query: who articulated the doctrine of nullification before the civil war

pos: Nullification Crisis became the first state to secede, the state was more internally united than any other southern state. Historian Charles Edward Cauthen writes: Nullification Crisis The Nullification Crisis was a United States sectional political crisis in 1832–33, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, which involved a confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government. It ensued after South Carolina declared that the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and therefore null and void within the sovereign boundaries of the state. The U.S. suffered an economic downturn throughout the 1820s, and South Carolina was particularly affected. Many South Carolina politicians

pos: States Rights Gist States Rights Gist States Rights Gist (September 3, 1831 – November 30, 1864) was a lawyer, a militia general in South Carolina, and a Confederate Army brigadier general who served during the American Civil War. A relative of several prominent South Carolinians, Gist rose to fame during the war but was killed before its end at the Battle of Franklin on November 30, 1864. His name was based on the Southern states’ rights doctrine of nullification politics of his father, Nathaniel Gist. Nathaniel Gist was a disciple of John C. Calhoun and chose his son's name to reflect his own

pos: Nullification (U.S. Constitution) either nullify the Acts of Congress or render useless any attempt to execute them. In many of these States the fugitive is discharged from service or labor claimed, and in none of them has the State Government complied with the stipulation made in the Constitution...Thus the constituted compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the non-slaveholding States, and the consequence follows that South Carolina is released from her obligation." The Civil War put an end to most nullification attempts. Nullification relied on principles of states' rights that were viewed as no longer viable after the Civil War. Nullification and

pos: Issues of the American Civil War Issues of the American Civil War Issues of the American Civil War include questions about the name of the war, the tariff, states' rights and the nature of Abraham Lincoln's war goals. For more on naming, see Naming the American Civil War. The question of how important the tariff was in causing the war stems from the Nullification Crisis, which was South Carolina's attempt to nullify a tariff and lasted from 1828 to 1832. The tariff was low after 1846, and the tariff issue faded into the background by 1860 when secession began. States' rights was the justification for nullification

pos: Dual federalism rights would later help set the stage for the Civil War. In 1828, the so-called “Tariff of Abominations” passed the U.S. House. It was meant as a protectionist measure to help the relatively industrialized New England states against international products, but this had grave implications for the largely agrarian South. In protest and spearheaded by Vice President John Calhoun, South Carolina formulated a ‘Nullification Doctrine’, in effect claiming a state’s ability to ignore federal law, and rejected the tariff. The situation became especially serious when President Jackson ordered federal troops into Charleston, though crisis was averted by the drafting of

pos: Concurrent majority of political theory "A Disquisition on Government" (1851), argued a method for protecting voting minorities from the tyranny of the majority, but his position on nullification argued the importance of protecting his region from high tariffs, essential for its export-focused economy. In life, Calhoun had been a leading proponent of the concept of nullification, as he most forcefully articulated in the 1828 "South Carolina Exposition and Protest", which was published anonymously while he was vice president, in response to the protectionist Tariff of 1828, also called the "Tariff of Abominations." Nullification, an outgrowth of Jeffersonian compact theory, held that any

pos: Proclamation to the People of South Carolina Proclamation to the People of South Carolina The Proclamation to the People of South Carolina was written by Edward Livingston and issued by Andrew Jackson on December 10, 1832. Written at the height of the Nullification Crisis, the proclamation directly responds to the Ordinance of Nullification passed by the South Carolina legislature in November 1833. Its purpose was to subdue the Nullification Crisis created by South Carolina's ordinance and to denounce the doctrine of nullification. The proclamation outlines the actions taken by the South Carolina legislature and rejects the insistence on state sovereignty, focusing on the preservation of the Union

pos: Proclamation to the People of South Carolina to accept the reduced tariffs without diminishing its own stance. Proclamation to the People of South Carolina The Proclamation to the People of South Carolina was written by Edward Livingston and issued by Andrew Jackson on December 10, 1832. Written at the height of the Nullification Crisis, the proclamation directly responds to the Ordinance of Nullification passed by the South Carolina legislature in November 1833. Its purpose was to subdue the Nullification Crisis created by South Carolina's ordinance and to denounce the doctrine of nullification. The proclamation outlines the actions taken by the South Carolina legislature and rejects the insistence

pos: John Lucas Miller "commanded the respect of officers and men by his courage and conscientiousness, and acquired many friends by his affable and courteous deportment". John Lucas Miller John Lucas Miller, Jr. (1831 in Ebenezer, South Carolina - May 6, 1864) was an attorney and state legislator in South Carolina who served as a Colonel in the Army of Northern Virginia and was killed at the Battle of the Wilderness during the American Civil War. Miller's father, John Lucas Miller (1795-1838) and his uncle Stephen Decatur Miller both served as delegates to the Nullification Convention during the South Carolina Nullification Crisis of 1832-1833.

pos: John Lucas Miller John Lucas Miller John Lucas Miller, Jr. (1831 in Ebenezer, South Carolina - May 6, 1864) was an attorney and state legislator in South Carolina who served as a Colonel in the Army of Northern Virginia and was killed at the Battle of the Wilderness during the American Civil War. Miller's father, John Lucas Miller (1795-1838) and his uncle Stephen Decatur Miller both served as delegates to the Nullification Convention during the South Carolina Nullification Crisis of 1832-1833. His uncle also served as governor of South Carolina and United States Senator from South Carolina. Stephen Decatur Miller's daughter, and thus

pos: Edgefield, South Carolina that the interests of this section of the country were being sacrificed for the good of New England. McDuffie, together with South Carolina statesman John C. Calhoun, developed the doctrine of "nullification", which postulated that a state had the right to nullify a federal law with which it disagreed. This doctrine was put to a test in 1832. South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Nullification, and President Andrew Jackson threatened to send troops to the state to enforce the tariff. Edgefieldians, like most South Carolinians, reacted violently to the President's threats. Militia units were called up and the state braced

pos: John Breathitt South Carolina's actions during the Nullification Crisis. Following Breathitt's lead, the state legislature passed resolutions condemning the doctrine of nullification on February 2, 1833. This action was particularly significant because John C. Calhoun's justification for nullification was largely based on the 1799 Kentucky Resolutions. Breathitt did not fare as well in state politics. He ardently supported Jacksonian principles, and wielded his veto against bills critical of President Jackson's land policy. He supported Jackson's desire to dissolve the Second Bank of the United States. Instead, he favored opening a number of state banks, but faced with a Whig majority in the

pos: Issues of the American Civil War a higher tariff and a transcontinental railroad as a flank attack on the slave power. There were enough Southern Senators in the U. S. Senate to keep the tariff low after 1846. Even when the tariff was higher three decades before the war, only South Carolina revolted, and the issue was nullification, not secession. The tariff was much lower by 1861. When the Confederacy was formed it set a very high 15% tariff on all imports, including imports from the United States. Historian Eric Foner has argued that a free-labor ideology dominated thinking in the North, which emphasized economic opportunity.

