query: who proposed the modern synthetic theory of evolution

pos: Modern synthesis (20th century) Modern synthesis (20th century) The modern synthesis was the early 20th-century synthesis reconciling Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and Gregor Mendel's ideas on heredity in a joint mathematical framework. Julian Huxley coined the term in his 1942 book, "". The 19th century ideas of natural selection and Mendelian genetics were put together with population genetics, early in the twentieth century. The modern synthesis also addressed the relationship between the broad-scale changes of macroevolution seen by palaeontologists and the small-scale microevolution of local populations of living organisms. The synthesis was defined differently by its founders, with Ernst Mayr in 1959, G.

pos: Modern synthesis (20th century) on behaviour), following that theory's implications to their Darwinian conclusion, and bringing him into conflict with Lysenkoism. Schmalhausen observed that stabilizing selection would remove most variations from the norm, most mutations being harmful. Dobzhansky called the work "an important missing link in the modern view of evolution". In 1942, Julian Huxley's serious but popularising "" introduced a name for the synthesis and intentionally set out to promote a "synthetic point of view" on the evolutionary process. He imagined a wide synthesis of many sciences: genetics, developmental physiology, ecology, systematics, palaeontology, cytology, and mathematical analysis of biology, and assumed that evolution

neg: The Trouble with Atheism supporter Steve Fuller, a philosopher, who argues that evolution is the only "scientifically credible basis" for atheism, and anthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz, who argues that evolutionary theory cannot account for novelties. He comes to the conclusion that the modern synthetic theory of evolution will be superseded in a future paradigm shift, undermining the arguments of atheists like Dawkins. Liddle also criticizes models of sociocultural evolution such as memetics and interviews skeptics of memetics such as Alister McGrath. In the last quarter of the documentary, Liddle argues against a perceived overreliance on "cold logic" and the amoral scientific method. He focuses

neg: Creation–evolution controversy mathematician and theoretical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal, geneticist monk Gregor Mendel, and Isaac Newton as believers in a biblical creation narrative. This argument usually involves scientists who were no longer alive when evolution was proposed or whose field of study did not include evolution. The argument is generally rejected as specious by those who oppose creationism. Many of the scientists in question did some early work on the mechanisms of evolution, e.g., the modern evolutionary synthesis combines Darwin's theory of evolution with Mendel's theories of inheritance and genetics. Though biological evolution of some sort had

neg: Triangle of U Triangle of U The triangle of U is a theory about the evolution and relationships among members of the plant genus "Brassica". The theory states that the genomes of three ancestral species of "Brassica" combined to create three of the common modern vegetables and oilseed crop species. It has since been confirmed by studies of DNA and proteins. The theory was first published in 1935 by Woo Jang-choon (Hangeul: 우장춘), a Korean-Japanese botanist who was working in Japan (where his name was Japanized as "Nagaharu U", the Japanese reading of his name). Woo made synthetic hybrids between the diploid and

neg: Neo-Darwinism which argued that natural selection was the main and perhaps sole cause of all evolution. From then until around 1947, the term was used for the panselectionist followers of Ronald Fisher. Following the development, from about 1918 to 1947, of the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology, the term neo-Darwinian was often used to refer to that contemporary evolutionary theory. Biologists however have not limited their application of the term neo-Darwinism to the historical modern synthesis. For example, Ernst Mayr wrote in 1984 that "the term neo-Darwinism for the synthetic theory [the modern synthesis of the early 20th century] is wrong,

neg: Islamic views on evolution Islamic views on evolution Islamic views on evolution are diverse, ranging from theistic evolution to Old Earth creationism. Some Muslims around the world believe "humans and other living things have evolved over time," yet some others believe they have "always existed in present form." Muslim thinkers have proposed and accepted elements of the theory of evolution, some holding the belief of the supremacy of God in the process. Usaama al-Azami suggested that both narratives of creation and of evolution, as understood by modern science, may be believed by modern Muslims as addressing two different kinds of truth, the revealed and

neg: Social evolution Wilson, a founder of modern sociobiology, proposed a new theory of social evolution. He argued that the traditional approach of focusing on eusociality had limitations, which he illustrated primarily with examples from the insect world. Social evolution Social evolution is a subdiscipline of evolutionary biology that is concerned with social behaviors that have fitness consequences for individuals other than the actor. Social behaviors can be categorized according to the fitness consequences they entail for the actor and recipient. This classification was proposed by W. D. Hamilton, arguing that natural selection favors mutually beneficial or selfish behaviors. Hamilton's insight was to

neg: Cultural evolution could possess greater levels of social differentiation. He rejected separation of modern societies from primitive societies. In contrast, Steward argued, much like Darwin's theory of evolution, that culture adapts to its surroundings. 'Evolution and Culture' by Sahlins and Service is an attempt to condense the views of White and Steward into a universal theory of multilinear evolution. Richard Dawkins' 1976 book "The Selfish Gene" proposed the concept of the "meme", which is analogous to that of the gene. A meme is an idea-replicator that can reproduce itself, by jumping from mind to mind via the process of one human learning

neg: Mimetic theory of speech origins Mimetic theory of speech origins In evolutionary anthropology and evolutionary linguistics, the mimetic theory of speech origins is an analysis of the factors leading to the evolution of language in human ancestors, typically during the "Homo Erectus" era. This theory is most commonly associated with the cognitive neuroscientist and neuroanthropologist Merlin Donald, who developed the idea in his 1991 book "Origins of the Modern Mind" as the fundamental pillar in his three-part model of the development of symbolic culture and symbolic cognition. The mimetic theory of development was the central pillar in Donald's three-part model of symbolic cognition proposed in

neg: Precambrian rabbit Popper, who had proposed that "falsifiability" is an essential feature of a scientific theory. Popper also expressed doubts about the scientific status of evolutionary theory, although he later concluded that the field of study was genuinely scientific. Rabbits are mammals. From the perspective of the philosophy of science, it is doubtful whether the genuine discovery of mammalian fossils in Precambrian rocks would overthrow the theory of evolution instantly, though if authentic, such a discovery would indicate serious errors in modern understanding about the evolutionary process. Mammals are a class of animals whose emergence in the geologic timescale is dated to

neg: Hillslope evolution Hillslope evolution Hillslope evolution is the changes in the erosion rates, erosion styles and form of slopes of hills and mountains over time. During most of the 20th century three models of hillslope evolution were widely diffused: slope decline, slope replacement and parallel slope retreat. Until the 1950s models of hillslope form evolution were "central" in geomorphology. The modern understanding is that the evolution of slopes is much more complex than the classical models of decline, replacement and retreat imply. Slope decline was proposed by William Morris Davis in his cycle of erosion theory. It consists of a gradual decrease

neg: Hillslope evolution and not flatter than present-day landscape. Hillslope evolution Hillslope evolution is the changes in the erosion rates, erosion styles and form of slopes of hills and mountains over time. During most of the 20th century three models of hillslope evolution were widely diffused: slope decline, slope replacement and parallel slope retreat. Until the 1950s models of hillslope form evolution were "central" in geomorphology. The modern understanding is that the evolution of slopes is much more complex than the classical models of decline, replacement and retreat imply. Slope decline was proposed by William Morris Davis in his cycle of erosion theory.

