurgen Askaryan years ago, the registration of energetic particles and showers with sound detectors in sea water was planned as an important part of global monitoring. G. Askaryan also showed that cosmic ray showers emit electromagnetic radiation, thus giving yet another way for their detection. Before him it was commonly assumed that electron-photon showers do not emit electromagnetic radiation since the electrons and positrons are created in pairs. Askaryan’s analysis led to the conclusion that in an electron-photon shower there is an excess of negative charge (excess of electrons). These excess electrons are knocked out from atoms either by photoeffect or by

pos: Lichtenberg figure Electrons emerging from the accelerator have energies up to 25MeV and are moving at an appreciable fraction (95 - 99+ percent) of the speed of light (relativistic velocities). If the electron beam is aimed towards a thick acrylic specimen, the electrons easily penetrate the surface of the acrylic, rapidly decelerating as they collide with molecules inside the plastic, finally coming to rest deep inside the specimen. Since acrylic is an excellent electrical insulator, these electrons become temporarily trapped within the specimen, forming a plane of excess negative charge. Under continued irradiation, the amount of trapped charge builds, until the effective

pos: Debye sheath Debye sheath The Debye sheath (also electrostatic sheath) is a layer in a plasma which has a greater density of positive ions, and hence an overall excess positive charge, that balances an opposite negative charge on the surface of a material with which it is in contact. The thickness of such a layer is several Debye lengths thick, a value whose size depends on various characteristics of plasma (e.g. temperature, density, etc.). A Debye sheath arises in a plasma because the electrons usually have a temperature on the order of magnitude or greater than that of the ions and are

pos: Electrostatic induction the structure of matter and are not free to move. The negative charges are the atoms' electrons. In electrically conductive objects such as metals, some of the electrons are able to move freely about in the object. When a charged object is brought near an uncharged, electrically conducting object, such as a piece of metal, the force of the nearby charge due to Coulomb's law causes a separation of these internal charges. For example, if a positive charge is brought near the object (see picture of cylindrical electrode near electrostatic machine), the electrons in the metal will be attracted toward

pos: Atom Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative

pos: Electric charge that make it up. This charge is often small, because matter is made of atoms, and atoms typically have equal numbers of protons and electrons, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral. An "ion" is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion). "Monatomic ions" are formed from single atoms, while "polyatomic ions" are formed from two or more atoms that have

pos: Static electricity positive and negative charges. When two materials are in contact, electrons may move from one material to the other, which leaves an excess of positive charge on one material, and an equal negative charge on the other. When the materials are separated they retain this charge imbalance. Contact-induced charge separation Electrons can be exchanged between materials on contact; materials with weakly bound electrons tend to lose them while materials with sparsely filled outer shells tend to gain them. This is known as the triboelectric effect and results in one material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged. The polarity

pos: Faraday's ice pail experiment often requires precautions to eliminate these extraneous charges: Conductive metal objects contain mobile electric charges (electrons) that can move about freely in the metal. In an uncharged state, each part of the metal contains equal quantities of positive and negative charges, intimately mixed, so no part of it has a net charge. If an external charged object is brought near a piece of metal, the force of the charge causes these internal charges to separate. The charges of opposite polarity to the external charge are attracted to it, and move to the surface of the object facing the charge. The

pos: Electrostatic induction it and move to the side of the object facing it. When the electrons move out of an area, they leave an unbalanced positive charge due to the nuclei. This results in a region of negative charge on the object nearest to the external charge, and a region of positive charge on the part away from it. These are called "induced charges". If the external charge is negative, the polarity of the charged regions will be reversed. Since this process is just a redistribution of the charges that were already in the object, it doesn't change the "total" charge on

pos: Van de Graaff generator the lower comb (7); electrons are drawn up from ground due to the attraction by the positive sphere, and when the electric field is great enough (see below) the air breaks in the form of an electrical discharge spark (9). Since the material of the belt and rollers can be selected, the accumulated charge on the hollow metal sphere can either be made positive (electron deficient) or negative (excess electrons). The friction type of generator described above is easier to build for science fair or homemade projects, since it does not require a high-voltage source. Greater potentials can be obtained

pos: Static electricity people can feel, hear, and even see the spark as the excess charge is neutralized when brought close to a large electrical conductor (for example, a path to ground), or a region with an excess charge of the opposite polarity (positive or negative). The familiar phenomenon of a static shockmore specifically, an electrostatic dischargeis caused by the neutralization of charge. Materials are made of atoms that are normally electrically neutral because they contain equal numbers of positive charges (protons in their nuclei) and negative charges (electrons in "shells" surrounding the nucleus). The phenomenon of static electricity requires a separation of

pos: Semiconductor device holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains excess free electrons it is known as "n-type", where "p" (positive for holes) or "n" (negative for electrons) is the sign of the charge of the majority mobile charge carriers. The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions in a fabrication facility, or "fab", to control precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The junctions which form where n-type and p-type semiconductors join together are called p–n junctions. Semiconductor devices made per year have

pos: Electric charge Electric charge Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges; "positive" and "negative" (commonly carried by protons and electrons respectively). Like charges repel and unlike attract. An object with an absence of net charge is referred to as "". Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of quantum effects. Electric charge is a conserved property; the net charge of an isolated system, the amount

pos: Electric charge off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity. This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk. In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of "conservation of charge" always applies, giving the object from