pos: Benjamin Franklin Perry Benjamin Franklin Perry Benjamin Franklin Perry (November 20, 1805December 3, 1886) was the 72nd Governor of South Carolina, appointed by U.S. President Andrew Johnson in 1865 after the end of the American Civil War. Perry was born in Pickens District and educated at preparatory schools in Asheville, North Carolina. He was admitted to the South Carolina bar in 1827, but pursued journalism and became the editor of the "Greenville Mountaineer" in 1832. The paper was adamantly against nullification and Perry was able to parlay his influence by being elected as a delegate to both the Union Convention and the Nullification

pos: Percival Drayton Percival Drayton Percival Drayton (August 25, 1812 – August 4, 1865) was a career United States Navy officer who served during the American Civil War. He commanded naval forces against Confederate forts defended by his brother Thomas F. Drayton in the capture of Port Royal, South Carolina in 1861. He died after the war in Washington, D.C.. Born in Charleston, South Carolina, Percival Drayton was the son of Anna Gadsden and William Drayton, a prominent lawyer and U.S. Representative. He had an older brother Thomas F. Drayton. In 1833 the family relocated to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania following the Nullification Crisis, as

pos: Langdon Cheves in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, until 1829. He then returned to South Carolina, and lived in retirement on his plantation, writing occasional essays and reviews. In 1850 he declined appointment to the Senate vacancy caused by the death of John C. Calhoun. He died in Columbia, South Carolina on June 26, 1857. Cheves was an early enthusiast for secession of the Southern slave-holding states from the United States. In the Nullification Crisis of 1832, he condemned the doctrine of Nullification as insufficient to protect Southern interests. He considered it folly for South Carolina to act alone, but he was strongly in favor

pos: Nullification Crisis bales that you produce." Mathematically incorrect, this argument still struck a nerve with his constituency. Nationalists such as Calhoun were forced by the increasing power of such leaders to retreat from their previous positions and adopt, in the words of Ellis, "an even more extreme version of the states' rights doctrine" in order to maintain political significance within South Carolina. South Carolina's first effort at nullification occurred in 1822. Its planters believed that free black sailors had assisted Denmark Vesey in his planned slave rebellion. South Carolina passed a Negro Seamen Act, which required that all black foreign seamen be

pos: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions interposition. But the statement did not attempt to nullify federal law. Rather, it made an appeal to Congress to provide for the defense of New England and proposed several constitutional amendments. During the "nullification crisis" of 1828–1833, South Carolina passed an purporting to nullify two federal tariff laws. South Carolina asserted that the Tariff of 1828 and the Tariff of 1832 were beyond the authority of the Constitution, and therefore were "null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this State, its officers or citizens". Andrew Jackson issued a proclamation against the doctrine of nullification, stating: "I consider ... the

pos: Thomas Drayton Thomas Drayton Thomas Fenwick Drayton (August 24, 1809 – February 18, 1891) was a planter, politician, railroad president, and military officer from Charleston, South Carolina. He served in the United States Army and then as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Drayton was a native of South Carolina, most likely born in Charleston. He was the son of William Drayton, a prominent lawyer, soldier, and US Representative. In 1833, William Drayton took all the family but Thomas, who chose to stay in the South, to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania following the Nullification Crisis, as he

pos: Issues of the American Civil War advantageous to remain united." The Southerners in Congress set the federal tariffs on imported goods, especially the low tariff rates in 1857; this led to resentment by Northern industrialists. Controversy over whether slavery was at the root of the tariff issue dates back at least as far as the Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. During the debate at Alton, Lincoln said that slavery was the root cause of the Nullification crisis over a tariff, while his challenger Stephen Douglas disagreed. John C. Calhoun, who led South Carolina's attempt to nullify a tariff, supported tariffs and internal improvements at first, but came

pos: John Floyd (Virginia politician) United States. South Carolina, at that time, had the legislature appoint their electors, and was the only state in this election to do so. Floyd's biographer commented that despite advocating moderation in his annual message in December 1832, he was "secretly counting the costs and horrors of war" and that Floyd characterized Jackson's Proclamation in response to South Carolina's Nullification Ordinance as an "outrage upon our institutions" and a "satire upon the revolution" making war inevitable. A letter to Tazewell at this time called Jackson the "tyrant usurper" and feared a civil war would be the result. When Floyd learned

pos: Daniel Webster with tariff rates. Shortly after the 1832 presidential election, a South Carolina convention passed a resolution declaring the Tariff of 1832 to be "null, void, and no law" in South Carolina, marking the start of the Nullification Crisis. Hayne resigned from the Senate to become the governor of South Carolina, while Calhoun took Hayne's former seat in the Senate. In December 1832, Jackson issued the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, warning that he would not allow South Carolina to defy federal law. Webster strongly approved of the Proclamation, telling an audience at Faneuil Hall that Jackson had articulated

neg: Daniel Webster in an effort to sway the West against the North and the tariff, accused the North of attempting to limit Western expansion for their own benefit. Hayne served as a surrogate for Vice President Calhoun, who could not himself address the Senate on the issue due to his status as the Senate's presiding officer. Webster objected to the sectional attack on the North, but even more strongly objected to Hayne's pro-states' rights position. Speaking before the Senate, Webster articulated his belief in a "perpetual" union and attacked the institution of slavery, baiting Hayne into expounding on the doctrine of nullification

neg: Nullification Crisis on Alexander Hamilton's nationalistic financial program versus Jefferson's democratic and agrarian program, a conflict that led to the formation of two opposing national political parties. Later in the decade the Alien and Sedition Acts led to the states' rights position being articulated in the "Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions". The Kentucky Resolutions, written by Thomas Jefferson, contained the following, which has often been cited as a justification for both nullification and secession: The Virginia Resolutions, written by James Madison, hold a similar argument: Historians differ over the extent to which either resolution advocated the doctrine of nullification. Historian Lance Banning wrote,