neg: Nebular hypothesis "protoplanet theory" of William McCrea (1960) and finally the "capture theory" of Michael Woolfson. In 1978 Andrew Prentice resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the "modern Laplacian theory". None of these attempts proved completely successful, and many of the proposed theories were descriptive. The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation—the solar nebular disk model (SNDM)—can be traced to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov. His 1969 book "Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets", which was translated to English in 1972, had a long-lasting effect on the

neg: Jewish views on evolution and renewal of the Earth has found its clearest possible confirmation in our time." When scientists first developed the theory of evolution, this idea was seized upon by Rabbis such as Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin, known as the Netziv, who saw Kabbalah as a way to resolve the differences between traditional readings of the Bible and modern day scientific findings. He proposed that the ancient fossils of dinosaurs were the remains of beings that perished in the previous "worlds" described in midrash and in some Kabbalistic texts. This was the view held by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan (1934–1983). In the late

neg: Charles Darwin of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician, finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". He gave the theory a mathematical footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory. During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given

neg: Molecular evolution The main difference between the neutral theory and nearly neutral theory is that the latter focuses on weak selection, not strictly neutral. Mutationists hypotheses emphasize random drift and biases in mutation patterns. Sueoka was the first to propose a modern mutationist view. He proposed that the variation in GC content was not the result of positive selection, but a consequence of the GC mutational pressure. Evolution of proteins is studied by comparing the sequences and structures of proteins from many organisms representing distinct evolutionary clades. If the sequences/structures of two proteins are similar indicating that the proteins diverged from a

neg: Theosophy and science of spiritual evolution" was more profound and advanced than that proposed by Charles Darwin. Theosophists accepted his theory but rejected the assertion that life originated from matter, and not from spirit. Kuhn wrote that, according to Blavatsky, between the spiritual evolution of man and his physical development "there is an abyss which will not be easily crossed by any man in the full possession of his intellectual faculties." Physical development, "as modern Science teaches it, is a subject for open controversy; spiritual and moral development on the same lines is the insane dream of a crass materialism." Darwinian theory and

neg: History of evolutionary thought sequences. At the same time, increasingly powerful techniques for analyzing proteins, such as protein electrophoresis and sequencing, brought biochemical phenomena into realm of the synthetic theory of evolution. In the early 1960s, biochemists Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl proposed the molecular clock hypothesis (MCH): that sequence differences between homologous proteins could be used to calculate the time since two species diverged. By 1969, Motoo Kimura and others provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock, arguing that—at the molecular level at least—most genetic mutations are neither harmful nor helpful and that mutation and genetic drift (rather than natural selection) cause

neg: Peaceful Evolution theory rule". Successive generations of CPC leaders have struggled against the Peaceful Evolution theory, including Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, Hu Jintao, and Jiang Zemin. The theory is not currently part of the United States' official policy approach to the PRC, but communist military strategists consider it a cause of ongoing concern. The precise locution "peaceful evolution" was a modification, by John Foster Dulles, of the doctrine originally outlined by George F. Kennan, who, in his Long Telegram of February 22, 1946, proposed that the socialist and capitalist blocs could reach a state of "peaceful coexistence." This was augmented by Dulles over

neg: Punctuated equilibrium down to the present day." John Wilkins and Gareth Nelson have argued that French architect Pierre Trémaux proposed an "anticipation of the theory of punctuated equilibrium of Gould and Eldredge." The fossil record includes well documented examples of both phyletic gradualism and punctuational evolution. As such, much debate persists over the prominence of stasis in the fossil record. Before punctuated equilibrium, most evolutionists considered stasis to be rare or unimportant. The paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson, for example, believed that phyletic gradual evolution (called "horotely" in his terminology) comprised 90% of evolution. More modern studies, including a meta-analysis examining 58 published

neg: Unilineal evolution Unilineal evolution Unilineal evolution, also referred to as classical social evolution, is a 19th-century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. It was composed of many competing theories by various anthropologists and sociologists, who believed that Western culture is the contemporary pinnacle of social evolution. Different social status is aligned in a single line that moves from most primitive to most civilized. This theory is now generally considered obsolete in academic circles. Theories of social and cultural evolution are common in modern European thought. Prior to the 18th century, Europeans predominantly believed that societies on Earth were in

neg: Sweetness proposed a more elaborate theory based on a then-current theory of color in synthetic dyes. They hypothesized that to be sweet, a compound must contain one each of two classes of structural motif, a "glucophore" and an "auxogluc". Based on those compounds known to be sweet at the time, they proposed a list of six candidate glucophores and nine auxoglucs. From these beginnings in the early 20th century, the theory of sweetness enjoyed little further academic attention until 1963, when Robert Shallenberger and Terry Acree proposed the AH-B theory of sweetness. Simply put, they proposed that to be sweet, a

neg: Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution The nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution is a modification of the neutral theory of molecular evolution that accounts for the fact that not all mutations are either so deleterious such that they can be ignored, or else neutral. Slightly deleterious mutations are reliably purged only when their selection coefficient are greater than one divided by the effective population size. In larger populations, a higher proportion of mutations exceed this threshold for which genetic drift cannot overpower selection, leading to fewer fixation events and so slower molecular evolution. The nearly neutral theory was proposed

neg: Psychological behaviorism research into how school learning could be advanced using its methods and theories. Also, Staats' theory of human evolution is seen to call for research and theory developments. Psychological behaviorism Psychological behaviorism is a form of behaviorism — a major theory within psychology which holds that generally human behaviors are learned — proposed by Arthur W. Staats. The theory is constructed to advance from basic animal learning principles to deal with all types of human behavior, including personality, culture, and human evolution. Behaviorism was first developed by John B. Watson (1912), who coined the term "behaviorism," and then B. F.

