query: where are white blood cells located in your body

pos: White blood cell White blood cell White blood cells (also called leukocytes or leucocytes and abbreviated as WBCs) are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the anucleated red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets. Types of white blood cells can be classified in standard

pos: Autoimmune retinopathy Corticosteroids are administered through IV or orally. They cause lymphocytopenia, a condition where white blood cell levels are abnormally low. Corticosteroids cause white blood cell death, lowering their numbers throughout the body. They also cause white blood cells to recirculate away from the area of damage (the retina). This minimizes damage caused by the antibodies produced by the white blood cells. Often, this is treatment is combined with plasmapheresis. Instead of treating the plasma and blood cells, they are replaced with a healthy donor mixture. Patients who respond positively show improved visual fields and an almost complete disappearance of anti-retinal

pos: Blood cell in the human body in that they lack a nucleus (although erythroblasts do have a nucleus). The condition of having too few red blood cells is known as anemia, while having too many is polycythemia. White blood cells or "leukocytes", are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. They are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. There are a variety of types of white bloods cells that serve

pos: Ebola virus disease with mucous membranes or skin breaks. After infection, endothelial cells (cells lining the inside of blood vessels), liver cells, and several types of immune cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells are the main targets of attack. Following infection, immune cells carry the virus to nearby lymph nodes where further reproduction of the virus takes place. From there the virus can enter the bloodstream and lymphatic system and spread throughout the body. Macrophages are the first cells infected with the virus, and this infection results in programmed cell death. Other types of white blood cells, such as lymphocytes, also

pos: Generalized lymphadenopathy Generalized lymphadenopathy Lymph nodes or 'glands' or "nodes" or "lymphoid tissue" are nodular bodies located throughout the body but clustering in certain areas such as the armpit, back of the neck and the groin. They are part of the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is part of the body's immune surveillance system. Blood contains fluid and blood cells. The fluid, which may contain suspended foreign material such as bacteria and viruses, seeps through blood vessel walls into the tissues, where it bathes the body cells and exchanges substances with them. Some of this fluid is then taken up by lymphatic

pos: Wandering cell responsible for immune responses that circulate in the blood. Normally, only small numbers are found in the CTs throughout the body. The number increases dramatically at certain sites of tissue inflammation. They are also very numerous in the lamina propria of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, where they are involved in immunosurveillance. The lamina propria is a layer of loose CT lying immediately beneath the epithelium. Plasma cells: Plasma cells are derived from B-lymphocytes and produce antibodies against a specific antigen. They have a limited migratory ability and a short life. Neutrophils: Neutrophils are white blood cells that act as

pos: Bartenieff Fundamentals of life, the most basic sense of being. The most fundamental movement, lungs and also oxygen in blood flow and saturation of cells (cellular breathing), moves through a rhythm of expanding and condensing. When breath is integrated throughout the body, then all parts of the body will move at least slightly in coordination with the in / out breath rhythm. Use the breath pattern to recuperate and get in touch with one’s own "internal state", with one’s body self, "proprioceptive self", "where you are in the moment", to find your entire body connected through your internal core. "Naval radiation to

pos: Bone marrow failure around the mouth and cramping in the hands are common symptoms during the donation process. After the donation, the amount of time for recovery varies for every donor, “But most stem cell donors are able to return to their usual activities within a few days to a week after donation”. Bone marrow failure Bone marrow failure occurs in individuals who produce an insufficient amount of red blood cells, white blood cells or platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen to be distributed throughout the body’s tissue. White blood cells fight off infections that enter the body. Bone marrow also contains platelets,

pos: Angiostrongylus cantonensis of the worms into the CNS. Eosinophils are specialized white blood cells of the granulocytic cell line which contain granules in their cytoplasm. These granules contain proteins that are toxic to parasites. When these granules degranulate, or break down, chemicals are released that combat parasites such as "A. cantonensis". Eosinophils, which are located throughout the body, are guided to sites of inflammation by chemokines when the body is infested with parasites such as "A. cantonensis". Once at the site of inflammation, type 2 cytokines are released from helper T cells, which communicate with the eosinophils, signaling them to activate. Once

pos: Circulating tumor cell cellular components of blood principally consist of red blood cells (RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs) and platelets. CTCs are abnormal blood cell components shed from tumors, and are invariably collected from a patient's peripheral blood even though they are present throughout the circulatory system. Since all blood cells must pass through extremely narrow capillaries as they circulate through the body, CTCs in peripheral blood are found in extremely low numbers because they must circulate and survive through an obstacle course of harsh conditions, such as the heart, lungs and capillaries before they can appear in the peripheral blood.

