query: where does most of the digestion and absorption take place

pos: Small intestine Small intestine The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger-like

pos: Carbohydrate digestion their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine. Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the epithelium covering the villi (small hair-like structure). It is not a simple

pos: Digestion The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine. In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed

pos: Protein (nutrient) Acid Score. Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract. Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine. Before the absorption in the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids. Absorption of the

pos: Digestion close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine. Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons

pos: Fish physiology the intestine. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both. The small intestine is the part of the digestive tract following the stomach and followed by the large intestine, and is where much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not clear, and the terms "anterior" or "proximal" intestine may be used instead of duodenum. The small intestine is found in all teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively

pos: D-xylose absorption test D-xylose absorption test D-xylose absorption test is a medical test performed to diagnose conditions that present with malabsorption of the proximal small intestine due to defects in the integrity of the gastrointestinal mucosa. D-xylose is a monosaccharide, or simple sugar, that does not require enzymes for digestion prior to absorption. Its absorption requires an intact mucosa only. In contrast, polysaccharides require enzymes, such as amylase, to break them down so that they can eventually be absorbed as monosaccharides. This test was previously in use but has been made redundant by antibody tests. In normal individuals, a 25 g oral dose

pos: Omeprazole 72 hours. When omeprazole is stopped, baseline stomach acid secretory activity returns after 3 to 5 days. The inhibitory effect of omeprazole on acid secretion will plateau after 4 days of repeated daily dosing. The absorption of omeprazole takes place in the small intestine and is usually completed within 3 to 6 hours. The systemic bioavailability of omeprazole after repeated doses is about 60%. Omeprazole, as well as other PPIs, are only effective on active H/K-ATPase pumps. These pumps are stimulated in the presence of food to aid in digestion. For this reason, patients should be advised to take omeprazole

pos: Colostrum bottle. Although many claims of health benefits have been made for colostrum consumption in adults, until recently there have been limited randomized trials to support these assertions. It is probable that little absorption of intact growth factors and antibodies into the bloodstream occurs, due to digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. However, the presence of casein and other buffering proteins does allow growth factors and other bioactive molecules to pass into the lumen of the small intestine intact, where they can stimulate repair and inhibit microbes, working via local effects. This provides a probable mechanism explaining the positive results of colostrum

pos: Ruminant passing through. This is also where the ruminant digests the microbes produced in the rumen. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. The small intestine is the main site of nutrient absorption. the surface area of the digesta is greatly increased here because of the villi that are in the small intestine. This increased surface area allows for greater nutrient absorption. Microbes produced in the reticulorumen are also digested in the small intestine. After the small intestine is the large intestine. The major roles here are breaking down mainly fiber by

pos: Isomaltulose instead or together. Isomaltulose is an available carbohydrate like sucrose and most others sugars or maltodextrins. Available or “nutritive” carbohydrates serve the body as a source of energy for its physiological functions. Whether a carbohydrate becomes available to the body largely depends on its digestion, absorption, and metabolism, When present in foods and beverages that are ingested by humans, isomaltulose is digested completely and absorbed. Its intestinal digestion involves the enzyme isomaltase, which is located at the surface of the brush border lining the inner wall of the small intestine. This enzyme is otherwise involved in the digestion of α-1,6

pos: Hindgut fermentation limits the amount of further digestion or absorption that can occur after the food is fermented. In smaller hindgut fermenters of the order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas), cecotropes formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Cecotropes are surrounded by a layer of mucus which protects them from stomach acid but which does not inhibit nutrient absorption in the small intestine. Coprophagy is also practiced by some rodents, such as the capybara, guinea pig and related species, and by the marsupial common ringtail possum. This process is

pos: Lipid metabolism of lipid digestion and absorption, however, occurs once the fats reach the small intestines. Chemicals from the pancreas (pancreatic lipase family and Bile salt-dependent lipase) are secreted into the small intestines to help breakdown the triglycerides, along with further mechanical digestion, until they are individual fatty acid units able to be absorbed into the small intestine's epithelial cells. It is the pancreatic lipase that is responsible for signaling for the hydrolysis of the triglycerides into separate free fatty acids and glycerol units. The second step in lipid metabolism is the absorption of fats. Absorption of fats occurs only in the

pos: Human digestive system The duodenum is the first and shortest section of the small intestine. It is a hollow, jointed C-shaped tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It starts at the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. The attachment of the suspensory muscle to the diaphragm is thought to help the passage of food by making a wider angle at its attachment. Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine. Segmentation contractions act to mix and move the chyme more slowly in the small intestine allowing more time for absorption (and these continue in the large intestine).

pos: Jejunoileal bypass less weight loss initially and greater subsequent weight regain. Bile is secreted by the liver, enters the upper small intestine by way of the bile duct, and is absorbed in the small intestine. Bile has an important role in fat digestion, emulsifying fat as the first stage in its digestion. Bypassing the major site of bile acid reabsorption in the small intestine therefore further reduces fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. As a result, huge amounts of fatty acids, which are normally absorbed in the small intestine, enter the colon, where they cause irritation of the colon wall and the secretion

pos: Malabsorption enzymatic breakdown of food. Mechanical processes include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the small intestine. Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the intestinal epithelial cells. Malabsorption constitutes the pathological interference with the normal physiological sequence of digestion (intraluminal process), absorption (mucosal process) and transport (postmucosal events) of nutrients. Intestinal malabsorption can be due to: There is no single, specific test for malabsorption. As for most medical conditions, investigation is guided by symptoms and signs. A range of different conditions can produce malabsorption