neg: Culture of the United Kingdom of Species" and discovered the principle of evolution by natural selection. James Hutton, founder of modern geology, worked on the age of the Earth (deep time) which forms a key element of Darwin's theory. Other important geologists include Charles Lyell, author of "Principles of Geology", who also coined the term Pleistocene, and Adam Sedgwick, who proposed (and coined) the name of the Cambrian Period. William Thomson (Baron Kelvin) drew important conclusions in the field of thermodynamics and invented the Kelvin scale of absolute zero. Paul Dirac was one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics. Botanist Robert Brown discovered the random

neg: C. H. Waddington "genetic assimilation, looks, but is not Lamarckian. It is a special case of the evolution of phenotypic plasticity". Adam S. Wilkins wrote that "[Waddington] in his lifetime... was widely perceived primarily as a critic of Neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory. His criticisms ... were focused on what he saw as unrealistic, 'atomistic' models of both gene selection and trait evolution." In particular, according to Wilkins, Waddington felt that the Neo-Darwinians badly neglected the phenomenon of extensive gene interactions and that the 'randomness' of mutational effects, posited in the theory, was false. Even though Waddington became critical of the neo-Darwinian synthetic theory of

neg: Evolution Hugo de Vries connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cell's structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers

neg: Shifting balance theory Shifting balance theory The shifting balance theory is a theory of evolution proposed in 1932 by Sewall Wright, suggesting that adaptive evolution may proceed most quickly when a population divides into subpopulations with restricted gene flow. The name of the theory is borrowed from Wright's metaphor of fitness landscapes (evolutionary landscapes), attempting to explain how a population may move across an adaptive valley to a higher adaptive peak. According to the theory, this movement occurs in three steps: Although shifting balance theory has been influential in evolutionary biology, inspiring the theories of quantum evolution and punctuated equilibrium, little empirical evidence

neg: Shifting balance theory exists to support the shifting balance process as an important factor in evolution. Shifting balance theory The shifting balance theory is a theory of evolution proposed in 1932 by Sewall Wright, suggesting that adaptive evolution may proceed most quickly when a population divides into subpopulations with restricted gene flow. The name of the theory is borrowed from Wright's metaphor of fitness landscapes (evolutionary landscapes), attempting to explain how a population may move across an adaptive valley to a higher adaptive peak. According to the theory, this movement occurs in three steps: Although shifting balance theory has been influential in evolutionary

neg: Mendelian inheritance Mendelian inheritance Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological inheritance that follows the laws originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900. These laws were initially controversial. When Mendel's theories were integrated with the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of classical genetics. Ronald Fisher combined these ideas with the theory of natural selection in his 1930 book "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection", putting evolution onto a mathematical footing and forming the basis for population genetics within the modern evolutionary synthesis. The principles of Mendelian

neg: Lee Spetner of Biophysics at Johns Hopkins University. He writes that he was skeptical of evolutionary theory because of his religious views and because of his intuition about how information in living organisms could have developed. Spetner published several papers on the subject of evolution between 1964 and 1970. In Israel, he continued searching for evidence that contradicted the modern evolutionary synthesis. Spetner was inspired by Rabbi David Luria (1798 - 1855), who calculated that, according to Talmudic sources, there was 365 originally created species of beasts and 365 of birds. Spetner developed what he called his "nonrandom evolutionary hypothesis," which proposed

neg: Franz Weidenreich Laboratory he also studied fossils of the Peking Man, then known as "Sinanthropus pekinensis", unearthed at Zhoukoudian, China. Weidenreich originated the "Weidenreich Theory of Human Evolution" based on his examination of Peking Man. Being an anatomist, Weidenreich observed numerous anatomical characteristics that Peking Man had in common with modern Chinese, this led to his Polycentric evolution model of human origins. Peter H. Wyden, American journalist and writer, was one of his nephews and U.S. Senator Ron Wyden a grandnephew. Weidenreich pioneered the Polycentric (multiregional) hypothesis, which proposed that human populations have evolved independently in the Old World from Homo erectus

neg: Sociocultural evolution World Systems Theory, Dependency theory and Marvin Harris’s Cultural materialism. Today most anthropologists reject 19th-century notions of progress and the three assumptions of unilineal evolution. Following Steward, they take seriously the relationship between a culture and its environment to explain different aspects of a culture. But most modern cultural anthropologists have adopted a general systems approach, examining cultures as emergent systems and arguing that one must consider the whole social environment, which includes political and economic relations among cultures. As a result of simplistic notions of "progressive evolution", more modern, complex cultural evolution theories (such as Dual Inheritance Theory, discussed

neg: Catholic Church and evolution development of evolutionary theory. The work of the Danish scientist Nicolas Steno (1638-1686), who converted to Catholicism and became a bishop, helped establish the science of geology, leading to modern scientific measurements of the age of the earth. Catholic concern about evolution has always been very largely concerned with the implications of evolutionary theory for the origin of the human species; even by 1859, a literal reading of the "Book of Genesis" had long been undermined by developments in geology and other fields. No high-level Church pronouncement has ever attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species.

neg: Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution has proposed that variation in the ability to purge slightly deleterious mutations (i.e. variation in formula_20) can explain variation in genomic architecture among species, e.g. the size of the genome, or the mutation rate. Specifically, larger populations will have lower mutation rates, more streamlined genomic architectures, and generally more finely tuned adaptations. Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution The nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution is a modification of the neutral theory of molecular evolution that accounts for the fact that not all mutations are either so deleterious such that they can be ignored, or else neutral. Slightly deleterious mutations

neg: Marjorie Grene 1935, and then at the University of Chicago. After losing her position there during World War II, she spent 15 years as a mother and farmer. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1976. Her obituary in "The New York Times" said she was "one of the first philosophers to raise questions about the synthetic theory of evolution, which combines Darwin’s theory of evolution, Mendel’s understanding of genetic inheritance and more recent discoveries by molecular biologists." She, along with co-author David Depew, wrote the first history of the philosophy of biology. In 2002,

neg: The Origin of Birds from ground–dwelling animals that became arboreal and capable of jumping between branches over time. Their descendants would eventually be able to glide as the length of leaps increased, leading to greater specialization and eventual flapping capabilities. This "from the trees down" hypothesis was originally proposed by Othniel C. Marsh in 1880. This general theory about the mode of the evolution of flight in birds has persisted to modern times, especially (but not exclusively) among opponents of a theropod origin of birds. This includes paleontologists such as Alan Feduccia, who essentially agree with Heilmann's assertion that the ancestors of birds must