neg: Alien and Sedition Acts Patrick Henry that if "systematically and pertinaciously pursued", they would "dissolve the union or produce coercion". The influence of Jefferson's doctrine of states' rights reverberated right up to the Civil War and beyond. At the close of the Civil War, future president James Garfield said that Jefferson's Kentucky Resolution "contained the germ of nullification and secession, and we are today reaping the fruits". The Alien Enemies Acts remained in effect at the outset of World War I. It was recodified to be part of the US war and national defense statutes (50 USC 21–24). On December 7, 1941, responding to

neg: Jury nullification States, jury nullification first appeared just before the American Revolutionary War, when colonial juries frequently exercised their nullification power, principally in maritime cases and cases implicating free speech. Jury nullification became so common that many British prosecutors gave up trying maritime cases because conviction seemed hopeless. In the pre-Civil War era, juries sometimes refused to convict for violations of the Fugitive Slave Act. Later, during Prohibition, juries often nullified alcohol control laws, possibly as often as 60% of the time. This resistance may have contributed to the adoption of the Twenty-first amendment repealing Prohibition, the Eighteenth amendment. In a well-known

neg: Principles of '98 were soon rendered feckless by ridicule and electoral pressure" The theoretical damage of the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions was "deep and lasting, and was a recipe for disunion". George Washington was so appalled by them that he told Patrick Henry that if "systematically and pertinaciously pursued", they would "dissolve the union or produce coercion". The influence of Jefferson's doctrine of states' rights reverberated right up to the Civil War. Future president James Garfield, at the close of the Civil War, said that Jefferson's Kentucky Resolution "contained the germ of nullification and secession, and we are today reaping the fruits". Principles

neg: Nullification (U.S. Constitution) beginning of the Civil War in 1861, several states threatened or attempted nullification of various federal laws. None of these efforts were legally upheld. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions were rejected by the other states. The Supreme Court rejected nullification attempts in a series of decisions in the 19th century, including "Ableman v. Booth", which rejected Wisconsin's attempt to nullify the Fugitive Slave Act. The Civil War ended most nullification efforts. In the 1950s, southern states attempted to use nullification and interposition to prevent integration of their schools. These attempts failed when the Supreme Court again rejected nullification in "Cooper

neg: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions ridicule and electoral pressure" The theoretical damage of the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions was "deep and lasting, and was a recipe for disunion". George Washington was so appalled by them that he told Patrick Henry that if "systematically and pertinaciously pursued", they would "dissolve the union or produce coercion". The influence of Jefferson's doctrine of states' rights reverberated right up to the Civil War and beyond. Future president James Garfield, at the close of the Civil War, said that Jefferson's Kentucky Resolution "contained the germ of nullification and secession, and we are today reaping the fruits". Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

neg: Presidency of Harry S. Truman session of Congress, Truman articulated the Truman Doctrine, which called for the United States to support "free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Overcoming those who opposed U.S. involvement in Greek affairs, as well those who feared that the aid would weaken post-war cooperation, Truman won bipartisan approval of the aid package. The congressional vote represented a permanent break with the non-interventionism that had characterized U.S. foreign policy prior to World War II. The United States became closely involved in the Greek Civil War, which ended with the defeat of the insurgency in

neg: Nullification Crisis the traditional desire for simply "a weak, inactive, and frugal government" was challenged. Ellis states that "in the years leading up to the Civil War the nullifiers and their pro-slavery allies used the doctrine of states' rights and state sovereignty in such a way as to try to expand the powers of the federal government so that it could more effectively protect the peculiar institution." By the 1850s, states' rights had become a call for state equality under the Constitution. Madison reacted to this incipient tendency by writing two paragraphs of "Advice to My Country," found among his papers. It

neg: Nullification Crisis gesture to maintain its principles. The crisis was over, and both sides could find reasons to claim victory. The tariff rates were reduced and stayed low to the satisfaction of the South, but the states' rights doctrine of nullification remained controversial. By the 1850s the issues of the expansion of slavery into the western territories and the threat of the Slave Power became the central issues in the nation. Since the Nullification Crisis, the doctrine of states' rights has been asserted again by opponents of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, proponents of California's Specific Contract Act of 1863 (which

neg: Thomas Patterson Brockman served as a parade marshal on the Fourth of July, as appointed by Perry E. Duncan and committee. At that ceremony he led three companies of militia, accompanied by Colonel Barron, Colonel Greene, and Major Goodlett. Brockman was colonel of the Third Regiment of the state militia (1831–1834). Brockman was a prominent Unionist in the years before the Civil War. In 1832–1833, he served as Greenville delegate to the state convention on Nullification; he voted against nullification. He was state Senator from the Greenville district from 1836 to 1839, and Commissioner of Roads and of Public Buildings in 1844, The

neg: Dorothy Day publishing articles that articulated a rigorous and uncompromising pacifist position, breaking with the traditional Catholic doctrine of just war theory. The next year, the two sides that fought the Spanish Civil War roughly approximated two of Day's allegiances, with the Church allied with Franco fighting radicals of many stripes, the "Catholic" and the "worker" at war with one another. Day refused to follow the Catholic hierarchy in support of Franco against the Republican forces, which were atheist and anticlerical in spirit, led by anarchists and communists (that is, the Republican forces were). She acknowledged the martyrdom of priests and nuns

neg: Daniel Webster on the Senate floor. Replying to Webster's first speech, Hayne accused Webster of "making war upon the unoffending South," and he asserted that nullification was constitutional because the federal government was ultimately subservient to the states. On January 27, Webster delivered his response, titled the "Second Reply to Hayne". Webster held that the people, and not the states, held ultimate power, and the people had established the Constitution as the supreme law of the land. He further argued that the doctrine of nullification "approach[ed] absurdity," and, by denying power to the federal government, would effectively restore the balance of power

neg: Jury nullification in the United States where there is an identifiable crime victim. Jury nullification has more support among legal academics than judges. Jury nullification has also been criticized for having resulted in the acquittal of whites who victimized blacks in the Deep South. David L. Bazelon argued, "One often-cited abuse of the nullification power is the acquittal by bigoted juries of whites who commit crimes (lynching, for example) against blacks. That repellent practice cannot be directly arrested without jeopardizing important constitutional protections-the double jeopardy bar and the jury's power of nullification. But the revulsion and sense of shame fostered by that practice fueled the civil

neg: Nullification Crisis and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question." The final resolution of the crisis and Jackson's leadership had appeal throughout the North and South. Robert Remini, the historian and Jackson biographer, described the opposition that nullification drew from traditionally states' rights Southern states: Forrest McDonald, describing the split over nullification among proponents of states rights, wrote, "The doctrine of states' rights, as embraced by most Americans, was not concerned exclusively, or even primarily with state resistance to federal authority." But, by the end of the nullification crisis, many southerners started to question

