query: which european state seized libya from the ottoman empire in 1911

pos: Ottoman Tripolitania failed before him, securing the enduring loyalty of the Amazigh tribes of Cyrenaica. Over a 75‑year period the Ottoman Turks provided 33 governors and Libya remained part of the empire—although at times virtually autonomous—until Italy invaded for the second time in 1911, as the Ottoman Empire was collapsing. The Italo-Turkish War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912. As a result of this conflict, the Ottoman Turks ceded the provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica to Italy. These provinces together formed what became known as Libya. Sanjaks of

pos: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire Prince of Bulgaria had been Governor-General since 1885). The Italo-Turkish or (also known in Italy as "guerra di Libia", "the Libyan war", and in Turkey as "Trablusgarp Savaşı") was fought between the Ottoman Empire and Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912. Italy seized the Ottoman provinces of and , together forming what became known as Libya. Following the First Balkan War, the Autonomous Principality of Samos, an Ottoman tributary state, was annexed to Greece in November 1912. Bulgaria was lost to the Ottomans after more than 500 years of continuous rule. See figure, right. Italy also gained

pos: Battle of Tripoli (1911) Battle of Tripoli (1911) The Battle of Tripoli was fought in October 1911, during the initial stages of the Italo-Turkish War, and saw the capture of Tripoli, capital city of Tripolitania (and present-day Libya), by Italian landing forces. It marked the beginning of the land campaign in Libya of the Italo-Turkish War as well as the beginning of the Italian colonization of Libya. The Kingdom of Italy, seeking to conquer Libya from the Ottoman Empire, declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 29 September 1911, starting the Italo-Turkish War. After the declaration of war, an Italian naval squadron under Admiral

pos: Military history of Libya government responded by deploying its navy to region along with the Marines to combat the North African state of Tripolitania. This was the first overseas conflict of the United States. Both the Barbary Wars resulted in American victories. Some Libyans claim "victory" as the ship USS Philadelphia (1799) was deceived and lured, then captured by Libyans. They cite continued harbor duty payments as evidence. The USS Philadelphia (1799) stayed until 1804 when the matter was resolved. The Italo-Turkish War was a Colonial War fought between the Ottoman Empire and Italy from 29 September 1911 to 18 October 1912. Italy seized

pos: Italian colonization of Libya Italian colonization of Libya The history of Libya as an Italian colony began in the 1910s and lasted until February 1947, when Italy officially lost all the colonies of the former Italian Empire. It can be divided in two periods: the first from 1911 to 1934 called "Italian colonization" and the second from 1934 called "Italian Libya" (after the creation of "Libya" as a political entity). The Italian colonization of Libya started in 1910. On 3 October 1911, Italy attacked Tripoli, claiming to be liberating the Ottoman Wilayats from Istanbul's rule. Despite a major revolt by the Arabs, the Ottoman

pos: Italian invasion of Libya was fully controlled by the Italians and integrated into Italian Libya and into Italy's Fourth Shore until World War II. Italian invasion of Libya The Invasion of Libya by Italy happened in 1911, when Italian troops invaded the Turkish province of Libya (then part of the Ottoman Empire) and started the Italo-Turkish War. As result, Italian Libya was established. The claims of Italy over Libya dated back to verbal discussions after the Congress of Berlin (1878), in which France and Great Britain had agreed for the occupation of Tunisia and, respectively, Cyprus, both part of the then ailing Ottoman Empire.

pos: History of the Mediterranean region area dominated by foreigners. The Ottoman Empire also began a slow decline that saw its North African possessions gain de facto independence and its European holdings gradually reduced by the increasing power of Austria and Russia. By the nineteenth century the European States were vastly more powerful, and began to colonize North Africa. France spread its power south by taking Algeria in 1830 and later Tunisia. Britain gained control of Egypt in 1882. Italy conquered Libya from the Ottomans in 1911. Greece achieved independence in 1832. The Ottoman Empire finally collapsed in the First World War, and its holdings were

pos: Italian invasion of Libya Italian invasion of Libya The Invasion of Libya by Italy happened in 1911, when Italian troops invaded the Turkish province of Libya (then part of the Ottoman Empire) and started the Italo-Turkish War. As result, Italian Libya was established. The claims of Italy over Libya dated back to verbal discussions after the Congress of Berlin (1878), in which France and Great Britain had agreed for the occupation of Tunisia and, respectively, Cyprus, both part of the then ailing Ottoman Empire. When Italian diplomats hinted about a possible opposition of their government, the French replied that Tripoli would have been a

pos: Battle of Tripoli (1911) few weeks later, the Ottoman and Arab forces would attempt to retake Tripoli in the battle of Sciara Sciat, but without success. Battle of Tripoli (1911) The Battle of Tripoli was fought in October 1911, during the initial stages of the Italo-Turkish War, and saw the capture of Tripoli, capital city of Tripolitania (and present-day Libya), by Italian landing forces. It marked the beginning of the land campaign in Libya of the Italo-Turkish War as well as the beginning of the Italian colonization of Libya. The Kingdom of Italy, seeking to conquer Libya from the Ottoman Empire, declared war on

pos: Ottoman wars in Europe In 1911, Italy invaded Ottoman Tripolitania (During the decolonisation of Africa, Tripolitania became Libya), which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The war ended with the annexation of the Tripolitania. Bulgarian insurrection from 1903. See Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising. Two Balkan Wars, in 1912 and 1913, involved further action against the Ottoman Empire in Europe. The Balkan League first conquered Macedonia and most of Thrace from the Ottoman Empire, and then fell out over the division of the spoils. Albania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, after several rebellions and uprisings. This reduced Turkey's possessions in Europe (Rumelia) to

pos: Italo-Turkish War Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911-1912)". With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz. Italo-Turkish War The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (, "Tripolitanian War"; also known in Italy as "Guerra di Libia", "Libyan War") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912. As a result of this conflict, Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province), of which the main sub-provinces ("sanjaks") were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories together formed what became known as Italian Libya. During the conflict, Italian