pos: Lewis structure the two atoms, the atom that originally had the lone pair still has an octet; the other atom now has two more electrons in its valence shell. Lewis structures for polyatomic ions may be drawn by the same method. When counting electrons, negative ions should have extra electrons placed in their Lewis structures; positive ions should have fewer electrons than an uncharged molecule. When the Lewis structure of an ion is written, the entire structure is placed in brackets, and the charge is written as a superscript on the upper right, outside the brackets. A simpler method has been proposed

pos: Primary cell remaining with an excess of electrons that it will donate to the circuit), it becomes negatively charged and is therefore connected to the terminal marked "−" on the outside of the cell. The cathode, meanwhile, donates negative charge to the electrolyte, so it becomes positively charged (which allows it to accept electrons from the circuit) and is therefore connected to the terminal marked "+" on the outside of the cell. Old textbooks sometimes contain different terminology that can cause confusion to modern readers. For example, a 1911 textbook by Ayrton and Mather describes the electrodes as the "positive plate" and

pos: Anode current depends not only on the direction the charge carriers move, but also the carriers' electric charge. The currents outside the device are usually carried by electrons in a metal conductor. Since electrons have a negative charge, the direction of electron flow is opposite to the direction of conventional current. Consequently, electrons leave the device through the anode and enter the device through the cathode. The definition of anode and cathode is slightly different for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the electrode naming is fixed and does not depend on the actual charge flow (current). These

pos: Ion Ion An ion () is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge. Since the charge of the electron (considered "negative" by convention) is equal and opposite to that of the proton (considered "positive" by convention), the net charge of an ion is non-zero due to its total number of electrons being unequal to its total number of protons. A cation is a positively charged ion, with fewer electrons than protons, while an anion is negatively charged, with more electrons than protons. Because of their opposite electric currents, cations and anions attract each other and readily form

pos: Faraday's ice pail experiment a specific quantity of positive charge, and ends on an equal quantity of negative charge. An additional fact needed is that electric field lines cannot penetrate conductors; if an electric field line penetrated into a volume of metal, the electrons in the metal would flow along the field line, redistributing the charge in the conductor until no electric field was left. Only when the electric field in the conductor is zero can the charges in the conductor be at electrostatic equilibrium. When the charged object "C" is enclosed inside the conductive container "A". all the field lines extending from the

pos: Solar lamp have led to an international growth of photovoltaics. As of 2016, LED lamps use only about 10% of the energy an incandescent lamp requires. Efficiency in production of LED lamps has led to increased adoption as an alternative to other electric lighting. The whole structure of solar lamp is shown in Figure 2. Solar panels are made out of silicon, a semiconductor material. A solar cell has two different layers of silicon. The lower layer has less electrons and hence has a slight positive charge due to the negative charge nature of electrons. In addition, the upper layer has more

pos: Electron of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor. Electron The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum

pos: Pi backbonding Pi backbonding π backbonding, also called π backdonation, is a concept from chemistry in which electrons move from an atomic orbital on one atom to an appropriate symmetry antibonding orbital on a "π-acceptor ligand". It is especially common in the organometallic chemistry of transition metals with multi-atomic ligands such as carbon monoxide, ethylene or the nitrosonium cation. Electrons from the metal are used to bond to the ligand, in the process relieving the metal of excess negative charge. Compounds where π backbonding occurs include Ni(CO) and Zeise's salt. IUPAC offers the following definition for backbonding: A description of the bonding

pos: Pi backbonding are not involved in bonding as they are too high in energy. Pi backbonding π backbonding, also called π backdonation, is a concept from chemistry in which electrons move from an atomic orbital on one atom to an appropriate symmetry antibonding orbital on a "π-acceptor ligand". It is especially common in the organometallic chemistry of transition metals with multi-atomic ligands such as carbon monoxide, ethylene or the nitrosonium cation. Electrons from the metal are used to bond to the ligand, in the process relieving the metal of excess negative charge. Compounds where π backbonding occurs include Ni(CO) and Zeise's salt.

pos: Chemical polarity high electronegativitiessuch as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogenexert a greater pull on electrons than atoms with lower electronegativities such as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. In a bond, this leads to unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms, as electrons will be drawn closer to the atom with the higher electronegativity. Because electrons have a negative charge, the unequal sharing of electrons within a bond leads to the formation of an electric dipole: a separation of positive and negative electric charge. Because the amount of charge separated in such dipoles is usually smaller than a fundamental charge, they are called

pos: Chemical reaction reactions in organic chemistry are name reactions designated after their discoverers. In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group. These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a nucleophilic, electrophilic or radical substitution. In the first type, a nucleophile, an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge, replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair.

