query: when did the spanish land in south america

pos: Spanish colonization of the Americas quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city-states' political hierarchy and social structure in place. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America. Hernán Cortés' landing ashore at present day Veracruz and founding the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519 marked the beginning of 300 years of

pos: Spanish conquest of Nicaragua Jamaica in 1509, Cuba in 1511, and Florida in 1513. In the south, the Spanish established themselves in Castilla de Oro (modern Panama), when Vasco Núñez de Balboa founded Santa María la Antigua in 1511. In 1513, while exploring westwards, Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, and in 1519 Pedrarias Dávila founded Panama City on the Pacific coast. The focus soon turned to exploring south along the Pacific coast towards South America. The Spanish heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west of their Caribbean island settlements and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail

neg: America's Backyard addition, "America's backyard" has been used in a domestic context to refer to national parks and other open land, whereas "near abroad" refers solely to foreign (though proximate) areas and cannot be used in a public land context. The term "America's Backyard" started in reference to Central and South America. "America's Backyard" is about the United States' traditional area of dominance and major sphere of influence, which was Central and South America for a long time. During the early 19th century, many Spanish colonies in Latin America were trying to take advantage of the failing Spanish empire and were trying

neg: History of South America Asia who crossed the Bering Land Bridge to present-day Alaska; the land separated and the continents are divided by the Bering Strait. Over the course of millennia, three waves of migrants spread to all parts of the Americas. Genetic and linguistic evidence has shown that the last wave of migrant peoples settled across the northern tier, and did not reach South America. The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to circa 6500 BCE, when potatoes, chilies and beans began to be cultivated for food in the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence suggests that manioc,

neg: Historiography of Colonial Spanish America to the transatlantic trade and the rise of Atlantic history. New works indicate that interest is increasing. Although the crown attempted to maintain a closed trading system within the Spanish empire, the British traded with Spanish Americans, accelerating in the eighteenth century. Overland transportation of goods in Spanish America was generally by pack animals, especially mules, and in the Andean area llamas as well. But the Spanish did not build many roads allowing cart or carriage transport. Transit over oceans or coastal sailing was relatively efficient compared to land transportation, and in most places in Spanish America there were few

neg: Poeciliidae years ago, and that live-bearing subsequently evolved in South America. Poeciliids colonized North America through the Antilles while they were connected 44 million years ago. Poeciliids then moved to Central America by the Aves land bridge on the Caribbean Plate. When South America connected to Central America three million years ago, some further dispersal southward occurred, but South American species did not move into Central America. Among the live-bearing species, differences in the mode and degree of support the female gives the developing larvae occur. Many members of the family Poeciliidae are considered to be lecithotrophic (the mother provisions the

neg: History of Newport Beach, California portion of today's Orange County in Southern California. Covering some , Yorba's great rancho included the lands where the cities of Olive, Orange, Villa Park, Santa Ana, Tustin, Costa Mesa and Newport Beach stand today. From this Spanish period, the Ranchos began trading hides with US merchants in Boston for goods from New England, sailing around South America. The Ranchos also traded with English and European merchants. This trade continued through the Mexican period (1823–1848) as immigrants were offered land if they converted to the Catholic religion and became Mexican citizens, which many did. Many Anglo immigrants married into Spanish

neg: Indigenous peoples of South America descent are usually referred to as mestizos. It is believed that the first human populations of South America either arrived from Asia into North America via the Bering Land Bridge, and migrated southwards or alternatively from Polynesia across the Pacific. The earliest generally accepted archaeological evidence for human habitation in South America dates to 14,000 years ago, the Monte Verde site in Southern Chile. The descendents of these first inhabitants would become the indigenous populations of South America. Before the Spanish colonization of the Americas, many of the indigenous peoples of South America were hunter-gatherers, and indeed many still are,

neg: Socorro, New Mexico the province to go south to safety. With no protection of Spanish troops, Socorro was destroyed and the remaining Piro were killed by the Apache and other tribes. The Spanish did not initially resettle Socorro when they re-conquered New Mexico. Other than El Paso, there were no Spanish settlements south of Sabinal (which is approximately north of Socorro) until the 1800s. In 1800, governor Fernando Chacon gave the order to resettle Socorro and other villages in the area. However, Socorro was not resettled until about 1815. In 1817, 70 Belen residents petitioned the crown for land in Socorro. The 1833

neg: Sephardic Bnei Anusim positions which did not require evidence of "pureza de sangre" (though later on, this too was clamped down on). Portuguese New Christians, on the other hand, were settling in the Spanish colonies through what essentially became the backdoor entry, via Brazil. As a Portuguese colony, Brazil was more lax at enforcing the prohibition on Sephardic New Christian immigrant passage. Then between 1580 and 1640, when the Kingdom of Portugal was annexed to the Spanish Crown, the influx of Portuguese conversos into the Spanish colonies in South America became such that by the early 1600s the term "portugués" had become synonymous

neg: Karain semi-continent personal correspondence and in his unpublished notes, he states quite clearly that it is in the South Atlantic ocean (i.e., "... not on the Spanish side of the Pope's line ...,") in between South America, Africa, and Antarctica, somewhat closer to Africa and Antarctica than to South America. However, readers such as Elmer Davis have concluded that it lies in the South Pacific, somewhere between New Zealand and South America. Indeed, Mark Saxton, who edited the manuscript for "Islandia", pointedly ignored the author's own notes on the location of the fictional land, and wrote three sequels setting it in the

neg: Trementina, New Mexico Cañon Largo to the north (now part of the Sabinoso Wilderness area) and Variadero Mesa to the South and the Canadian River to the East and the Conchas River to the West. Santiago Blea is credited with founding the community. The early Spanish Americans who settled the area defined land ownership by points of reference. When the area was surveyed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1880, many people lost their land because they did not understand the new laws and did not file for homesteads. Other U.S. citizens from he east took advantage of the new laws and homesteaded