pos: Italo-Turkish War in favour of an invasion of Libya at the end of March 1911. It was fancifully depicted as rich in minerals, well-watered, and defended by only 4,000 Ottoman troops. Also, the population was described as hostile to the Ottoman Empire and friendly to the Italians: the future invasion was going to be little more than a "military walk", according to them. Italy's government remained committed into 1911 to the maintenance of the Ottoman Empire, which was a close friend of their German ally. Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti rejected nationalist calls for conflict over Ottoman Albania, which was seen as a

pos: Italian Libya Italian Libya Italian Libya (; , ) was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy located in North Africa, in what is now modern Libya. Italian Libya was formed from the Italian colonies of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania that were taken by the Kingdom of Italy from the Ottoman Empire in 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911 to 1912. The unified colony was established in 1934 by governor Italo Balbo, with Tripoli as the capital. The territory of Italian Libya was also called Italian North Africa ("Africa Settentrionale Italiana", or ASI), both before and after its unification. Since 1923, indigenous

pos: Italian Empire Association, which pressed for the expansion of Italy's empire. Newspapers were filled with talk of revenge for the humiliations suffered in Ethiopia at the end of the previous century, and of nostalgia for the Roman era. Libya, it was suggested, as an ex-Roman colony, should be "taken back" to provide a solution to the problems of Southern Italy's population growth. Fearful of being excluded altogether from North Africa by Britain and France, and mindful of public opinion, Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti ordered the declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire, of which Libya was part, in October 1911. As a

pos: Libya–European Union relations was later enveloped into the Roman Empire after the Punic Wars. Libya was part of the Ottoman Empire, which fell apart following the events of WWI. From 1912 to 1943, Libya was controlled by Italy. Italy lost the land during the North African Campaign of WWII. The United Kingdom and France administered the region until on 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya. Prior to the 2011 Libyan civil war, the EU and Libya were negotiating a cooperation agreement which has now been frozen. The EU worked to apply sanctions over the Libyan conflict,

pos: Libyan resistance movement fought on the side of Italy between 1940 and 1943: two divisions of Libyan colonial troops were created in the late 1930s and 30,000 native Libyans fought for Italy during World War II. Libyan resistance movement The Libyan resistance movement was the name given to the Libyan side during the "Pacification of Libya", which occurred between 1923 and 1932. The Italian Empire seized the territory that is modern day Libya from the Ottoman Empire, and -according to dictator Gaddafi and his followers- implemented a genocide campaign on its occupants in Cyrenaica, killing 20% of its population: the Italians committed many

pos: Italian settlers in Libya Italian settlers in Libya Italian settlers in Libya (, also called Italian Libyans) typically refers to Italians, and their descendants, who resided or were born in Italian Libya, in the colonial period preceding independent Libya. Italian heritage in Libya can be dated back to Ancient Rome, when the Romans controlled and colonized Libya for a period of more than five centuries prior to the fall of the Roman Empire and its takeover by Arab and Turkish civilizations. But predominantly Italian heritage in Libya refers to modern-day Italians. In 1911, the Kingdom of Italy waged war on the Ottoman Empire and

pos: Italo-Turkish War Italo-Turkish War The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (, "Tripolitanian War"; also known in Italy as "Guerra di Libia", "Libyan War") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912. As a result of this conflict, Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province), of which the main sub-provinces ("sanjaks") were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories together formed what became known as Italian Libya. During the conflict, Italian forces also occupied the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Italy had agreed to return the Dodecanese to the Ottoman Empire in

pos: Pacification of Libya and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era".These declarations about apologies received harsh critics from the "Associazione Rifugiati Italiani dalla Libia" and from some Italian historians because "based on false assumptions created by Gaddafi propaganda" Italy had seized military control over Libya from the Ottoman Empire during the Italo-Turkish War in 1912, but the new colony swiftly revolted and transferred large areas of land to Libyan local rule. Conflict between Italy and the Senussis a Muslim political-religious tariqa based in Libya erupted into major violence during World War I when the Senussis in

pos: Jews of Libya during the Holocaust Jews living in Libya before the war, as a result of the later Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, there are no Jews left in the country today. In July 1911 the Italian government demanded control of Libya from the Ottoman Empire. When the demand was not met, Italy declared war and quickly conquered the main cities along the coast of Libya. Some of the Jews of Libya supported Italy, and some actively contributed to the war effort. One of the reasons behind the support of Italy and a regime change began with the Italian influence on Libya through

pos: History of Libya revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and what seemed as greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. It would not be long before the Scramble for Africa and European colonial interests set their eyes on the marginal Turkish provinces of Libya. Reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion (Italo-Turkish War, 1911–1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. From 1912 to 1927, the

pos: SMS Weissenburg backdated to 31 July. The Ottoman Navy, however, had great difficulty equipping "Turgut Reis" and "Barbaros Hayreddin"; the navy had to pull trained enlisted men from the rest of the fleet just to put together crews for them. Both vessels suffered from condenser troubles after they entered Ottoman service, which reduced their speed to . A year later, on 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire to seize Libya. "Turgut Reis", along with "Barbaros Hayreddin" and the obsolete central battery ironclad had been on a summer training cruise since July, and so were prepared for the conflict.

pos: Libyan pound Libyan pound The Libyan pound (Arabic جنيه, "junieh") was the currency of Libya between 1951 and 1971. The pound was divided into 100 piastres (قرش, qirsh) and 1000 milliemes (مليم). When Libya was a part of the Ottoman Empire, the country used the Ottoman qirsh (XOTP), issuing some coins locally until 1844. When Italy took over the country in 1911, the Italian lira was introduced. In 1943, Libya was split into French and British mandate territories. Algerian francs were used in the French mandate, whilst Tripolitanian lira issued by the British Military Authorities were used in the British mandate. In

pos: Italian invasion of Libya counterpart for Italy. In 1902 Italy and France had signed a secret treaty which accorded freedom of intervention in Tripolitania and Morocco. However, the Italian government did little to put in practice the opportunity, and knowledge of the Libyan territory and resources remained scarce in the following years. The Italian press began a massive lobbying campaign in favour of an invasion of Libya, at the end of March 1911. It was fancily depicted as rich of minerals, full of water, and defended by only 4,000 Ottoman troops. Also the population was considered hostile to the Ottoman Empire and friendly to