pos: Charge carrier Charge carrier In physics, a charge carrier is a particle or quasiparticle that is free to move, carrying an electric charge, especially the particles that carry electric charges in electrical conductors. Examples are electrons, ions and holes. In a conducting medium, an electric field can exert force on these free particles, causing a net motion of the particles through the medium; this is what constitutes an electric current. In different conducting media, different particles serve to carry charge: It can be seen that in some conductors, such as ionic solutions and plasmas, there are both positive and negative charge carriers,

pos: Electrostatics external charge, and move to the side of the metal facing it, creating a negative charge on the surface. When the electrons move out of an area they leave a positive charge due to the metal atoms' nuclei, so the side of the metal object facing away from the charge acquires a positive charge. These "induced charges" disappear when the external charge is removed. Induction is also responsible for the attraction of light objects, such as balloons, paper scraps and styrofoam packing peanuts to static charges. The surface charges induced in conductive objects exactly cancel external electric fields inside the

pos: Electron Electron The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, "ħ". As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with

neg: Electron violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei. If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object

neg: High-electron-mobility transistor excess electrons in its conduction band. These electrons will diffuse to the adjacent narrow band material’s conduction band due to the availability of states with lower energy. The movement of electrons will cause a change in potential and thus an electric field between the materials. The electric field will push electrons back to the wide band element’s conduction band. The diffusion process continues until electron diffusion and electron drift balance each other, creating a junction at equilibrium similar to a p-n junction. Note that the undoped narrow band gap material now has excess majority charge carriers. The fact that the

neg: Surface charge double layer, which has a broad range of applications in what is termed electrokinetic phenomena. The development of the theory of the electric double layer is described below. The model dubbed the 'electric double layer' was first introduced by Hermann von Helmholtz. It assumes that a solution is only composed of electrolytes, no reactions occur near the electrode which could transfer electrons, and that the only Van der Waals interactions are present between the ions in solution and the electrode. These interactions arise only due to the charge density associated with the electrode which arises from either an excess or

neg: Magnetism magnetic domains. Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge.

neg: Electrophile Electrophile In organic chemistry, an electrophile is a reagent attracted to electrons. Electrophiles are positively charged or neutral species having vacant orbitals that are attracted to an electron rich centre. It participates in a chemical reaction by accepting an electron pair in order to bond to a nucleophile. Because electrophiles accept electrons, they are Lewis acids (see acid-base reaction theories). Most electrophiles are positively charged, have an atom that carries a partial positive charge, or have an atom that does not have an octet of electrons. They appear to attract electrons as well and seem to behave as though they

neg: Electron is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect. Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed "free" electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are

neg: Drude model roughly a time to accelerate in response to a change in the electrical field. Here the Drude model is applied to electrons; it can be applied both to electrons and holes; i.e., positive charge carriers in semiconductors. The curves for are shown in the graph. If an oscillating sinusoidal electric field with frequency formula_19 is applied to the solid, the negatively charged electrons behave as a plasma that tends to move a distance "x" apart from the positively charged background. As a result, the sample is polarized and there will be an excess charge at the opposite surfaces of the

neg: Electromotive force from the copper electrode by the reduction reaction: in effect leaving a deficit of electrons on the copper cathode. The difference of excess electrons on the anode and deficit of electrons on the cathode creates an electrical potential between the two electrodes. (A detailed discussion of the microscopic process of electron transfer between an electrode and the ions in an electrolyte may be found in Conway.) If the cathode and anode are connected by an external conductor, electrons would pass through that external circuit (light bulb in figure), while the ions pass through the salt bridge to maintain charge balance

neg: Electrostatic discharge some types of plastic packaging. In all these cases, the breaking of contact between two materials results in tribocharging, thus creating a difference of electrical potential that can lead to an ESD event. Another cause of ESD damage is through electrostatic induction. This occurs when an electrically charged object is placed near a conductive object isolated from the ground. The presence of the charged object creates an electrostatic field that causes electrical charges on the surface of the other object to redistribute. Even though the net electrostatic charge of the object has not changed, it now has regions of excess

neg: Space charge away from the surface atoms and surround the metal object in a cloud of free electrons. This is called thermionic emission. The resulting cloud is negatively charged, and can be attracted to any nearby positively charged object, thus producing an electric current which passes through the vacuum. Space charge can result from a range of phenomena, but the most important are: It has been suggested that in alternating current (AC) most carriers injected at electrodes during a half of cycle are ejected during the next half cycle, so the net balance of charge on a cycle is practically zero. However,

neg: Dharmakirti a weak form of correspondence theory, which holds that to "confirm causal efficacy" ("arthakriyāsthiti") is to have a justification that an object of cognition has the causal powers we expected. That justification comes through a certain kind of non-conceptual perception ("pratyakṣa") which is said to be an "intrinsical source of knowledge" ("svataḥ prāmāṇya") which is ultimately reliable. Dharmakīrti sees a cognition as being valid if it has a causal connection with the object of cognition through an intrinsically valid, un-conceptual perception of the object which does not err regarding its functionality. As Dharmakirti says: "A pramāṇa is a reliable cognition.

neg: Video camera tube not contain sufficient energy to eject further electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge that has been built-up in that region. Since darker images produce less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a "dark" region by the scanning electron beam. This effect was actually "cultivated" by tube manufacturers to a certain extent, as a small, carefully controlled amount of the dark halo has the effect of "crispening" the visual image due to the contrast effect. (That is, giving the illusion of being more sharply focused than

neg: Metal nitrosyl complex be analyzed with the Enemark-Feltham notation. In their framework, the factor that determines the bent vs linear NO ligands is the sum of electrons of pi-symmetry. Complexes with "pi-electrons" in excess of 6 tend to have bent NO ligands. Thus, [Co(en)(NO)Cl], with seven electrons of pi-symmetry (six in t orbitals and one on NO), adopts a bent NO ligand, whereas [Fe(CN)(NO)], with six electrons of pi-symmetry, adopts a linear nitrosyl. In a further illustration, the {MNO} d-electron count of the [Cr(CN)NO] anion is shown. In this example, the cyanide ligands are "innocent", i.e., they have a charge of −1 each,