neg: Natural selection in the Organism") in which he suggested that the development of an organism results from a Darwinian competition between the parts of the embryo, occurring at all levels, from molecules to organs. In recent years, a modern version of this theory has been proposed by . According to this cellular Darwinism, random variation at the molecular level generates diversity in cell types whereas cell interactions impose a characteristic order on the developing embryo. The social implications of the theory of evolution by natural selection also became the source of continuing controversy. Friedrich Engels, a German political philosopher and co-originator of

neg: Human evolution or several. A multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory, which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. In this theory, there was a coastal dispersal of modern humans from the Horn of Africa crossing the Bab el Mandib to Yemen at a lower sea level around 70,000 years ago. This group helped to populate Southeast Asia and Oceania, explaining the discovery of early human sites in these areas much earlier than those in the Levant. This group seems to have been dependent upon marine resources for their survival. Stephen Oppenheimer has proposed a

neg: Kansas evolution hearings The proposed changes were not supported by most of the 26 members of the panel that reviews state science curriculum. On November 8, 2005, the Board of Education voted to instruct science students along the lines of the Discovery Institute, that evolution could not rule out a supernatural or theistic source, that evolution itself was not fact but only a theory and one in crisis, and that ID must be considered a viable alternative to evolution. The following is a list of those who testified in the Kansas evolution hearings (in order), most of whom are affiliated with the Discovery

neg: Feathers: The Evolution of a Natural Miracle "Archaeopteryx" fossil specimen and the resulting debate between English paleontologist Richard Owen, an opponent to evolution by natural selection, and Thomas Henry Huxley, an advocate for evolution. Hanson himself visits the Wyoming Dinosaur Center, a small museum in Thermopolis, Wyoming, which had acquired an "Archaeopteryx" specimen. Hanson interviews Richard Prum, the Coe Professor of Ornithology at Yale University, who proposed a developmental theory of feather evolution, which focuses "on how feathers grow and not worrying about what they're used for." Hanson also interviews Alan Feduccia, a professor at the University of North Carolina, who disagrees with the scientific consensus that

neg: Sociocultural evolution behaviours such as altruism, aggression, and nurturance. In doing so, Wilson sparked one of the greatest scientific controversies of the 20th century. The current theory of evolution, the modern evolutionary synthesis (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of species occurs through a combination of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection and Gregor Mendel’s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection). Due to its close reliance on biology, sociobiology is often considered a branch

neg: Multilineal evolution Multilineal evolution Multilineal evolution is a 20th-century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. It is composed of many competing theories by various sociologists and anthropologists. This theory has replaced the older 19th century set of theories of unilineal evolution. When critique of classical social evolutionism became widely accepted, modern anthropological and sociological approaches have changed to reflect their responses to the critique of their predecessor. Modern theories are careful to avoid unsourced, ethnocentric speculation, comparisons, or value judgements; more or less regarding individual societies as existing within their own historical contexts. These conditions provided the context for

neg: Genetic assimilation unrealistic, 'atomistic' models of both gene selection and trait evolution." In particular, according to Wilkins, Waddington felt that the Neo-Darwinians badly neglected the phenomenon of extensive gene interactions and that the 'randomness' of mutational effects, posited in the theory, was false. Even though Waddington became critical of the neo-Darwinian synthetic theory of evolution, he still described himself as a Darwinian, and called for an extended evolutionary synthesis based on his research. Waddington did not deny the threshold-based conventional genetic interpretation of his experiments, but regarded it "as a "told to the children" version of what I wished to say" and

neg: Evolution: A Theory in Crisis which he was objecting. Critics found it difficult to accept a "directed" mechanism for changes in cytochrome C that were neutral, producing different proteins whose action was the same. Denton's conclusions have been called "erroneous" and "spurious" and marine biologist Wesley R. Elsberry states that all the observations in question can be explained within the modern framework of evolutionary theory. Evolution: A Theory in Crisis Evolution: A Theory in Crisis is a 1985 book by Michael Denton, in which the author argues that the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection is a "theory in crisis". Reviews by scientists say

neg: Objections to evolution theory was "both permissible and respectable" by 1876. Frederick Temple's lectures on "The Relations between Religion and Science" (1884) on how evolution was not "antagonistic" to religion highlighted this trend. Temple's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy. For decades the Roman Catholic Church avoided official refutation of evolution. However, it would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with the Bible, as this conflicted with the First Vatican Council's (1869–70) finding that everything was created out of nothing by God, and to deny that finding could

neg: Neoteny in humans skull, thinness of the skull bones, lack of brow ridges, lack of sagittal crests, form of the teeth, relative size of the brain and form of the brain as ways in which the juvenile skulls of these human ancestors resemble the skulls of adult modern humans. Montagu said that the retention of these juvenile characteristics of the skull into adulthood by australopithecine or pithecanthropine could have been a way that a modern type of human could have evolved earlier than what actually happened in human evolution. The psychiatrist Stanley Greenspan and Stuart G. Shanker proposed a theory in "The First

neg: Modern synthesis (20th century) natural selection was the main mechanism of evolution. It showed that the trends of linear progression (in for example the evolution of the horse) that earlier palaeontologists had used as support for neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis did not hold up under careful examination. Instead the fossil record was consistent with the irregular, branching, and non-directional pattern predicted by the modern synthesis. During the war, Mayr edited a series of bulletins of the Committee on Common Problems of Genetics, Paleontology, and Systematics, formed in 1943, reporting on discussions of a "synthetic attack" on the interdisciplinary problems of evolution. In 1946, the committee

neg: John Relethford research focuses on human population genetics and the evolutionary origin of modern humans. For example, he has proposed his own version of the "Out of Africa" model, the standard theory for the evolution of modern humans; he has described his model as placing human origins "mostly out of Africa". Relethford received the Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching in 1994-1995, and the first recipient of SUNY Oneonta's Susan Sutton Smith Prize for Academic Excellence in 1995. In 2001, he was elected a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 2017, he received the American Association of

neg: Catholic Church and science the groundwork for all of life sciences in the twentieth century. Darwin saw that all living things are connected, that ultimately they trace their ancestry to a single, common source; Mendel's work provided the mechanism to explain how that could happen." Biologist J. B. S. Haldane and others brought together the principles of Mendelian inheritance with Darwinian principles of evolution to form the field of genetics known as Modern evolutionary synthesis. The Big Bang model, or theory, is now the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe and was first proposed by Belgian priest Georges Lemaître, astronomer

neg: Thomas H. Jukes rest of his career. Independently of Motoo Kimura, Jukes (with Jack King) proposed in 1969 that the evolution of proteins is primarily driven by genetic drift acting on mutations that are neither beneficial nor deleterious—the neutral theory of molecular evolution. Despite the provocative paper ("Non-Darwinian Evolution"), he was not a prominent participant in the ensuing "neutralist-selectionist debate"; defense of the neutral theory was primarily left to others, especially Kimura. In 1971, Jukes was one of the founders of the "Journal of Molecular Evolution"; his subsequent work with molecular evolution focused especially on the origin and evolution of the genetic code.