pos: Naum Faiq freedom of speech were lifted. In 1910, Naum began publishing a newspaper for the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant Syriac communities, entitled "Kawkab Madnho" ("Star of the East"). While written entirely in the Syriac alphabet, "Star of the East" was actually tri-lingual with articles in Ottoman Turkish, classical Syriac and Arabic. This newspaper, along with that of Ashur Yousif, signaled the emergence of Assyrian nationalism in the Syriac Christian communities of the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman Empire and Italy began to fight over the province of Libya in 1911, Naum like other Christians in the region felt a backlash from

pos: Ottoman Caliphate 1911 Italy warred with the Ottomans over Libya, and Turkey's failure to defend these regions demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman military. In 1912 Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece formed the Balkan League, an anti-Turkish alliance that subsequently launched a joint attack on the Ottoman Empire. The ensuing Balkan Wars eliminated what little presence the Ottomans had left in Europe, and only infighting between the Balkan League allies prevented them from advancing into Anatolia. Internally, the Ottomans continued to be troubled by political instability. Nationalist uprisings that had plagued the Empire sporadically for the past fifty years intensified. The masses

pos: Demographics of Libya BCE, Libya was under the rule of the Phoenician Carthage. After the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War, Libya became a Roman province under the name of Tripolitania until the 7th century CE when Libya was conquered by the Arab Muslims as part of the Arab conquest of North Africa. Centuries after that, the Ottoman Empire conquered Libya in 1551. It remained in control of its territory until 1911 when the country was conquered by Italy. In the 18th century Libya was used as the base for various pirates. In the Second World War Libya was one of

pos: Ottoman Aviation Squadrons The last plane was confiscated by the Serbians while being brought to Istanbul by train. These aircraft were already out of service by 1914. By the end of 1912, the Ottoman Army had a total of 15 airplanes, acquired mostly through private donations. In 1911, the Kingdom of Italy invaded the Tripolitania Vilayet (modern day Libya) of the Ottoman Empire, using aircraft for reconnaissance and bombing missions for the first time in aviation history (on 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot flew over Ottoman lines for reconnaissance; and the next day Italian dirigibles dropped bombs on ground targets, both of

pos: 4th Shore southern Balkans shore, with Dalmatia, Montenegro, and Albania, was planned for Italian expansion as the Third Shore, with Libya on the Mediterranean Sea becoming the fourth. Thus the 4th Shore was the southern part of Greater Italy, an early 1940s Fascist project of enlarging Italy's national borders around the Italy's Mare Nostrum. After the Italian Empire conquest of Ottoman Libya in the 1911-1912 Italo-Turkish War, much of the early colonial period had Italy waging a war of subjugation against Libya's population. Ottoman Turkey surrendered its control of Libya in the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne, but fierce resistance to the Italians

pos: History of Italy 19th century, Italy developed its own colonial Empire. It took control of Somalia and Eritrea. Its attempt to occupy Ethiopia failed in the First Italo–Ethiopian War of 1895–1896. In 1911, Giovanni Giolitti's government sent forces to occupy Libya and declared war on the Ottoman Empire which held Libya. Italy soon conquered and annexed Tripoli and the Dodecanese Islands. Nationalists advocated Italy's domination of the Mediterranean Sea by occupying Greece as well as the Adriatic coastal region of Dalmatia but no attempts were made. The First World War (1914–1918) was an unexpected development that forced the decision whether to honor the

pos: History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) to occupy Libya. Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire which held Libya as a colony. The war ended only a year later, but the occupation resulted in acts of extreme discrimination towards Libyans such as the forced deportation of Libyans to the Tremiti Islands in October 1911 and by 1912, a third of these Libyan refugees had died due to lack of food supplies and shelter from the Italian occupation forces. Italian control of the area was weak, leading to twenty years of conflict with the Senussi religious order which was the main political and religious authority in the

pos: Postage stamps and postal history of Tripolitania Postage stamps and postal history of Tripolitania This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Tripolitania, now part of Libya. Tripolitana is a historic region of western Libya, centered on the coastal city of Tripoli. Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Tripolitania was captured by Italy in 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War. Italy officially granted autonomy after the war, but gradually occupied the region. Originally administered as part of a single colony, Tripolitania was a separate colony from 26 June 1927 to 1934, when it was merged into "Libya". During World War II, Libya was occupied

pos: Italian cruiser Libia L/45 guns, four mounted individually on each broadside. Close-range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of eight L/50 guns and six L/20 guns. She was also equipped with four torpedo tubes. The new cruiser was laid down in 1907 at the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa for the Ottoman Empire, under the name "Drama". But following the rise of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman government became unwilling to pay its foreign debts, which led Ansaldo to halt construction work. Work on the ship only resumed in late 1911 when Italy seized the ship following

pos: Postage stamps and postal history of Libya Postage stamps and postal history of Libya This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Libya. Libya is a country located in North Africa. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya lies between Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west. The first stamps used in Libya were the stamps of the Ottoman Empire. The area which is now Libya was originally a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire which was ceded to Italy in 1912 and became an Italian colony. Stamps of

pos: Senussi Campaign accepted British terms and settled with Italy on 14 April. After the open resumption of aid deliveries to the Senussi from the Ottoman Empire in July 1915, Italy responded with a declaration of war on 21 August. Hostilities allowed Italy formally to rescind all the privileges the Ottoman sultan enjoyed in Libya under the Treaty of Ouchy (17 October 1912), that had ended the first Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). The British blockaded the Cyrenaica coast to prevent supplies being landed by Greek boats at first and then German submarines from late 1915, guarding the Cyrenaica–Egyptian border to prevent arms smuggling, which

pos: Re Umberto-class ironclad 1905, all three ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron, having been supplanted by the more modern pre-dreadnought battleships of the and es. The three ships saw significant action during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912, primarily conducting operations in support of Italian troops fighting in Libya. From October to December 1911, the ships were stationed off Tripoli, where they bombarded Ottoman defenses to prepare for the initial landing and then provided fire support to Italian forces after they had seized the city. After returning to Italy for resupply, the ships were tasked with escorting troop convoys to attack other ports

pos: Italian cruiser Etruria of the anniversary, which was returned by the US Navy training facility in the harbor. On 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya. At the time, "Etruria" was still in American waters, but she was quickly recalled. On 18 October, she joined the escort for a troop convoy headed to Benghazi. The convoy was heavily protected against a possible Ottoman attack: the escort comprised the four pre-dreadnought battleships, her sister and another cruiser, and five destroyers. The Italian fleet bombarded the city the next morning after the Ottoman garrison refused to surrender.