neg: Static electricity to the interaction of electric charges falls off rapidly with increasing distance, the effect of the closer (opposite polarity) charges is greater and the two objects feel a force of attraction. The effect is most pronounced when the neutral object is an electrical conductor as the charges are more free to move around. Careful grounding of part of an object with a charge-induced charge separation can permanently add or remove electrons, leaving the object with a global, permanent charge. This process is integral to the workings of the Van de Graaff generator, a device commonly used to demonstrate the effects

neg: Music in advertising service’s value is enhanced by the connection to music. It adopts meanings which are inherent in the music because “the object itself is not enough to sell it; it must also be linked to some sort of personal meaning, the very essence of branding.” That means that a brand or product has to pick up some kind of connotation which is added by the music. Also a certain artist can change or shape an advert so that it fits a certain target group. “Advertising is not about what the product does but who the consumer is” and so advertisements have

neg: Charge-coupled device the extent of cooling) that together lead to an effective readout noise ranging from 0.01 to 1 electrons per pixel read. However, recent improvements in EMCCD technology have led to a new generation of cameras capable of producing significantly less CIC, higher charge transfer efficiency and an EM gain 5 times higher than what was previously available. These advances in low-light detection lead to an effective total background noise of 0.001 electrons per pixel read, a noise floor unmatched by any other low-light imaging device. Due to the high quantum efficiencies of CCDs (for a quantum efficiency of 100%, one

neg: HD 12039 system does not show any excess emission at 70 μm, indicating it does not have a cold outer dust disk. The star was examined for the presence of an extrasolar planet with a mass in the range 2-10 Jupiter masses and an orbital distance of 3-15.5 AU. Instead, in 2007, a close stellar companion was likely discovered. This object is separated from the primary by 0.15 arcseconds, making it unlikely to be a background object. This star has been proposed as a member of the Tucana-Horoglium Association (T-WA), a stream of young stars with a common motion through space. The

neg: Electron quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass. When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations. At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon

neg: Bernard Bolzano though the parts of both ideas are the same. It is important to understand that an idea does not need to have an object. Bolzano uses "object" to denote something that is represented by an idea. An idea that has an object, represents that object. But an idea that does not have an object represents nothing. (Don't get confused here by terminology: an objectless idea is an idea without a representation.) Let's consider, for further explanation, an example used by Bolzano. The idea [a round square], does not have an object, because the object that ought to be represented is

neg: Redox does not represent the physical potential at an electrode. With this notation, the cell voltage equation is written with a plus sign A good example is the reaction between hydrogen and fluorine in which hydrogen is being oxidized and fluorine is being reduced: We can write this overall reaction as two half-reactions: the oxidation reaction: and the reduction reaction: Analyzing each half-reaction in isolation can often make the overall chemical process clearer. Because there is no net change in charge during a redox reaction, the number of electrons in excess in the oxidation reaction must equal the number consumed by

neg: Ion carbon to hydrogen bond are called "organic ions". If the charge in an organic ion is formally centred on a carbon, it is termed a "carbocation" (if positively charged) or "carbanion" (if negatively charged). Monatomic ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons to the valence shell (the outer-most electron shell) in an atom. The inner shells of an atom are filled with electrons that are tightly bound to the positively charged atomic nucleus, and so do not participate in this kind of chemical interaction. The process of gaining or losing electrons from a neutral atom or molecule

neg: Rydberg formula important to notice that this formula can be directly applied only to hydrogen-like, also called "hydrogenic" atoms of chemical elements, i.e. atoms with only one electron being affected by an effective nuclear charge (which is easily estimated). Examples would include He, Li, Be etc., where no other electrons exist in the atom. But the Rydberg formula also provides correct wavelengths for distant electrons, where the effective nuclear charge can be estimated as the same as that for hydrogen, since all but one of the nuclear charges have been screened by other electrons, and the core of the atom has an

neg: Electrostatics some situations (e.g. electronics manufacturing). When working in direct contact with integrated circuit electronics (especially delicate MOSFETs), or in the presence of flammable gas, care must be taken to avoid accumulating and suddenly discharging a static charge (see electrostatic discharge). Electrostatic induction, discovered by British scientist John Canton in 1753 and Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke in 1762 is a redistribution of charges in an object caused by the electric field of a nearby charge. For example, if a positively charged object is brought near an uncharged metal object, the mobile negatively-charged electrons in the metal will be attracted the

neg: Philosophy of mathematics their places in a structure, the number line. Other examples of mathematical objects might include lines and planes in geometry, or elements and operations in abstract algebra. Structuralism is an epistemologically realistic view in that it holds that mathematical statements have an objective truth value. However, its central claim only relates to what "kind" of entity a mathematical object is, not to what kind of "existence" mathematical objects or structures have (not, in other words, to their ontology). The kind of existence mathematical objects have would clearly be dependent on that of the structures in which they are embedded; different