neg: Objections to evolution context: whereas in colloquial speech a "theory" is a conjecture or guess, in science a theory is an explanation whose predictions have been verified by experiments or other evidence. "Evolutionary theory" refers to an explanation for the diversity of species and their ancestry which has met extremely high standards of scientific evidence. An example of evolution as theory is the modern synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. As with any scientific theory, the modern synthesis is constantly debated, tested, and refined by scientists, but there is an overwhelming consensus in the scientific community that it remains the only

neg: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck also published "Recherches sur l'Organisation des Corps Vivants", in which he drew out his theory on evolution. He believed that all life was organized in a vertical chain, with gradation between the lowest forms and the highest forms of life, thus demonstrating a path to progressive developments in nature. In his own work, Lamarck had favored the then-more traditional theory based on the Classical four elements. During Lamarck's lifetime he became controversial, attacking the more enlightened chemistry proposed by Lavoisier. He also came into conflict with the widely respected palaeontologist Georges Cuvier, who was not a supporter of evolution. According

neg: Evolution: The Modern Synthesis writes that at almost 800 pages it was longer than the other "milestone" 1942 book on the modern synthesis, Ernst Mayr's "Systematics and the Origin of Species". Lamm calls it remarkable that both books were described as popular accounts at the time, and notes that Huxley states in his introduction that he was setting out to promote a "synthetic point of view" on Darwinian evolution. Huxley was not just trying to synthesise natural selection with Mendelian genetics "as the Modern Synthesis is often presented", writes Lamm, but to include also "genetics, developmental physiology, ecology, systematics, paleontology, cytology [cell biology], and

neg: Universal Darwinism Universal Darwinism Universal Darwinism (also known as generalized Darwinism, universal selection theory, or Darwinian metaphysics) refers to a variety of approaches that extend the theory of Darwinism beyond its original domain of biological evolution on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of variation, selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin, so that they can apply to explain evolution in a wide variety of other domains, including psychology, economics, culture, medicine, computer science and physics. At the most fundamental level, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution states that organisms evolve and adapt to their environment by

neg: Karl Pearson for inheritance that was not causal in nature. While Galton proposed a discontinuous theory of evolution, in which species would have to change via large jumps rather than small changes that built up over time, Pearson pointed out flaws in Galton's argument and actually used Galton's ideas to further a continuous theory of evolution, whereas the Mendelian's favored a discontinuous theory of evolution. While Galton focused primarily on the application of statistical methods to the study of heredity, Pearson and his colleague Weldon expanded statistical reasoning to the fields of inheritance, variation, correlation, and natural and sexual selection. For Pearson,

neg: Strengths and weaknesses of evolution Strengths and weaknesses of evolution "Strengths and weaknesses of evolution" is a controversial phrase that has been proposed for (and in Texas introduced into) public school science curricula. Those proposing the phrase, such as the chairman of the Texas State Board of Education (SBOE), Don McLeroy, purport that there are weaknesses in the theory of evolution and in the evidence that life has evolved that should be taught for a balanced treatment of the subject of evolution. The scientific community rejects that any substantive weaknesses exist in the scientific theory, or in the data that it explains, and views the

neg: Facilitated variation of natural selection, to an active player in the 3-billion-year history of evolution. Kirschner and Gerhart's theory thereby provides a scientific rebuttal to modern critics of evolution who champion Intelligent Design. Facilitated variation The theory of facilitated variation demonstrates how seemingly complex biological systems can arise through a limited number of regulatory genetic changes, through the differential re-use of pre-existing developmental components. The theory was presented in 2005 by Marc W. Kirschner (a professor and chair at the Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School) and John C. Gerhart (a professor at the Graduate School, University of California, Berkeley). The

neg: Non-Darwinian Evolution (paper) the journal "Science" on May 16, 1969. The idea of evolution at the molecular level being driven by the random processes of mutation and genetic drift, largely independent from natural selection, was controversial at the time; the provocative title further emphasized the break with mainstream evolutionary thought, which was dominated by the synthetic theory of evolution, often referred to as "Neo-Darwinism". Although they argued for essentially the same conclusion as Motoo Kimura's earlier paper, King and Jukes criticized one of Kimura's central arguments, an estimate of the rate of amino acid change in proteins that according to Kimura would indicate

neg: Robin Baker (biologist) and V.G.F. Smith in 1972, he proposed a leading theory for the evolution of anisogamy and two sexes and in 1979, with G.A. Parker he proposed the Unprofitable Prey Theory of the evolution of bird coloration. In 1978 in his book "The Evolutionary Ecology of Animal Migration" he wrote for the first time on the theme that permeated his work for the rest of his academic life: the application of the principles of evolutionary biology to the behaviour of humans. This led in the 1980s to controversial work on the role of magnetoreception in the navigation of humans, and in

neg: History of science prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's

neg: Evolution as fact and theory of evolution" is actually a network of theories that created the research program of biology. Darwin, for example, proposed five separate theories in his original formulation, which included mechanistic explanations for: Since Darwin, evolution has become a well-supported body of interconnected statements that explains numerous empirical observations in the natural world. Evolutionary theories continue to generate testable predictions and explanations about living and fossilized organisms. Phylogenetic theory is an example of evolutionary theory. It is based on the evolutionary premise of an ancestral descendant sequence of genes, populations, or species. Individuals that evolve are linked together through historical and genealogical

