query: describe how soil damage due to salinity could be reduced

pos: Soil salinity is also now common in cities (gardens and recreation areas). The consequences of salinity are Salinity is an important land degradation problem. Soil salinity can be reduced by leaching soluble salts out of soil with excess irrigation water. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage. A comprehensive treatment of soil salinity is available from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. High levels of soil salinity can be tolerated if salt-tolerant plants are grown. Sensitive crops lose their vigor already in slightly saline soils, most crops are negatively

neg: Groundwater banking the salinity which is a threat to the sustainability of agriculture and groundwater. This factor was determined by electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil which measures the soil salinity. The best soil has the lowest levels of salinity. Soil also has pesticides and nitrate, but it is unable to be evaluated due to the dependency on management history. The surface condition factor is when banking by flood spreading can change the soil surfaces physical conditions. Infiltrations limits can be caused by quality and depth of water that could lead to the destruction of aggregates, the formation of physical crusts, and

neg: Soil dam failure, as well as sink hole formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up-gradient. The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe. Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the agricultural value of soils and vegetation. Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure, and water quality problems due to sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination

neg: Dryland salinity flow when water bypasses the soil matrix as it moves to depth in macropores (e.g. root holes, fractures). Excessive recharge may raise the water table locally, or at a landscape scale. When brackish to saline groundwater intersects the ground surface and discharges, this is termed saline discharge. Areas of discharge are called saline seeps (when groundwater intersects the soil surface) or saline scalds (where water is lost by evaporation only). Groundwater discharge manifests in such problems as: reduced agricultural production, degradation of natural environment, reduced surface water quality, damage to infrastructure including roads, as well as soil erosion and denudation

neg: Dryland salinity collective role of soils and vegetation that has an effect on the root cause of the problem, recharge. Soil health cannot be ignored as a valuable and extensive activity for the management of dryland salinity – the multiple benefits of improving soil health are clear and can be motivated by the potential for local and regional economic and social gains. Soil is considered in two contexts when it comes to dryland salinity: Recharge and discharge. Soils absorb and store water according to their water holding or field capacity and how dry they are to start with. In much of Victoria,

neg: Alkali soil gets evaporated leaving the dissolved salts in the top layer of the soil. Where the underground water contains high salts, it leads to acute salinity problem. This problem can be reduced by applying mulch to the land. Using poly-houses or shade netting during summer for cultivating vegetables/crops is also advised to mitigate soil salinity and conserve water / soil moisture. Poly-houses filter the intense summer solar radiation in tropical countries to save the plants from water stress and leaf burns. Where the ground water quality is not alkaline / saline and ground water table is high, salts build up in

neg: Soil conservation tilling depending on the geography, crops and soil conditions. Some farmers claimed that no-till complicates weed control, delays planting and that post-harvest residues, especially for corn, are hard to manage. Salinity in soil is caused by irrigating with salty water. Water then evaporates from the soil leaving the salt behind. Salt breaks down the soil structure, causing infertility and reduced growth. The ions responsible for salination are: sodium (Na, potassium (K, calcium (Ca, magnesium (Mg and chlorine (Cl. Salinity is estimated to affect about one third of the earth’s arable land. Soil salinity adversely affects crop metabolism and erosion usually

neg: Plant litter soil litter reduces wind erosion by preventing soil from losing moisture and providing cover preventing soil transportation. Organic matter accumulation also helps protect soils from wildfire damage. Soil litter can be completely removed depending on intensity and severity of wildfires and season. Regions with high frequency wildfires have reduced vegetation density and reduced soil litter accumulation. Climate also influences the depth of plant litter. Typically humid tropical and sub-tropical climates have reduced organic matter layers and horizons due to year round decomposition and high vegetation density and growth. In temperate and cold climates, litter tends to accuculate and decompose slower

neg: Salt marsh die-off One theory of bottom-up control lies with differential soil chemistry between vegetated and die-off areas. Drought-associated changes in soil chemistry have been proposed to be associated with areas of die-off. Droughts are often associated with increased salinity and acidity stress - soils oxidize under freshwater or tidal moisture limitation, leading to increased acidity. Hypersalinity has been linked to reduced S. alterniflora survival (Brown et al. 2005). However, salt marsh plants are generally tolerant of a broad range of salinity levels, and increased salinity has not consistently been observed in die-off sites (Alber et al. 2008). There is uncertainty attributed to

neg: Environmental impact of agriculture poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution. Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from rising water tables that can lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface land drainage. However, if the soil is under irrigated, it gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent buildup of toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to remove these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away. Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage

neg: Curve fitting Gaussian, Lorentzian, Voigt and related functions. In agriculture the inverted logistic sigmoid function (S-curve) is used to describe the relation between crop yield and growth factors, The blue figure was made by a sigmoid regression of data measured in farm lands. It can be seen that initially, i.e. at low soil salinity, the crop yield reduces slowly at increasing soil salinity, while thereafter the decrease progresses faster. For algebraic analysis of data, "fitting" usually means trying to find the curve that minimizes the vertical ("y"-axis) displacement of a point from the curve (e.g., ordinary least squares). However, for graphical and

neg: Leaching model (soil) of figure 1, derived from data of the Chacupe pilot area, Peru. It shows the soil salinity in terms of electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil solution with respect its initial value (ECi) as a function of amount of water percolating through the soil. The top-soil leaches quickly. The salinity of the deeper soil first increases due to the salts leached from the top-soil, but later it also decreases. Owing to irregular distribution of salt in the soil or to irregularity of the soil structure (figure 2), the "leaching efficiency" (E) can be different from unity. Soils with a low

neg: Soil salinity control fit is obtained of observed with simulated soil salinity values. Spatial variations owing to variations in topography can be simulated and predicted using salinity cum groundwater models, like SahysMod. Soil salinity control Soil salinity control relates to controlling the problem of soil salinity and reclaiming salinized agricultural land. The aim of soil salinity control is to prevent soil degradation by salination and reclaim already salty (saline) soils. Soil reclamation is also called soil improvement, rehabilitation, remediation, recuperation, or amelioration. The primary man-made cause of salinization is irrigation. River water or groundwater used in irrigation contains salts, which remain behind in