neg: Bernard Bolzano self-contrary. A different example is the idea [nothing] which certainly does not have an object. However, the proposition [the idea of a round square has complexity] has as its subject-idea [the idea of a round square]. This subject-idea does have an object, namely the idea [a round square]. But, that idea does not have an object. Besides objectless ideas, there are ideas that have only one object, e.g. the idea [the first man on the moon] represents only one object. Bolzano calls these ideas 'singular ideas'. Obviously there are also ideas that have many objects (e.g. [the citizens of Amsterdam])

neg: Capacitance differences between nanoscale capacitors and macroscopic (conventional) capacitors are the number of excess electrons (charge carriers, or electrons, that contribute to the device's electronic behavior) and the shape and size of metallic electrodes. In nanoscale devices, nanowires consisting of metal atoms typically do not exhibit the same conductive properties as their macroscopic, or bulk material, counterparts. In electronic and semiconductor devices, transient or frequency-dependent current between terminals contains both conduction and displacement components. Conduction current is related to moving charge carriers (electrons, holes, ions, etc.), while displacement current is caused by time-varying electric field. Carrier transport is affected by electric

neg: Charge carrier some energy to overpass the energy gap. The more abundant charge carriers are called majority carriers, which are primarily responsible for current transport in a piece of semiconductor. In n-type semiconductors they are electrons, while in p-type semiconductors they are holes. The less abundant charge carriers are called minority carriers; in n-type semiconductors they are holes, while in p-type semiconductors they are electrons. In an intrinsic semiconductor, which does not contain any impurity, the concentrations of both types of carriers are ideally equal. If an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a donor impurity then the majority carriers are electrons; if

neg: Charge density if an electric current of charge flows into or out of the volume. This is expressed by a continuity equation which links the rate of change of charge density formula_2 and the current density formula_6. Since all charge is carried by subatomic particles, which can be idealized as points, the concept of a "continuous" charge distribution is an approximation, which becomes inaccurate at small length scales. A charge distribution is ultimately composed of individual charged particles separated by regions containing no charge. For example the charge in an electrically charged metal object is made up of conduction electrons moving randomly

neg: Chemical bond of such covalent polymers and networks increase greatly. In a simplified view of an "ionic" bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the

neg: Structuralism (philosophy of mathematics) number line. Other examples of mathematical objects might include lines and planes in geometry, or elements and operations in abstract algebra. Structuralism is an epistemologically realistic view in that it holds that mathematical statements have an objective truth value. However, its central claim only relates to what "kind" of entity a mathematical object is, not to what kind of "existence" mathematical objects or structures have (not, in other words, to their ontology). The kind of existence mathematical objects have would clearly be dependent on that of the structures in which they are embedded; different sub-varieties of structuralism make different ontological

neg: Art as Experience that indicates but does not contain meaning: it is only enjoyed because of what they remind us of. Also, whereas a statement or a diagram takes us to many things of the same kind, an expressive object is individualized, for example in expressing a particular depression. Consistent with his non-dualistic thinking, Dewey does not draw a sharp distinction between substance and form. He states that “there can be no distinction drawn, save in reflection, between form and substance.” For Dewey, substance is different from subject. One could say that Keats’ Ode to a Nightingale has a nightingale for a subject,

neg: Circular motion one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth’s gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object’s inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction. A varying angular

neg: Lewis structure general, the formal charge of an atom can be calculated using the following formula, assuming non-standard definitions for the markup used: where: The formal charge of an atom is computed as the difference between the number of valence electrons that a neutral atom would have and the number of electrons that belong to it in the Lewis structure. Electrons in covalent bonds are split equally between the atoms involved in the bond. The total of the formal charges on an ion should be equal to the charge on the ion, and the total of the formal charges on a neutral

neg: Electronegativity Electronegativity Electronegativity, symbol "χ", is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density) towards itself. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity number, the more an atom or a substituent group attracts electrons towards itself. On the most basic level, electronegativity is determined by factors like the nuclear charge (the more protons an atom has, the more "pull" it will have on electrons) and the number/location of

neg: Relative clause matrix clause, but the direct object of the relative clause. A free relative clause, on the other hand, does not have an explicit antecedent external to itself. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence "I like what I see", the clause "what I see" is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb "like" in the main clause. (An alternative analysis is that the free relative clause has zero as its antecedent.) Bound relative clauses may

neg: Ramsey–Lewis method scientific theory into second-order logic is commonly called "Ramsification" (sometimes also spelled "Ramseyfication"). Example: Suppose there are only three principles in our scientific theory about electrons (those principles can be seen to be statements involving the properties): A1. Electrons (things that have P1) have charge (P2). A2. Things with charge (P2) tickle you. A3. Electrons (things that have P1) cause lightning. Furthermore, we include the property of "electronhood", as outlined above, to be designated by "P", and the property of "charge" to be designated by "P". Then the meaning of a sentence such as "I have an electron in my

neg: Introduction to electromagnetism made is iron. It has a north and south pole, and cannot be split into a monopole — in other words, a north pole does not exist without a south pole. Electrons moving around atoms can create a magnetic field if their effects sum up constructively. For magnetic materials like iron, the magnetic fields of the electrons moving around the nucleus add up, while for non-magnetic materials the effects average out to zero net magnetic field. Inductance is the ability of an object to resist a change in current. From Ampère's law one can conclude that the magnetic field within