pos: Macrophage Macrophage Macrophages (, from Greek "μακρός" ("makrós") = large, "φαγείν" ("phageín") = to eat) are a type of white blood cell, of the immune system, that engulfs and digests cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes, cancer cells, and anything else that does not have the type of proteins specific to healthy body cells on its surface in a process called phagocytosis. These large phagocytes are found in essentially all tissues, where they patrol for potential pathogens by amoeboid movement. They take various forms (with various names) throughout the body (e.g., histiocytes, Kupffer cells, alveolar macrophages, microglia, and others), but all are

pos: Bone marrow failure Bone marrow failure Bone marrow failure occurs in individuals who produce an insufficient amount of red blood cells, white blood cells or platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen to be distributed throughout the body’s tissue. White blood cells fight off infections that enter the body. Bone marrow also contains platelets, which trigger clotting, and thus help stop the blood flow when a wound occurs. Bone marrow failure is associated with three types of diseases, Fanconi anemia (FA), dyskeratosis congenita, and aplastic anemia. Fanconi anemia is an inherited blood disorder due to abnormal breakages in DNA genes. It is linked to

pos: Pericyte Pericyte Pericytes (also known as Rouget cells, or mural cells) are contractile cells that wrap around the endothelial cells that line the capillaries and venules throughout the body. Pericytes are embedded in basement membrane where they communicate with endothelial cells of the body's smallest blood vessels by means of both direct physical contact and paracrine signaling. In the brain, pericytes help sustain the blood–brain barrier as well as several other homeostatic and hemostatic functions of the brain. These cells are also a key component of the "neurovascular unit", which includes endothelial cells, astrocytes, and neurons. Pericytes regulate capillary blood flow,

pos: Packed red blood cells are kept with a minimal amount of fluid. Generally, an additive solution of citrate, dextrose, and adenine is mixed with the cells to keep them alive during storage. This process is sometimes done as automated apheresis, where the centrifuging and mixing take place at the donation site. Red blood cells are sometimes modified to address specific patient needs. The most common modification is leukoreduction, where the donor blood is filtered to remove white cells, although this is becoming increasingly universal throughout the blood supply (over 80% in the US, 100% in Europe). The blood may also be irradiated, which destroys

pos: Autosomal dominant retinal vasculopathy with cerebral leukodystrophy enough of the cells in the walls of the blood vessels that the capillaries burst open. The capillary bursting happens throughout the body but is most recognizable when it happens in the eyes and brain because these are the two places where capillary bursting has the most pronounced effect. The main pathologic process centers on small blood vessels that prematurely “drop out” and disappear. The retina of the eye and white matter of the brain are the most sensitive to this pathologic process. Over a five to ten-year period, this vasculopathy (blood vessel pathology) results in vision loss and destructive

pos: Red pulp cells attempting to squeeze through the narrow intercellular spaces become badly damaged, and are subsequently devoured by macrophages in the red pulp. In addition to clearing aged red blood cells, the sinusoids also filter out cellular debris, particles that could clutter up the bloodstream. Red pulp consists of a dense network of fine reticular fiber, continuous with those of the splenic trabeculae, to which are applied flat, branching cells. The meshes of the reticulum are filled with blood: Macrophages are highly diverse mononuclear phagocytes that are present throughout the body, including the spleen. Those located in the red pulp are

neg: Systemic scleroderma sclerosis occur when the white blood cells of the immune system attack the body. In this treatment, stem cells from the patient's blood are extracted and stored to preserve them. The patient's white blood cells are destroyed with cyclophosphamide and rabbit antibodies against the white blood cells. Then the stored blood is returned to the patient's bloodstream to reconstitute a healthy blood and immune system which will not attack the body. The results of a phase 3 trial, the Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation International Scleroderma (ASTIS) trial, with 156 patients were published in 2014. HSCT itself has a high treatment

neg: Blood transfusion Blood transfusion Blood transfusion is generally the process of receiving blood or blood products into one's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used whole blood, but modern medical practice commonly uses only components of the blood, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, clotting factors, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and increase iron levels by improving the amount of oxygen found in the body. White blood cells, are not commonly used during transfusion but are related to the immune system and to fight infections.