neg: Interposition the federal judiciary, not with the states. The courts have held that interposition is not a valid constitutional doctrine when invoked to block enforcement of federal law. Interposition is closely related to the theory of nullification, which holds that the states have the right to nullify federal laws that are deemed unconstitutional and to prevent enforcement of such laws within their borders. Though interposition and nullification are similar, there are some differences. Nullification is an act of an individual state, while interposition was conceived as an action that would be undertaken by states acting jointly. Nullification is a declaration by

neg: Jury nullification who has not broken the letter of the law. However, judges retain the rights both to decide sentences and to disregard juries' guilty verdicts, acting as a check against malicious juries. Jury nullification may also occur in civil suits, in which the verdict is generally a finding of liability or lack of liability (rather than a finding of guilty or not guilty). The main ethical issue involved in jury nullification is the tension between democratic self-government and integrity. The argument has been raised that prosecutors are not allowed to seek jury nullification, and therefore defendants should not be allowed to

neg: Doctrine of lapse British decided whether potential rulers were competent enough. The doctrine and its application were widely regarded by many Indians as illegitimate. The policy is most commonly associated with Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of the East India Company in India between 1848 and 1856. However, it was articulated by the Court of Directors of the East India Company as early as 1834 and several smaller states were already annexed under this doctrine before Dalhousie took over the post of Governor-General. Dalhousie used the policy most vigorously and extensively, though, so it is generally associated with him. The accession

neg: Nullification Crisis a democratically elected convention, had the retained power to veto any act of the federal government which violated the Constitution. This veto, the core of the doctrine of nullification, was explained by Calhoun in the Exposition: The report also detailed the specific southern grievances over the tariff that led to the current dissatisfaction. Fearful that "hotheads" such as McDuffie might force the legislature into taking some drastic action against the federal government, historian John Niven describes Calhoun's political purpose in the document: The report was submitted to the state legislature which had 5,000 copies printed and distributed. Calhoun, who still

neg: Origins of the American Civil War balance – that slavery could be excluded altogether in a territory at the discretion of Congress – with one caveat: the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment must apply. In other words, Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846. Of the two doctrines that rejected federal authority, one was articulated by northern Democrat of Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas, and the other by southern Democrats Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and Senator John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Douglas devised the doctrine of territorial or "popular" sovereignty, which declared that

neg: Nullification (U.S. Constitution) that the states would have the power to nullify federal laws. It has been argued that certain statements in the Virginia ratifying convention, although not asserting a right of nullification, articulated a basis for the compact theory. Edmund Randolph and George Nicholas stated that Virginia's ratification of the Constitution would constitute its agreement to a contract, and that if Virginia were to state its understanding at the time of ratification that the federal government could exercise only its delegated powers, this understanding would become part of the contract and would be binding on the federal government. These statements implied a

neg: Principles of '98 blood." Historian Ron Chernow says of this "he wasn't calling for peaceful protests or civil disobedience: he was calling for outright rebellion, if needed, against the federal government of which he was vice president." Jefferson "thus set forth a radical doctrine of states' rights that effectively undermined the constitution." Chernow argues that neither Jefferson nor Madison sensed that they had sponsored measures as inimical as the Alien and Sedition Acts themselves. Historian Garry Wills argued "Their nullification effort, if others had picked it up, would have been a greater threat to freedom than the misguided [alien and sedition] laws, which

neg: Civil disobedience such as the United States, whose laws guarantee the right to a jury trial but do not excuse lawbreaking for political purposes, some civil disobedients seek jury nullification. Over the years, this has been made more difficult by court decisions such as "Sparf v. United States", which held that the judge need not inform jurors of their nullification prerogative, and "United States v. Dougherty", which held that the judge need not allow defendants to openly seek jury nullification. Governments have generally not recognized the legitimacy of civil disobedience or viewed political objectives as an excuse for breaking the law. Specifically,

neg: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of this "he wasn't calling for peaceful protests or civil disobedience: he was calling for outright rebellion, if needed, against the federal government of which he was vice president." Jefferson "thus set forth a radical doctrine of states' rights that effectively undermined the constitution." Chernow argues that neither Jefferson nor Madison sensed that they had sponsored measures as inimical as the Alien and Sedition Acts themselves. Historian Garry Wills argued "Their nullification effort, if others had picked it up, would have been a greater threat to freedom than the misguided [alien and sedition] laws, which were soon rendered feckless by

neg: Issues of the American Civil War said that Congress was acting merely as the "joint agents" of the states. States' rights theories were a response to the fact that the Northern population was growing much faster than the population of the South, which meant that it was only a matter of time before the North controlled the federal government. Southerners were acting as a "conscious minority", and hoped that a strict constructionist interpretation of the Constitution would limit federal power over the states, and that a defense of states' rights against federal encroachments or even nullification or secession would save the South. Before 1860 most presidents

neg: Origins of the American Civil War Henry L. Benning stated the reasoning behind Georgia's declaring secession from the Union: States' rights theories gained strength from the awareness that the Northern population was growing much faster than the population of the South, so it was only a matter of time before the North controlled the federal government. Acting as a "conscious minority", Southerners hoped that a strict, constructionist interpretation of the Constitution would limit federal power over the states, and that a defense of states' rights against federal encroachments or even nullification or secession would save the South. Before 1860, most presidents were either Southern or pro-South.

neg: Amphibious vehicle beachheads. It was designed as a wartime project by Sparkman & Stephens, a yacht design firm who also designed the hull for the Ford GPA 'Seep'. During the war, Germany produced the "Landwasserschlepper". In the 1950s, the Soviets developed the GAZ 46, BAV 485, and PTS. During the Vietnam War, the US Army used the amphibious articulated Gama Goat and the larger M520 Goer truck-series to move supplies through the canals and rice paddies of Southeast Asia. The latter was based on a 1950s civil construction vehicle and became the US Army's standard heavy tactical truck before its replacement by

neg: Interposition were attempting or threatening nullification. None of these interposition attempts was legally upheld. The Supreme Court ruled against various interposition and nullification attempts in a series of cases, starting in 1809. The Civil War put an end to most interposition attempts. Several southern states attempted to use interposition in the 1950s after the Supreme Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education", which ruled that segregated schools violate the Constitution. Many people in southern states strongly opposed the "Brown" decision. They argued that the "Brown" decision was an unconstitutional infringement on states' rights, and that the states had the power

neg: Freeport Doctrine at Freeport, but its prominent public assertion at Freeport contributed (along with other political disputes, such as over the Lecompton Constitution) to antagonizing those in the Southern United States who were demanding ever-increasing protections for slavery, and who subsequently insisted on the repudiation of the Freeport Doctrine (i.e., the passage of a congressional Slave Code for the territories) in order to block Douglas' presidential bid in 1860. This led to the split of the Democratic party in 1860, and Douglas' loss in the 1860 presidential election. Freeport Doctrine The Freeport Doctrine was articulated by Stephen A. Douglas at the second

neg: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century. Legal historian Paul Finkelman argues that Union victory in the Civil War and the Reconstruction Amendments, which were ratified after Lincoln's death but were made possible by the Civil War, changed the nature of the Constitution. The Union victory and the subsequent Supreme Court case of "Texas v. White" ended debate regarding the constitutionality of secession and Nullification by the states.