pos: Giovanni Giolitti declared on September 29, 1911. On 18 October 1912 Turkey officially surrendered. As a result of this conflict, Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province), of which the main sub-provinces were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories together formed what became known as Italian Libya. During the conflict, Italian forces also occupied the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Italy had agreed to return the Dodecanese to the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty of Ouchy in 1912 (also known as the First Treaty of Lausanne (1912), as it was signed at the Château d'Ouchy in Lausanne, Switzerland.) However,

pos: Ottoman wars in Africa weakened. Algeria was lost in 1830 and Tunis was lost in 1881, both to France. Libya, the last Ottoman territory in Africa was lost to Italy at the end of the Italo-Turkish War in 1911. Ottoman wars in Africa The Ottoman Empire was founded at the beginning of the 14th century. Beginning in the 16th century, it also began acquiring possessions through a series of wars in Africa. Egypt was under the rule of a military cast named Mamluks. Mamluks were actually Turks and Circassians. In addition to Egypt they also controlled Syria, Palestine Lebanon and Jordan. After Mehmed II

pos: Italian battleship Regina Elena offices in Ottoman territory. The ship was at that time commanded by Prince Luigi Amedeo, the Duke of the Abruzzi. The ship went to Messina in the aftermath of the 1908 Messina earthquake. "Regina Elena" remained in the active duty squadron through 1910, by which time her three sisters had been completed, bringing the total number of front-line battleships to six, including the two s. On 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya. For the duration of the conflict, "Regina Elena" was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron along

pos: Italian battleship Vittorio Emanuele number of front-line battleships to six, which also included the two s. The active duty squadron was typically in service for seven months of the year for training; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve. On 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya. "Vittorio Emanuele" served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry, the commander of the 1st Division throughout the conflict. On 30 September, "Vittorio Emanuele", her sister , and the armored cruiser cruised in the Aegean Sea, searching for the Ottoman training squadron that had departed

pos: Causes of World War I was not informed of this agreement until August 1914. Meanwhile, the episode strengthened the hand of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who was calling for a greatly increased navy and obtained it in 1912. In the Italo-Turkish War or Turco-Italian War Italy defeated the Ottoman Empire in North Africa in 1911-12. Italy easily captured the important coastal cities but its army failed to advance far into the interior. Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province), of which the most notable sub-provinces (sanjaks) were Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli itself. These territories together formed what became known as Italian Libya. The main significance

pos: History of colonialism the few profitable overseas colonies. In the same manner, Italy tried to conquer its "place in the sun," acquiring Somaliland in 1899–90, Eritrea and 1899, and, taking advantage of the "Sick man of Europe," the Ottoman Empire, also conquered Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya) with the 1911 Treaty of Lausanne. The conquest of Ethiopia, which had remained the last African independent territory, had to wait till the Second Italo-Abyssinian War in 1935–36 (the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1895–96 had ended in defeat for Italy). The Portuguese and Spanish colonial empire were smaller, mostly legacies of past colonization. Most of their

pos: 1913 in Italy 1913). <br> After the withdrawal of the Ottoman army from Libya after the Italo-Turkish War the Italians could easily extend their occupation of the country, seizing East Tripolitania, Ghadames, the Djebel and Fezzan with Murzuk during 1913. 1913 in Italy "See also:" 1912 in Italy, other events of 1913, 1914 in Italy. Events from the year 1913 in Italy. The First Balkan War (October 1912 – May 1913) of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire. As a result of the war, the allies captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman

pos: First Balkan War In 1911, Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania in present-day Libya, which was quickly followed by the occupation of the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean Sea. The Italians' decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire encouraged the Balkan states to imagine they might win a war against the Ottomans. By the spring and summer of 1912, the various Christian Balkan nations had created a network of military alliances which became known as the Balkan League. The Great Powers, most notably France and Austria-Hungary, reacted to the formation of these alliances by trying to dissuade the League from going to

pos: Military operations in North Africa during World War I Military operations in North Africa during World War I Conflicts took place in North Africa during World War I (1914–1918), between the Entente and the Central powers. The Senussi of Libya sided with the Ottoman Empire against the British Empire and the Kingdom of Italy. On 14 November 1914, the Ottoman Sultan proclaimed Jihad and sought to create a diversion to draw British troops from the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. The Italian state wished to preserve the gains made in the Italo-Turkish War. The Senussi Campaign took place in north Africa, from . In the summer of 1915, the Ottoman

pos: Massacres during the Italo-Turkish War Massacres during the Italo-Turkish War A series of massacres were committed by Ottoman and Italian forces during the Italo-Turkish War. In October 1911, Ottoman forces massacred captured Italian troops at Sciara Sciat. In reprisal, Italian troops massacred several thousand civilians in the Mechiya oasis. Italy invaded Ottoman Tripolitania (Ottoman Libya) in 1911 with the purpose of annexing the territory as an Italian colony; the Ottomans resisted the Italian invasion and the result was the Italo-Turkish War. Some Arabs collaborated with the Italians, mainly in the city of Tripoli, but those in the interior of Libya largely supported the Turks due

pos: Italian battleship Roma (1907) fleet. The active duty squadron was typically in service for seven months of the year for training; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve. Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya and other Ottoman holdings in the Mediterranean on 29 September 1911. For the duration of the conflict, "Roma" served in the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron with her three sister ships, under the command of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry. On 30 September, "Roma", her sister , and the armored cruiser conducted a sweep in the Aegean, in the hopes of