pos: Isomaltooligosaccharide GI. Consumption of IMO effectively improved bowel movements, stool output and microbial fermentation in the colon without any adverse effects in elderly people. The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) defines soluble fiber as "the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine". Dietary fiber consists of many plant components including oligosaccharides. For a dietary substrate to be classified as a fiber, it must be resistant to digestion and absorption in upper GI tract, and cause a bulking effect in defecation. IMO

pos: Digestion that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small

pos: Carbohydrate digestion Carbohydrate digestion All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is taken up much faster than fructose. Monosaccharide transport saturates with -glucose at 30 mM. Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to

pos: Small intestine Small intestine The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger-like

pos: Bile acid malabsorption (also called bile salts) are produced in the liver, secreted into the biliary system, stored in the gallbladder and are released after meals stimulated by cholecystokinin. They are important for the digestion and absorption of fats (lipids) in the small intestine. Usually over 95% of the bile acids are absorbed in the terminal ileum and are taken up by the liver and resecreted. This enterohepatic circulation of bile acids takes place 4-6 times in 24 hours and usually less than 0.5 g of bile acids enter the large intestine per 24 h. When larger amounts of bile acids enter the

pos: Human digestive system fats to some degree though is not as efficient as the pancreatic lipase. The pylorus, the lowest section of the stomach which attaches to the duodenum via the pyloric canal, contains countless glands which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called chyme is produced. When the pyloric sphincter, or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs

pos: Lentil with diabetes. The remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1. A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine (therefore called "resistant starch"). Additional resistant starch is synthesized from gelatinized starch, during cooling, after the lentils were cooked. Lentils also have antinutrient factors, such as trypsin inhibitors and a relatively high phytate content. Trypsin is an enzyme involved in digestion, and phytates reduce the bioavailability of dietary minerals. The phytates can be reduced by prolonged soaking and fermentation or sprouting. Although lentils have been an important crop for

pos: Carbohydrate digestion produces gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane) and short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate). The gases are absorbed and excreted by breathing or through the anus (flatulence). Fatty acids are rapidly metabolized. Butyrate is used mainly by cells in the colon and acetate is absorbed into the blood and taken up by the liver, muscle and other tissue. Propionate is an important precursor of glucose in some animals, but not humans. Carbohydrate digestion All carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine must be hydrolyzed to monosaccharides prior to absorption. Hydrolysis precedes transport of monosaccharides in hamster intestine. From sucrose, glucose is

pos: Neonatal hepatitis the flow of bile into the small intestine for digestion of fats and absorption of vitamins. This results in the yellow pigment of bile seeping into the blood stream, causing the yellowing of the skin and eyes. A liver biopsy is performed, where a small piece of the liver is taken out of the child with a needle and examined with a microscope. The biopsy will often show that four or five liver cells are combined into a large cell that still functions, but not as well as a normal liver cell. This type of neonatal hepatitis is sometimes called

neg: Healthy digestion Healthy digestion Healthy digestion, also called digestive health, results in the absorption of nutrients from food without distressing symptoms. Healthy digestion follows having a healthy diet, doing appropriate self-care including physical activity and exercise, minimizing activities like smoking or consuming alcoholic drinks which impair digestion, and managing any medical condition which disrupts digestion to the best of one's ability. A person with healthy digestion will have lower risk of experiencing diarrhea, constipation, heartburn, bloating, flatulence, and indigestion. Additionally, a person with healthy digestion will have less need of digestive medications than a person who does not have healthy digestion. Some

neg: Digestion gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body. In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires

neg: Isopoda where the material is processed and filtered. The structure of the stomach varies, but in many species there is a dorsal groove into which indigestible material is channelled and a ventral part connected to the caeca where intracellular digestion and absorption take place. Indigestible material passes on through the hindgut and is eliminated through the anus, which is on the pleotelson. Isopods are detritivores, browsers, carnivores (including predators and scavengers), parasites, and filter feeders, and may occupy one or more of these feeding niches. Only aquatic and marine species are known to be parasites or filter feeders. Some exhibit coprophagia

neg: Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score was based upon the amino acid requirements of growing rats, which noticeably differ from those of humans. The PDCAAS allows evaluation of food protein quality based on the needs of humans as it measures the quality of a protein based on the amino acid requirements (adjusted for digestibility) of a 2- to 5-year-old child (considered the most nutritionally demanding age group). The BV method uses nitrogen absorption as a basis. However, it does not take into account certain factors influencing the digestion of the protein and is of limited use for application to human protein requirements because what is measured

neg: Extracellular digestion system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion. Specializing occurs when the digestive tract or alimentary canal has a separate mouth and anus so that transport of food is one-way. The most primitive digestive tract is seen in nematodes (phylum Nematode), where it is simply a tubular gut lined by an epithelial membrane. Earthworms (phylum Annelids) have a digestive tract specialized in different regions for the ingestion, storage, fragmentation, digestion and absorption of food. All more complex animal groups, including all vertebrates, show similar specializations. The ingested food may be stored in a specialized region of

neg: Biological value published in the "Journal of Sports Science and Medicine" states that the BV of a protein does not take into consideration several key factors that influence the digestion and interaction of protein with other foods before absorption, and that it only measures a protein's maximal potential quality and not its estimate at requirement levels. Also, the study by Poullain et al., which is often cited to demonstrate the superiority of whey protein hydrolysate by marketers, measured nitrogen balance in rats after three days of starvation, which corresponds to a longer period in humans. The study found that whey protein hydrolysate