neg: Soil salinity control Soil salinity control Soil salinity control relates to controlling the problem of soil salinity and reclaiming salinized agricultural land. The aim of soil salinity control is to prevent soil degradation by salination and reclaim already salty (saline) soils. Soil reclamation is also called soil improvement, rehabilitation, remediation, recuperation, or amelioration. The primary man-made cause of salinization is irrigation. River water or groundwater used in irrigation contains salts, which remain behind in the soil after the water has evaporated. The primary method of controlling soil salinity is to permit 10-20% of the irrigation water to leach the soil,that will be drained

neg: Salt tolerance of crops were made with pot or drum experiments or in lysimeters under controlled conditions. The collection of field data under farmers' conditions was rare, probably due to the greater efforts and higher costs involved, the lack of control of plant growing conditions other than soil salinity, and the larger random variation in crop yields and soil salinity. Yet, with statistical methods, it is possible to detect the tolerance level from field data. Salt Farm Texel, a Dutch based research company has identified various crops that have considerable amount of salt tolerance. Soil and water salinity can be expressed in various ways.

neg: Soil structure or sodicity, avoid rapid wetting, and avoid disturbing soils when too wet or dry. The benefits of improving soil structure for the growth of plants, particularly in an agricultural setting include: reduced erosion due to greater soil aggregate strength and decreased overland flow; improved root penetration and access to soil moisture and nutrients; improved emergence of seedlings due to reduced crusting of the surface; and greater water infiltration, retention and availability due to improved porosity. It has been estimated that productivity from irrigated perennial horticulture could be increased by two to three times the present level by improving soil structure,

neg: Tropical salt pond ecosystem Hurricanes and other large storms can damage salt pond organisms as well as cause seawater overwash, leading to potentially detrimental salinity changes and physical damage. Salinity may also be reduced by precipitation, which can alter community composition by restricting the number and type of species adapted for these conditions. Furthermore, increased evapotranspiration can increase salinity and diminish species diversity. Local conditions, such as annual rainfall and slope aspect, can determine runoff amounts. Influxes of runoff can cause sediment deposition in salt ponds, eventually causing infill of the pond to occur. Natural grazing and predation around salt ponds can trample vegetation,

neg: Chemistry of wetland dredging have the largest effect are salinity and pH. An increase in flooding (a result of dredging) increases the salinity of wetlands, as it allows saltwater to intrude, neutralizes the pH, and provides more anaerobic soil conditions. The conditions then effect the nutrient availability and redox reactions. Redox reactions are highly influential in wetland soil chemistry through transformations including those of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen. The abundance of oxygen changes the abundance of oxidized or reduced states of each compound. Areas of higher oxygen availability (aerobic) tend towards oxidized states and areas of low oxygen availability (anaerobic) tend towards reduced states. The

neg: Salton Sea showed, in the Los Angeles area, shaking and thus damage would be more severe for a San Andreas earthquake that propagated along the fault from the south, rather than from the north. Such an earthquake also raises the risk for soil liquefaction in the Imperial Valley region. The effective drainage divide that separates the Salton Sea from the Gulf of California is about in elevation and is located near Delta, northeastern Baja California State, Mexico, south-southeast of Mexicali. Past sea level rise may partially be responsible for the salinity of the lake, while potential future changes in sea levels could

neg: Ecological facilitation interaction among species. This can also occur in a single habitat containing a gradient from low to high stress. For example, along a New England, USA, salt marsh tidal gradient, a presence of black needle rush ("Juncus gerardii") increased the fitness of marsh elder ("Iva annua") shrubs in lower elevations, where soil salinity was higher. The rush shaded the soil, which decreased evapotranspiration, and in turn decreased soil salinity. However, at higher elevations where soil salinity was lower, marsh elder fitness was decreased in the presence of the rush, due to increased competition for resources. Thus, the nature of species

neg: Salinity changes in carbon dioxide as more saline waters are less soluble to carbon dioxide. In addition, during glacial periods, the hydrography is such that a possible cause of reduced circulation is the production of stratified oceans. Hence it is difficult in this case to subduct water through the thermohaline circulation. Salinity Salinity () is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water (see also soil salinity). This is usually measured in formula_1 (note that this is technically dimensionless). Salinity is an important factor in determining many aspects of the chemistry of natural waters and of biological

neg: Phytophthora cinnamomi chemical means of control include: fumigating and certain phosphonate fungistats. A tactic that may be effective, dependent on spores, would be fumigating before planting. However, this would not be effective for eradicating chlamydospores since they are present deeper down in the soil, so fumigation may not reach them. Some experts do not recommend fumigation as "P. cinnamomi" is often able to re-invade fumigated soil and could cause worse damage since the competing microorganisms in the soil microbial community may be reduced by fumigation. Phosphonate fungistats can improve the ability of a tree to tolerate, resist, or recover from disease by

neg: Environmental issues in the Philippines severe flooding, increased runoff, and soil erosion. Droughts and reduced rainfall leads to increased pest infestations that damage crops as well as an increased need for irrigation. Rising sea levels increases salinity which leads to a loss of arable land and irrigation water. All of these factors contribute to higher prices of food and an increased demand for imports, which hurts the general economy as well as individual livelihoods. From 2006 to 2013, the Philippines experienced a total of 75 disasters that cost the agricultural sector $3.8 billion in loss and damages. Typhoon Haiyan alone cost the Philippines' agricultural sector

neg: Soil salinity metres from the surface of the soil. The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate. For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced by shallow rooting of annual crops. Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs, since almost all water (even

neg: Limonium ramosissimum Limonium ramosissimum Limonium ramosissimum, the Algerian sea lavender, is a species of sea lavender ("Limonium") native to the Mediterranean region. Its specific epithet means "many-branched" in Latin. As a halophyte, "Limonium ramosissimum" has the ability to tolerate a wide range of salt levels (salinity-tolerant) in the soil and also has the ability to actively lower the soil salinity by taking up and excreting salt through glands in the inflorescence, which are then free to break off and blow away. This could have the effect of changing the species composition of an area by reducing salinity in the soil. These plants