neg: Russian Americans with the government of New Spain which produced great tension between the two countries. Spain claimed the land yet had never established a colony there. But due to the well armed Russian Fort, Spain could not remove the Russians living there. Without the Russians' hospitality the Spanish colony would have been abandoned due to their supplies being lost when Spanish supply ships sank in a large storm off the South American coast. After the Independence of Mexico, tensions were reduced and trade was established with the new government of Mexican California. Russian America was not a profitable colony, due to

neg: Catholic Church in Latin America their traditional beliefs. The Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion. In fact, the missionary work of the Roman Catholic Church in Quechua, Nahuatl, and Guarani actually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems. The 1510 "Requerimiento", in relation to the Spanish invasion of South America, demanded that the local populations accept Spanish rule, and allow preaching to them by Catholic missionaries, on pain of war, slavery or death, although it did not demand conversion. Slavery was part of the local population's culture before the arrival of the

neg: Peruvian Ribereño Spanish Coast Spanish is the standard dialect of Spanish in Peru. Between 1535 and 1739, Lima was the capital of the Spanish Empire in South America, from where Hispanic culture spread, and its speech became the "purest" since it was the home of the famous University of San Marcos of Lima. Also, it was the city that had the highest number of titles of nobility from Castile outside of Spain. Colonial people in Lima became used to living an ostentatious and courtly life style that people in the other capital cities of Spanish America did not experience, with the exception of

neg: Mistawasis his maternal nephew. The American buffalo’s habitat once ranged in the general area from the American east coast, south-west to near Mexico, and northwards to Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories. They are the largest land mammals found on the continent of North America. The Buffalo’s first contact with Europeans most likely occurred in the 1500s when they were spotted by Spanish conquistadors. Estimates suggest that at this time there was roughly 25-30 million wild buffalo living in North America. This number would dwindle severely to less than 100 in the American Great Plains states by the 1880s, with

neg: Mission (LDS Church) an attempt in the 1850s by Parley P. Pratt to preach in Chile. He made no progress and did not make a permanent impact. It was not until the 1870s, after Meliton Trejo and Daniel Jones had translated the Book of Mormon into Spanish that missionary work began on a permanent footing in Mexico. The first mission president there was Moses Thatcher. Another early mission president in that land was Helaman Pratt, son of Parley and father of Rey Pratt. The first permanent mission in South America was formed in 1925 under the direction of Melvin J. Ballard. Missionary work

neg: History of Ecuador the viceroyalty, however, Ecuador was awarded its own audiencia in 1563, allowing it to deal directly with Madrid on certain matters. The Quito Audiencia, which was both a court of justice and an advisory body to the viceroy, consisted of a president and several judges (oidores). The most common form in which the Spanish occupied the land was the encomienda. By the early 17th century, there were some 500 encomiendas in Ecuador. Although many consisted of quite sizable haciendas, they were generally much smaller than the estates commonly found elsewhere in South America. A multitude of reforms and regulations did

neg: Land Rover engines Rover Defender and Land Rover Discovery. In 1956, the Rover Company held talks with Spanish engineering company 'Metalúrgica de Santa Ana S.A.' (later to be renamed Santana Motor) with the aim of starting Land Rover assembly in Spain. Under the terms of the agreement Santana would initially build Land Rovers from Complete Knock Down kits shipped from Britain, but locally manufactured content would gradually be increased until the entire vehicles were built from scratch in Spain. Santana would also have exclusive sales rights in Spain, South America, Central America and North Africa, selling both Santana- and Land Rover-badged vehicles in

neg: St. John the Baptist Parish, Louisiana Spanish colonial period, many Acadians, people of French descent, began arriving in south Louisiana due to being expelled by the British from what is now Nova Scotia, when the British were victorious in the Seven Years' War and took over French territory in Canada and North America east of the Mississippi river. The first Acadian village was established in what is now Wallace, Louisiana. The German and French cultures thrived alongside one another, but French came to be the dominant language. They developed a culture known as Cajun. The early settlers in the area received land grants from the Spanish

neg: History of South America shows the skilled goldworking of the inhabitants of the Altiplano. The Muisca were the only pre-Columbian civilization known in South America to have used coins ("tejuelos"). The gold and "tumbaga" (a gold-silver-copper alloy elaborated by the Muisca) created the legend of "El Dorado"; the "land, city or man of gold". The Spanish conquistadors who landed in the Caribbean city of Santa Marta were informed of the rich gold culture and led by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and his brother Hernán Pérez, organised the most strenuous of the Spanish conquests into the heart of the Andes in April 1536. After an

neg: History of Mexico other viceroyalties were created in Spanish South America in the late 18th century. This wealth made Spain the dominant power in Europe and the envy of England, France, and (after its independence from Spain) the Netherlands. Spain's silver mining and crown mints created high quality coins, the currency of Spanish America, the silver peso or Spanish dollar that became a global currency. Spanish conquerors did not bring all areas of Aztec Empire under its control. After the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521, it took decades of sporadic warfare to subdue the rest of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya regions of southern

neg: Isabella I of Castile did not recognise that South America belonged to the Spanish because it was in Portugal's sphere of influence, and the Portuguese King John II threatened to send an army to claim the land for the Portuguese. Isabella was not in favour of Columbus' enslavement of the American natives and attempted to enforce the recent policies of the Canaries upon the 'New World', stating that all peoples were under the subject of the Castilian Crown and could not be enslaved in most situations. The principles she established would have very little effect during her lifetime, however. With the institution of the

neg: Chile–Peru relations Peru was not an independent nation and that it was simply a rebellious state. This deeply angered Peru, but during those times the close ties among the Peruvians and their Spanish relatives did not amount to much trouble. In fact, when Spain sent a "scientific expedition" team to South America, the people of Chile and Peru greeted them with much cordiality. Nonetheless, for reasons not clear to this date, a fight broke out between two Spanish citizens a crowd of people in Lambayeque, Peru. The "scientific expedition" suddenly turned aggressive as they demanded the government of Peru to give reparations