neg: Fish physiology food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it

neg: Pancreatic enzymes (medication) nor an acid. Pancreatin contains the pancreatic enzymes trypsin, amylase and lipase. A similar mixture of enzymes is sold as pancrelipase, which contains more active lipase enzyme than does pancreatin. The trypsin found in pancreatin works to hydrolyze proteins into oligopeptides; amylase hydrolyzes starches into oligosaccharides and the disaccharide maltose; and lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerols. Pancreatin is an effective enzyme supplement for replacing missing pancreatic enzymes, and aids in the digestion of foods in cases of pancreatic insufficiency. Pancreatin reduces the absorption of iron from food in the duodenum during digestion Some contact lens-cleaning solutions contain

neg: Scipionyx absorption surface. Dal Sasso & Maganuco emphasised that a short tract does not necessarily imply that the processing time was short too; retention could have been prolonged to optimise digestion. Most extant vertebrate predators are capable of extracting about 75% of the energetic value of the prey flesh. The bones in the stomach region had not been etched by the stomach acid, indicating this meal was less than a day old. It is possible that the stomach exit was too narrow to let these remains pass and that the acid was used to extract calcium from the bones, a much-needed

neg: Digestion cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation. The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and

neg: Insect mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut. In the hindgut (element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by uric

neg: Tunicate planktonic particles including bacteria. The net is rolled up on the dorsal side of the pharynx, and it and the trapped particles are drawn into the oesophagus. The gut is U-shaped and also ciliated to move the contents along. The stomach is an enlarged region at the lowest part of the U-bend. Here, digestive enzymes are secreted and a pyloric gland adds further secretions. After digestion, the food is moved on through the intestine, where absorption takes place, and the rectum, where undigested remains are formed into faecal pellets or strings. The anus opens into the dorsal or cloacal part

neg: Infant nutrition better iron absorption and digestion. Allowing the baby to absorb more iron leads to a better gut health of the infant. Breastfed infants tend to have lower incidences of obesity later in life. Breast milk leads to a slower weight gain in early infancy, and is protective against obesity and development of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes is a serious health problem where the body does not use insulin correctly. This diagnosis can cause many complications of the skin, eyes, feet, nervous system, heart, and kidneys. Therefore, it is important to prevent diabetes when possible, because it goes hand-in-hand with obesity.

neg: Intracellular digestion digested by the lysosome's enzymes. Intracellular digestion can also refer to the process in which animals that "lack" a digestive tract bring food items into the cell for the purposes of digestion for nutritional needs. This kind of intracellular digestion occurs in many unicellular protozoans, in Pycnogonida, in some molluscs, Cnidaria and Porifera. There is another type of digestion, called extracellular digestion. In amphioxus, digestion is both extracellular and intracellular. Intracellular digestion is divided into heterophagic digestion and autophagic digestion. These two types take place in the lysosome and they both have very specific functions. Heterophagic intracellular digestion has an

neg: Healthy digestion them after they begin. Various drugs can relieve the symptoms of poor digestion. Laxatives counter constipation. Loperamide counters diarrhea. An antacid can counter heartburn or indigestion. Simethicone can counter flatulence. Probiotic treatment to promote healthy digestion is popular. Many people who seek healthcare for gastrointestinal problems are not satisfied with the treatment options which they find in conventional medicine. Because of this, people often use alternative medicine to promote healthy digestion. Various organizations observe a "World Digestive Health Day" to share information about promoting healthy digestion. Healthy digestion Healthy digestion, also called digestive health, results in the absorption of nutrients

neg: Digestion intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation. Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where

neg: Dietary management of Parkinson's disease be taken so that it is not affected by digestion. It is recommended to take L-DOPA ideally 30 minutes before eating or at least 1 hour afterwards. A protein redistribution diet is sometimes recommended in which most protein should be eaten in the afternoon. However, with the development of dyskinesias the protein redistribution diet need not apply because slowing the absorption of L-DOPA may be beneficial. Plenty of water with the intake of L-DOPA ensures that the drug will be absorbed more quickly. L-DOPA can cause nausea in some subjects when taken on an empty stomach. Methods to reduce nausea

neg: Abdomen form, and cause inguinal hernias. The pyramidalis muscle is small and triangular. It is located in the lower abdomen in front of the rectus abdominis. It originates at the pubic bone and is inserted into the linea alba halfway up to the navel. Functionally, the human abdomen is where most of the alimentary tract is placed and so most of the absorption and digestion of food occurs here. The alimentary tract in the abdomen consists of the lower esophagus, the stomach, the duodenum, the jejunum, ileum, the cecum and the appendix, the ascending, transverse and descending colons, the sigmoid colon

neg: Cactus allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by long drought periods. Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a special mechanism called "crassulacean acid metabolism" (CAM) as part of photosynthesis. Transpiration, during which carbon dioxide enters the plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but instead occurs at night. The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid, retaining it until daylight returns, and only then using it in photosynthesis. Because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night