neg: Blood vessel addition to carrying oxygen, blood also carries hormones, waste products and nutrients for cells of the body. Blood vessels do not actively engage in the transport of blood (they have no appreciable peristalsis). Blood is propelled through arteries and arterioles through pressure generated by the heartbeat. Blood vessels also transport red blood cells which contain the oxygen necessary for daily activities. The amount of red blood cells present in your vessels has an effect on your health. Hematocrit tests can be performed to calculate the proportion of red blood cells in your blood. Higher proportions result in conditions such as

neg: Biofluid dynamics mechanism, that is, the immune system and facilitating an effective heat and mass transfer across the body are some of the major functions which blood performs in the human body. Blood consists of the red blood cells or erythrocytes, white blood cells or leukocytes, and platelets or thrombocytes. The cells which are involved primarily in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are known as Erythrocytes. The cells which are involved primarily in phagocytosis (the process of destruction of unknown particulate matter) and immune responses are known as Leukocytes; thrombocytes are the components of blood which are involved in blood

neg: Childhood leukemia develops in the bone marrow, the soft inner part of bones where new blood cells are made. When a child has leukemia, the bone marrow produces white blood cells that do not mature correctly. Normal healthy cells only reproduce when there is enough space for them. The body will regulate the production of cells by sending signals of when to stop production. When a child has leukemia, the cells do not respond to the signals telling them when to stop and when to produce cells. The bone marrow becomes crowded resulting in problems producing other blood cells. Common childhood leukemia

neg: Cord blood bank private banks, partly because most treatable conditions can't use one's own cord blood. Cord blood contains hematopoietic stem cells (which can differentiate only into blood cells), and should not be confused with embryonic stem cells or pluripotent stem cells, which can differentiate into any cell in the body. Cord blood stem cells are blood cell progenitors which can form red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. This is why cord blood cells are currently used to treat blood and immune system related genetic diseases, cancers, and blood disorders. On the possibility that cord blood stem cells could be used

neg: Blood the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen. Blood performs many important functions within the body, including: Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly , which is composed of plasma and several kinds of cells. These blood cells (which are also called corpuscles or "formed elements") consist of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of

neg: Diffuse panbronchiolitis necessarily affected by either disease. It is being investigated whether this gene in any state of mutation could contribute to DPB. Inflammation is a normal part of the human immune response, whereby leukocytes (white blood cells), including neutrophils (white blood cells that specialize in causing inflammation), gather, and chemokines (proteins released from certain cells, which activate or elicit a response from other cells) accumulate at any location in the body where bacterial or viral infections occur. Inflammation interferes with the activity of bacteria and viruses, and serves to clear them from the body. In DPB, bacteria such as "Haemophilus influenzae"

neg: Parasite load parasite is in question as well as where it resides in the host body. For example, intracellular parasites such as the protozoan genus "Plasmodium" which causes Malaria in humans, are quantified through performing a blood smear and counting the number of white blood cells infected by viewing the smear through a microscope. Other parasites residing in the blood of a host could be similarly counted on a blood smear using specific staining methods to better visualize the cells. As technology advances, more modernized methods of parasite quantification are emerging such as hand held automated cell counters, in order to efficiently

neg: Childhood leukemia through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column. Stem cell transplant is a process in which the blood-forming cells that are abnormal (like leukemia cells) or that were destroyed by chemotherapy are replaced with healthy new blood-forming cells. A stem-cell transplant can help the human body produce more healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, or platelets. It also reduces the risk of life-threatening conditions such as anemia, or hemorrhage. Stem cell transplants can be done by obtaining cells from the bone-marrow, blood or umbilical-cord blood. Stem cell transplants can use the cells from one's

neg: Complete blood count and scaled grid lines on the hemocytometer are used because there are far too many cells without those aids.) To identify the numbers of different white cells, a blood film is made on a slide, and a large number of white blood cells (at least 100) are counted using a microscope. This gives the percentage of cells that are of each type. By multiplying these percentages by the total number of white blood cells, the absolute number of each type of white cell can be obtained. Manual microscopic counting is useful in cases where automated analyzers cannot reliably count abnormal

neg: Cells at Work! Cells at Work! The story takes place inside the human body, where trillions of anthropomorphic cells each do their job to keep the body healthy. The series largely focuses on two such cells; a rookie red blood cell, AE3803, who often gets lost during deliveries, and a relentless white blood cell, U-1146, who fights against any germs that invade the body. The manga was launched in Kodansha's shōnen manga magazine "Monthly Shōnen Sirius" in March 2015. Kodansha has collected the manga into five "tankōbon" volumes . The manga received a spinoff in the May 2017 issue of "Nakayoshi" called "Hataraku