neg: Afro-Dominicans the Spanish colonists, who traveled in large armed groups outside the plantations and left the mountainous regions to the Maroons (until 1654 with the conquest of Jamaica by the Corsairs of British Admiral William Penn and general Robert Venables). With the discovery of precious metals in South America, the Spanish abandoned their migration to the island of Hispaniola to emigrate to South America and Mexico in order to get rich, for they did not find much wealth there. Thus, they also abandoned the slave trade to the island, which led to the collapse of the colony into poverty. Still, during

neg: Military history of South America the European powers sought dominance and trade advantage in South America and along the sea-lanes of the region. Conflicts were limited by the difficulties of projecting land forces at such distances. Ongoing conflicts and revolts with native peoples continued, dominated by the logistical challenges of taking distant or inland territories before the development of the railway. Many conflicts in South America during the 18th century were the result of rivalries in the Old World. In 1739, the War of Jenkins' Ear broke out between Great Britain and Spain, the result of disagreement over trade rights and Spanish markets. The British

neg: Coastal fortifications of colonial Chile were thwarted during the 1630s when Mapuches did not allow the Spanish to pass by their territory. With the Spanish blocked from entering Valdivia via land the much waited Dutch invasion met no resistance when it reached the ruins of old Spanish city in August 1643. Before that the Dutch did however engage the Spanish at Carelmapu and sacked Castro. The Spanish in these two localities had been instructed to use a scorched earth strategy against the incoming invaders. While the Dutch abandoned their new colony after only two months in October 1643, their invasion caused great alarm among Spanish

neg: Uti possidetis emerged. The newly formulated principle has been applied in numerous regions, e.g. South America, Africa, Yugoslavia, and Soviet Union, where centralized governments were broken up, following decolonization or a mandate, or where imperial rulers were overthrown. This use originated in South America in the 19th century with the withdrawal of the Spanish Empire. By declaring that "uti possidetis" applied, the new states sought to ensure that there was no "terra nullius" in South America when the Spanish withdrew and to reduce the likelihood of border wars between the newly independent states and the establishment of new European colonies. The same

neg: Spanish language in South America Spanish language in South America The Spanish language in South America varies within the different countries and regions of the continent. The term "South American Spanish" (Spanish: "español sudamericano" or "español suramericano") is sometimes used as a broad name for the dialects of Spanish spoken on the continent, but such a term is only "geographical" and has little or no "linguistic" relevance. The diverse Spanish dialects of the continent have no unifying feature to set them apart from non-South American varieties. The Spanish of the Andean highlands is historically conservative, having some traits in common with the Spanish of central

neg: James Wright (governor) attorney-general. He also began amassing plantation lands. Wright returned to London as an agent for the South Carolina colony in 1757. Then, in May 1760, he was named as Lieutenant Governor to Henry Ellis in Georgia. He returned to America and took up residence in Savannah, Georgia. When Ellis resigned he was appointed Governor in November 1760. He was the third, and arguably most popular, Royal Governor of the colony. He sold many of his holdings in South Carolina, acquired land in Georgia, and moved his financial operations as well. With peace temporarily established with the French and Spanish, he

neg: Sephardic Bnei Anusim tolerant cities in Europe, immediately reverting to Judaism. Although a few did their travel to Spanish America, doing so was particularly difficult since only those Spaniards who could certify no recent Muslim or Jewish ancestry were allowed to travel to the New World. Nevertheless, the constant flow of Spanish emigration to Latin America up until well into the 20th century has resulted to many Latin Americans having Converso ancestry, in the same way as modern Spaniards do. The Bnei Anusim concept has gained some popularity among the Hispanic Community in the American South West and in countries in Latin America,

neg: Spanish language in South America Mexico, while varieties spoken in Argentina and Venezuela share some phonological innovations with the Spanish spoken on Caribbean islands. In some cases a single South American country—for example Colombia—presents a broad spectrum of conservative and innovative dialects. Spanish language in South America The Spanish language in South America varies within the different countries and regions of the continent. The term "South American Spanish" (Spanish: "español sudamericano" or "español suramericano") is sometimes used as a broad name for the dialects of Spanish spoken on the continent, but such a term is only "geographical" and has little or no "linguistic" relevance. The

neg: Spanish Texas to Spanish mines and shipping routes, Spanish King Carlos II's Council of War recommended that "Spain needed swift action 'to remove this thorn which has been thrust into the heart of America. The greater the delay the greater the difficulty of attainment.'" Having no idea where to find the French colony, the Spanish launched ten expeditions—both land and sea—over the next three years. While unable to fulfill their original goal of locating the French settlement, the expeditions did provide Spain a deeper understanding of the geography of the Gulf Coast region. The last expedition, in 1689, discovered a French deserter

neg: Encomienda of frontier areas. The king usually intervened directly or indirectly in the bond, by guaranteeing the fairness of the agreement and intervening militarily in case of abuse. The "encomienda" system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution. The "encomenderos" did not own the land on which the natives lived. The system did not entail any direct land tenure by the "encomendero"; Indian lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was formally protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown and not to the

neg: Spanish Florida Spanish Florida Spanish Florida refers to the Spanish territory of La Florida, which was the first major European land claim and attempted settlement in North America during the European Age of Discovery. "La Florida" formed part of the Captaincy General of Cuba, the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and the Spanish Empire during Spanish colonization of the Americas. While its boundaries were never clearly or formally defined, the territory was much larger than the present-day state of Florida, extending over much of what is now the southeastern United States, including all of present-day Florida plus portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, South

neg: American exceptionalism shape them nearly as much as the American frontier did, usually because it was under the control of a strong national government. South Africa, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia had long frontiers, but they did not have "free land" and local control. The political and cultural environments were much different—the other frontiers did not involve widespread ownership of free land nor allow the settlers to control the local and provincial governments as in America. Their edge did not shape their national psyches. Each nation had entirely different frontier experiences. For example, the Dutch Boers in South Africa were defeated

neg: Black Carib islands. Since that this was too small and infertile to maintain the population, the Black Caribs asked the Spanish authorities of Honduras to be allowed to live on land. The Spanish are allowed to change the use them as soldiers. After settling in the Honduran coast, they were expanded by the Caribbean coast of Central America, coming to Belize and Guatemala to the north, and the south to Nicaragua. Over time, the Black Caribs would be denominated in the mainland of Central America as "Garifuna". This word, according to Gonzalez (2008, p. Xv), derived from "Kalinago", the name by which