pos: Flag of Libya the Constitution of 7 October 1951. It was officially adopted on 24 December 1951. The passage from the constitution reads: Both the precise shade and legal construction is described in a booklet issued by the Ministry of Information and Guidance of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951. The passage reads: The name "Libya" was introduced during colonisation by Italy in 1934. Before 1911, the Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania (the "kingdom of Tripoli") included much of the same territory as modern Libya. The short-lived Tripolitanian Republic in western Libya had its own flag, which had a light blue field and a

pos: Balkan League inefficiency of the Ottoman army. The Ottomans were at war with Italy for a year (29 September 1911 to 18 October 1912) over Libya after Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania. Although the Italians made little progress and Ottoman resistance, aided by the Libyans, proved stiffer than expected, the war exhausted the Ottoman state. In addition, the Italian occupation of the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese Islands served as a warning for Greece of the consequences of staying out from a future war against the Ottomans. These developments did not go unnoticed by the Great Powers, but although there was an official

pos: Libya Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce. After the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian

pos: Italian war crimes Italian war crimes Italian war crimes have mainly been associated with Fascist Italy in the Pacification of Libya, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, and World War II. In 1911, Italy went to war with the Ottoman Empire and invaded Ottoman Tripolitania. One of the most notorious incidents during this conflict was the October Tripoli massacre, wherein many civilian inhabitants of the Mechiya oasis were killed over a period of three days as retribution for the execution and mutilation of Italian captives taken in an ambush at nearby Sciara Sciat. In 1912, 10,000 Turkish and Arab troops were imprisoned in concentration camps

pos: Scramble for Africa international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I. Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo–Ethiopian War (1895–1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889–90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, that together formed what became known as Italian Libya. In 1919 Enrico Corradini—who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF)—developed the concept

pos: Italian nationalism obsession for the national unity and defence from hostile foreign countries. Italy managed to colonize the East African coast of Eritrea and Somalia, but failed to conquer Ethiopia with 15,000 Italians dying in the war and being forced to retreat. Then, Italy waged war with the Ottoman Empire from 1911 to 1912 and gained Libya and the Dodecanese Islands from Turkey. However, these attempts to gain popular support from the public failed, and rebellions and violent protests became so intense that many observers believed that the young Kingdom of Italy would not survive. Tired of the internal conflicts in Italy,

pos: U-1-class submarine (Austria-Hungary) the Italo-Turkish War erupted in September 1911. Despite the fact that Austria-Hungary and Italy were nominal allies under the Triple Alliance, tensions between the two nations remained throughout the war. The Austro-Hungarian Navy was placed on high alert, and the Army was deployed to the Italian border. The war ultimately became localized at the request of Austria-Hungary to parts of the eastern Mediterranean and Libya, and the First Balkan War broke out before Italy and the Ottoman Empire were able to conclude a peace agreement. The Ottoman military proved insufficient to defeat its opponents and within a matter of weeks,

pos: Italian battleship Napoli for training; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve. On 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya. For the duration of the conflict, "Napoli" served in the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron with her three sister ships, under the command of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry. After the outbreak of war, "Napoli", her sister , and the armored cruisers and , were sent to blockade Tripoli in North Africa. On 2 October, the battleship and the training squadron arrived to relieve "Napoli" and the other ships, which thereafter left

pos: Italian ironclad Sicilia the Reserve Squadron in 1908, along with her two sisters and the two s. By this time, the Reserve Squadron was kept in service for seven months of the year. On 29 September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya. At the time, "Sicilia" and her two sisters were assigned to the Training Division, along with the old armored cruiser , with "Sicilia" serving as the flagship of Rear Admiral Raffaele Borea Ricci D'Olmo. On 3–4 October, "Sicilia" and her sisters were tasked with bombarding Fort Sultanje, which was protecting the western approach to

neg: Libya the region west of the Nile generally corresponding to its central location in North Africa historically visited by many Mediterranean cultures which referred to its original inhabitants as the "Libúē." The name "Libya" was introduced in 1934 for Italian Libya, reviving the historical name for Northwest Africa, from the ancient Greek (""). It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the coastal region of what is today Libya having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911, as the Eyalet of Tripolitania. The name "Libya" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico

neg: Giovanni Giolitti in favour of an invasion of Libya at the end of March 1911. It was fancifully depicted as rich in minerals, well-watered, and defended by only 4,000 Ottoman troops. Also, the population was described as hostile to the Ottoman Empire and friendly to the Italians: the future invasion was going to be little more than a "military walk", according to them. The Italian government was hesitant initially, but in the summer the preparations for the invasion were carried out and Prime Minister Giolitti began to probe the other European major powers about their reactions to a possible invasion of Libya.

neg: Libya the 7th century, when invasions brought Islam to the region. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli, until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the Italian occupation of Libya resulted in the temporary Italian Libya colony from 1911 to 1947. During the Second World War, Libya was an important area of warfare in the North African Campaign. The Italian population then went into decline. Libya became independent as a kingdom in 1951. A military coup in

neg: Libyan resistance movement Libyan resistance movement The Libyan resistance movement was the name given to the Libyan side during the "Pacification of Libya", which occurred between 1923 and 1932. The Italian Empire seized the territory that is modern day Libya from the Ottoman Empire, and -according to dictator Gaddafi and his followers- implemented a genocide campaign on its occupants in Cyrenaica, killing 20% of its population: the Italians committed many war crimes during the 'pacification,' including chemical warfare, not taking prisoners of war and instead killing even if they surrendered, and many more horrendous acts. . Italian historians -like Tripodi-denied all these accusations

neg: Law of Libya to limit the number and scope of sharia laws applied. Law of Libya The law of Libya has historically been influenced by Ottoman, French, Italian, and Egyptian sources. Under the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Libya has moved towards a legal system based on sharia, but with various deviations from it. When Libya was ruled by the Ottoman Empire, the civil law was the "Majallat al-ah Kam al-ad Liyat". In 1830, the Ottoman Empire adopted the Napoleonic Code as its commercial code. However, Islamic law continued to influence other areas, for example, the 1858 Ottoman Land Code, which comprised