neg: Armenians in Lebanon in the development of collective identity amongst Lebanese Armenians. According to Sylvia Angelique Alajaji, a professor of music who has studied music in the Armenian diaspora, "in a literal and symbolic sense, the songs sung by the choirs articulated home and articulated belonging." Armenian pop music thrived in 1970s Lebanon, until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War. Many artists fled Lebanon during those years including pop singer Adiss Harmandian and classical soprano singer Arpine Pehlivanian. Songs were released about the war including one by Manuel Menengichian with the lyrics "Brothers turned into lions against each other/ Tearing up your

neg: Red Army tactics in World War II Red Army tactics in World War II Development of Red Army tactics begun during the Russian Civil War, and are still a subject of study within Russian military academies today. They were an important source of development in military theory, and in particular of armoured warfare before, during and after the Second World War, in the process influencing the outcome of World War II and the Korean War The Red Army's tactical doctrine was shaped by the Russian experience of the First World War, and in particular the Brusilov Offensive. Theoretical writings on tactical doctrine in the late 1920s reflect

neg: Jury nullification in the United States rights movement, which in turn made possible the enactment of major civil rights legislation. That same movement spurred on the revitalization of the equal protection clause and, in particular, the recognition of the right to be tried before a jury selected without bias. The lessons we learned from these abuses helped to create a climate in which such abuses could not so easily thrive." However, Julian Heicklen disputed this: "The problem with the all-white juries that refused to convict whites that committed crimes against blacks was not in jury nullification, but in jury selection. The jury was not representative of

neg: Nullification Crisis start a national debate over the doctrine of nullification. The leading proponents of the nationalistic view included Daniel Webster, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, Judge William Alexander Duer, John Quincy Adams, Nathaniel Chipman, and Nathan Dane. These people rejected the compact theory advanced by Calhoun, claiming that the Constitution was the product of the people, not the states. According to the nationalist position, the Supreme Court had the final say on the constitutionality of legislation, the national union was perpetual and had supreme authority over individual states. The nullifiers, on the other hand, asserted that the central government was not

neg: Issues of the American Civil War to oppose them in the 1820s as sectional tensions between North and South grew along with the increasingly sectional nature of slavery. Calhoun was a plantation owner who helped develop the positive good theory of slavery. Also, Calhoun said that slavery was the cause of the Nullification Crisis. While most leaders of Southern secession in 1860 mentioned slavery as the cause, Robert Rhett was a free trade extremist who opposed the tariff. However, Rhett was also a slavery extremist who wanted the Constitution of the Confederacy to legalize the African Slave Trade. Republicans also saw support for a Homestead Act,

neg: Jury instructions instructions on burden of proof in civil cases read: The new instructions read: In one study, results gathered from 144 six-person juries indicated that when juries are in receipt of jury nullification information from the judge or defense attorney they are more likely to acquit a sympathetic defendant and judge a dangerous defendant more harshly than when such information is not present or when challenges are made to nullification arguments. In another study, three nullification instructions varying in explicitness as to nullification were combined with three criminal cases to yield a 3×3 factorial design. Forty-five six-person juries (270 subjects) were

neg: History of the United States Constitution Despite this, a states-rights-based defense of slavery persisted amongst Southerners until the American Civil War; conversely, Northerners explored nullification of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Abraham Lincoln kept a portrait of Andrew Jackson above his desk at the War Department during efforts to defend the Constitution as understood by a national majority of people and states at that time. In the mid-19th Century during the administrations of Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant, the United States suffered a tragic passage through the Civil War and Reconstruction. An important survey of the philosophical and legal underpinnings of "States

neg: John A. Logan Soldiers' and Airmen's Home National Cemetery. Logan was the author of two books on the Civil War. In "The Great Conspiracy: Its Origin and History" (1886), he sought to demonstrate that secession and the Civil War were the result of a long-contemplated "conspiracy" to which various Southern politicians had been party since the Nullification Crisis; he also vindicated the pre-war political positions of Stephen A. Douglas and himself. He also wrote "The Volunteer Soldier of America" (1887). His son, John Alexander Logan Jr., was also an army officer and posthumously received the Medal of Honor for actions during the Philippine–American

neg: Jury nullification in the United States of racist juries acquitting in cases of pro-segregation violence. The racist communities that produced the racist juries had also elected racist police, prosecutors, and judges. Such cases were rarely prosecuted at all, and when they were due to outside political pressure, only the minimum effort to go through the motions of a trial was made, and with jury selection systems crafted by political leaders to exclude non-whites. Reviewing Conrad's book, University of Tennessee law professor Glenn Reynolds points out that jury nullification is parallel with the doctrine of prosecutorial discretion. The late Chief Justice of the Washington State Supreme Court

neg: Fully Informed Jury Association able to shift FIJA's focus toward preparing attorneys to pursue jury nullification. Conrad rebutted that the organization needed to teach the importance of the jury system as a whole, not merely the nullification doctrine. FIJA has been condemned as a threat to the system of rule of law rather than rule of men. According to Erick J. Haynie, "it is highly questionable whether jurors should be instructed to 'make' the law when a legislative body has already done the job for them. Congress and the state legislatures have superior expertise, resources and perspective to make macro-social decisions, and much more

neg: Electronic civil disobedience - and nomadic -"autonomous zones" as the launch pads from where electronic civil disobedience is activated (for example, temporary websites that announce the ECD action). Before 1998, ECD remained largely theoretical musings, or was badly articulated, such as the Zippies 1994 call for an "Internet Invasion" which deployed the metaphor of war albeit within the logic of civil disobedience and information activism. Some commentators pinpointing the 1997 Acteal Massacre in Chiapas, Mexico, as a turning point towards the internet infrastructure being viewed not only as means for communication but also a site for direct action. In reaction to the Acteal