neg: Transduction (biophysics) called "resonant-energy-transferring" molecules of the chlorophyll class, which transfer what is considered electromagnetic energy, from one to its neighbor with no participation of electrons nor enzymes. At this stage, if the first pigment has received an excess of light, the "exciton" perhaps might "dissipate" the energy as heat. Transduction (biophysics) In biophysics, transduction is the conveyance of energy from one electron (a donor) to another (a receptor), at the same time that the class of energy changes. Photonic energy, the kinetic energy of a photon, may follow the following paths: In photosynthesis, when the electrons of the "chlorophyll pair" receive

neg: Alkaline earth metal charges and the ability to attain a full outer shell configuration by losing just two electrons. The second ionization energy of all of the alkaline metals is also somewhat low. Beryllium is an exception: It does not react with water or steam, and its halides are covalent. If beryllium did form compounds with an ionization state of +2, it would polarize electron clouds that are near it very strongly and would cause extensive orbital overlap, since beryllium has a high charge density. All compounds that include beryllium have a covalent bond. Even the compound beryllium fluoride, which is the most

neg: Oxidation state chromium in [Cr(CO)]. The increase in oxidation state of an atom, through a chemical reaction, is known as an oxidation; a decrease in oxidation state is known as a reduction. Such reactions involve the formal transfer of electrons: a net gain in electrons being a reduction, and a net loss of electrons being an oxidation. For pure elements, the oxidation state is zero. The oxidation state of an atom does not represent the "real" charge on that atom, or any other actual atomic property. This is particularly true of high oxidation states, where the ionization energy required to produce a

neg: Object language to achieve". If the source language and object languages are viewed as formal (logical) languages, what the compiler does is "interpret" the source into the target language (this is different from the computer science use of "interpreted language" meaning one which is "not" compiled). "Object language" in this context is synonymous with "target language". The object language of a translation most often is a machine language, but can be some other kind of language, such as assembly language. Because the object language of compilation has usually been machine language, the term "object file" has come to mean a file containing

neg: Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter in "Nature" the finding of a surplus of high energy electrons. During a 5-week observatory period in 2000 and 2003, ATIC counted 70 electrons with energies in the range 300-800 GeV; these electrons were in excess of those expected from the galactic background. The source of these electrons is unknown, but it is assumed to be relatively close, no more than about 3000 lightyears away, since high energy electrons rapidly lose energy as they travel through the galactic magnetic field and collide with photons. The electrons could originate from a nearby pulsar or other astrophysical object, but the researchers were

neg: Inventory (museum) museums to complete and maintain their inventory systems because "If a museum does not know what is in its collection, where the works are located, and the condition they are in, it, in effect, invites theft because it will have no immediate sense that an object has disappeared, and most important, it will have no descriptive information to aid the recovery of an object in the event of a theft." <br> The type of inventory system used by a museum will be dictated by the Collections Management Policy (CMP). The CMP will determine how often items, what items, and how

neg: Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza of someone."(E2P36d). That is, even though ideas considered objectively as elements of the universe are always adequate (meaning their relation to their object is total), when a particular individual has an idea of something, such an idea is necessarily incomplete, and therefore, inadequate. This is the source of falsehood. Spinoza discusses the three kinds of knowledge in E2P40s2. Spinoza thinks there are two ways we can have the first kind of knowledge: He calls these two ways "knowledge of the first kind, opinion or imagination." Spinoza argues that the second kind of knowledge arises: He goes on to explain what

neg: Fajans' rules in an ionic bond depends on the number of electrons transferred. An aluminium atom, for example, with a +3 charge has a relatively large positive charge. That positive charge then exerts an attractive force on the electron cloud of the other ion, which has accepted the electrons from the aluminium (or other) positive ion. Two contrasting examples can illustrate the variation in effects. In the case of aluminium iodide an ionic bond with much covalent character is present. In the AlI bonding, the aluminium gains a +3 charge. The large charge pulls on the electron cloud of the iodines. Now,

neg: Madhyamaka like understanding how an optical illusion works does not make it stop functioning. What is required is a kind of cognitive shift (termed "realization") in the way the world appears and therefore some kind of practice to lead to this shift. As Candrakirti says:For one on the road of cyclic existence who pursues an inverted view due to ignorance, a mistaken object such as the superimposition ("samāropa") on the aggregates appears as real, but it does not appear to one who is close to the view of the real nature of things.Much of Madhyamaka philosophy centers on showing how various

neg: Hubbard model in describing systems such as a 1D chain of hydrogen atoms, it is important to note that in more complex systems there may be other effects that the Hubbard model does not consider. In general, insulators can be divided into Mott–Hubbard type insulators (see Mott insulator) and charge-transfer insulators. Consider the following description of a Mott–Hubbard insulator: This can be seen as analogous to the Hubbard model for hydrogen chains, where conduction between unit cells can be described by a transfer integral. However, it is possible for the electrons to exhibit another kind of behavior: This is known as charge

neg: The Body (2001 film) determine the age (and therefore date the tomb) and figure out what the jar was used for. Thermoluminescence dating is commonly used on ancient pottery and tools. This technique is used to determine the time passed since an object was fired (such as pottery). It has been found to be very accurate, to within ±1 to 10%. It works by thermally stimulating the object in question, thereby releasing the energy accumulated in the object during its preliminary excitation. In other words, when an object is fired, electrons are released within the object itself and its 'clock' is set to "0".