neg: Law of Libya Law of Libya The law of Libya has historically been influenced by Ottoman, French, Italian, and Egyptian sources. Under the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Libya has moved towards a legal system based on sharia, but with various deviations from it. When Libya was ruled by the Ottoman Empire, the civil law was the "Majallat al-ah Kam al-ad Liyat". In 1830, the Ottoman Empire adopted the Napoleonic Code as its commercial code. However, Islamic law continued to influence other areas, for example, the 1858 Ottoman Land Code, which comprised a mix of Turkish traditional practises and Islamic law. By

neg: Jellaz Affair there, the other European powers demanded to be 'compensated' in regions they considered vital to their interests, and this led to an Italian declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire on 29 September 1911, followed by the invasion of Libya. Libyan refugees were soon crossing the border into Tunisia, fleeing the invasion. Tensions between Muslim Arabs and Italians in Tunis played a major role in the Jellaz Affair. Italian immigration to Tunisia had grown rapidly under the French Protectorate, and by 1900, Italians made up around seven-eighths of the colony's European population of 80,000 people. In 1903, the Italian consul

neg: Khedive which itself derived from the Persian "khadīv" ("lord"). from the compound "khvat-data-," literally "created from oneself," from "khvat-" (from the Proto-Indo-European root "swe-tos" "from oneself," ablative of base "s(w)e-" ) and "data-" "created." Following the French invasion of Egypt in 1798 and Napoleon's defeat of Egyptian forces, which consisted largely of the ruling Mamluk military caste, the Ottoman Empire dispatched troops from Rumelia (the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire) under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha to restore the Empire's authority in what had hitherto been an Ottoman province. However, upon the French defeat and departure, Muhammad Ali seized

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire constitution and national assembly with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia). These were formed mostly of irregular cavalry units of recruited Kurds. From 1894–96, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Istanbul in 1896 to bring European

neg: Jews of Libya during the Holocaust commercial and cultural ties. Other causes were the recurring pogroms the Jews suffered from at the hands of their Muslim neighbors; the wave of anti-Semitism that spread through the Ottoman Empire during the mid-19th century did not pass over the Jews of Libya. The autonomy that they received from the empire didn’t prevent the recurring pogroms. After the Italian conquest, the Jews received official status and were an important religious-ethnic group due to their key role in the Libyan economy. The studying of the Italian language and European country, which began before the conquest, became more common. The Italian government,

neg: Italian Tripolitania Italian Tripolitania Italian Tripolitania was an Italian colony, located in present-day western Libya, that existed from 1912 to 1934. It was part of the Italian North African territory conquered from the Ottoman Empire in 1911. Italian Tripolitania included the western northern half of Libya, with Tripoli as its main city. Italian Tripolitania, and Italian Cyrenaica, became independent colonial entities within Italian North Africa in 1927. In 1934, Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica became part of Italian Libya. A large number of Italian colonists moved to Tripolitania in the late 1930s. These settlers went primarily to the area of Sahel al-Jefara, in

neg: History of the Middle East British also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French extended their influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with Europe. In the Ottoman Empire, the Tanzimat reforms re-invigorated Ottoman rule and were furthered by the Young

neg: Italian Cyrenaica Italian Cyrenaica Italian Cyrenaica was an Italian colony, located in present-day eastern Libya, that existed from 1912 to 1934. It was part of the Italian North African territory conquered from the Ottoman Empire in 1911. The administrative capital was Benghazi. Italian Cyrenaica was formed in 1927, after it and Italian Tripolitania became independent colonial entities within Italian North Africa. In 1934, Italian Cyrenaica became part of Italian Libya. In the 1920s, Cyrenaica was the scene of fighting between Italian colonial forces and Libyan rebels who were fighting for independence from colonial rule. In 1931, the rebel independence leader Omar Mukhtar

neg: Italian Tripolitania of Tripoli and the creation of the Tripoli airport. A group of villages for Italians and Libyans were created on the coastal tripolitania during the 1930s. Italian Tripolitania Italian Tripolitania was an Italian colony, located in present-day western Libya, that existed from 1912 to 1934. It was part of the Italian North African territory conquered from the Ottoman Empire in 1911. Italian Tripolitania included the western northern half of Libya, with Tripoli as its main city. Italian Tripolitania, and Italian Cyrenaica, became independent colonial entities within Italian North Africa in 1927. In 1934, Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica became part of

neg: Ahmed Karamanli Ahmed Karamanli Ahmed or Ahmad Karamanli or Qaramanli or al-Qaramanli, (most commonly Ahmed Karamanli) (1686–1745) was of Turkish origin and a Member from the Karamanids. He founded the Karamanli dynasty (1711–1835) of Tripolitania or Tripoli (in present-day Libya). He reigned (1711–1745), as the first Karamanli Pasha of Tripolitania. In the early 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was losing its grip on its North African holdings, including Tripoli. A period of civil war ensued, with no ruler able to hold office for more than a year. Ahmed Karamanli, a Janissary and popular cavalry officer, murdered the Ottoman governor and seized the

neg: Al Khums Zirids, Kingdom of Africa, Almohad Caliphate and Hafsids before felling under the control of Ottomans in the 1550s. The city became the capital of The Fifth Sanjak (which included the cities of Misurata, Sirte, Zliten, Bani Walid and Msalata), an administrative division of Ottoman Tripolitania until World War I and the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The Italians colonized Libya in 1911, and on 10 October of the same year a major battle between natives and Italian Army occurred in Murqub Castle in Khums and another on in the same place on 27 February 1912. Both battles named

neg: Ali Jerbi 1951). He became minister for defense in the first cabinet formed after independence from December 1951 to February 1954. He became the Libyan ambassador to Turkey and non-resident ambassador in Iraq from 1954 to 1961. He became ambassador to France 1961–1967. Ali Jerbi Ali al-Jerbi () (1903–1969) is a Libyan politician. He was the first defense minister of Libya after independence. Jerbi was born in Derna, Libya. In 1911 he studied in Turkey, then part of the Ottoman empire. He lived in Istanbul until 1923, when he returned and worked as a teacher. He died in April 1969. He held