neg: Soil salinity affected by (moderately) saline soils, and only salinity-resistant crops thrive in severely saline soils. The University of Wyoming and the Government of Alberta report data on the salt tolerance of plants. Field data in irrigated lands, under farmers' conditions, are scarce, especially in developing countries. However, some on-farm surveys have been made in Egypt, India, and Pakistan. Some examples are shown in the following gallery, with crops arranged from sensitive to very tolerant.. From the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World the following salinised areas can be derived. Soil salinity Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the

neg:
Soil salinity control was found that the leaching efficiency was only 0.15.
 Assuming that one wishes to avoid the soil salinity to increase and maintain the soil salinity Cu at a desired level Cd we have:
 Ss = 0, Cu = Cd and Cp = Le.Cd. Hence the salt balance can be simplified to: Setting the amount percolation water required to fulfill this salt balance equal to Lr (the "leaching requirement") it is found that: Substituting herein Irr = Evap + Perc − Rain − Cap and re-arranging gives : With this the irrigation and drainage requirements for salinity control can be

neg: TL-6 the missile is stored in a controlled environment in a warehouse on land, the salinity, temperature and relative humidity requirements for the missile itself are greatly reduced. Because it is designed and deployed on land, the associate C4I systems can be located separately: the distributed system prevents electromagnetic interference, and if the C4I system is attacked, the distributed nature of the FL-9 would greatly reduce casualties and damage. Nasr-1 is reported to be the Iranian version of TL-6. However, there are some disagreements over this due to the lack of official confirmation from neither the Iran nor China. While many

neg: Soil salinity control the irrigation project, or the use of agro-hydro-salinity models, can be helpful in explaining or predicting the extent and severity of the problems. Soil salinity is measured as the salt concentration of the soil solution in tems of g/l or electric conductivity (EC) in dS/m. The relation between these two units is about 5/3 : y g/l => 5y/3 dS/m. Seawater may have a salt concentration of 30 g/l (3%) and an EC of 50 dS/m. The standard for the determination of soil salinity is from an extract of a saturated paste of the soil, and the EC is then

neg: Soil conservation both anions and cations and eliminate them from root zones. Planting species that can tolerate saline conditions to produce surface cover can preserve soil salinity can be reduced. Salt-tolerant plants include saltbush, a plant found in much of North America and in the Mediterranean regions of Europe. Pagal Organisms In Soil When worms excrete egesta in the form of casts, a balanced selection of minerals and plant nutrients is made into a form accessible for root uptake. Earthworm casts are five times richer in available nitrogen, seven times richer in available phosphates and eleven times richer in available potash than

neg: Soil salinity control about 0.5 FdS/m) and a modest annual supply of irrigation water of 10,000 m³/ha (almost 3 mm/day) brings 3,000 kg salt/ha each year. In the absence of sufficient natural drainage (as in waterlogged soils) and without a proper leaching and drainage program to remove salts, this would lead to a high soil salinity and reduced crop yields in the long run. Much of the water used in irrigation has a higher salt content than in this example, which is compounded by the fact that many irrigation projects use a far greater annual supply of water. Sugar cane, for example, needs

neg: Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry to observe the secondary effect of salinity on δD. There is a well established positive linear correlation between salinity and ε, on the order of a ~3‰ change in fractionation per salinity unit. Hypothesized mechanisms for this effect include enrichment of D in intracellular water due to reduced exchange with extracellular water at higher salinity, removal of H from intracellular water due to increased production of solutes to maintain osmotic pressure at higher salinity, and lower haptophyte growth rates at higher salinity Alkenone δD values have been used successfully to reconstruct past salinity changes in the Mediterranean Sea., Black Sea,

neg: Dryland salinity Dryland salinity Dryland salinity is a natural process for soil, just like other processes such as wind erosion. Salinity degrades land by an increase in soil salt concentration in the environment, watercourse or soil in unirrigated landscapes, being in excess of normal soil salt concentrations in dryland regions. Salinity refers to the movement and concentration of salt in the landscape and its associated detriment to land and water resources; dryland salinity refers to salinity in unirrigated landscapes. Salinity processes extend from local to regional scales and are driven by imbalances in the water budget that result, primarily, from agriculturally driven

neg: Salt marsh halophytes. Halophytes are a crucial part of salt marsh biodiversity and their potential to adjust to elevated sea levels. With elevated sea levels, salt marsh vegetation would likely be more exposed to more frequent inundation rates and they must be adaptable or tolerant of the consequential increased salinity levels and anaerobic conditions. There is a common elevation (above the sea level) limit for these plants to survive, where anywhere below the optimal line would lead to anoxic soils due to constant submergence and too high above this line would mean harmful soil salinity levels due to the high rate of

neg: Salinity in Australia Salinity in Australia Soil salinity and dryland salinity are two problems degrading the environment of Australia. Salinity is a concern in most states, but especially in the south-west of Western Australia. The Eastern Mallee and the Western Mallee of Western Australia are areas that are prone to salinity with little remedial action being undertaken to rectify the problem. Lands surrounding Lake Bryde-East Lake Bryde and Dumbleyung Lake have also been affected. In the Murray River valley irrigation has caused salinity problems. Land surrounding the town of Werrimull in the northwest of Victoria have been affected by salinity due to land

neg: Abiotic stress soil salinity content can be harmful to plants because water-soluble salts can alter osmotic potential gradients and consequently inhibit many cellular functions. For example, high soil salinity content can inhibit the process of photosynthesis by limiting a plant's water uptake; high levels of water-soluble salts in the soil can decrease the osmotic potential of the soil and consequently decrease the difference in water potential between the soil and the plant's roots, thereby limiting electron flow from H2O to P680 in Photosystem II's reaction center. Over generations, many plants have mutated and built different mechanisms to counter salinity effects. A good

neg: Sea ice microbial communities act as a buffer and cryoprotectant against high salinity and ice-crystal damage. These exopolymers are believed to constitute a microbial adaptation to low temperatures in extreme environments. Sea ice microbes have also developed anti-freeze proteins, which prevent the formation of ice crystals that could damage bacterial membranes. It is common for these proteins to be rich in beta-sheets as they prevent the formation of ice crystals/ Bacteria in all environments contribute to the microbial loop, but the roles of sea ice microbial communities in the microbial loop differ due to the rapidly changing environmental conditions found in the Arctic and