neg: Ion seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as . Caesium has the lowest measured ionization energy of all the elements and helium has the greatest. In general, the ionization energy of metals is much lower than the ionization energy of nonmetals, which is why, in general, metals will lose electrons to form positively charged ions and nonmetals will gain electrons to form negatively charged ions. "Ionic bonding" is a kind of chemical bonding that arises from the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions. Ions of like charge repel each other, and ions

neg: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy have been deliberately insulated from the sample mount. Charge induced shifting is normally due to: a modest excess of low voltage (-1 to -20 eV) electrons attached to the surface, or a modest shortage of electrons (+1 to +15 eV) within the top 1-12 nm of the sample caused by the loss of photo-emitted electrons. The degree of charging depends on various factors. If, by chance, the charging of the surface is excessively positive, then the spectrum might appear as a series of rolling hills, not sharp peaks as shown in the example spectrum. The C (1s) BE of the

neg: Positron equivalent to other pictures, but it does not have anything to do with the macroscopic terms "cause" and "effect", which do not appear in a microscopic physical description. Dmitri Skobeltsyn first observed the positron in 1929. While using a Wilson cloud chamber to try to detect gamma radiation in cosmic rays, Skobeltsyn detected particles that acted like electrons but curved in the opposite direction in an applied magnetic field. Likewise, in 1929 Chung-Yao Chao, a graduate student at Caltech, noticed some anomalous results that indicated particles behaving like electrons, but with a positive charge, though the results were inconclusive and

neg: Transparency and translucency When light strikes an object, it usually has not just a single frequency (or wavelength) but many. Objects have a tendency to selectively absorb, reflect or transmit light of certain frequencies. That is, one object might reflect green light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. Another object might selectively transmit blue light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. The manner in which visible light interacts with an object is dependent upon the frequency of the light, the nature of the atoms in the object, and often the nature of the electrons in the atoms of the

neg: Electrostatic levitation been made in JAXA and NASA, and the original system has been transferred to California Institute of Technology with an upgraded setup of tetrahedra four beam laser heating system. On the Moon the photoelectric effect and electrons in the solar wind charge fine layers of moon dust on the surface forming an atmosphere of dust that floats in "fountains" over the surface of the moon. Electrostatic levitation Electrostatic levitation is the process of using an electric field to levitate a charged object and counteract the effects of gravity. It was used, for instance, in Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment and

neg: Cathodoluminescence crystal leads to the emission of secondary electrons, Auger electrons and X-rays, which in turn can scatter as well. Such a cascade of scattering events leads to up to 10 secondary electrons per incident electron. These secondary electrons can excite valence electrons into the conduction band when they have a kinetic energy about three times the band gap energy of the material formula_1. The excess energy is transferred to phonons and thus heats the lattice. One of the advantages of excitation with an electron beam is that the band gap energy of materials that are investigated is not limited by

neg: Renormalization group forces, or mass parameters themselves. The components themselves may appear to be composed of more of the self-same components as one goes to shorter distances. For example, in quantum electrodynamics (QED), an electron appears to be composed of electrons, positrons (anti-electrons) and photons, as one views it at higher resolution, at very short distances. The electron at such short distances has a slightly different electric charge than does the dressed electron seen at large distances, and this change, or "running", in the value of the electric charge is determined by the renormalization group equation. The idea of scale transformations and

neg: Extrinsic semiconductor extra valence electrons to a semiconductor's conduction band, providing excess electrons to the intrinsic semiconductor. Excess electrons increase the electron carrier concentration (n) of the semiconductor, making it n-type. Acceptor impurity atoms have fewer valence electrons than the atoms they replace in the intrinsic semiconductor lattice. They "accept" electrons from the semiconductor's valence band. This provides excess holes to the intrinsic semiconductor. Excess holes increase the hole carrier concentration (p) of the semiconductor, creating a p-type semiconductor. Semiconductors and dopant atoms are defined by the column of the periodic table in which they fall. The column definition of the semiconductor

neg: Isoelectronicity shell. Similarly, the cations , , and and the anions , , and are all isoelectronic with the atom. In such monatomic cases, there is a clear trend in the sizes of such species, with atomic radius decreasing as charge increases. CO, , , , and are isoelectronic because each has two nuclei and 10 valence electrons, with each atom considered to have 5 of them (a lone-pair and a triple-bond). Isoelectronicity does not relate to formal charge on the atoms in a structure: these all have the same configuration even though carbon monoxide has formal charges that are balanced

neg: Bǎ construction Li, "the disposal form states how a person is handled, manipulated, or dealt with; how something is disposed of; or how an affair is conducted," or, in other words, "what happens to" the object. Therefore, it is generally used with verbs that are high in transitivity, a property that describes the effect a verb has on its object; "bǎ" does not occur grammatically with verbs that express states or emotions, such as "love" and "miss," or with verbs that express activities that have no effect on the direct object, such as "sing" and "see." The direct object of a "bǎ"

neg: Electrochemical potential confusion. The two quantities have different meanings and different dimensions: the dimension of electrochemical potential is energy per mole while that of electrode potential is voltage (energy per charge). Electrochemical potential In electrochemistry, the electrochemical potential, "", sometimes abbreviated to ECP, is a thermodynamic measure of chemical potential that does not omit the energy contribution of electrostatics. Electrochemical potential is expressed in the unit of J/mol. Each chemical species (for example, "water molecules", "sodium ions", "electrons", etc.) has an electrochemical potential (a quantity with units of energy) at any given point in space, which represents how easy or difficult it