neg: Fully Informed Jury Association board member was Robert Anton Wilson. Some prosecutors and law enforcement professionals are strongly opposed to the notion that juries can nullify undesirable laws. In 2008, Clay Conrad, author of "Jury Nullification: The Evolution of a Doctrine", quit the organization, stating that it was "so centered on jury nullification that it was ignoring the numerous threats that exist to the jury as an institution," as evidenced by the fact that the percentage of cases going to jury trial is continually shrinking. Executive Director Iloilo M. Jones described his parting comments as sour grapes motivated by his disappointment at not being

neg: Blue pencil doctrine leaving the rest intact. Blue pencil doctrine The blue pencil doctrine is a legal concept in common law countries, where a court finds that portions of a contract is void or unenforceable, but other portions of the contract are enforceable. The Blue Pencil Rule allows the legally-valid, enforceable provisions of the contract to stand despite the nullification of the legally-void, unenforceable provisions. However, the revised version must represent the original meaning; the rule may not be invoked, for example, to delete the word "not" and thereby change a negative to a positive. The term stems from the act of editing

neg: Blue pencil doctrine Blue pencil doctrine The blue pencil doctrine is a legal concept in common law countries, where a court finds that portions of a contract is void or unenforceable, but other portions of the contract are enforceable. The Blue Pencil Rule allows the legally-valid, enforceable provisions of the contract to stand despite the nullification of the legally-void, unenforceable provisions. However, the revised version must represent the original meaning; the rule may not be invoked, for example, to delete the word "not" and thereby change a negative to a positive. The term stems from the act of editing written copy with a

neg: Rifles in the American Civil War solved the slow loading problem, allowing smoothbore muskets to be replaced by rifles in the decades just before the Civil War. In addition, most existing military doctrine was based around the smoothbore musket. Since the 17th century, infantry normally fought in a tight shoulder-to-shoulder line and fired volleys at each other. When one side gained the upper hand, they would finish off the attack with a bayonet charge. These tactics developed because smoothbore muskets were only accurate at short ranges. Rifles made this type of fighting obsolete because of their much greater range. In Civil War battles, infantry typically fought

neg: The Defenders (1961 TV series) "Perry Mason", which also ran on CBS, victory was "far from certain on "The Defenders"—as were morality and justice." Topics featured in the series included abortion, capital punishment, "no-knock" searches, custody rights of adoptive parents, the insanity defense, the "poisoned fruit doctrine", immigration quotas, the Hollywood blacklist, jury nullification, and Cold War visa restrictions. A 1962 episode entitled "The Benefactor"—in which the father-son legal team defended an abortionist—was the most controversial; all of the series' three regular advertisers (Brown & Williamson, Lever Brothers and Kimberly-Clark) refused to sponsor the episode, so it was only transmitted after a last-minute sponsor was

neg: Armoured warfare General Zhukov, and relied instead on lessons from politically selected officers who were veterans of the Spanish Civil War. The result was a poor showing during the Soviet-Finnish War of 1939. The Red Army tank fleet was extremely large, consisting of some 24,000 vehicles, but many were obsolete or unfit for service due to difficulties with supplying spare parts and lack of qualified support staff. One important development took place shortly before the war, which influenced Soviet armoured doctrine and tank design for a decade: the creation of the T-34. Developed on the Christie suspension chassis and using sloped armour

neg: Historical characters in the Southern Victory Series was a direct descendant of his nullification doctrine, and Calhoun was therefore seen as a founding father of the Confederacy along with Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, and even George Washington. His picture appeared on the Confederate dollar bill, for example. Naturally, the U.S. felt differently about Calhoun. The towns of Calhoun, Kentucky and Calhoun, Georgia were named in Calhoun's honor in this timeline. (In our timeline, only the Georgia town was unquestionably named in honor of Calhoun. The Kentucky town had several names before being incorporated in 1852, after Calhoun's OTL death in 1850, as "Calhoon", honoring Kentucky congressman

neg: Jury nullification of their duties. Home Office minutes suggest they did not think this kind of informal punishment of jurors who had returned the "wrong" verdict was unheard of. In 1982, during the Falklands War, the British Royal Navy sank an Argentine cruiser, the ARA "General Belgrano". Three years later a civil servant (government employee) named Clive Ponting leaked two government documents concerning the sinking of the cruiser to a Member of Parliament (Tam Dalyell) and was subsequently charged with breaching section 2 of the Official Secrets Act 1911. The prosecution in the case demanded that the jury convict Ponting as he

neg: Contraband refuge in Union military camps or who lived in territories that fell under Union control were declared "contraband of war". The policy was first articulated by General Benjamin F. Butler in 1861, in what came to be known as the "Fort Monroe Doctrine," established in Hampton, Virginia. By war's end, the Union had set up 100 contraband camps in the South, and the Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony (1863–1867) was developed to be a self-sustaining colony. Many adult freedmen worked for wages for the Army at such camps, teachers were recruited from the North for their schools by the American Missionary

neg: Charleston, South Carolina of white planters and merchants who successfully forced the federal government to revise its 1828 and 1832 tariffs during the Nullification Crisis and launched the Civil War in 1861 by seizing the Arsenal, Castle Pinckney, and Fort Sumter from their federal garrisons. Known for its rich history, well-preserved architecture, distinguished restaurants, and hospitable people, Charleston is a popular tourist destination. It has received numerous accolades, including "America's Most Friendly [City]" by "Travel + Leisure" in 2011 and in 2013 and 2014 by "Condé Nast Traveler", and also "the most polite and hospitable city in America" by "Southern Living" magazine. In

neg: History of Latin America clearly oligarchist or authoritarian, although these oligarchs and caudillos sometimes enjoyed support from a majority in the population. All of these regimes sought to maintain Latin America's lucrative position in the world economy as a provider of raw materials. By the start of the century, the United States continued its interventionist attitude, which aimed to directly defend its interests in the region. This was officially articulated in Theodore Roosevelt's Big Stick Doctrine, which modified the old Monroe Doctrine, which had simply aimed to deter European intervention in the hemisphere. At the conclusion of the Spanish–American War the new government of

neg: History of South America 1864–1870 War of the Triple Alliance) ended Paraguayan ambitions. Thereupon, the Southern Cone nations of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile entered the 20th century as the major continental powers. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century: French Guiana remains an overseas department of France. By the start of the century, the United States continued its interventionist attitude, which aimed to directly defend its interests in the region. This was officially articulated in Theodore Roosevelt's Big Stick Doctrine, which modified the old Monroe Doctrine, which had simply aimed to deter European intervention in the hemisphere. The Great Depression