neg: Rice one successful embryo out of 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was then backcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genes responsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from "O. coarctata". Extensive trials are planned prior to the new variety being available to farmers by approximately 2017–18. When the problem of soil salinity arises it will be opportune to select salt tolerant varieties (IRRI or to resort to soil salinity control. Soil salinity is often measured as the electric conductivity (EC) of the extract of a saturated soil paste (ECe). The EC units are usually expressed in

neg: Salinity in Australia educate landholders and irrigators on better practices In the South-west rivers region of Western Australia, salinity impacts on potable and irrigation water supplies, and the areas unique biodiversity. Outcomes of NRM programs in Western Australia include re-vegetation, fencing, soil treatment, drainage works, treatment for soil erosion, monitoring programs, support of community projects, training, conservation agreements and a Strategic Tree Farming project. Tasmania faces different salinity management issues due to its unique topography. Under the Caring for our Country Project Tasmania has set up demonstration farm sites which test management strategies of surface and sub-surface drainage, and trees planting to intercept

neg: Soil salinity natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts. When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in the soil and eventually begin to accumulate. Since soil salinity makes it more difficult for plants to absorb soil moisture, these salts must be leached out of the plant root zone by applying additional water. This water in excess of plant needs is called the leaching fraction. Salination from irrigation water is also greatly increased by poor drainage and use of saline water for irrigating agricultural crops. Salinity in urban areas often results from the combination of irrigation and groundwater processes. Irrigation

neg: Salt marsh die-off grubbed marsh plant roots, evaporation increased leading to subsequent salinity increase, and without plants to oxygenate the soil the substrate became anoxic. This undesirable environment for marsh plants disallows sexual recruitment to the area. Snow geese have denuded the marsh until recolonization by clonal runners can restore marsh vegetation, which could take years. Because of the use of artificial fertilizers on temperate zone agricultural fields, a trophic cascade was initiated (Jefferies 1997). A major goal of ecology over the next century will be to understand how ecosystems will respond to current and future human impacts and the additive or synergistic

neg: Dryland salinity can improve salt discharge rates and improve soil health. Improvements undertaken at a catchment scale bring many benefits, not the least of which is providing for increased agricultural and associated regional productivity – using water for production that otherwise would contribute to an environmental problem. Dryland salinity Dryland salinity is a natural process for soil, just like other processes such as wind erosion. Salinity degrades land by an increase in soil salt concentration in the environment, watercourse or soil in unirrigated landscapes, being in excess of normal soil salt concentrations in dryland regions. Salinity refers to the movement and concentration

neg: SaltMod times, the final results can be "checked by hand" using the formulas in the manual. SaltMod's objective is to predict the long-term hydro-salinity in terms of general trends, not to arrive at exact predictions of how, for example, the situation would be on the first of April in ten years from now. Further, SaltMod gives the option of the re-use of drainage and well water (e.g. for irrigation) and it can account for farmers' response to waterlogging, soil salinity, water scarcity and over-pumping from the aquifer. Also it offers the possibility to introduce subsurface drainage systems at varying depths and

neg: Leaching model (soil) leaching efficiency are difficult to reclaim. In the Tagus delta, Portugal, the leaching efficiency of the dense clay soil was found as low as 0.10 to 0.15. The soil could not be developed for intensive agriculture and was used for rearing of bulls in coarse natural pasture. The clay soil in the Nile delta, Egypt, on the other hand has a much better leaching efficiency of 0.7 to 0.8. In figure 3, leaching curves are shown for different leaching efficiencies, as assumed in the "leaching model" SaltMod with data from the Mashtul pilot area. The observed values of soil salinity

neg: Andrew N. Schofield how plasticity theory and critical state soil mechanics could be used to describe the coupled volumetric and shear behavior of soils. led to the development of a constitutive model known as 'Cam Clay' that was formalized in the classic text by . Schofield was influenced by work on geotechnical centrifuge modeling by G.I. Pokrovsky in the USSR to study geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics problems. He developed a prototype geotechnical centrifuge in Cambridge and later adapted a centrifuge in the English Electric Company in Luton, UK to be used for geotechnical modelling in 1966 , . He accepted a Chair

neg: Soil salinity Soil salinity Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also come about through artificial processes such as irrigation and road salt. Salts are a natural component in soils and water. The ions responsible for salination are: Na, K, Ca, Mg and Cl. As the Na (sodium) predominates, soils can become sodic. Sodic soils present particular challenges because they tend

neg: Lorenzo A. Richards at Iowa State University, he spent the most part of his working life engaged in soil physics research at the United States Department of Agriculture Salinity Laboratory in Riverside, California. His thesis represented the first decisive progress beyond the work of Edgar Buckingham in the extension of Darcy's law to describe water movement in unsaturated soils. In this research, Richards described a partial differential equation, now commonly known by as the Richards equation. One of his key interests was the energy status of soil water, and he led the way in developing new and improved methods of measuring soil water

neg: Desert which below the extraction sites no longer has any above-ground flow during most of the year. Another problem of growing crops in this way is the build-up of salinity in the soil caused by the evaporation of river water. The greening of the desert remains an aspiration and was at one time viewed as a future means for increasing food production for the world's growing population. This prospect has proved false as it disregarded the environmental damage caused elsewhere by the diversion of water for desert project irrigation. Deserts are increasingly seen as sources for solar energy, partly due to

neg: Salt marsh die-off the link between different soil conditions and sites of die-off for several reasons. First, measurements may not be taken in frequent enough intervals to capture brief fluctuations in soil conditions associated with die-off. Second, attributing causation with changing soil conditions and die-off is potentially dubious. Reverse causality is a potential explanation; that is, soil chemistry differences may be a result rather than an agent of die-off. For instance, one study noted higher salinity levels in die-off areas in some months, but this was possibly attributable to altered root or evaporation dynamics due to die-off (Marsh 2007). Nutrient enrichment is a