neg: Maya (religion) image of a magical illusion as its central metaphor. The "Nyānānusāra Śāstra", a Vaibhāṣika response to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakosha cites the "Māyājāla sutra" and explains: “Seeing an illusory object (māyā)”: Although what one apprehends is unreal, nothing more than an illusory sign. If one does not admit this much, then an illusory sign should be non-existent. What is an illusory sign? It is the result of illusion magic. Just as one with higher gnosis can magically create forms, likewise this illusory sign does actually have manifestation and shape. Being produced by illusion magic, it acts as the object of vision. That

neg: Quantum teleportation photon modes, single atoms, atomic ensembles, defect centers in solids, single electrons, and superconducting circuits have been employed as information bearers. The movement of qubits does not require the movement of "things" any more than communication over the internet does: no quantum object needs to be transported, but it is necessary to communicate two classical bits per teleported qubit from the sender to the receiver. The actual teleportation protocol requires that an entangled quantum state or Bell state be created, and its two parts shared between two locations (the source and destination, or Alice and Bob). In essence, a certain

neg: Pratītyasamutpāda the Sarvastivada-Vaibhāṣika interpretation to mean: "inherent existence" or "self-characterization." Nagarjuna notably rejected the idea of "dharmas" containing svabhāva, meaning 'a self-sustaining, permanent, or unchanging identity.' If a "dharma" was inherently what-it-was from its own side, what need would there be for causes and conditions to bring that object into being? If any object was characterized by 'being-itself,' then it has no need to dependently rely on anything else. Further, such an identity or self-characterization would prevent the process of dependent origination. Inherence would prevent any kind of origination at all, for things would simply always have been, and things would

neg: Type-1.5 superconductor interband proximity effect In 2014 experimental study suggested that Sr2RuO4 is type-1.5 superconductor In Type-I and Type-II superconductors charge flow patterns are dramatically different. Type I has two state-defining properties: Lack of electric resistance and the fact that it does not allow an external magnetic field to pass through it. When a magnetic field is applied to these materials, superconducting electrons produce a strong current on the surface which in turn produces a magnetic field in the opposite direction. Inside this type of superconductor, the external magnetic field and the field created by the surface flow of electrons add up

neg: Transparency and translucency origin. Thus they are affected strongly when coming into contact with negatively charged electrons in matter. When photons (individual packets of light energy) come in contact with the valence electrons of atom, one of several things can and will occur: Most of the time, it is a combination of the above that happens to the light that hits an object. The states in different materials vary in the range of energy that they can absorb. Most glasses, for example, block ultraviolet (UV) light. What happens is the electrons in the glass absorb the energy of the photons in the UV

neg: Polar metal the free electrons in the metal would neutralise the effect of the polarization at a global level, but that the conduction electrons do not strongly affect transverse optical phonons, or the local electric field inherent in ferroelectricity. Polar metal A polar metal, metallic ferroeletric, or ferroelectric metal is a metal that contains an electric dipole moment. Its components have an ordered electric dipole. Such metals should be unexpected, because the charge should conduct by way of the free electrons in the metal and neutralize the polarized charge. However they do exist. One substance family that can produce a polar metal

neg: Electron the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy. Electrons play an essential role in numerous physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, chemistry and thermal conductivity, and they also participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. Since an electron has charge, it has a

neg: Magnetic monopole a new elementary particle, and would violate Gauss's law for magnetism . A monopole of this kind, which would help to explain the law of charge quantization as formulated by Paul Dirac in 1931, has never been observed in experiments. The monopoles studied by condensed-matter groups have none of these properties. They are not a new elementary particle, but rather are an emergent phenomenon in systems of everyday particles (protons, neutrons, electrons, photons); in other words, they are quasi-particles. They are not sources for the -field (i.e., they do not violate ); instead, they are sources for other fields, for

neg: Atom to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details. Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle

neg: Charge density many of them in a macroscopic volume (there are about 10 conduction electrons in a cubic centimeter of copper) the continuous approximation is very accurate when applied to macroscopic volumes, and even microscopic volumes above the nanometer level. At atomic scales, due to the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, a charged particle does not "have" a precise position but is represented by a probability distribution, so the charge of an individual particle is not concentrated at a point but is 'smeared out' in space and acts like a true continuous charge distribution. This is the meaning of 'charge distribution' and

neg: Effective atomic number Effective atomic number Effective atomic number has two different meanings: one that is the effective nuclear charge of an atom, and one that calculates the average atomic number for a compound or mixture of materials. Both are abbreviated Z. The effective atomic number Z, (sometimes referred to as the effective nuclear charge) of an atom is the number of protons that an electron in the element effectively 'sees' due to screening by inner-shell electrons. It is a measure of the electrostatic interaction between the negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons in the atom. One can view the electrons in

neg: Polywell recirculation would significantly improve the function of these machines. It has been argued that efficient recirculation is the only way they can be viable. Electrons or ions move through the device without striking a surface, reducing conduction losses. Bussard stressed this; specifically emphasizing that electrons need to move through all cusps of the machine. it had not been determined conclusively what the ion or electron energy distribution is. The energy distribution of the plasma can be measured using a Langmuir probe. This probe absorbs charge from the plasma as its voltage changes, making an I-V Curve. From this signal, the