neg: Italo-Turkish War evolution of that first aggression." Unlike British-controlled Egypt and French-influenced Morocco, the Ottoman Tripolitania vilayet that made up modern-day Libya were core territory of the Empire, like that of the Balkans. The coalition that had defended the Ottomans during the Crimean War (1853-1856), minimized Ottoman territorial losses at the Congress of Berlin (1878), and supported the Empire during the Bulgarian Crisis (1885–88) had largely disappeared. The reaction in the Balkans to the Italian declaration of war was immediate. The first draft by Serbia of a military treaty with Bulgaria against Turkey was written by November 1911, with a defensive treaty

neg: Ali Jerbi Ali Jerbi Ali al-Jerbi () (1903–1969) is a Libyan politician. He was the first defense minister of Libya after independence. Jerbi was born in Derna, Libya. In 1911 he studied in Turkey, then part of the Ottoman empire. He lived in Istanbul until 1923, when he returned and worked as a teacher. He died in April 1969. He held the post of Minister of Transport of Cyrenaica emirate from September 1949 – July 1950. He then entered the interim government (headed by Mahmud al-Muntasir), where he served as Foreign minister (March–December 1951), Health minister (March–April 1951) and Justice minister (April–December

neg: Gallipoli Campaign the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its poor performance in Libya in 1911 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign, in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides. The troops for the assault were loaded on transports in the order they were to disembark, causing a long delay which meant that many troops, including the French at Mudros, were forced to detour to Alexandria to embark on the ships that would take them into battle. A five-week delay until the end of April ensued, during which

neg: Turks in Libya Turks in Libya Turks in Libya, also known as Libyan Turks and Turco-Libyans, (; ; ) are the ethnic Turks who live in Libya. During the Ottoman rule of Libya, the Turks colonized and dominated the political life of the region, as a result, the ethnic mix of Libya changed with the migration of Turks from Anatolia and the evolvement of the "Kouloughlis" (also referred to as "Cologhlis") who are people of mixed Turkish and Maghrebi blood. There has also been a modern wave of migration since 1975 from Turkey. When the Ottoman Empire conquered Libya in 1551 the Turks

neg: ‘Aziziya District ‘Aziziya District ‘Aziziya or El Azizia ( "Al ʿAzīzīyah") was one of the districts of Libya ("baladiyah"), located in the northwest of the country, south of Tripoli District. The town of ‘Aziziya was the former district's capital, and it covered an area of 1,940 square kilometers. In 2001 ‘Aziziya became part of the Jafara District. On 13 September 1922, a temperature of was recorded in the city of ‘Aziziya. This was long believed to be the highest temperature ever to be recorded naturally on Earth. Meteorological parameters began to be recorded in Libya during the Ottoman Empire (1551–1911). Temperature archives

neg: History of the Ottoman Empire role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia. Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's Crimean Peninsula to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Baltic Sea,

neg: Battle of Ain Zara Battle of Ain Zara The Battle of Ain Zara was fought in December 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War between the Italian and Ottoman forces for the control of the oasis of Ain Zara, near Tripoli (Libya), where the Ottomans had established a fortified base. In October 1911, after the outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War, Italian troops had landed in Libya and captured Tripoli. Before being able to carry on with the occupation of Tripolitania, the Italian forces needed to limate the treat posed by Ain Zara, an oasis 8 km south of Tripoli, which the Ottoman forces (including Libyan Arab

neg: Ottoman Empire the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to World War I, including the Ottoman countercoup of 1909, the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913. The history of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman surprise attack on the Russian Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, Russia and its allies, France and Britain, declared war on the Ottomans. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of

neg: Kouloughlis offspring of Turkish men and North African( e.g Berber Arab) women would have included females too. Up until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, upper class women in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia were mostly of Turkish origin. This Turkish elite held a deep kinship for the Ottoman state, which increased further during the Italo-Turkish War in favour of the Ottoman state. In 2015 the Yeni Şafak journalist Abdullah Muradoğlu suggested that at least 10 million Turks were still living in North Africa. However, another 2015 estimate in the report by the Anadolu Agency correspondent Satuk Buğra Kutlugün suggests that

neg: Italian Armed Forces in the 1850s and 1860s. It fought in colonial engagements in China during the Boxer Rebellion, against the Ottoman Empire in Libya (1911-1912), on the Alps against the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I, in Abyssinia during the Interwar period, and in World War II in Albania, Greece, North Africa and Russia, as well as in the Italian Civil War. During the Cold War the Army prepared itself to defend against a Warsaw Pact invasion from the east. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it has seen extensive peacekeeping service in Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Iraq. On 29 July 2004

neg: First national architectural movement Grand Post Office (1905–09), by Vedat Bey in Sirkeci. The building brought back classical Ottoman elements from the 16th century such as two-color stone workmanship and Islamic geometric patterns. This kick-started the movement which was then given the name New Ottoman architecture. After the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the new government promoted Ottoman revival architecture as a contrast to the many buildings built in western European styles. New government buildings as well as public buildings constructed during the last decade of the empire were mainly designed in the New Ottoman style such as the "7th Eyüp Reşadiye High-school" (1911),

neg: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 1911, Muslim intellectuals and politicians formed "The Young Arab Society", a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. They also requested that Arab conscripts to the Ottoman army not be required to serve

neg: Greek–Turkish relations some minor losses of territory for her. The Young Turks, who seized power in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, were Turkish nationalists whose objective was to create a strong, centrally governed state. The Christian minorities, including Greeks, saw their position in the Empire deteriorate. Crete was once again the flashpoint of Greek and Turkish aspirations. The First Balkan War of 1912–1913 was a direct consequence of the mounting tension, as a result of which Greece seized Crete, the islands, the rest of Thessaly and Epirus, and coastal Macedonia from the Ottomans, in alliance with Serbia and Bulgaria. In 1913 an

neg: Italian Libya by a major struggle with Muslim native Libyans that lasted until 1931. During this period, the Italian government controlled only the coastal areas of the colony. Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu, the then capital of Italian Somaliland, served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War. Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. After the Italian Empire's conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania (Ottoman Libya), in the 1911–12 Italo-Turkish War, much of the early colonial

neg: Yevgeni Iskritsky Infantry Regiment Bialystok]]. On January 14, 1911 was appointed as a military adviser to Romania. The political situation in the Balkans was very intense and the First Balkan War began in 1912, during which the Ottoman Empire lost almost the entire European territory (Romania did not take part in it). Newly formed countries were unable to amicably divide the former Turkish lands and the Second Balkan War began in June 1913. Bulgaria attacked its former allies: Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. The Ottoman Empire and Romania were on their side against Bulgaria, which was quickly crushed. During the Second Balkan War