neg: Soil policy (Victoria, Australia) building industry. Soil policy (Victoria, Australia) Soil policy in Victoria refers to the policies of soil governance in the Australian state of Victoria. In a 10-year vision for the environment of Victoria which is spelled out in "Growing Victoria Together" (DPC, 2001), one of the goals is that "the condition of our land will improve as the impact of salinity and soil degradation is reduced". Complementing "Growing Victoria Together" is "Our Environment: Our Future", which is a framework for Victoria's environmental sustainability. This defines a "long term and integrated approach" that seeks to "maximise our future economic growth, maintain our

neg: Soil policy (Victoria, Australia) Soil policy (Victoria, Australia) Soil policy in Victoria refers to the policies of soil governance in the Australian state of Victoria. In a 10-year vision for the environment of Victoria which is spelled out in "Growing Victoria Together" (DPC, 2001), one of the goals is that "the condition of our land will improve as the impact of salinity and soil degradation is reduced". Complementing "Growing Victoria Together" is "Our Environment: Our Future", which is a framework for Victoria's environmental sustainability. This defines a "long term and integrated approach" that seeks to "maximise our future economic growth, maintain our quality of

neg: Geography of Australia these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. The outback covers 70 percent of the continent. Cyclones along the northern coasts, severe thunderstorms, droughts, occasional floods, heat waves, and frequent bushfires are natural hazards that are present in Australia. Current environmental issues include: soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification (partly as a result of the introduction by European settlers of Rabbits); introduced pest species; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great

neg: Controlled traffic farming Controlled traffic farming Controlled traffic farming (CTF) is a management tool which is used to reduce the damage to soils caused by heavy or repeated agricultural machinery passes on the land. This damage and its negative consequences have been well documented and include increased fuel use, poor seedbeds, reduced crop yields and poor soil function in terms of water infiltration, drainage and greenhouse gas mitigation due to soil compaction. Controlled traffic farming is a system which confines all machinery loads to the least possible area of permanent traffic lanes. Current farming systems allow machines to run at random over the

neg: Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry precipitation. Therefore, the δD values of soil across regions are similar to that of local precipitation. However, due to evaporation, soil tends to be more D-enriched than precipitation. The degree of enrichment varies greatly depending on the atmospheric humidity, local temperature as well as the depth of the soil beneath the surface. According to the study done by Meinzer et al. (1999), as the depth in the soil increases, the δD of soil water decreases. The factors affecting δD values of algal lipids are the following: δD of water, algal species (up to 160%), lipid type (up to 170%), salinity

neg: Leaching (agriculture) of calcium and other soil nutrients, thereby reducing an ecosystem's productivity. Leaching (agriculture) In agriculture, leaching is the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and irrigation. Soil structure, crop planting, type and application rates of fertilizers, and other factors are taken into account to avoid excessive nutrient loss. Leaching may also refer to the practice of applying a small amount of excess irrigation where the water has a high salt content to avoid salts from building up in the soil (salinity control). Where this is practiced, drainage must also usually be employed, to carry away

neg: Environmental monitoring problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013). Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, where at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads. The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the

neg: Soil salinity control slightly saline soils, most crops are negatively affected by (moderately) saline soils, and only salinity resistant crops thrive in severely saline soils. The University of Wyoming and the Government of Alberta report data on the salt tolerance of plants. Drainage is the primary method of controlling soil salinity. The system should permit a small fraction of the irrigation water (about 10 to 20 percent, the drainage or leaching fraction) to be drained and discharged out of the irrigation project. In irrigated areas where salinity is stable, the salt concentration of the drainage water is normally 5 to 10 times higher

neg:
Soil salinity control computed too.
 In irrigation projects in (semi)arid zones and climates it is important to check the leaching requirement, whereby the "field irrigation efficiency" (indicating the fraction of irrigation water percolating to the underground) is to be taken into account.
 The desired soil salinity level Cd depends on the crop tolerance to salt. The University of Wyoming, USA, and the Government of Alberta, Canada, report crop tolerance data. In irrigated lands with scarce water resources suffering from drainage (high water table) and soil salinity problems, strip cropping is sometimes practiced with strips of land where every other strip is irrigated while

neg: Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity natural microwave emission coming up off the surface of the planet. The CNES Satellite Operations Ground Segment will operate the spacecraft with telecommunications from ESA's S-band facility located in Kiruna, Sweden. The Data Processing Ground Segment (CDTI, Villafranca, Spain) will process SMOS data through the X-band. Higher level processing of information will be done by scientists globally. Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity, or SMOS, is a satellite which forms part of ESA's Living Planet Programme. It is intended to provide new insights into Earth's water cycle and climate. In addition, it is intended to provide

neg: Soil biodiversity physical and chemical changes to the soil, including structural decline and, in the extreme, denudation, exposure to soil erosion, and export of salts to waterways. At low soil salinity, there is a lot of microbial activity, that results in an increase in soil respiration, which increases the carbon dioxide levels in the soil, producing a healthier environment for plants. As the salinity of the soil rises, there is more stress on microbes because there is less available water available to them, leading to less respiration. Soil salinity has localised and regional effects on biodiversity, ranging, for example, from changes in

neg: Soil biodiversity able to grow in soil with high salinity, because the soil salinity is not uniform, even in small areas. However, plants absorb nutrients from areas with lower salinity. Soil erosion is the removal of the soil's upper layers by the action of water, wind, or ice. Soil erosion occurs naturally, but human activities can greatly increase its severity. Soil that is healthy is fertile and productive. But soil erosion leads to a loss of topsoil, organic matter, and nutrients; it breaks down soil structure and decreases water storage capacity, in turn reducing fertility and the availability of water to plant

neg: Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Central Soil Salinity Research Institute The Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (acronym CSSRI) is an autonomous institute of higher learning, established under the umbrella of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India for advanced research in the field of soil sciences. The Institute is located on Kachawa Road in Karnal, in the state of Haryana, 125 km from the Indian capital of New Delhi. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) had its origin in Hisar, Haryana, on 1 March 1969, as per recommendations of an Indo-American team, employed to assist the Indian Council