neg: Biofluid dynamics water, solvents, solutions, suspensions, serum, lymph, and blood. The major body fluid which acts as the lifeline of the living organisms is "Blood". Blood is an extremely complex biological fluid. It consists of blood cells suspended in plasma and other different types of cells which include white blood cells, platelets etc. The blood flow in arteries and veins are closely linked to the blood vessel properties. Carrying the oxygen and nutrients to various tissues and organs of our body, delivering carbon dioxide to the lungs and accepting oxygen, bringing the metabolic by products to the kidneys, regulating the body's defence

neg: Weibel–Palade body factor (vWF), a multimeric protein that plays a major role in blood coagulation. Storage of long polymers of vWF gives this specialized lysosomal structure an oblong shape and striated appearance on electron microscope. The other is P-selectin, which plays a central role in the ability of inflamed endothelial cells to recruit passing leukocytes (white blood cells), allowing them to exit the blood vessel (extravasate) and enter the surrounding tissue, where they can migrate to the site of infection or injury. Additional Weibel–Palade body components are the chemokines Interleukin-8 and eotaxin-3, endothelin-1, angiopoietin-2, osteoprotegerin, the P-selectin cofactor CD63/lamp3, and α-1,3-fucosyltransferase VI.

neg: Extracellular fluid blood cells and cell waste-products. This solution accounts for 26% of the water in the human body. The composition of interstitial fluid depends upon the exchanges between the cells in the biological tissue and the blood. This means that tissue fluid has a different composition in different tissues and in different areas of the body. The plasma that filters through the capillaries into the interstitial fluid does not contain red blood cells or platelets as they are too large to pass through but can contain some white blood cells to help the immune system. Once the extracellular fluid collects into

neg: Leukopoiesis acute and chronic. The incidence of both chronic and acute leukaemias is higher in males than in females. Leukopoiesis Leukopoiesis is a form of hematopoiesis in which white blood cells (WBC, or leukocytes) are formed in bone marrow located in bones in adults and hematopoietic organs in the fetus. White blood cells, indeed all blood cells, are formed from the differentiation of pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to several cell lines with unlimited differentiation potential. These immediate cell lines, or colonies, are progenitors of red blood cells (erythrocytes), platelets (megakaryocytes), and the two main groups of WBCs, myelocytes

neg: Leukopoiesis Leukopoiesis Leukopoiesis is a form of hematopoiesis in which white blood cells (WBC, or leukocytes) are formed in bone marrow located in bones in adults and hematopoietic organs in the fetus. White blood cells, indeed all blood cells, are formed from the differentiation of pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to several cell lines with unlimited differentiation potential. These immediate cell lines, or colonies, are progenitors of red blood cells (erythrocytes), platelets (megakaryocytes), and the two main groups of WBCs, myelocytes and lymphocytes. On the basis of the history of associated leukemic diseases, it's divided into two main groups:

neg: Antigen-antibody interaction Antigen-antibody interaction Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood cells and antigens during immune reaction. It is the fundamental reaction in the body by which the body is protected from complex foreign molecules, such as pathogens and their chemical toxins. In the blood, the antigens are specifically and with high affinity bound by antibodies to form an antigen-antibody complex. The immune complex is then transported to cellular systems where it can be destroyed or deactivated. The first correct description of the antigen-antibody reaction was given by Richard

neg: Bone marrow in the central skeleton, such as the pelvis, sternum, cranium, ribs, vertebrae and scapulae, and variably found in the proximal epiphyseal ends of long bones such as the femur and humerus. In circumstances of chronic hypoxia, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow to increase blood cell production. At the cellular level, the main functional component of bone marrow includes the progenitor cells which are destined to mature into blood and lymphoid cells. Marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to the three classes of blood cells that are found in circulation: white blood cells (leukocytes),

neg: Introduction to viruses the host, other innate defences prevent the spread of infection in the body. A special hormone called interferon is produced by the body when viruses are present, and this stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours. Inside cells, there are enzymes that destroy the RNA of viruses. This is called RNA interference. Some blood cells engulf and destroy other virus infected cells. Specific immunity to viruses develops over time and white blood cells called lymphocytes play a central role. Lymphocytes retain a "memory" of virus infections and produce many special molecules called antibodies.