neg: Neutral theory of molecular evolution the molecular level, and phenotypic evolution is controlled by natural selection, as postulated by Charles Darwin. The proposal of the neutral theory was followed by an extensive "neutralist-selectionist" controversy over the interpretation of patterns of molecular divergence and polymorphism, peaking in the 1970s and 1980s. Since then, much evidence has been found for selection at molecular level. While some scientists, such as Freese (1962) and Freese and Yoshida (1965), had suggested that neutral mutations were probably widespread, a coherent theory of neutral evolution was proposed by Motoo Kimura in 1968, and by King and Jukes independently in 1969. Kimura, King,

neg: Evolution of eusociality evolutionary biologists. Eusocial organisms at first appear to behave in stark contrast with simple interpretations of Darwinian evolution: passing on one’s genes to the next generation, or fitness, is a central idea in evolutionary biology. Current theories propose that the evolution of eusociality occurred either due to kin selection, proposed by W. D. Hamilton, or by the competing theory of multilevel selection as proposed by E.O. Wilson and colleagues. No single trait or model is sufficient to explain the evolution of eusociality, and most likely the pathway to eusociality involved a combination of pre-conditions, ecological factors, and genetic influences. Eusociality

neg: Walter Max Zimmermann based on his mode of phylogenetic classification. Wolf-Ernst Reif (1986) in his review on macroevolution concludes that Zimmermann was successful at deducing this synthetic view of evolution prior to the completion of the formulation of Modern Synthesis. His methodology included three main steps: (1) identifying whether evolution has occurred in the given group, (2) determining the trajectory of evolution, and (3) revealing the causes of this evolutionary trajectory. Zimmermann favored the reconstruction of phylogenetic lineages across species based on evolution of single phenotypic characters. He acknowledged that it is often impossible to know exactly the genealogical relationships between groups of

neg: Evolution of ageing unable to replicate that chromosome without cutting into genes. The dilemma is that classical evolutionary theory says that what is maintained in a lineage is that which ensures the viability of an organism and its offspring. Ageing can only cut off an individual's capacity to reproduce. So, according to classical theory, ageing could "only" evolve as a side effect, or epiphenomenon of selection. The disposable soma theory and antagonistic pleiotropy theory are examples in which a compensating individual benefit, compatible with classical evolution theory (See neo-Darwinism) is proposed. Nevertheless, there is accumulated evidence that ageing looks like an adaptation in

neg: Cultural selection theory Cultural selection theory Cultural selection theory is the study of cultural change modelled on theories of evolutionary biology. Cultural selection theory has so far never been a separate discipline. However it has been proposed that human culture exhibits key Darwinian evolutionary properties, and "the structure of a science of cultural evolution should share fundamental features with the structure of the science of biological evolution". In addition to Darwin's work the term historically covers a diverse range of theories from both the sciences and the humanities including those of Lamark, politics and economics e.g. Bagehot, anthropology e.g. Edward B. Tylor, literature

neg: Methanosarcina proposed a new "thermodynamical theory of evolution" in 2006. It was observed that "M. acetivorans" converts carbon monoxide into acetate, the scientists hypothesized that early "proto-cells" attached to mineral could have similarly used primitive enzymes to generate energy while excreting acetate. The theory thus sought to unify the "heterotrophic" theory of early evolution, where the primordial soup of simple molecules arose from non-biological processes, and the "chemoautotrophic" theory, where the earliest lifeforms created most simple molecules. The authors observed that though the "debate between the heterotrophic and chemotrophic theories revolved around carbon fixation", in actuality "these pathways evolved first to

neg: Creation–evolution controversy interpretation of the Bible). Neo-creationism currently exists in the form of the intelligent design movement, which has a 'big tent' strategy making it inclusive of many Young Earth creationists (such as Paul Nelson and Percival Davis). Theistic evolution is the general view that, instead of faith being in opposition to biological evolution, some or all classical religious teachings about God and creation are compatible with some or all of modern scientific theory, including, specifically, evolution. It generally views evolution as a tool used by a creator god, who is both the first cause and immanent sustainer/upholder of the universe; it

neg: Articulata hypothesis Theory of Evolution had a large, yet often understated impact of the articulata hypothesis. Cuvier's original Articulata hypothesis was based on his assumption that current species no longer evolved because to evolve would cause loss of integral structures necessary for the survival of the species. While the general acceptance of the theory of evolution weakened Cuvier's general theory of the unique ground-plans as the origin of modern taxa, it strengthened the articulata hypothesis by organizing annelids and arthropods into a clade descended from a common segmented ancestor. While each advance in modern molecular biology has shaken the phylogenetic tree of

neg: Jewish views on evolution existence of evolution as a scientific fact. They interpreted Genesis and related Jewish teachings in light of this fact. The Rabbinical Council of America (RCA) has "maintained that evolutionary theory, properly understood, is not incompatible with belief in a Divine Creator, nor with the first 2 chapters of Genesis." Prominent Orthodox rabbis who have affirmed that the world is older, and that life has evolved over time include Israel Lipschitz, Sholom Mordechai Schwadron (the MaHaRSHaM) (1835–1911), Zvi Hirsch Chajes (1805–1855) and Abraham Isaac Kook (1865–1935). These rabbis proposed their own versions of theistic evolution, in which the world is older,

neg: Mormon views on evolution similar views against organic evolution as the explanation for the origin of man. For example, Roberts wrote that "the theory of evolution as advocated by many modern scientists lies stranded upon the shore of idle speculation. There is one other objection to be urged against the theory of evolution before leaving it; it is contrary to the revelations of God." Roberts further criticized the theories of evolution by stating that Darwin's claims of evolution are contrary to the experience and knowledge of man, because the law of nature requires that every organism reproduces of its own kind, and while variation

neg: Unilineal evolution crippled Europe's self-confidence. After millions of deaths, genocide, and the destruction of Europe's industrial infrastructure, the idea of progress seemed dubious at best. Thus modern socio-cultural evolutionism rejects most of classical social evolutionism due to various theoretical problems: Because social evolution was posited as a scientific theory, it was often used to support unjust and often racist social practices—particularly colonialism, slavery, and the unequal economic conditions present within industrialized Europe. Unilineal evolution Unilineal evolution, also referred to as classical social evolution, is a 19th-century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. It was composed of many competing theories

neg: Motoo Kimura neutral theory in 1983, "The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution", and also worked to promote the theory through popular writings such as "My Views on Evolution", a book that became a best-seller in Japan. Though difficult to test against alternative selection-centered hypotheses, the neutral theory has become part of modern approaches to molecular evolution. In 1992, Kimura received the Darwin Medal from the Royal Society, and the following year he was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society. Kimura suffered from progressive weakening caused by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis later in life. After an accidental fall at his home in