neg: Age of Discovery of Hispaniola. Despite growing doubts, Columbus refused to accept that he had not reached the Indies. During the voyage he discovered the mouth of the Orinoco River on the north coast of South America (now Venezuela) and thought that the huge quantity of fresh water coming from it could only be from a continental land mass, which he was certain was the Asian mainland. As shipping between Seville and the West Indies grew, knowledge of the Caribbean islands, Central America and the northern coast of South America grew. One of these Spanish fleets, that of Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo

neg: Chile–Spain relations Mapuche warriors. In 1542, Chile became part of the Spanish Empire and was governed by the Viceroyalty of Peru based in Lima. In 1776 the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata based in Buenos Aires was created and Chile was immediately administered by the new Viceroyalty. Due to the lack of mineral wealth in the territory, very few Spanish migrants settled in Chile and those who did, mostly worked the land as farmers. In the early 19th century, a wave of independence sentiment was rolling through the Spanish Empire in Latin America. On 18 September 1810, leaders of the

neg: Tapalpa Tapalpa The word "Tapalpa" comes from the Nahuatl word "tlapalpan" meaning "land of colors." The region was inhabited by the Otomi prior to the arrival of the Spanish. In 1523, the Spanish, led by Alonso de Ávalos Saavedra, reached the region. They encountered a native tribe called Atlacco, who did not resist the Spanish colonizers. In 1531, a group of Franciscan friars began evangelizing to the natives. By 1825, Tapalpa was already registered as a town and in 1869 it was declared a municipality. The first paper factory in Latin America was opened in Tapalpa in 1840. The factory shut

neg: Bell Gardens, California new grant Rancho San Antonio. The ranch eventually grew to encompass , including what are now the cities of Bell Gardens, Commerce, and parts of Bell, Cudahy, Lynwood, Montebello, South Gate, Vernon and East Los Angeles. When California became part of the U.S. in 1850, Lugo, as did all recipients of Spanish/Mexican land grants, began losing portions of his land to the growing population of Anglo newcomers. The ranch adobe, however, continued to be owned and used by the Lugo family. By 1865, most of the Lugo ranch, divided among five sons and three daughters, had been sold off for

neg: Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada to Mariquita where he was buried in the Santa Lucía Abbey. His remains were there until 1597 when they were exhumed and transferred to Bogotá, the city founded by him. In Spanish In English Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada y Rivera, also spelled as De Quezada and Ximénez, (; 1496 – other sources state 1506 or 1509 Suesca, 16 February 1579 was a Spanish explorer and conquistador in northern South America, territories currently known as Colombia. He explored the northern part of South America. As a well-educated lawyer he was one of the intellectuals of the Spanish

neg: Battle of Rancagua beginning of the Reconquista of South America. This battle became a stain in Chile's national memory as it was a time when the nation was lost and the people were hopeless that their struggle for independence was in vain. The people fled elsewhere in South America as refugees to escape the violence the Spanish would have given to the rebels. Battle of Rancagua The Battle of Rancagua also known as the Disaster of Rancagua occurred on October 1, 1814, to October 2, 1814, when the Spanish Army under the command of Mariano Osorio defeated the rebel Chilean forces led by

neg: Anthony de la Roché Anthony de la Roché Anthony de la Roché, born sometime in the 17th century, (spelled also "Antoine de la Roché", "Antonio de la Roché" or "Antonio de la Roca" in some sources) was an English merchant born in London to a French Huguenot father and an English mother. During a commercial voyage between Europe and South America he was blown off course, and visited the Antarctic island of South Georgia, making the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence. Having acquired a 350-ton ship in Hamburg and obtained permission by the Spanish authorities to trade in Spanish

neg: Monagas (surname) to Latin America, as a result their descendants can be found throughout South America and the Caribbean, particularly in Venezuela, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Monagas (surname) The last name "Monagas" is a Hispanicized version of the Irish surname Monaghan. The Monagas family originated in the Monaghan County in Ireland, the first use of the last name Monagas was in the 1600s when Irish officials immigrated to the Canary Islands (Spain), to aid Spanish soldiers in defending the new colony from pirates. After Spanish colonies were set up in South America, many of the descendants of Monaghan emigrated from the Canary

neg: States of Brazil Union (1580–1640), the territory of Portuguese colonial domains in South America was more than doubled, and the land was divided into hereditary and royal captaincies, with the latter being governed directly by the Crown. Unlike Spanish America, the whole territory remained united under a single governor-general (with the permanent title of viceroy after 1720), based in Salvador (after 1763, in Rio de Janeiro). This arrangement later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, avoiding fragmentation similar to that of the Spanish domains. In 1759, the heritability of the captaincies was totally abolished by the government of the Marquis of

neg: Peace of Utrecht Asiento, a monopoly on the oceanic slave trade to the Spanish colonies in America. Great Britain imposed to Spain, under Article XIII, the preservation of the historical rights of Catalonia (given the Catalan support to the Habsburg cause, as well as to British and Dutch military), which, however, were abolished one year later (when Barcelona was finally occupied by the Franco-Spanish troops) pursuant to the Nueva Planta decrees issued by the Spanish Bourbon king. In North America, France ceded to Great Britain its claims to Newfoundland and to the Hudson's Bay Company territories in Rupert's Land. They also ceded the

neg: Americas Americas The Americas (also collectively called America; , Spanish/Portuguese: "América") comprise the totality of the continents of North and South America. Together, they make up most of the land in Earth's western hemisphere and comprise the New World. Along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earth's total surface area and 28.4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a long chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by large river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great

neg: Making North America including the Rocky Mountains, Yellowstone and the Grand Canyon; to the emergence of life on the continent and its later evolution; and, finally, to the more recent settlement of the land by humans. According to Johnson, "Most people will not have considered a time when there was no North America ... What was there before North America? How did it form? When did it start? How did it come together?" The documentary film is narrated by Kirk Johnson and includes the following participants (alphabetized by last name): According to James Gaines, film reviewer for "LiveScience", "North America rocks. That’s what