neg: Iron-deficiency anemia of iron is also lost from the body. The blood bank screens people for anemia before drawing blood for donation. If the patient has anemia, blood is not drawn. Less iron is lost if the person is donating platelets or white blood cells. Anemia can result from significant iron deficiency. When the body has sufficient iron to meet its needs (functional iron), the remainder is stored for later use in cells, mostly in the bone marrow and liver. These stores are called ferritin complexes and are part of the human (and other animals) iron metabolism systems. Men store about 3.5g

neg: Adaptive immune system body has about 2 trillion lymphocytes, constituting 20–40% of white blood cells (WBCs); their total mass is about the same as the brain or liver. The peripheral blood contains 2% of circulating lymphocytes; the rest move within the tissues and lymphatic system. B cells and T cells are derived from the same multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, and are morphologically indistinguishable from one another until after they are activated. B cells play a large role in the humoral immune response, whereas T cells are intimately involved in cell-mediated immune responses. In all vertebrates except Agnatha, B cells and T cells are

neg: Signs and symptoms of radiation poisoning however the remaining white blood cells within the body are still temporarily working, until they are "used up". Anemia develops more slowly, because preexisting red blood cells have a longer life span than white blood cells and platelets. Radiation dermatitis from lower-level exposures usually manifests only after 2 months. Radiation acne is a cutaneous condition characterized by comedo-like papules occurring at sites of previous exposure to therapeutic ionizing radiation, skin lesions that begin to appear as the acute phase of radiation dermatitis begins to resolve. Radiation recall reactions occur months to years after radiation treatment. Radiation cancer may occur following

neg: Pneumonia airway, the viruses may make their way in the lungs, where they invade the cells lining the airways, alveoli, or lung parenchyma. Some viruses such as measles and herpes simplex may reach the lungs via the blood. The invasion of the lungs may lead to varying degrees of cell death. When the immune system responds to the infection, even more lung damage may occur. Primarily white blood cells, mainly mononuclear cells, generate the inflammation. As well as damaging the lungs, many viruses simultaneously affect other organs and thus disrupt other body functions. Viruses also make the body more susceptible to

neg: Bone osteoclasts are derived from the same cells that differentiate to form macrophages and monocytes. Within the marrow of the bone there are also hematopoietic stem cells. These cells give rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells. They are located on the surface of osteon seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone. The osteoid seam is a narrow region of newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the surface of a bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen. Osteoblasts

neg: Circulatory system 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7% of their total body weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping. The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component

neg: Cytotoxic T cell shuffled to create cells with unique receptors, each of which can bind to a different antigen. Some receptors bind to tissues in the human body itself, so to prevent the body from attacking itself, those self-reactive white blood cells are destroyed during further development in the thymus, in which iodine is necessary for its development and activity. TCRs have two parts, usually an alpha and a beta chain. (Some TCRs have a gamma and a delta chain.) Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow migrate into the thymus, where they undergo V(D)J recombination of their beta-chain TCR DNA to form

neg: Aortic body Aortic body The aortic body is one of several small clusters of peripheral chemoreceptors known as glomus cells, baroreceptors, and supporting cells located along the aortic arch. Some sources equate the "aortic bodies" and "paraaortic bodies", while other sources explicitly distinguish between the two. When a distinction is made, the "aortic bodies" are chemoreceptors which regulate the circulatory system, while the "paraaortic bodies" are the chromaffin cells which manufacture catecholamines. A chemoreceptor present on the aortic arch. It measures changes in blood pressure and the composition of arterial blood flowing past it, including the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon

neg: Minimal residual disease blood cells, and healthy marrow is often 1–2% immature (blasts) cells. However, in leukaemia, there are abnormally high numbers of immature cells, making up 40–90% of marrow. Additional examination of the bone marrow by tests including flow cytometry and FISH are necessary to diagnose the specific malignancy. Symptoms do not occur until the disease is advanced, and there are 1 kg or 1,000,000,000,000 leukemic cells in the body. The initial five weeks of treatment kill most leukaemic cells, and the marrow begins to recover. Immature white blood cells may be present in the patient, although they are not necessarily malignant

neg: Lutzner cells Lutzner cells can form cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, which is a form of skin cancer. Lymphocytes are white blood cells that form from a blood stem cell, hemocytoblast, in bone marrow and travel to other parts of the body, normally specific lymphoid tissues, to mature. After being produced, the stem cell differentiates into lymphoid stem cells. Then, T-lymphocytes further mature and differentiate into lymphoblasts when the hormone thymosin is secreted from the thymus. Finally, specialized immune cells, B cells and T cells, and nonspecialized immune cells, nature killer cells, are created from the lymphoblasts. This process is referred to as Leukopoiesis.