neg: Extracellular digestion more digestive glands or digestive caeca. Digestive enzymes are secreted into the lumen of these glands. Additional extracellular digestion takes place in the stomach. In cephalopods, digestion is entirely extracellular. In the most other mollusks, the terminal stages of digestion are completed intracellularly, within the tissue of the digestive glands. The absorbed nutrients enter the circulatory system for distribution throughout the body or are stored in the digestive glands for later use. Undigested waste pass through an intestine and out through the anus. Other aspects of food collection and processing have already been discussed where appropriate for each group. The

neg: Active laser medium saturation intensities can be defined: formula_18, formula_19. The absorption at strong signal: formula_20. The gain at strong pump: formula_21, where formula_22 is determinant of cross-section. Gain never exceeds value formula_23, and absorption never exceeds value formula_24. At given intensities formula_25, formula_26 of pump and signal, the gain and absorption can be expressed as follows: formula_27, formula_28, where formula_29, formula_30, formula_31, formula_32 . The following identities take place: formula_33, formula_34 The state of gain medium can be characterized with a single parameter, such as population of the upper level, gain or absorption. The efficiency of a gain medium can be defined

neg: Feed phosphates gizzard where it becomes available for absorption also in the duodenum and jejunum. Ruminants have a digestion system whereby micro-organisms in the rumen produce enzymes breaking down and thereby making available phosphorus from plant material. Phosphorus from plant sources is therefore better suited to ruminants’ but is still utilized to a lesser extent than phosphorus provided by inorganic sources. The ruminant needs for phosphorus is dictated by the needs of the microbial population in the rumen, with the phosphorus being necessary for cellulose digestion and protein synthesis. The main source is phosphorus recycled by the saliva, a peculiarity of ruminants’.

neg: Bolus (digestion) feces. Bolus (digestion) In digestion, a bolus (from Latin "bolus", "ball") is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing (which is largely an adaptation for plant-eating mammals). It has the same color as the food being eaten, and the saliva gives it an alkaline pH. Under normal circumstances, the bolus is swallowed, and travels down the esophagus to the stomach for digestion. Once the bolus reaches the stomach, it mixes with gastric juices and becomes chyme, which then travels through the intestines for further digestion and absorption, and eventual discharge

neg: Bolus (digestion) Bolus (digestion) In digestion, a bolus (from Latin "bolus", "ball") is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing (which is largely an adaptation for plant-eating mammals). It has the same color as the food being eaten, and the saliva gives it an alkaline pH. Under normal circumstances, the bolus is swallowed, and travels down the esophagus to the stomach for digestion. Once the bolus reaches the stomach, it mixes with gastric juices and becomes chyme, which then travels through the intestines for further digestion and absorption, and eventual discharge as

neg: Laminaria of energy to dry the algae out before being able to properly use it. More research is being done with anaerobic digestion, which is the most promising practice to extract energy from "Laminaria". There are still issues with moving forward with anaerobic digestion, such as cost. The ability of laminaria along with other brown algae to absorb heavy metals is a current area of interest in terms of potentially using them to remove heavy metals from wastewater. Laminaria has been shown by recent research to have a favorable M/G ratio for heavy metal absorption in its alginate. This M/G ratio

neg: Protocarnivorous plant out in Givnish "et. al." (1984), required a plant to exhibit an adaptation of some trait specifically for the attraction, capture, or digestion of prey while gaining a fitness advantage through the absorption of nutrients derived from said prey. Upon further analysis of genera currently considered carnivorous, botanists widened the original definition to include species that use mutualistic interactions for digestion. Both the strict and broad definitions require absorption of the digested nutrients stipulates that the plant must receive some benefit from the carnivorous syndrome. That is, the plant must display some increase in fitness because of the nutrients obtained

neg: Cnidaria gastroderm release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by diffusion or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which

neg: Rotifer which are the only fossilizable parts of a rotifer. The shape of the trophi varies between different species, depending partly on the nature of their diet. In suspension feeders, the trophi are covered in grinding ridges, while in more actively carnivorous species, they may be shaped like forceps to help bite into prey. In some ectoparasitic rotifers, the mastax is adapted to grip onto the host, although, in others, the foot performs this function instead. Behind the mastax lies an oesophagus, which opens into a stomach where most of the digestion and absorption occurs. The stomach opens into a short

neg: Reverberation total surface area of room in m², formula_5 is the average absorption coefficient of room surfaces, and the product formula_6 is the total absorption in sabins. The total absorption in sabins (and hence reverberation time) generally changes depending on frequency (which is defined by the acoustic properties of the space). The equation does not take into account room shape or losses from the sound traveling through the air (important in larger spaces). Most rooms absorb less sound energy in the lower frequency ranges resulting in longer reverb times at lower frequencies. Sabine concluded that the reverberation time depends upon the

neg: Chenodeoxycholic acid other mammals have muricholic acid or deoxycholic acid rather than chenodeoxycholic acid. Chenodeoxycholic acid is synthesized in the liver from cholesterol by a process which involves several enzymatic steps. Like other bile acids, it can be conjugated in the liver with taurine or glycine, forming taurochenodeoxycholate or glycochenodeoxycholate. Conjugation results in a lower pKa. This means the conjugated bile acids are ionized at the usual pH in the intestine and will stay in the gastrointestinal tract until reaching the ileum where most will be reabsorbed. Bile acids form micelles which facilitate lipid digestion. After absorption, they are taken up by

neg: Intestinal epithelium surface of the enterocytes is the glycocalyx, which is a loose network composed of the oligosaccharide side chains of integral membrane hydrolases and other enzymes essential for the digestion of proteins and carbohydrates. These glycoproteins, glycolipids, and enzymes catalyze the final digestive stages of luminal carbohydrates and proteins. The monosaccharides and amino acids thus produced are subsequently transported across the intestinal epithelium and eventually into the bloodstream. The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. Water absorption is passive and isotonic - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow.