neg: Pre-Columbian era The Muisca of Colombia, postdating the Herrera Period, Valdivia of Ecuador, the Quechuas and the Aymara of Peru and Bolivia were the four most important sedentary Amerindian groups in South America. From the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, Brazil, supporting Spanish accounts of a complex, possibly ancient Amazonian civilization. The theory of pre-Columbian contact across the South Pacific Ocean between South America and Polynesia has received support from several lines of evidence, although solid confirmation remains elusive. A diffusion by human agents has been put forward to explain the pre-Columbian presence in

neg: Spanish Empire Caribbean. The English established colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America and in northern North America and some Caribbean islands as well. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish crown realized that its territorial claims needed to be defended, particularly in the wake of its visible weakness during the Seven Years' War when Britain captured the important Spanish ports of Havana and Manila. Another important factor was that the Russian empire had expanded into North America from the mid-eighteenth century, with fur trading settlements in what is now Alaska and forts as far south as Fort Ross, California. Great Britain

neg: Italian diaspora of land did not necessarily lead to small farmers in the south winding up with land of their own or land they could work and make profit from. Many remained landless, and plots grew smaller and smaller and so less and less productive as land was subdivided amongst heirs. Between 1860 and World War I, 9,000,000 Italians left permanently of a total of 16 million who emigrated, most from the south and most travelling to North or South America. The numbers may have even been higher, 14,000,000 from 1876-1914, according to another study. Annual emigration averaged almost 220,000 in the

neg: Bell County, Kentucky there were destroyed as well. The flood occurred in April 1977 and although it caused extensive damage, the historical courthouse survived with substantial water damage to the interior. The community of "South America" (known as Frakes since the 1930s) in Bell County appears to have been established in the Spanish Era. Spain made land grants in Old Kentucky prior to English settlement. The community of South America links southeast Kentucky to an era of Indian herbal harvest and sales much like the Daniel Boone era in the state. Bell County has one of the highest ratios of local peace officer

neg: Maximilian Spinola Maximilian Spinola Maximilian Spinola (; July 10, 1780 – November 12, 1857) was an Italian entomologist. Spinola was born in Pézenas, Hérault, France. The family of Spinola was of very long standing and had great wealth and power in Genoa. Maximilian Spinola was a descendant of the famous Spanish General Ambrogio Spinola, marqués de los Balbases (1569–1630) and much of his wealth derived from land held in Spain and South America. He was linked to Camillo Pallavicini. He received many insects from his properties in Spain and South America. He also made extensive, and expensive purchases especially of large showy

neg: South America across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it in colonies. European infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) – to which the native populations had no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mit'a also contributed to the depopulation. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to

neg: Central America and named it British Honduras. It became independent as Belize in 1981. Panama, situated in the southernmost part of Central America on the Isthmus of Panama, has for most of its history been culturally linked to South America. Panama was part of the Province of Tierra Firme from 1510 until 1538 when it came under the jurisdiction of the newly formed "Audiencia Real de Panama". Beginning in 1543, Panama was administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1739, when it

neg: La Montaña Gris (band) December 2004, they did their first tour of South America that encompassed Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Ecuador, performing various concerts in festivals and international meetings that allowed La Montaña Gris to achieve an important recognition in the midst of Celtic Music in Latin America. Between September and December 2006, they toured South America again, performing 30 concerts in Ecuador, Chile, Brazil and Bolivia. Presenting their new album "En el regazo de la caramañola". This album conceives life as a journey, and develops music dedicated to travel and travelers in Primia language, English, Italian, French and Spanish. During the trip they

neg: Nootka Sound between Britain and Spain. The British challenged Spanish claims to allegedly "un-colonized" land on the Pacific coasts of North and South America. The first Nootka Convention (1790) gave both countries the right to settle along the Pacific coasts, interrupting the Spanish monopoly for the first time in over two centuries. The British quickly sponsored the Vancouver Expedition of exploration. Difficulties in implementing the terms led to a second, and then a third Nootka Convention (1794). The Nootka Sound controversy also played a part in the French Revolution. The Spanish Bourbon monarchy asked for French support in the dispute in the

neg: Chicora Chicora Chicora was a legendary Native American kingdom or tribe sought by various European explorers in present-day South Carolina during the 16th century. The legend originated after Spanish slave traders captured an Indian they called Francisco de Chicora in 1521; afterward, they came to treat Francisco's home country as a land of abundant wealth and natural resources. The "Chicora Legend" influenced both the Spanish and the French in their attempts to colonize North America for the next 60 years. In 1521, Spanish slavers Pedro de Quexo and Francisco Gordillo embarked on an expedition from the Caribbean to the little-explored mainland

neg: Mejía (surname) when the Spanish Kingdom forced Jewish settlers to change their surname to Castillian. The translation of the surname for "Messiah" would then become the name "Mesía". However, the Spanish people who travelled to the Spanish colonies in South America were not allowed to be Jewish or to have any Jewish or Muslim ancestors, and thus this explanation may not account for the popularity of the surname in modern-day Latin America. Note that "Mexía" is the older Spanish spelling of the name. In the modern orthography of Spain, the spelling is "Mejía", though in Mexico the older orthography is still considered

neg: Geography of Uruguay sits on the banks of the Río de la Plata and is on approximately the same latitude as Cape Town and Sydney. Uruguay is the smallest Spanish-speaking nation in South America with a land area of and a water area of . Additionally, Uruguay is the world's only sovereign nation that does not extend north of the 30 degrees south latitude (if Nugent Island is considered New Zealand's northernmost point); accordingly, all other nations include at least some land further north than all points in Uruguay; making Uruguay the world most southernmost sovereign nation. Most of Uruguay is a rolling

neg: Guaraní War Guaraní War The Guarani War (, ) of 1756, also called the War of the Seven Reductions, took place between the Guaraní tribes of seven Jesuit Reductions and joint Spanish-Portuguese forces. It was a result of the 1750 Treaty of Madrid, which set a line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese colonial territory in South America. The boundary drawn up between the two nations was the Uruguay River, with Portugal possessing the land east of the river. The seven Jesuit missions east of the Uruguay River, known as the Misiones Orientales, were to be dismantled and relocated on the Spanish

neg: Protectorate of Peru in the American continent. The independence of Peru was an important chapter in the Hispano-American wars of independence. The campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru concluded in April 1825, and in November of the same year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ulúa in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chiloé in South America fell in January 1826. Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact. Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, often fomented by the

neg: Peruvian War of Independence year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ulúa in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chiloé in South America fell in January 1826. Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact. Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, often fomented by the approach of patriot armies from Buenos Aires. There were two short-lived uprisings in the southern city of Tacna in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives in Huánuco, began on February 22, 1812.