neg: Spanish–American War enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further efforts by European governments to retake or expand their colonial holdings in the Americas or to interfere with the newly independent states in the hemisphere; at the same time, the doctrine stated that the U.S. would respect the status of the existing European colonies. Before the American Civil War (1861–1865), Southern interests attempted to have the United States purchase Cuba and convert it into a new slave territory. The pro-slavery element proposed the Ostend Manifesto proposal of 1854. It was rejected by anti-slavery forces. After the

neg: National Action Party (Mexico) number of UNEC's leadership came together to found the PAN. The PAN’s first executive committee and committees on political action and doctrine also had former Catholic student activists, including Luis Calderón Vega, the father of Felipe Calderón, who was elected President of Mexico in 2006. The PAN’s “Doctrine of National Action” was strongly influenced by Catholic social doctrine articulated in "Rerum novarum" (1891) and "Quadragesimo anno" (1931) and rejected Marxist models of class warfare. The PAN’s newspaper, "La Nación" was founded by another former UNEC member, Carlos Séptien García. Efraín González Luna, a former member of the Mexican Catholic Student

neg: Jury nullification Jury nullification Jury nullification is a concept where members of a trial jury find a defendant not guilty if they do not support a government's law, do not believe it is constitutional or humane, or do not support a possible punishment for breaking the law. This may happen in both civil and criminal trials. In a criminal trial, a jury nullifies by acquitting a defendant, even though the members of the jury may believe that the defendant did commit the alleged crime. This may occur when members of the jury disagree with the law the defendant has been charged with

neg: William Apess and settlers who stole their wood, he helped organize what was called the Mashpee Revolt of 1833-34. Their attempt to regain civil rights was covered sympathetically by the "Boston Advocate," but criticized by local journals on Cape Cod. Apess published a book about the experience in 1835, which he summarized as "Indian Nullification." Apess alienated many of his supporters before dying in New York City at age 41, but he has been described as "perhaps the most successful activist on behalf of Native American rights in the antebellum United States." William Apess was born in 1798 in Colrain in northwestern

neg: Jury nullification to tell juries they can "nullify" a law. Organizations Articles and other works Jury nullification Jury nullification is a concept where members of a trial jury find a defendant not guilty if they do not support a government's law, do not believe it is constitutional or humane, or do not support a possible punishment for breaking the law. This may happen in both civil and criminal trials. In a criminal trial, a jury nullifies by acquitting a defendant, even though the members of the jury may believe that the defendant did commit the alleged crime. This may occur when members

neg: Castle doctrine up to the suit's dismissal. Without criminal/civil immunity, such civil action could be used as revenge against a lawfully acting defender (who was, originally, the assailant's victim). Use of force in self-defense which causes damage or injuries to other, non-criminally-acting parties, may not be shielded from criminal or civil prosecution, however. In US jurisdictions where the castle doctrine applies, there is no duty to retreat before deadly force is used against an intruder by a person in their home or, in some jurisdictions, just simply where the person can legally be. Most states in the United States have stand-your-ground laws

neg: English Civil War kingdom. Specifically, Hobbes analyses the following aspects of English thought during the war (listed in order of his discussions in "Behemoth"): the opinions of divinity and politics that spurred rebellion; rhetoric and doctrine used by the rebels against the king; and how opinions about "taxation, the conscription of soldiers, and military strategy" affected the outcomes of battles and shifts of sovereignty. Hobbes offered a unique contribution to historical interpretation of the civil war through his "Behemoth" by connecting the civil war to the motivations of intellectuals who Hobbes reports caused it by trying to spread certain ideas throughout the nation,

neg: Samuel A'Court Ashe period of 1908 and 1935 on the subjects of North Carolina history, the Civil War, and the post-war South. Perhaps Captain Ashe's most renowned publication is his booklet on the war published in 1935 and titled "A Southern View of the Invasion of the Southern States and War of 1861-65", in which he addressed the subject of the constitutionality of the South's secession from the United States and other similar topics pertaining to the Confederacy, Abraham Lincoln, and the war. The contents of "A Southern View..." are as follows: (1) The Slave Trade; (2) Steps Leading to War; (3) Nullification,

neg: Bush Doctrine was influenced by neoconservative ideology, and it was considered to be a step from the political realism of the Reagan Doctrine. The Reagan Doctrine was considered key to American foreign policy until the end of the Cold War, just before Bill Clinton became president of the United States. The Reagan Doctrine was considered anti-Communist and in opposition to Soviet Union global influence, but later spoke of a peace dividend towards the end of the Cold War with economic benefits of a "decrease" in defense spending. The Reagan Doctrine was strongly criticized by the neoconservatives, who also became disgruntled with the

neg: Doctrine of bias in Singapore law a sufficiently serious case for disciplinary action to be taken against the applicant, a lawyer. The respondent, who was the chairman of the Disciplinary Committee, had engaged in private conversations with a material witness while the applicant's hearing before the Committee was going on. The applicant claimed that this showed the respondent could reasonably be thought to have displayed bias, and as a result the whole Committee was tainted by the bias. The proceedings were eventually quashed upon a finding of apparent bias. In the UK case "R. v. Gough" (1993), the House of Lords articulated a "real danger of

neg: Lysander Spooner Stephen Pearl Andrews. Woodcock also reports that both Lysander Spooner and William Batchelder Greene had been members of the socialist First International. Spooner continued to write and publish extensively during the decades following Reconstruction, producing works such as "Natural Law or The Science of Justice" and "Trial By Jury". In "Trial By Jury" he defended the doctrine of jury nullification, which holds that in a free society a trial jury not only has the authority to rule on the facts of the case, but also on the legitimacy of the law under which the case is tried. This doctrine would

neg: Foreign relations of Argentina and US$1.7 billion during World War II. The incipient Cold War in evidence following World War II led the new administration of Juan Perón to conclude that a third world war might follow. Perón restored diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and, in 1949, articulated a "third way" as his foreign policy doctrine, in hopes of avoiding friction with either superpower, while opening the door to grain sales to the perennially shortage-stricken Soviets. Though commercial concerns continued to dominate foreign policy, conflict resolution was again ventured into when President Arturo Frondizi initiated negotiations between U.S. President John F. Kennedy and

neg: Bharatiya Janata Party in the image of the RSS. The party minimised engagement with the public, focusing instead on building its network of propagandists. Upadhyaya also articulated the philosophy of integral humanism, which formed the official doctrine of the party. Younger leaders, such as Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani also became involved with the leadership in this period, with Vajpayee succeeding Upadhyaya as president in 1968. The major themes on the party's agenda during this period were legislating a uniform civil code, banning cow slaughter and abolishing the special status given to Jammu and Kashmir. After assembly elections across the country