neg: Arab world The sentiment of Arab nationalism arose in the second half of the 19th century along with other nationalisms within the declining Ottoman Empire. When the Ottoman Empire collapsed as a result of World War I, much of the Arab world came to be controlled by the European colonial empires: Mandatory Palestine, Mandatory Iraq, British protectorate of Egypt, French protectorate of Morocco, Italian Libya, French Tunisia, French Algeria, French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon and the so-called Trucial States, a British protectorate formed by the sheikhdoms on the former "Pirate Coast". These Arab states only gained their independence during or after

neg: Haqqi al-Azm seized control of the ministry in 1911. After his defeat in the 1912 parliamentary elections, he moved to Cairo, and helped found the opposition party, Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization. The CUP interpreted diplomatic correspondence between the party and French and British agents as a proof that the party was aiming to guarantee the cession of the Arabic-speaking provinces from the Ottoman Empire. In 1913, al-Azm and other figures in the party were sentenced to death "in absentia" and they lived as exiles in Cairo. After World War I, al-Azm was a key opponent of Hijazi involvement in Syria. He

neg: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire diplomat from a merchant family. The CUP, who were predominantly civilian, resented the intrusion of the army into government. The CUP, who seized power from LU in January 1913, was more convinced than ever that only an alliance with Britain and the Entente could guarantee the survival of what remained of the Empire. In June, therefore, the subject of an Anglo-Turkish alliance was reopened by Tevfik Pasha, who simply restated his proposal of October 1911. Once again the offer was turned down. Sir Louis Mallet, who became Britain's Ambassador to the Porte in 1914, noted that The CUP could not

neg: Kouloughlis the Pilgrim"). Evening performances of the show are particularly popular during Ramadan in North Africa. Kouloughlis Kouloughlis, also spelled Koulouglis, Cologhlis and Qulaughlis (from Turkish Köleoğlu "Children of The Empire Servants" from "Köle" "servant/slave" + "Oğlu" "son of") was a term used during the Ottoman period to designate the mixed offspring of Turkish men and local North African women (i.e. Berber Arab), situated in the western and central coastal regions in the Barbary coast (i.e. in Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia). Whilst the terminology was commonly used in Ottoman Algeria, Ottoman Libya, and Ottoman Tunisia, it was not used in Ottoman

neg: Kouloughlis Kouloughlis Kouloughlis, also spelled Koulouglis, Cologhlis and Qulaughlis (from Turkish Köleoğlu "Children of The Empire Servants" from "Köle" "servant/slave" + "Oğlu" "son of") was a term used during the Ottoman period to designate the mixed offspring of Turkish men and local North African women (i.e. Berber Arab), situated in the western and central coastal regions in the Barbary coast (i.e. in Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia). Whilst the terminology was commonly used in Ottoman Algeria, Ottoman Libya, and Ottoman Tunisia, it was not used in Ottoman Egypt to refer to Turco-Egyptians. Today, the descendants of the Kouloughlis have largely integrated into

neg: Nora Lafi following fields: History of the Ottoman Empire History of Libya, Tunisia and Algeria The notion of old regime Comparative history Urban Studies Middle-East Monographies Esprit civique et organisation citadine dans l'empire ottoman, Leiden, Brill, 2018, 360p. "Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes. Tripoli 1795-1911", Paris, 2002 Edited and Co-Edited Books Understanding the City through its Margins, Abingdon, Routledge, 2017, 190p. (Ed. with U. Freitag and A. Chappatte) Urban Violence in the Middle East, Oxford, Berghahn, 2015, 334p. (Ed. with U. Freitag, N. Fuccaro, C. Ghrawi) Urban Governance Under the Ottomans, Abindgon, Routledge, 2014, 238p. (Ed. with

neg: Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire unconventional and departed in many ways from its European counterparts. Traditionally, foreign affairs were conducted by the "Reis ül-Küttab" (Chief Clerk or Secretary of State) who also had other duties. In 1836, a Foreign Ministry was created. Ambassadors from the Ottoman Empire were usually appointed on a temporary and limited basis, as opposed to the resident ambassadors sent by other European nations. The Ottomans sent 145 temporary envoys to Venice between 1384 and 1600. The first resident Ottoman ambassador was not seen until Yusuf Agah Efendi was sent to London in 1798. Ambassadors to the Ottoman Empire began arriving shortly

neg: Ottoman Empire as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the nineteenth century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks." The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by an institution known as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European

neg: Nicholas I of Russia Ottoman Empire was to use the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774), which gave Russia a vague right as protector of Orthodox peoples in the Balkans, as a way of placing the Ottoman Empire into the Russian sphere of influence, which was felt to be a more achievable goal than conquering the entire Ottoman Empire. Nicholas actually wanted to preserve the Ottoman Empire as a stable but weak state that would be unable to stand up to Russia, which was felt to serve Russia's interests. Nicholas always thought of Russia as first and foremost a European power and regarded Europe as

neg: Special Organization (Ottoman Empire) Special Organization (Ottoman Empire) The Special Organization (, "Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa") was an Ottoman imperial government special forces unit under the War Department and was allegedly used to suppress Arab separatism and Western imperialism in the Ottoman Empire. Many members of this organization also played leading roles in the first world war. The main aim of the Special Organization was to re-open the Ottoman parliament. The members of the organization also participated in the resistance against Italians in Libya. It was the progenitor of the National Security Service () of the Republic of Turkey, which was itself the predecessor of the

neg: Regie Company Regie Company The Régie Company () was a parastatal company formed in the later Ottoman Empire by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, with backing from a consortium of European banks. The company had a monopoly over tobacco production. Revenue from the Regie Company was supposed to help overcome the Ottoman state's persistent shortage of income. The Regie Company constituted the largest foreign investment in the Ottoman Empire, and it attempted to introduce more efficient production methods - against local resistance. In 1881, the state monopoly on salt was incorporated into the Regie Company, which passed revenue from salt taxes (tuz