neg: Tropical Storm Alice (1953) June 6. Although heavy rainfall occurred in Florida, there was little damage. In May and June 1953, an unusually long-lasting upper-level low persisted across Mexico and Central America. On May 25, a weak warm-core surface circulation developed east of Nicaragua. It moved around the upper-level low, bringing it to the northwest and later looping to the south through Honduras and Central America. The system weakened over land, but it re-intensified over the western Caribbean Sea, moving over western Cuba as a 50 mph (80 km/h) tropical storm on May 31. Advisories for Alice did not begin until June 1, when

neg: Viceroyalty of Peru Viceroyalty of Peru The Viceroyalty of Peru () was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The creation during the 18th century of Viceroyalties of New Granada and Río de la

neg: Historiography of Colonial Spanish America in 1503 to register cargoes including immigration to the overseas empire. From Spain, sailings to the major ports in Spanish America left from Seville. It was a distance up from the mouth of the Guadalquivir river, and its channel did not allow the largest transoceanic ships to dock there when fully loaded. The "Carrera de Indias" was the main route of Spain's Atlantic trade, originating in Seville and sailing to a few Spanish American ports in the Caribbean, particularly Santo Domingo, Veracruz, on the Atlantic coast of Panama, Nombre de Dios later Porto Bello. Since trade and commerce were so

neg: Spanish missions in South America Spanish missions in South America The Spanish missions in South America comprise a series of Jesuit Catholic religious outposts established by Spanish Catholics in order to spread the Christian doctrine among the local natives. Missions in the "Banda Oriental" in southern Brazil. The "Banda Oriental" was finally divided by the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1777 between Spanish and Portuguese domains, the western portion becoming part of what is today state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, the eastern portion becoming part of what is today Uruguay. (Note: The above are Portuguese translations of the original names) There were also

neg: Spanish missions in South America 7 Spanish Missions (out of 30 or so in Viceroyalty of Peru east of the Andes) constructed along tributaries in the Upper Solimoes area of what later became State of Amazonas, Brazil, between 1686 and 1689 by Jesuit Padre Samuel Fritz among the Omagua indigenous peoples. Some of these were moved upstream into Peru due to pressure from the "Bandeirantes" slave raiders; the rest were destroyed by Portuguese forces between 1700 and 1711. Spanish missions in the lower Amazon: Spanish missions in South America The Spanish missions in South America comprise a series of Jesuit Catholic religious outposts established by

neg: Pascoal Moreira Cabral Leme fields for the Portuguese Crown, although that land was technically the property of the Spanish Crown according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. Pascoal Moreira Cabral Leme Pascoal Moreira Cabral Leme (Born 1654 in Sorocaba, died 1730 in Cuiabá) was a bandeirante who operated in the central region of South America. He found gold at the site which became the city of Cuiabá. In 1719 he was camped near the settlement of São Gonçalo, when he found gold at the shore of the Coxipó-Mirim creek in the modern State of Mato Grosso. That day, April 8, is considered to be the

neg: Independence of Panama from Spain who saw Panama as a strategic link, both politically and militarily between South America and the Central American states. As early as 1787, Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda attempted to interest the British in a canal project in Panama to increase trade for Britain, in exchange for military support to bolster South American independence hopes. The attack by Napoleon, who deposed the Spanish monarch in 1807, led to the push for independence throughout South America by Simón Bolivar. Though Bolivar did not set foot in Panama, he advocated for independence, declaring in his 1815 "Letter from Jamaica" that the independence of

neg: European colonization of the Americas Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil. Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in

neg: Lima metropolitan area according to INEI statistics. The city of Lima was founded by Spanish colonists on January 18, 1535. The port of Callao was founded similarly two years later (1537). The city of Lima began when Francisco Pizarro declared it at what is known in Christianity as the Epiphany. He declared it at the center of the city, the Plaza Mayor. It would become the most important city in South America. The city of Callao has also been highly important, as for hundreds of years it was the only port in all of the Viceroyalty of Peru (all of Spanish South America

neg: Mono Grande primate hiding in the jungles of South America (Sjögren, 1980). Mono Grande The Mono Grande (Spanish for "Large Monkey"), a large monkey-like creature, has been occasionally reported in South America. Such creatures are reported as being much larger than the commonly accepted New World monkeys. These accounts have received rather little publicity, and typically generated little or no interest from mainstream experts. Perhaps the first formal record of such creatures called "marimondas" or "maribundas" comes from 1533, when Pedro Cieza de León reported sightings from natives and from one Spanish settler. In his writings, Sir Walter Raleigh made brief note

neg: Names given to the Spanish language legal unification date is disputed, but commonly agreed to have occurred not earlier than the eighteenth century at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. Only then did the Castilian language begin to be commonly called Spanish. In 1492, the arrival of Christopher Columbus on a Castilian-paid expedition paved the way for the Spanish colonization of the Americas. As a result of this process, most countries in South America now speak the same language as Castile. Until about the eighteenth century, the Kingdom of Castile, and not Spain as a whole, was the colonizing power, and the language

neg: Colbertism than it bought. Colbert sought to build a French economy that sold abroad and bought domestically. In the 17th century, European powers had already successfully colonized some part of the world. England had a successful hold on North America and various other areas, including India, Spain had a large hold of South America and North America, and the Dutch had successful outposts in India. The French were beginning to colonize parts of North America, but did not have permanent settlements like the Spanish and British colonies. In 1628, Quebec became controlled by the Company of One Hundred Associates, a merchant-run