neg: Extracellular digestion the digestive tract or subjected to physical fragmentation. This fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth (in the mouth of many vertebrates) or the grinding action of pebbles (in the gizzard of earthworms and birds). Chemical digestion then occurs, breaking down the larger food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharides, fats, and proteins into their smallest sub-units. Chemical digestion involves hydrolysis reactions that liberate the sub unit molecules—primarily monosaccharides, amino acids and fatty acids—from the food. These products of chemical digestion pass through the epithelial lining of the gut into the blood, in a process known as absorption. Any

neg: Jundiz recycling plant the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane. Populations of anaerobic microorganisms typically take a significant period of time to establish themselves to be fully effective. It is therefore common practice to introduce anaerobic microorganisms from materials with existing populations, a process known as "seeding" the digesters, and typically takes place with the addition of sewage sludge or cattle slurry. The key process stages of anaerobic digestion There are four key biological and chemical stages of anaerobic digestion: 1. Hydrolysis 2. Acidogenesis 3. Acetogenesis 4. Methanogenesis In most cases biomass is made up

neg: Synthetic pancreatic lipase inhibitors approach for the treatment of obesity includes the development of inhibitors of nutrient digestion and absorption. Inhibition of pancreatic lipase and thus reduction of the absorption of fats is an important target for treating obesity and hyperlipidemia. Pancreatic lipase inhibition is the most widely studied method for the identification of potential anti-obesity agents. In the search of pancreatic lipase inhibitor, alot of plant extracts, isolated phyto-constituents, semi-synthetic and synthetic compounds have been screened for their pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity. Many pancreatic lipase inhibitors are under clinical investigations. Commonly available strategy for analogue synthesis for pancreatic lipase inhibitors depend on the

neg: Absorption (pharmacology) there is no loss of drug. The fastest route of absorption is inhalation, and not as mistakenly considered the intravenous administration. Absorption is a primary focus in drug development and medicinal chemistry, since the drug must be absorbed before any medicinal effects can take place. Moreover, the drug's pharmacokinetic profile can be easily and significantly changed by adjusting factors that affect absorption. In the most common situation, a tablet is ingested and passes through the esophagus to the stomach. The rate of dissolution is a key target for controlling the duration of a drug's effect, and as such, several dosage

neg: 3D optical data storage process (reading and writing), or the use of a reading method that does not involve the absorption of energy. Thermodynamic stability. Many chemical reactions that appear not to take place in fact happen very slowly. In addition, many reactions that appear to have happened can slowly reverse themselves. Since most 3D media are based on chemical reactions, there is therefore a risk that either the unwritten points will slowly become written or that the written points will slowly revert to being unwritten. This issue is particularly serious for the spiropyrans, but extensive research was conducted to find more stable chromophores

neg: Digestion the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules. In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2

neg: Microwave digestion possible to quantify the sample through elemental techniques. Microwave digestion Microwave digestion is a common technique used by elemental scientists to dissolve heavy metals in the presence of organic molecules prior to analysis by inductively coupled plasma, atomic absorption, or atomic emission measurements. This technique is usually accomplished by exposing a sample to a strong acid in a closed vessel and raising the pressure and temperature through microwave irradiation. This increase in temperature and pressure of the low pH sample medium increases both the speed of thermal decomposition of the sample and the solubility of heavy metals in solution. Once

neg: Microwave digestion Microwave digestion Microwave digestion is a common technique used by elemental scientists to dissolve heavy metals in the presence of organic molecules prior to analysis by inductively coupled plasma, atomic absorption, or atomic emission measurements. This technique is usually accomplished by exposing a sample to a strong acid in a closed vessel and raising the pressure and temperature through microwave irradiation. This increase in temperature and pressure of the low pH sample medium increases both the speed of thermal decomposition of the sample and the solubility of heavy metals in solution. Once these heavy metals are in solution, it is

neg: Squid The food bolus is moved along the gut by peristalsis. The long oesophagus leads to a muscular stomach roughly in the middle of the visceral mass. The digestive gland, which is equivalent to a vertebrate liver, diverticulates here, as does the pancreas, and both of these empty into the caecum, a pouch-shaped sac where most of the absorption of nutrients takes place. Indigestible food can be passed directly from the stomach to the rectum where it joins the flow from the caecum and is voided through the anus into the mantle cavity. Cephalopods are short-lived, and in mature squid, priority

neg: In-gel digestion gel showed the process to be almost completely driven by diffusion. The drying of the gel does not seem to support the process. Therefore, the improvement of the in-gel digestion has to be achieved by the reduction of the way of the enzyme to its substrate e.g. by cutting the gel to pieces as small as possible. Usually, the in-gel digestion is run as an overnight process. For the use of trypsin as protease and a temperature of 37 °C the time of incubation found in most protocols is 12-15 h. However, experiments about the duration of the digestion process

neg: Kangaroo They sometimes regurgitate the vegetation they have eaten, chew it as cud, and then swallow it again for final digestion. However, this is a different, more strenuous, activity than it is in ruminants, and does not take place as frequently. Different species of kangaroos have different diets, although all are strict herbivores. The eastern grey kangaroo is predominantly a grazer, and eats a wide variety of grasses, whereas some other species such as the red kangaroo include significant amounts of shrubs in their diets. Smaller species of kangaroos also consume hypogeal fungi. Many species are nocturnal, and crepuscular, usually spending