neg:
Well drainage Well drainage Well drainage means drainage of agricultural lands by wells. Agricultural land is drained by pumped wells (vertical drainage) to improve the soils by controlling water table levels and soil salinity. Subsurface (groundwater) drainage for water table and soil salinity in agricultural land can be done by horizontal and vertical drainage systems.
 "Horizontal drainage" systems are drainage systems using open ditches (trenches) or buried pipe drains.
 "Vertical drainage" systems are drainage systems using pumped wells, either open dug wells or tube wells.
 Both systems serve the same "purposes", namely water table control and soil salinity control .
 Both

neg: Sankt Peter-Ording lot of land to the North Sea. There is evidence of Viking settlements. Süderhöft/Bohl gave up its independence after the flood of 1553. The churches of St. Peter and Ording joined parishes in 1867. It was not until 1967 that they were merged into St. Peter-Ording. In 1970, the community became part of the district of North Friesland; it previously belonged to the district of Eiderstedt. Because of the constant loss of sand, no harbour could be built and St. Peter-Ording never established a fishing industry. Even agriculture was not always successful, due to the salinity of the soil from

neg: Salt marsh continuously floods the area. It is an important process in delivering sediments, nutrients and plant water supply to the marsh. At higher elevations in the upper marsh zone, there is much less tidal inflow, resulting in lower salinity levels. Soil salinity in the lower marsh zone is fairly constant due to everyday annual tidal flow. However, in the upper marsh, variability in salinity is shown as a result of less frequent flooding and climate variations. Rainfall can reduce salinity and evapotranspiration can increase levels during dry periods. As a result, there are microhabitats populated by different species of flora and

neg: Manila Bay decline in the quality of water and sediments in the bay as well as impacted on the existing marine habitats. According to the study by Jacinto Manila bay has an average surface salinity of 32.6 psu (practical salinity unit). Due to the river influx, the areas near the coasts have low salinity especially in the vicinity of the mouth of the Pasig River in the eastern part of the bay. The bay’s salinity is also affected by strong seasonal variations. As indicated by the exposed roots of the coconut trees, continuing soil erosion has been a major factor in the

neg: Twentieth Indian Expedition to Antarctica the survey profile from the Veteiah nunatak (due south). Hydrographic Survey At three locations, current direction and speed, water temperature, salinity and velocity of sound were observed using Smart Acoustic Current Meter. Ice shelf delineation was undertaken using the Helicopter. Meteorological data were collected that could be used in developing a database and correlating it with other data. Global Change For Palyno-stratigraphic studies, air samples were collected using Burkard Volumetric Sampler (UK) on the voyage starting from 40o South latitude to Indian Research Station Maitri, Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica. Thirty five moss cushions, 15 dry soil samples, 5 dry algal

neg: Soil salinity control can have some use for livestock, sowing salinity resistant grasses or weeds. Moreover, useful salt resistant trees can be planted like Casuarina, Eucalyptus or Atriplex, keeping in mind that the trees have deep rooting systems and the salinity of the wet subsoil is less than of the topsoil. In these ways wind erosion can be controlled. The unirrigated strips can also be used for salt harvesting. The majority of the computer models available for water and solute transport in the soil (e.g. SWAP, DrainMod-S, UnSatChem, and Hydrus ) are based on Richard's differential equation for the movement of water in

neg: Central Soil Salinity Research Institute published many books, some of the notable ones are: The Institute has also published many technical bulletins, newsletters, popular articles and research papers. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute The Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (acronym CSSRI) is an autonomous institute of higher learning, established under the umbrella of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India for advanced research in the field of soil sciences. The Institute is located on Kachawa Road in Karnal, in the state of Haryana, 125 km from the Indian capital of New Delhi. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI)

neg: West Wetlands Park the park include: The Yuma West Wetlands park was inhabited by several types of invasive plant species such as the salt cedar tree ("Tamarix ramosissima"), giant reed ("Arundo donax"), Russian olive ("Elaeagnus angustifolia"), buffelgrass ("Cenchrus ciliaris"), and common mullein ("Verbascum thapsus"). The salt cedar ("Tamarix ramosissima") tree is particularly dangerous to the ecology of the West Wetlands Park due to the salt that is secreted through its leaves which increases the salinity of the surface soil. Increased salinity of the soil is lethal for all native vegetation and animal species. (Hart) It grows very successfully along riparian zones and tends

neg: Farakka Barrage to Bangladesh or India, nor could the future hydrological parameters taken into account as is always the case when water resources are planned on historic data series. As a result, the agreement is sometimes perceived to be failed by some sections in Bangladesh to provide the expected result. Constant monitoring of the implementation of Negotiations in lean season continue to the present today. In Bangladesh, it is perceived that the diversion has raised salinity levels, contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to water quality and public health. Lower levels of soil moisture along with increased salinity have also

neg: Kamrun Nahar potential in soil by producing organic solutes such as glucose, fructose, sucrose and proline. The quality of fruits was improved as a result of the synthesis of ascorbic acid, citric acid and malic acid. No physical damage due to stress was observed in fruits, which were over 90% red. Another such test conducted studied the effect of water stress on the height, dry matter and yield of few cultivars where it was noticed that the yield was reduced due to stress but no significant difference was observed. Nahar also worked on energy crops, especially their adaptability in different soil types

neg: Leaching (agriculture) Leaching (agriculture) In agriculture, leaching is the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and irrigation. Soil structure, crop planting, type and application rates of fertilizers, and other factors are taken into account to avoid excessive nutrient loss. Leaching may also refer to the practice of applying a small amount of excess irrigation where the water has a high salt content to avoid salts from building up in the soil (salinity control). Where this is practiced, drainage must also usually be employed, to carry away the excess water. Leaching is a natural environment concern when it

neg: Soil salinity control the strips in between are left permanently fallow. Owing to the water application in the irrigated strips they have a higher watertable which induces flow of groundwater to the unirrigated strips. This flow functions as subsurface drainage for the irrigated strips, whereby the water table is maintained at a not-too-shallow depth, leaching of the soil is possible, and the soil salinity can be controlled at an acceptably low level. In the unirrigated (sacrificial) strips the soil is dry and the groundwater comes up by capillary rise and evaporates leaving the salts behind, so that here the soil salinizes. Nevertheless, they