neg: Garner Ted Armstrong the ministry by his father in 1955. G. T. Armstrong later reported in a sermon that he did not want to be a minister, to which his father answered something to the effect that because he did not want to enter the ministry that was a sign that he should. In 1957, he began to take over much of his father's broadcasting responsibilities. During that same year, he traveled extensively through South America. As a fluent Spanish speaker, he made several Spanish-language broadcasts of the "World Tomorrow". The decade of the 1970s brought a series of reversals for Armstrong's career,

neg: Territorial evolution of North America prior to 1763 confusion as to the implementation of the Treaty. The claims of Spain on the Pacific coast dated to the papal bull of 1493 which had granted to Spain the rights to colonize the western coast of North America and to the actions of Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513, when he claimed all the "South Sea" (the Pacific Ocean) and the lands adjoining the Pacific Ocean for the Spanish Crown. Mexico fell into Spanish hands after the long Siege of Tenochtitlan when Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on August 13, 1521 when the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtémoc, surrendered to Cortés. The

neg: Bacatá When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada left the New Kingdom of Granada with two other conquistadors in northern South America, who had reached the Bogotá savanna in early 1539, in May 1539, he left the rule of Bogotá and the colony in the hands of his younger brother, Hernán Pérez de Quesada. Hernán, with the assistance of his fellow conquistadors tortured Sagipa by burning his feet to have him give up his valuables. The last "zipa" of Bacatá did not survive these torments and died in the Spanish camp at Bosa in 1539, ending the rule of the indigenous Muisca on

neg: Magloire Ambroise did in many towns in the country at that time. In 1803, Magloire Ambroise put a siege in Jacmel. The siege was over on October 17, 1803 when the French troops surrendered and were allowed by Magloire's troops to board a British warship. In 1804, Magloire Ambroise was one of the generals who signed the independence act. In February 1806, by the order of Dessalines, Magloire Ambroise received Francisco de Miranda (a South American leader who fought to liberate Latin America from Spanish rule) and gave Miranda munitions and men to fight the Spaniards. the following month, March 12, 1806,

neg: Édouard Viénot for different spanish families established in South America during that period. A sample of them are the portraits he did for the family González del Collado. Édouard Viénot Édouard Viénot was a successful society portrait painter with a studio at 92 rue de la Victoire, Paris. He was born in Fontainebleau on 13 September 1804. He entered the École des Beaux Arts in Paris on 4 October 1822. Viénot is probably to be identified with "Le chevalier Viennot" who was active as a portrait painter in London in 1826 and 1827, when he had an address at 20 York Street,

neg: Simón Bolívar system could work in Latin America. Thus, he claimed that the governance of heterogeneous societies like Venezuela "will require a firm hand". Bolívar felt that the U.S. had been established in land especially fertile for democracy. By contrast, he referred to Spanish America as having been subject to the "triple yoke of ignorance, tyranny, and vice". If a republic could be established in such a land, in his mind, it would have to make some concessions in terms of liberty. This is shown when Bolívar blamed the fall of the first republic on his subordinates trying to imitate "some ethereal

neg: George Farragut George Farragut Jordi Farragut Mesquida, known in America as George Farragut (born September 29 or September 30, 1755 – June 4, 1817), was a Spanish-born American naval officer during the American Revolutionary War. He also fought with the Continental Infantry in battles in the South. After commanding a Spanish trading ship in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, he had joined the South Carolina Navy as a lieutenant when the war broke out. He anglicized his Catalan name (Jordi) to George Farragut when he joined the South Carolina Navy. Jordi Farragut Mesquida was born to Antoni Farragut and Joana Mesquida

neg: Mono Grande Mono Grande The Mono Grande (Spanish for "Large Monkey"), a large monkey-like creature, has been occasionally reported in South America. Such creatures are reported as being much larger than the commonly accepted New World monkeys. These accounts have received rather little publicity, and typically generated little or no interest from mainstream experts. Perhaps the first formal record of such creatures called "marimondas" or "maribundas" comes from 1533, when Pedro Cieza de León reported sightings from natives and from one Spanish settler. In his writings, Sir Walter Raleigh made brief note of reports of large monkey-like creatures in South America. He

neg: Currency of Spanish America Currency of Spanish America This article provides an outline of the currency of Spanish America ("las Indias", the Indies) from Spanish colonization in the 15th century until Spanish American independencies in the 19th. This great realm was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain (capital: Mexico City), which came to include all Spanish territory north of Panama, the West Indies, Venezuela, and the Philippines, and the Viceroyalty of Peru (capital: Lima), which included Panama and all Spanish territory in South America except Venezuela. The monetary system of Spanish America, originally identical to that of Spain, soon diverged and took on

neg: Elizabethan era to seize booty from Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa. When the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified after 1585, Elizabeth approved further raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and against shipping returning to Europe with treasure. Meanwhile, the influential writers Richard Hakluyt and John Dee were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own overseas empire. Spain was well established in the Americas, while Portugal, in union with Spain from 1580, had an ambitious global empire in Africa, Asia and South America. France was exploring North America. England was stimulated to create its own colonies, with

neg: French and Indian War of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were now competing for land. The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, including the entire governmental records from St. Augustine, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico. France returned to America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco-American alliance against Great Britain in the American

neg: José Camprubí and Nobel laureate Juan Ramón Jiménez. José Camprubí José Augusto Luis Raimundo Aymar Camprubí (November 28, 1879 – March 11, 1942) was a pioneering Spanish-language newspaper publisher in the United States and an advocate of cooperation between North America, South America, and Spain. Camprubí was born in Ponce, Puerto Rico, which was then a Spanish colony, to Raimundo Camprubí Escudero and Isabel Aymar y Lucca de Camprubí. His father, a Catalan civil engineer, was working in Puerto Rico for the Spanish colonial government, supervising the construction of the Ponce-Coamo road. When he was still an infant, Camprubí was taken by