neg: Collision-induced absorption and emission collision-induced absorption and emission is an inherently inelastic process. Ordinary spectroscopy is concerned with the spectra of single atoms or molecules. Here we outline the very different spectra of complexes consisting of two or more interacting atoms or molecules: the "interaction-induced" or "collision-induced" spectroscopy. Both ordinary and collision-induced spectra may be observed in emission and absorption and require an electric or magnetic multipole moment - in most cases an electric dipole moment - to exist for an optical transition to take place from an initial to a final quantum state of a molecule or a molecular complex. (For brevity of

neg: Conservation and restoration of totem poles a barrier between the visitor and the object on display. Continual touching of a pole can cause irreversible damage such as the absorption of skin oil into the wood. There have been previous cases where restoration of a totem pole takes place in lieu of the preservation of existing materials. Restoration practices can include the replacement of wood or repainting. Many cases of the repainting of poles most often occurred only when the original paint patterns were known. It is also recommended if any type of repainting or replacement of fragments of the pole is to take place, it should

neg: Absorption band bands of molecules may be from tens to several hundred nanometers in breadth. Vibrational transitions and optical phonon transitions take place in the infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths of around 1-30 micrometres. Rotational transitions take place in the far infrared and microwave regions. Absorption bands in the radio frequency range are found in NMR spectroscopy. The frequency ranges and intensities are determined by the magnetic moment of the nuclei that are observed, the applied magnetic field and temperature occupation number differences of the magnetic states. Materials with broad absorption bands are being applied in pigments, dyes and optical

neg: Food energy the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. Conventional food energy is based on heats of combustion in a bomb calorimeter and corrections that take into consideration the efficiency of digestion and absorption and the production of urea and other substances in the urine. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century (see Atwater system for more detail). Based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system

neg: Pharmacokinetics absorption rate. Models have been developed to simplify conceptualization of the many processes that take place in the interaction between an organism and a chemical substance. One of these, the multi-compartmental model, is the most commonly used approximations to reality; however, the complexity involved in adding parameters with that modelling approach means that "monocompartmental models" and above all "two compartmental models" are the most-frequently used. The various compartments that the model is divided into are commonly referred to as the ADME scheme (also referred to as LADME if liberation is included as a separate step from absorption): The two phases

neg: Inertial confinement fusion are then absorbed by the target surface, imploding it in the same way as if it had been hit with the lasers directly. The absorption of thermal x-rays by the target is more efficient than the direct absorption of laser light, however these "hohlraums" or "burning chambers" also take up considerable energy to heat on their own thus significantly reducing the overall efficiency of laser-to-target energy transfer. They are thus a debated feature even today; the equally numerous ""direct-drive"" design does not use them. Most often, indirect drive hohlraum targets are used to simulate thermonuclear weapons tests due to the

neg: SN2 Palmitate model studies, show that enrichment of infant formula with sn-2 Palmitate results in increased fat absorption, reduced calcium soaps formation and stool hardness, increased calcium retention and larger skeletal mineral deposition. Triglyceride digestion by endogenous lipases leads to hydrolysis of fatty acids from the triacylglyceride sn-1,3 positions, to release two fatty acids and one sn-2 monoglyceride into the intestinal lumen. The fatty acids configuration on the triglyceride has a major contribution to the efficacy of this nutrient absorption. While the unsaturated and short chain saturated free fatty acids are well absorbed regardless of their position, the absorption of free long

neg: Nuruk necessary for normal digestive function and protect the flora of gut from harmful organisms. Fermented foods also have been broken down or “pre-digested" and therefore, unlike ordinary carbohydrates, place a lighter burden on the digestion system. They have many additional benefits (Helmenstine 25-28). Fermented food and drink such as Shindari are said to improve the immune system, prevent cancer, and increase beneficial bacteria in the digestive system, balancing the production of stomach acid and aiding nutrient absorption. Traditional fermented food helps the body to produce acetylcholine. It is especially beneficial for people with diabetes. Nuruk Nuruk () is a traditional

neg: Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria tryptophan to arginine at position 445 and a deletion mutation of isoleucine at position 395. EAAT3 is found in location 9p24, it is primarily expressed in the brain and kidneys. In the gastrointestinal tract, protein digestion and absorption are key to establishing and maintaining amino acid pools. In the case of dicarboxylic aminoaciduria, where glutamate and aspartate transport are impaired, the alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism are affected. Enterocytes in the intestines break up peptides into residual amino acids where they would normally use charge-specific amino acid transporters to get across the epithelial cells. In dicarboxylic aminoaciduria, the anionic amino

neg: Digestive enzyme Digestive enzyme Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining In the human digestive system, the main sites

neg: Digestive enzyme these enzymes include: Digestive enzyme Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining In the human digestive system,

neg: Protein mass spectrometry (SDS-PAGE). This dimension separates the protein according to its molecular weight. Once this step is completed in-gel digestion occurs. In some situations, it may be necessary to combine both of these techniques. Gel spots identified on a 2D Gel are usually attributable to one protein. If the identity of the protein is desired, usually the method of in-gel digestion is applied, where the protein spot of interest is excised, and digested proteolytically. The peptide masses resulting from the digestion can be determined by mass spectrometry using peptide mass fingerprinting. If this information does not allow unequivocal identification of the protein,