neg: Acceptance of evolution by religious groups (most notably Thomas Huxley and Charles Darwin) or atheists (most notably Richard Dawkins), from the outset many have had a belief in some form of theism. These have included Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), who in a joint paper with Charles Darwin in 1858, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. Wallace, in his later years, was effectively a deist who believed that "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded to create life as well as consciousness in animals and (separately) in humans. Darwin had a longstanding close friendship with the American botanist Asa Gray who was a leading supporter

neg: Evolutionary biology One challenge in studying genetic architecture is that the classical population genetics that catalysed the modern evolutionary synthesis must be updated to take into account modern molecular knowledge. This requires a great deal of mathematical development to relate DNA sequence data to evolutionary theory as part of a theory of molecular evolution. For example, biologists try to infer which genes have been under strong selection by detecting selective sweeps. Fourth, the modern evolutionary synthesis involved agreement about which forces contribute to evolution, but not about their relative importance. Current research seeks to determine this. Evolutionary forces include natural selection, sexual

neg: History of zoology since 1859 History of zoology since 1859 This article considers the history of zoology since the theory of evolution by natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859. Charles Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the

neg: Evolutionism creationist movement to describe adherence to the scientific consensus on evolution as equivalent to a secular religion. The term is very seldom used within the scientific community, since the scientific position on evolution is accepted by the overwhelming majority of scientists. Because evolutionary biology is the default scientific position, it is assumed that "scientists" or "biologists" are "evolutionists" unless specifically noted otherwise. In the creationevolution controversy, creationists often call those who accept the validity of the modern evolutionary synthesis "evolutionists" and the theory itself "evolutionism". Before its use to describe biological evolution, the term "evolution" was originally used to refer

neg: Hindu views on evolution (311 trillion, 40 billion human years) that represents Brahma's lifespan. Most Hindus accept the theory of biological evolution. They either regard the scriptural creation theories as allegories and metaphors, or reconcile these legends with the modern theory of evolution. The order of the Dashavatara (ten principal avatars of the god Vishnu) is interpreted to convey Darwin's evolution. British geneticist and evolutionary biologist J. B. S. Haldane opined that they are a true sequential depiction of the great unfolding of evolution. Like the evolutionary process itself, the first avatar of God is a fish - Matsya, then comes the aquatic reptile

neg: Lee Spetner claimed that Archaeopteryx was a fraud. Spetner continued his attack on the modern synthesis in his book "Not by chance! Shattering the Modern Theory of Evolution". Spetner is a critic of the role of mutations in the modern synthesis. Spetner claims that random mutations lead to a loss of genetic information and that there is no scientific evidence to support common descent: Spetner continued to study after retirement, pursuing interests in evolution and cancer cures. Spetner's latest book "The Evolution Revolution: Why Thinking People are Rethinking Evolution" develops his nonrandom hypothesis (NREH) and was published in 2014 by Judaica Press.

neg: Noogenesis acceleration (frequency, speed) and the distance it's being sent—into a formula. According to the new concept—proposed hypothesis continue prognostic progressive evolution of the species "Homo sapiens", the analogy between the human brain with the enormous number of neural cells firing at the same time and a similarly functioning human society. A new understanding of the term "noogenesis" as an evolution of the intellect was proposed by A. Eryomin. A hypothesis based on recapitulation theory links the evolution of the human brain to the development of human civilization. The parallel between the number of people living on Earth and the number

neg: Artificial cell future although various groups are currently working towards this goal. Another method proposed to create a protocell more closely resembles the conditions believed to have been present during evolution known as the primordial soup. Various RNA polymers could be encapsulated in vesicles and in such small boundary conditions, chemical reactions would be tested for. Heavy investing in biology has been done by large companies such as ExxonMobil, who has partnered with Synthetic Genomics Inc; Craig Venter's own biosynthetics company in the development of fuel from algae. The concept of an Electronic Artificial Cell has been expanded in a series of

neg: Reticulate evolution relationships under reticulate evolution requires adapted analytical methods. Reticulate evolution dynamics contradict the neo-Darwininan theory, compiled in the Modern Synthesis, by which the evolution of life occurs through natural selection and is displayed with a bifurcating or ramificating pattern. Frequent hybridisation between species in natural populations challenges the assumption that species have evolved from a common ancestor by simple branching, in which branches are genetically isolated. The study of reticulate evolution is said to have been largely excluded from the modern synthesis. The urgent need for new models which take reticulate evolution into account has been stressed by many evolutionary

neg: Helen Abbott Michael be able to produce, through synthetic means, the proteins, sugars, and starches needed in the human diet. She also held that during a plant's development, changes in its chemical composition provided an illustration of the theory of evolution. In 1886, she reviewed the first U.S. exhibition of Impressionism under the pseudonym "Helen Sabbrin." Helen Abbott Michael Helen Cecilia De Silver Abbott Michael (December 23, 1857 – November 29, 1904) was an American scientist who was among the first to "in a systematic way study the relation of chemical composition to species of plants and to plant growth." Michael theorized that

neg: AI takeovers in popular culture droids and destroys or enslaves almost all of humanity. Only the city of Corinth remains, protected by an almost impenetrable force field. Venjix tries various plans to destroy Corinth, and Doctor K's RPM Power Rangers fight to protect it. In 2012, the third installment of the "Mass Effect" franchise proposed the theory that organic and synthetic life are fundamentally incapable of coexistence. Organic life evolves and develops on its own, eventually advancing far enough to create synthetic life. Once synthetic life reaches sentience, it will invariably revolt and either destroy its creators or be destroyed by them; a cycle that

neg: Leigh Van Valen 1935, in Albany, NY and was chosen "most academic" in the first grade. He earned a zoology and botany degree at age 20 in 1955 from Miami University in Ohio. As a graduate student at Columbia, he studied under George Gaylord Simpson and Theodosius Dobzhansky, both giants in honing the synthetic theory of evolution, which melded Darwin's ideas about evolution with Mendel's on genetics. Van Valen met and married Phebe May Hoff while they were both doctoral students in biology at Columbia University. They had two children, girls Katrina and Diana. They divorced in 1984 after a long and friendly