neg: Nullification Crisis nullified the Legal Tender Act of 1862), opponents of federal civil rights legislation, opponents of Federal acts prohibiting the sale and possession of marijuana in the first decade of the 21st century, and opponents of implementation of laws and regulations pertaining to firearms from the late 1900s up to early 2000s. The historian Richard E. Ellis wrote: The extent of this change and the problem of the actual distribution of powers between state and the federal governments would be a matter of political and ideological discussion up to the Civil War and beyond. In the early 1790s the debate centered

neg: Premiership of Tony Blair others who believed that the Serbs were fighting a legitimate war of self-defence. One month into the war, on 22 April 1999, Blair made a speech in Chicago setting out his "Doctrine of the International Community". This later became known by the media as the "Blair doctrine", and played a part in Blair's decision to order the British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War in May 2000. Another significant change in 1997 was the creation of the Department for International Development, shifting global development policy away from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to an independent ministry with a

neg: John C. Breckinridge As a state legislator, Breckinridge had introduced the Kentucky Resolutions in 1798, which stressed states' rights and endorsed the doctrine of nullification in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. After an argument between Breckinridge's mother and grandmother in 1832, he, his mother, and his sister Laetitia moved to Danville, Kentucky, to live with his sister Frances and her husband, who was president of Centre College. Breckinridge's uncle, William Breckinridge, was also on the faculty there, prompting him to enroll in November 1834. Among his schoolmates were Beriah Magoffin, William Birney, Theodore O'Hara, Thomas L. Crittenden and Jeremiah Boyle. After

neg: Mayan Americans to be very particular on who was granted asylum in the United States. Other problems stemmed from leaving the family unit and the documentation process for immigrants. The Guatemalan Civil War was at its peak during his presidency and due to his anti-communist doctrine, the administration rarely considered Guatemalan Refugees for asylum because the doctrine says they weren't to grant asylum to economic refugees from Communist countries. Although the war was the reason for migration during the 1970s, it was difficult for Mayans to be granted asylum. The Post-War period migrants are mostly Labor Migrants. Today, more Mayans are arriving

neg: Open-fields doctrine Open-fields doctrine The open-fields doctrine (also open-field doctrine or open-fields rule), in the U.S. law of criminal procedure, is the legal doctrine that a "warrantless search of the area outside a property owner's curtilage" does not violate the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. However, "unless there is some other legal basis for the search," such a search "must exclude the home and any adjoining land (such as a yard) that is within an enclosure or otherwise protected from public scrutiny." The open fields doctrine was first articulated by the U.S. Supreme Court in "Hester v. United States", which

neg: Human shields (law) a human shield to prevent the demolition of homes in Palestine. While IHL does prohibit attacks on civilians, the precautions a power must take before an attack remain ill-defined. Proportionality remains a nebulous standard that does not set a predictable standard of when a military action would be considered lawful. There is a lack of enforcement, and the increasing role of private actors and contractors on the battlefield presents new challenges. During the Civil War, the United States adopted the Lieber Code, recognized by many scholars as the first detailed code governing conduct in war. Dr. Francis Lieber articulated an

neg: Popular sovereignty or even an individual dictator may claim to represent the will of the people, and rule in its name, pretending to detain "auctoritas". That would be congruent with Hobbes's view on the subject, but not with most modern definitions that see democracy as a necessary condition of popular sovereignty. The application of the doctrine of popular sovereignty receives particular emphasis in American history, notes historian Christian G. Fritz's "American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War", a study of the early history of American constitutionalism. In describing how Americans attempted to apply this doctrine prior to

neg: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad locomotives and 700s for diesels. Then in 1956 all locomotives were renumbered again. All steam locomotives were renumbered below 1000, thus freeing all four digit numbers for use by the growing numbers of diesels. Before the Civil War, the B&O organized its locomotives into four classes, based upon relative power. After the war this was felt to be inadequate, and a classification scheme was devised, based upon wheel arrangement. Each wheel arrangement was assigned a letter, except for 4-4-0 locomotives, which were subdivided according to cylinder size. When articulated steam locomotives were first introduced, they were assigned a single class ("O").

neg: Doctrine of lapse Company, renounced the doctrine. The princely state of Kittur was taken over by the East India Company in 1824 by imposing a 'doctrine of lapse'. So it is debatable whether it was devised by Lord Dalhousie in 1848, though he arguably made it official by documenting it. Dalhousie's annexations and the doctrine of lapse had caused suspicion and uneasiness among most ruling princes in India. Dalhousie applied the doctrine of lapse vigorously for annexing Indian princely states, but the policy was not solely his invention. The Court of Directors of the East India Company had articulated this early in 1834.

neg: Reform Judaism quickly spread even before the Civil War. While fueled by the condition of immigrant communities, in matters of doctrine, wrote Michael Meyer, "However much a response to its particular social context, the basic principles are those put forth by Geiger and the other German Reformers – progressive revelation, historical-critical approach, the centrality of the Prophetic literature." The rabbinate was almost exclusively transplanted – Rabbis Samuel Hirsch, Samuel Adler, Gustav Gottheil, Kaufmann Kohler, and others all played a role both in Germany and across the ocean – and led by two individuals: the radical Rabbi David Einhorn, who participated in the

neg: Containment Containment Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as a Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. As a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, Vietnam, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World

neg: Ignacio Comonfort citizens. The constitution was unacceptable to the clergy and the conservatives, and they plotted a revolt. The country descended into the War of the Reform, a civil war launched by reactionaries against the Constitution of 1857 which, among other things, had abolished privileges for the Catholic Church. Shortly after the adoption of the Constitution of 1857, a board of generals staged a coup d'état, proclaiming the Plan of Tacubaya, which decreed the nullification of the Constitution. President Comonfort, representing himself as a moderate, wavered but decided to go along with the generals. In exchange, the Catholic Church repealed the March

neg: Aboriginal title Aboriginal title jurisprudence is related to indigenous rights, influencing and influenced by non-land issues, such as whether the government owes a fiduciary duty to indigenous peoples. While the judge-made doctrine arises from customary international law, it has been codified nationally by legislation, treaties, and constitutions. Aboriginal title arose at the intersection of three common law doctrines articulated by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: the Act of State doctrine, the Doctrine of Continuity, and the Recognition Doctrine. The Act of State doctrine held that the Crown could confiscate or extinguish real or personal property rights in the process of