neg: José Camprubí José Camprubí José Augusto Luis Raimundo Aymar Camprubí (November 28, 1879 – March 11, 1942) was a pioneering Spanish-language newspaper publisher in the United States and an advocate of cooperation between North America, South America, and Spain. Camprubí was born in Ponce, Puerto Rico, which was then a Spanish colony, to Raimundo Camprubí Escudero and Isabel Aymar y Lucca de Camprubí. His father, a Catalan civil engineer, was working in Puerto Rico for the Spanish colonial government, supervising the construction of the Ponce-Coamo road. When he was still an infant, Camprubí was taken by his parents to Spain, and he

neg: Adams–Onís Treaty Russian Navy ship "Saint Peter" ("Апостол Пётр"), captained by Vitus Bering, sighted Mount Saint Elias, the fourth-highest summit in North America. They became the first Europeans to land in northwestern North America. The Russian fur trade soon followed the discovery. By 1812, the Russian Empire claimed Alaska and the Pacific Coast of North America as far south as the Russian settlement of Fortress Ross, only northwest of the Spain's Presidio Real de San Francisco. The Spanish Empire claimed all lands west of the Continental Divide throughout the Americas. Between 1774 and 1779, King Charles III of Spain ordered three naval

neg: Louis-Michel Aury Mexico, Spanish Texas, the Caribbean Sea, Central America, and South America. Aury decided to support the Spanish colonies of South America in their fight for independence from Spanish rule. In April 1813 he sailed from North Carolina on his own privateer ship with Venezuelan Letters of Marque to attack Spanish ships. He was then commissioned as a commodore in the navy of New Granada (now Colombia), at considerable personal expense, in December 1815 ran the Spanish blockade and evacuated hundreds of people in his vessels from the besieged fortress city of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia) to Haiti. In spite of

neg: Terra Australis Orogen Terra Australis Orogen The Terra Australis Orogen (TAO) was the oceanic southern margin of Gondwana which stretched from South America to Eastern Australia and encompassed South Africa, West Antarctica, New Zealand and Victoria Land in East Antarctica. Terra Australis Orogen formed in the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic. The decline of orogenic activity in the late Paleozoic is related to the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea. The orogeny did not end by a continental collision and was succeeded by the Gondwanide orogeny. The TAO evolved through a series of extensional back-arcs separated by compressional events when the subducting oceanic plate got stuck

neg: Modern history across the Americas, eventually resulting in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south, to Mexico in the north. After the death of the king Ferdinand VII, in 1833, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador (later relocated to Rio de Janeiro) which reported directly to the Portuguese Crown until its independence in 1822, becoming the Empire of Brazil. [[File:Maquina vapor

neg: French colonization of Texas his confession, Thomas was hanged. The Spanish government felt the French colony would be a threat to their mines and shipping routes, and Carlos II's Council of War thought that "Spain needed swift action 'to remove this thorn which has been thrust into the heart of America. The greater the delay the greater the difficulty of attainment.'" The Spanish had no idea where to find La Salle, and in 1686 they sent a sea expedition and two land expeditions to try to locate his colony. Although the expeditions were unable to find La Salle, they did narrow the search to

neg: Valdivia Valdivia was repopulated in 1684. Beginning in the mid-18th century Valdivia left behind its past as an enclave and a period of agricultural expansion begun. The expansion, that mainly directed to the south, was done mostly by pacific means, but hostilities with indigenous Huilliches did occur. After the Valdivian colonization had reached Bueno River Spanish authorities pushed for connecting the city of Valdivia with the settlements at Chacao Channel by a road. Self-governing juntas appeared in Spanish America and Spain after Napoleon occupied Spain and held the Spanish king Fernando VII captive. Many juntas, as was the case of Chile,

neg: Pedro de Alvarado 1518, and made its first landfall upon the island of Cozumel, off the east coast of Yucatán. The Maya inhabitants of Cozumel fled the Spanish; the fleet then sailed south from Cozumel, along the east coast of the peninsula. The Spanish spotted three large Maya cities along the coast. On Ascension Thursday the fleet discovered a large bay, which the Spanish named Bahía de la Ascensión. Grijalva did not land at any of these cities and turned back north to loop around the north of the Yucatán Peninsula and sail down the west coast. At Campeche the Spanish opened fire

neg: White people populations from North and South America did immigrate to the country. According to 20th and 21st century academics, large scale intermixing between the European immigrants and the native Indigenous peoples would produce a Mestizo group which would become the overwhelming majority of Mexico's population by the time of the Mexican Revolution. However, according to church and censal registers from the colonial times, the majority (73%) of Spanish men married with Spanish women. Said registers also put in question other narratives held by contemporary academics, such as European immigrants who arrived to Mexico being almost exclusively men or that "pure Spanish"

neg: Mexicans centuries European and European-derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the country. According to 20th and 21st century academics, large scale intermixing between the European immigrants and the native Indigenous peoples would produce a Mestizo group which would become the overwhelming majority of Mexico's population by the time of Independence. However according to church registers from the colonial times, the majority (73%) of Spanish men married with Spanish women. Said registers also put in question other narratives held by contemporary academics, such as European immigrants who arrived to Mexico being almost exclusively men or that "pure Spanish"

neg: Nearctic realm represented by the Madrean Region. Although North America and South America are presently joined by the Isthmus of Panama, these continents were separated for about 180 million years, and evolved very different plant and animal lineages. When the ancient supercontinent of Pangaea split into two about 180 million years ago, North America remained joined to Eurasia as part of the supercontinent of Laurasia, while South America was part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. North America later split from Eurasia. North America has been joined by land bridges to both Asia and South America since then, which allowed an exchange of

neg: Joan Manuel Serrat son Queco is born in 1969, and in that same year he made his first tour to South America. He released an album containing songs with texts of Antonio Machado, a well-known Spanish poet of late 19th-early 20th century. This album brought him immediate fame in all Spain and Latin America though, in spite of this, his decision to sing in Spanish was criticized in some Catalan nationalist circles. Regarding this and other times when his choice of language (sometimes Spanish, sometimes Catalan) raised controversy on either side of the political sphere, he once explained: "I sing better in the