neg: Renewable resource called "peak soil" describes how large-scale factory farming techniques are affecting humanity's ability to grow food in the future. Without efforts to improve soil management practices, the availability of arable soil may become increasingly problematic. Methods to combat erosion include no-till farming, using a keyline design, growing wind breaks to hold the soil, and widespread use of compost. Fertilizers and pesticides can also have an effect of soil erosion, which can contribute to soil salinity and prevent other species from growing. Phosphate is a primary component in the chemical fertiliser applied most commonly in modern agricultural production. However, scientists estimate

neg: Salt tolerance of crops Soil Map of the World. Additionally, in areas where sprinkler irrigation is practiced, salty sprinkler water can cause considerable damage by leaf burning, whether the soil is saline or not. One of the first studies made on soil salinity and plant response was published in the USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 60 , 1954. More than 20 years later Maas and Hoffman published the results of an extensive study on salt tolerance. In 2001, a Canadian study provided a substantial amount of additional data. A comprehensive survey of tolerances reported world wide was made by the FAO in 2002. Most studies

neg: Soil biodiversity kilometres or 23% of Victoria's agricultural soils suffer reduced productivity due to increased acidity. Soil acidity has been seen to damage the roots of the plants. Plants in higher acidity have smaller, less durable roots. Some evidence has shown that the acidity damages the tips of the roots restricting further growth. The height of the plants has also seen a marked restriction when grown in acidic soils, as seen in American and Russian wheat populations. The number of seeds that are even able to germinate in acidic soil is much lower than the amount of seeds that can sprout in

neg: Melampsora amygdalinae host may be further progressed even with other feeding damage. “The productivity of "Salix" biomass can be reduced by more than 30-50% dry matter by rust” . Melampsora amygdalinae "Melampsora amygdalinae" is a fungal pathogen and part of the phylum, basidiomycota. It is known as a rust fungus that is host specific. "M. amygdalinae" commonly infects willows of the "Salix" species. This fungus was first discovered in 1909 by Heinrich Klebahn who was a professor of soil biology in Hamburg. Neimi at el. explain how the pathogen occurs throughout the whole distribution of the host, and the small natural populations

neg: Headland (agriculture) unit of area than the field as a whole. Yields are generally lower than in the field itself due to additional implement traffic and crop damage from implements turning on them as well as compaction. Soil fertility levels are frequently higher than in the main part of the field due to overlapping applications of fertilizer coupled with reduced yields. In the days when steam ploughing was common, the engine would often remain on the headland and pull the plough across the field by a wire rope. There would be severe compaction of the headland but little compaction of the rest

neg: Nabkha a salinity-tolerant woody shrub that can extend roots up to 20 meters deep in the soil, persisting through harsh conditions and eventually building nabkhas up to 8 meters wide. A plant generally cannot hold enough sand to start a nabkha until it is at least 10 to 15 centimeters tall. Some sources describe nabkhas as ephemeral features of the landscape, but other research shows that they may last longer than previously thought. Some last over 100 years. Still, a nabkha on an annual plant generally only lasts one season. A nabkha can also be self-limiting if the sand accumulation lifts

neg: Port of Sacramento a number of problems, including how it impacts the water quality. One measure of quality is the salinity of the water. As the channel is deepened, more salt water from the bay enters the system to maintain sea level, which is an issue because the affected area includes drinking water intakes. These intakes require that the water be below a certain maximum salinity level that can be exceeded due to the dredging. The salinity of the water can also have negative effects on local fisheries. Dredging also disturbs rare and endangered species. One of these species is the Delta smelt

neg: 2003 Boumerdès earthquake located near Réghaïa had heavy damage. Societé Nationale des Transports Ferrovaires, Algeria's state-owned railway company, suffered track damage near the town of Thénia. Some tracks were also blocked by debris of destroyed buildings. Eighteen bridges in the affected region had minor to moderate damage. Cracks developed in some roads and highways. The port of Algiers, which at that time handled approximately 40% of the national cargo traffic, suffered light to moderate damage due to soil liquefaction and settlement caused by the earthquake. Port operations was reportedly reduced by 30% immediately after the quake. The minor ports in Zemmouri and Dellys

neg: Drainage to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established. In each of these cases appropriate drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or perennial crops. Drier areas are often farmed by irrigation, and one would not consider drainage necessary. However, irrigation water always contains minerals and salts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration. Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to control soil salinity. Drainage Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from

neg: Environmental monitoring use of electromagnetic induction techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity. Water quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as gill netting

neg: Soil fertility useful salts ( Ca, Mg, K, P, S, etc.) are removed by draining water from the acidic soil and in addition unwanted aluminium and manganese salts to the plants are dissolved from the soil impeding plant growth. When soil is irrigated with high salinity water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into saline soil or lose its fertility. Saline water enhance the turgor pressure or osmotic pressure requirement which impedes the off take of water and nutrients by the plant roots. Top soil loss takes place in alkali soils due to

neg: Mannarasala Temple rites. This land came to be known as Kerala. This piece of land, however was not habitable because of the salinity of the soil and as a result people began to leave the place. Another reason for the Brahmins leaving the land was because Kerala, full of forests, was heavily infested with extremely poisonous snakes. To get protection from the snakes Snake worship was initiated. Bharghavarama was pained at this. He undertook a penance to please Lord Shiva, who advised him that the objective could be realized only if the flaming poison of the serpents was spread into the soil

neg: Soil liquefaction rivers and lakes may slide on a liquefied soil layer (termed 'lateral spreading'), opening large cracks or fissures in the ground, and can cause significant damage to buildings, bridges, roads and services such as water, natural gas, sewerage, power and telecommunications installed in the affected ground. Buried tanks and manholes may float in the liquefied soil due to buoyancy. Earth embankments such as flood levees and earth dams may lose stability or collapse if the material comprising the embankment or its foundation liquefies. Over geological time, liquefaction of soil material due to earthquakes could provide a dense parent material in

neg: Ectomycorrhiza Although many metals are important nutrients in small quantities, such as copper, iron and zinc, in high concentrations they pose a particularly devastating risk due to their toxicities. See Ectomycorrhizas and heavy metals for a description of how heavy metals affect ectomycorrhizal fungi. Another problem faced by many plants is high soil salinity. One study shows that some EcM fungi are capable of improving salt tolerance in a species of poplar by altering leaf physiology. Though the symbiotic contact takes place at the root interface, the fungus was able to alter such leaf traits as concentration of nutrients and phytohormones,