neg: Ozone and 160 nm. Oxygen starts to absorb weakly at 240 nm in the Herzberg bands, but most of the oxygen is dissociated by absorption in the strong Schumann–Runge bands between 200 and 160 nm where ozone does not absorb. While shorter wavelength light, extending to even the X-Ray limit, is energetic enough to dissociate molecular oxygen, there is relatively little of it, and, the strong solar emission at Lyman-alpha, 121 nm, falls at a point where molecular oxygen absorption is a minimum. The process of ozone creation and destruction is called the Chapman cycle and starts with the photolysis of

neg: Insect mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut. The first section of the alimentary

neg: Crystallographic defects in diamond is considered unstable. Its interaction with a regular carbon lattice atom produces a "split-interstitial", a defect where two carbon atoms share a lattice site and are covalently bonded with the carbon neighbors. This defect has been thoroughly characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance (R2 center) and optical absorption, and unlike most other defects in diamond, it does not produce photoluminescence. The isolated split-interstitial moves through the diamond crystal during irradiation. When it meets other interstitials it aggregates into larger complexes of two and three split-interstitials, identified by electron paramagnetic resonance (R1 and O3 centers), optical absorption and photoluminescence. Most high-energy particles,

neg: Ileum is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as villi on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger numbers of microvilli. Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the adsorption (attachment) of enzyme molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion. The DNES (diffuse neuroendocrine system) cells of the ileum secrete various hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin) into the blood. Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the protease and carbohydrase enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate digestion

neg: Mouth it can gape widely enough to accommodate large prey items. Food passes first into a pharynx and digestion occurs extracellularly in the gastrovascular cavity. Annelids have simple tube-like gets and the possession of an anus allows them to separate the digestion of their foodstuffs from the absorption of the nutrients. Many molluscs have a radula which is used to scrape microscopic particles off surfaces. In invertebrates with hard exoskeletons, various mouthparts may be involved in feeding behaviour. Insects have a range of mouthparts suited to their mode of feeding. These include mandibles, maxillae and labium and can be modified into

neg: Steatorrhea supplements. Steatorrhea Steatorrhea (or steatorrhoea) is the presence of excess fat in feces. Stools may be bulky and difficult to flush, have a pale and oily appearance and can be especially foul-smelling. An oily anal leakage or some level of fecal incontinence may occur. There is increased fat excretion, which can be measured by determining the fecal fat level. The definition of how much fecal fat constitutes steatorrhea has not been standardized. Impaired digestion or absorption can result in fatty stools. Possible causes include exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, with poor digestion from lack of lipases, loss of bile salts, which reduces

neg: Steatorrhea Steatorrhea Steatorrhea (or steatorrhoea) is the presence of excess fat in feces. Stools may be bulky and difficult to flush, have a pale and oily appearance and can be especially foul-smelling. An oily anal leakage or some level of fecal incontinence may occur. There is increased fat excretion, which can be measured by determining the fecal fat level. The definition of how much fecal fat constitutes steatorrhea has not been standardized. Impaired digestion or absorption can result in fatty stools. Possible causes include exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, with poor digestion from lack of lipases, loss of bile salts, which reduces micelle

neg: Glycemic index hours or longer after eating certain foods. Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. The concept was developed by Dr. David J. Jenkins and colleagues in 1980–1981 at the University of Toronto in their research to find out which foods were best for people with diabetes. A lower glycemic index suggests slower rates of digestion and absorption of the foods' carbohydrates and can also

neg: Saturable absorption for a saturable absorber are its wavelength range (where it absorbs), its dynamic response (how fast it recovers), and its saturation intensity and fluence (at what intensity or pulse energy it saturates). They are commonly used for passive Q-switching. Within the simple model of saturated absorption, the relaxation rate of excitations does not depend on the intensity. Then, for the continuous-wave operation, the absorption rate (or simply absorption) formula_1 is determined by intensity formula_2: where formula_4 is linear absorption, and formula_5 is saturation intensity. These parameters are related with the concentration formula_6 of the active centers in the medium, the

neg: Insect morphology saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut (element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase the surface area of

neg: Hypoglycemia or grape juice although fruit juices contain a higher proportion of fructose which is more slowly metabolized than pure dextrose, alternatively, about 4–5 ounces (120–150 ml) of regular (non-diet) soda may also work, as will about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods. Starch is quickly digested to glucose (unless the person is taking acarbose), but adding fat or protein retards digestion. Symptoms should begin to improve within 5 minutes, though full recovery may take 10–20 minutes. Overfeeding does not speed recovery and if the person has diabetes will simply produce hyperglycemia

neg: Anaerobic digestion identified. While fuel shortages during World War II re-popularized anaerobic digestion, interest in the technology decreased again after the war ended. Similarly, the 1970s energy crisis sparked interest in anaerobic digestion. In addition to high energy prices, factors affecting the adoption of Anaerobic Digestion systems include receptivity to innovation, pollution penalties, policy incentives, and the availability of subsidies and funding opportunities. Today, anaerobic digesters are commonly found alongside farms to reduce nitrogen run-off from manure, or wastewater treatment facilities to reduce the costs of sludge disposal. Agricultural anaerobic digestion for energy production has become most popular in Germany, where there