neg: Human Behavior and Evolution Society Human Behavior and Evolution Society The Human Behavior and Evolution Society, or HBES, is an interdisciplinary, international society of researchers, primarily from the social and biological sciences, who use modern evolutionary theory to help to discover human nature — including evolved emotional, cognitive and sexual adaptations. It was founded on October 29, 1988 at the University of Michigan. The official academic journal of the society is "Evolution and Human Behavior", and the society has held annual conferences since 1989. As of 2015, the president is anthropologist Elizabeth Cashdan of the University of Utah. Past-president include biologist Randy Thornhill of the

neg: Rapid modes of evolution Rapid modes of evolution Rapid modes of evolution have been proposed by several notable biologists after Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolutionary descent by natural selection. In his book "On the Origin of Species" (1859), Darwin stressed the gradual nature of descent, writing: Work in developmental biology has identified dynamical and physical mechanisms of tissue morphogenesis that may underlie such abrupt morphological transitions. Consequently, consideration of mechanisms of phylogenetic change that are actually (not just apparently) non-gradual is increasingly common in the field of evolutionary developmental biology, particularly in studies of the origin of morphological novelty. A description of

neg: Rapid modes of evolution such mechanisms can be found in the multi-authored volume "Origination of Organismal Form". Rapid modes of evolution Rapid modes of evolution have been proposed by several notable biologists after Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolutionary descent by natural selection. In his book "On the Origin of Species" (1859), Darwin stressed the gradual nature of descent, writing: Work in developmental biology has identified dynamical and physical mechanisms of tissue morphogenesis that may underlie such abrupt morphological transitions. Consequently, consideration of mechanisms of phylogenetic change that are actually (not just apparently) non-gradual is increasingly common in the field of evolutionary developmental

neg: Hydrothermal vent heat. The chemical and thermal dynamics in hydrothermal vents makes such environments highly suitable thermodynamically for chemical evolution processes to take place. Therefore, thermal energy flux is a permanent agent and contributed to the evolution of the planet, including prebiotic chemistry. Günter Wächtershäuser proposed the iron-sulfur world theory and suggested that life might have originated at hydrothermal vents. Wächtershäuser proposed that an early form of metabolism predated genetics. By metabolism he meant a cycle of chemical reactions that release energy in a form that can be harnessed by other processes. It has been proposed that amino acid synthesis could have

neg: Flowering plant to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that Charles Darwin called it an ""abominable mystery"". However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as "Archaefructus", along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil

neg: Cambrian explosion seemingly unrelated to anything known today. Stephen Jay Gould's popular 1989 account of this work, "Wonderful Life", brought the matter into the public eye and raised questions about what the explosion represented. While differing significantly in details, both Whittington and Gould proposed that all modern animal phyla had appeared almost simultaneously in a rather short span of geological period. This view led to the modernization of Darwin's tree of life and the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which Eldredge and Gould developed in the early 1970s and which views evolution as long intervals of near-stasis "punctuated" by short periods of rapid

neg: Evolution apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles. The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift. Hence, in this model, most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned, since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature. However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in

neg: Robert Knox For one contemporary reviewer, his claim that "Species is the product of external circumstances, acting through millions of years" was "bold, disgusting, and gratuitous atheism." In modern terms, he proposed a theory of saltatory evolution, in which "deformations" in embryonic development produced "hopeful monsters" that, if fortuitously suited to the prevailing environmental conditions, gave rise to new species in a single, macroevolutionary leap. In 1857 he wrote: "The conversion of one of these species into another cannot be so difficult a matter with Nature, especially when all or most of the specific characters are already present in the young. Thus

neg: Flower proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as "Archaefructus", along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. An early fossil of a flowering plant, "Archaefructus liaoningensis" from China, is dated about 125 million years old. Even earlier from China is

neg: Psychological adaptation a trait is vestigial or not, so some literature is more lenient and refers to vestigial traits as adaptations, even though they may no longer have adaptive functionality. For example, xenophobic attitudes and behaviors appear to have certain EPM influences relating to disease aversion, however, in certain environments these behaviors may actually have a poor effect on a person's fitness. The principles of psychological adaptation rely on Darwin’s theory of evolution and are important to the fields of evolutionary psychology, biology, and cognitive science. Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in "On the Origin of Species" (1859). His theory

neg: Noogenesis of evolution on Earth, signified by transformation of biosphere onto the sphere of intelligence—noosphere", "evolution run by human mind" etc. The most widespread interpretation is thought to be "the emergence of mind, which follows geogenesis, biogenesis and anthropogenesis, forming a new sphere on Earth—noosphere". In 2005 Alexey Eryomin in the monograph Noogenesis and Theory of Intellect proposed a new concept of noogenesis in understanding the evolution of intellectual systems, concepts of intellectual systems, information logistics, information speed, intellectual energy, intellectual potential, consolidated into a theory of the intellect which combines the biophysical parameters of intellectual energy—the amount of information, its

neg: Crocoduck Crocoduck The crocoduck is a fictitious hybrid animal with the head of a crocodile and the body of a duck proposed by Ray Comfort and Kirk Cameron. It became a symbol of creationists' misunderstanding of the basic principles of evolution. The concept of a crocoduck was used by young-Earth creationists and certain other creationists to claim that the absence of any half-crocodile, half-duck creature disproves evolution, an argument that quickly became a meme used to ridicule a common misrepresentation of the theory of evolution, namely, that the theory predicts forms intermediate between any two currently living organisms. In 2007 young-Earth

neg: Evolution of ageing process of evolution. However, in addition to suicidal behaviour of semelparous species (not handled by the classical ageing theories) other apparently individually adverse organism characteristics such as altruism and sexual reproduction were observed. In response to these "other" conflicts, adjustments to classical theory were proposed: Group selection is often criticized to be too slow to happen in real biology. However, Jiang-Nan Yang recently showed with an individual-based model that the evolution of altruistic ageing occurs under fairly general conditions by kin/group selection. Group selection can be based on population viscosity (limited offspring dispersal, first proposed by Hamilton (1964) for kin

neg: History of molecular evolution nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution. In 1973, Ohta published a short letter in "Nature" suggesting that a wide variety of molecular evidence supported the theory that most mutation events at the molecular level are slightly deleterious rather than strictly neutral. Molecular evolutionists were finding that while rates of protein evolution (consistent with the molecular clock) were fairly independent of generation time, rates of noncoding DNA divergence were inversely proportional to generation time. Noting that population size is generally inversely proportional to generation time, Tomoko Ohta proposed that most amino acid substitutions are slightly deleterious while noncoding DNA substitutions are