neg: Soil salinity control than that of the irrigation water. Salt export matches salt import and salt will not accumulate. When reclaiming already salinized soils, the salt concentration of the drainage water will initially be much higher than that of the irrigation water (for example 50 times higher). Salt export will greatly exceed salt import, so that with the same drainage fraction a rapid desalinization occurs. After one or two years, the soil salinity is decreased so much, that the salinity of the drainage water has come down to a normal value and a new, favorable, equilibrium is reached. In regions with pronounced dry

neg: Soil salinity control The drainage system designed to evacuate salty water also lowers the water table. To reduce the cost of the system, the lowering must be reduced to a minimum. The highest permissible level of the water table (or the shallowest permissible depth) depends on the irrigation and agricultural practices and kind of crops. In many cases a seasonal average water table depth of 0.6 to 0.8 m is deep enough. This means that the water table may occasionally be less than 0.6 m (say 0.2 m just after an irrigation or a rain storm). This automatically implies that, in other occasions,

neg: Powder metallurgy the material and particle size to the wares being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced, while maximizing furnace loading per batch. The phrase "continuous process" should be used only to describe modes of manufacturing which could be extended indefinitely in time. Normally, however, the term refers to processes whose products are much longer in one physical dimension than in the other two. Compression, rolling, and extrusion are the most common examples. In a simple compression process, powder flows from a bin onto a two-walled channel and is repeatedly compressed vertically by a horizontally stationary punch. After stripping the

neg: Severe weather causing deaths. Visibility may be reduced dramatically, so risks of vehicle and aircraft crashes are possible. Additionally, the particulates may reduce oxygen intake by the lungs, potentially resulting in suffocation. Damage can also be inflicted upon the eyes due to abrasion. Dust storms can many issues for agricultural industries as well. Soil erosion is one of the most common hazards and decreases arable lands. Dust and sand particles can cause severe weathering of buildings and rock formations. Nearby bodies of water may be polluted by settling dust and sand, killing aquatic organisms. Decrease in exposure to sunlight can affect plant

neg: Pedogenesis deposited due to differences in soil moisture and soil chemistry, especially soil pH and redox potential. The interplay of removal and deposition results in contrasting soil horizons. Key soil forming processes especially important to macro-scale patterns of soil formation are: A variety of mechanisms contribute to soil formation, including siltation, erosion, overpressure and lake bed succession. A specific example of the evolution of soils in prehistoric lake beds is in the Makgadikgadi Pans of the Kalahari Desert, where change in an ancient river course led to millennia of salinity buildup and formation of calcretes and silcretes. Pedogenesis Pedogenesis (from the

neg: Regime shift of nutrients from the coast and overfishing. Overfishing and overharvest of keystone predators, such as sea otters, applies top-down pressure on the system. Bottom-up pressure arises from nutrient pollution. Soil salinization is an example of a well-known regime shift in terrestrial systems. It is driven by the removal of deep root vegetation and irrigation, which causes elevation of the soil water table and the increase of soil surface salinity. Once the system flips, ecosystem services related with food production – both crops and cattle – are significantly reduced. Dryland degradation, also known as desertification, is a well-known but controversial type

neg: Soil erosion of mangroves have been examined as a potential means to reduce soil erosion. Their complex root structures are known to help reduce wave damage from storms and flood impacts while binding and building soils. These roots can slow down water flow, leading to the deposition of sediments and reduced erosion rates. However, in order to maintain sediment balance, adequate mangrove forest width needs to be present. Soil erosion Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, one form of soil degradation. This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice

neg: Tillage (1987) to have increased in 2 of 6 plots, the others showing decreases. Nutrient losses may be outweighed, at least in the short term, by improved soil microclimate through the reduced thickness of forest floor where low soil temperatures are a limiting factor. The "Picea/Abies" forests of the Alberta foothills are often characterized by deep accumulations of organic matter on the soil surface and cold soil temperatures, both of which make reforestation difficult and result in a general deterioration in site productivity; Endean and Johnstone (1974) describe experiments to test prescribed burning as a means of seedbed preparation and site

neg: Soil biodiversity of salt. It is a natural occurrence, but farming practices such as overgrazing and cultivation have contributed to the rise of it. The options for managing sodic soils are very limited; one must either change the plants or change the soil. The latter is the more difficult process. If changing the soil, one must add calcium to absorb the excess sodium that blocks water flow. Soil salinity is the concentration of salt within the soil profile or on the soil surface. Excessive salt directly affects the composition of plants and animals due to varying salt tolerance – along with various

neg: Soil biodiversity plant composition and survival at a local discharge site through to regional changes in water quality and aquatic life. While very saline soil is not preferred for growing crops, it is important to note that many crops can grow in more saline soils then others. This is important in countries where resources such as fresh water are scarce and needed for drinking, and saline water is able to be used for agriculture. Soil salinity can vary between extremes in a relatively small area; this allows plants to seek areas with less salinity. It is hard to determine which plants are

neg: Tomato grafting but also tolerance to abiotic stress like flooding, drought, and salinity . The first grafts in the early 20th century were made in order to diminish attacks by infectious organisms, such as "Fusarium oxysporum" on watermelons. However, research has shown that this technique can be effective against a variety of fungal, bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases. Furthermore, many researchers are looking to utilize specific rootstocks as an alternative to methyl bromide-a soil fumigant that has been widely used until recently. Grafting has been highly effective at overcoming abiotic sources of stress, such as soil salinity, temperature extremes, and excessive soil

neg: Eremophila subteretifolia species include increasing salinity, waterlogging, road maintenance, vehicle damage and grazing by rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus"). This prostrate eremophila is ideal for use as a ground cover or to trail over walls. It can produce a massed display of orange-red flowers and is an effective weed suppressor. Propagation from cuttings is easy and once established, the plant will grow in well-drained soil in a sunny or part-shaded position. It is drought tolerant, only requiring an occasional watering during a drought and can be killed by over-watering. It is also frost tolerant and can be pruned when necessary. Eremophila subteretifolia Eremophila subteretifolia,