neg: Zinc toxicity 8005) and in urine (NIOSH Method 8310). Detection limits in blood and tissue are 1 µg/100 g and 0.2 µg/g, respectively, with recoveries of 100% (NIOSH 1994). Sample preparation involves acid digestion with concentrated acids. Detection of zinc in urine samples requires extraction of the metals with a polydithiocarbamate resin prior to digestion and analysis (NIOSH 1984). Detection limits in urine are 0.1 µg/sample. Zinc toxicity Zinc toxicity is a medical condition involving an overdose on, or toxic overexposure to, zinc. Such toxicity levels have been seen to occur at ingestion of greater than 225 mg of zinc. Excessive absorption

neg: Selenium yeast acid digestion to extract selenium from the yeast matrix followed by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Determination of the selenium species selenomethionine can be achieved via proteolytic digestion of selenium yeast followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Selenium yeast Selenium yeast, produced by fermenting "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" in a selenium-rich media, is a recognized source of organic food-form selenium. In this process, virtually all of the selenium structurally substitutes for sulfur in the amino acid methionine thus forming selenomethionine via the same pathways and enzymes that are used to form sulfur-containing methionine. Owing to

neg: Platecarpus is similar to that of cetaceans. Part of the digestive tract is also preserved and is filled with mid-sized fish remains. The shape of these remains may outline the true shape of the corresponding part of the digestive tract, most likely the colon. The presence of scales and undigested bones in the colon suggests that "Platecarpus" and other mosasaurs processed food quickly and did not thoroughly digest and absorb all food in the gastrointestinal tract. Coprolites from the mosasaur "Globidens" are also suggestive of low digestion and absorption rates as they contain masses of crushed bivalve shells. The caudal, or

neg: Alan Hofmann reviewed his 50-year research career up to 2009. He has made many advances in the chemistry and biology of bile acids, helping understand and treat various liver, biliary and digestive diseases. His research includes many aspects of lipid digestion and absorption, bile acid evolution, pathobiology, and pathochemistry, bile secretion, cholelithiasis, biliary physiology and pharmacology, and the diagnosis and treatment of various digestive and hepatobiliary diseases. Together with his longtime collaborator, Lee Hagey, he has written a comprehensive history of bile acid research. Making the most of his proximity to the San Diego Zoo, his publications have help define the wide

neg: Cholesterol are reabsorbed from the intestines, and the remainder are lost in the feces. The excretion and reabsorption of bile acids forms the basis of the enterohepatic circulation, which is essential for the digestion and absorption of dietary fats. Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the gallbladder, cholesterol crystallises and is the major constituent of most gallstones (lecithin and bilirubin gallstones also occur, but less frequently). Every day, up to 1 g of cholesterol enters the colon. This cholesterol originates from the diet, bile, and desquamated intestinal cells, and can be metabolized by the colonic bacteria. Cholesterol is converted

neg: Okara (food) okara contains 8 to 15% fats, 12 to 14.5% crude fiber and 24% protein, and contains 17% of the protein from the source soybeans. It also contains potassium, calcium, niacin. Most of the soybean isoflavones are left in okara, as well as vitamin B and the fat-soluble nutritional factors, which include soy lecithin, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, phytosterols, tocopherol, and vitamin D. Okara contains some antinutritional factors: trypsin inhibitors (mostly destroyed by cooking), saponins, and soybean agglutinins, which cannot be easily digested. Fermentation (by proper species of bacteria) of okara is conducive to digestion and absorption of okara nutrients, and

neg: Opisthokont groups propel themselves with one or more "anterior" flagella. However, in some opisthokont groups, including most of the fungi, flagellate cells have been lost. Opisthokonts characteristics include synthesis of extracellular chitin in exoskeleton, cyst/spore wall, or cell wall of filamentous growth and hyphae; the extracellular digestion of substrates with osmotrophic absorption of nutrients; and other cell biosynthetic and metabolic pathways. Genera at the base of each clade are amoeboid and phagotrophic. The close relationship between animals and fungi was suggested by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 1987, who used the informal name opisthokonta (the formal name has been used for the chytrids

neg: Prebiotic (nutrition) be labeled as prebiotics, but only as dietary fiber and with no implication of health benefits. Most prebiotic research has focused on the effects that prebiotics confer on "Bifidobacteria" and "Lactobacillus." These bacteria have been highlighted as key probiotics and beneficial gut bacteria as they may have several beneficial effects on the host in terms of improving digestion (including but not limited to enhancing mineral absorption) and the effectiveness and intrinsic strength of the immune system. Both "Bifidobacteria" and "Lactobacillus" have been shown to have differing prebiotic specificity and selectively to ferment prebiotic fiber based on the enzymes characteristic of

neg: Fish protein powder form of fish protein powder is most conducive for optimal nutritional benefits. Hygienic production of fish protein powder mimics these natural digestion steps, and pending the degree of hydrolysis, the protein powder will actually be a partial or complete peptide powder, ready for immediate absorption in the intestine. Significant elements of the nutritional science of fish protein powders centers around the bioactive and antioxidant properties of the peptide fractions produced during hydrolysis and their ability to have a positive impact on many conditions including gastrointestinal issues associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and Crohn's disease - as well reduction effects

neg: Starfish such as "Astropecten" and "Luidia", swallow their prey whole, and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs. Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption ensues. In more advanced species of starfish, the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism's body to engulf and digest food. When the prey is a clam or other bivalve, the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly, and inserts a small section of its stomach, which releases enzymes