neg: Aortic body dioxide. The chemoreceptors responsible for sensing changes in blood gases are called glomus cells. It gives feedback to the medulla oblongata, specifically to the dorsal respiratory group, via the afferent branches of the vagus nerve (X). The medulla, in turn, regulates breathing and blood pressure. A paraganglioma is a tumor that may involve the aortic body. Swelling can also occur. Aortic body The aortic body is one of several small clusters of peripheral chemoreceptors known as glomus cells, baroreceptors, and supporting cells located along the aortic arch. Some sources equate the "aortic bodies" and "paraaortic bodies", while other sources explicitly

neg: Carotid body Carotid body The carotid body ("carotid glomus" or "glomus caroticum") is a small cluster of chemoreceptors and supporting cells located near the fork (bifurcation) of the carotid artery (which runs along both sides of the throat). The carotid body detects changes in the composition of arterial blood flowing through it, mainly the partial pressure of arterial oxygen, but also of carbon dioxide. Furthermore, it is also sensitive to changes in pH and temperature. The carotid body is made up of two types of cells, called glomus cells: glomus type I cells are peripheral chemoreceptors, and glomus type II cells are

neg: Red blood cell second in human adults. The cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100–120 days in the body before their components are recycled by macrophages. Each circulation takes about 60 seconds (one minute). Approximately a quarter of the cells in the human body are red blood cells. Nearly half of the blood's volume (40% to 45%) is red blood cells. Packed red blood cells (pRBC) are red blood cells that have been donated, processed, and stored in a blood bank for blood transfusion. Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells. Red blood cells

neg: Effector cell are required for the microglia to carry out their primary function. Microglia are distinguishable from macrophages because of their ability to transform, which allows them to protect the CNS under relatively short amounts of time. Microglia take on a unique phenotype when they detect local chemical signals. Microglia have a variety of different functions required to maintain homeostasis in the host body. A mast cell is a white blood cell. Mast cells are protective cells that are involved in wound healing and blood-brain barrier function. Mast cells are very similar to basophils, and mast cells once were mistaken for them.

neg: Blood is cut in a way to ensure that the spine is not severed, hence the brain may send commands to the heart to pump blood to it for oxygen. In this way, blood is removed from the body, and the meat is generally now safe to cook and eat. In modern times, blood transfusions are generally not considered against the rules. Based on their interpretation of scriptures such as Acts 15:28, 29 ("Keep abstaining...from blood."), many Jehovah's Witnesses neither consume blood nor accept transfusions of whole blood or its major components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (thrombocytes), and

neg: Leptin of the fundic glands), mammary epithelial cells, bone marrow,gastric chief cells and P/D1 cells. Leptin circulates in blood in free form and bound to proteins. Leptin levels vary exponentially, not linearly, with fat mass. Leptin levels in blood are higher between midnight and early morning, perhaps suppressing appetite during the night. The diurnal rhythm of blood leptin levels may be modified by meal-timing. In humans, many instances are seen where leptin dissociates from the strict role of communicating nutritional status between body and brain and no longer correlates with body fat levels: All known leptin mutations except one are associated

neg: Blood lipids to release stored fatty acids into the blood as free fatty acids, in order to supply e.g. muscle cells with energy. In any case, also the fatty acids secreted from cells are anew taken up by other cells in the body, until entering fatty acid metabolism. The fate of cholesterol in the blood is highly determined by its constitution of lipoproteins, where some types favour transport towards body tissues and others towards the liver for excretion into the intestines. The 1987 report of National Cholesterol Education Program, Adult Treatment Panels suggest the total blood cholesterol level should be: <200 mg/dl

neg: Autoimmune neutropenia Autoimmune neutropenia Autoimmune neutropenia is a form of neutropenia which is most common in infants and young children where the body identifies the neutrophils as enemies and makes antibody to destroy them. Primary autoimmune neutropenia (AIN) is an autoimmune disease first reported in 1975 that primarily occurs in infancy. In autoimmune neutropenia, the immune system produces autoantibodies directed against the neutrophilic protein antigens in white blood cells known as granulocytic neutrophils (granulocytes, segmented neutrophils, segs, polysegmented neutrophils, polys). These antibodies destroy granulocytic neutrophils. Consequently, patients with autoimmune neutropenia have low levels of granulocytic neutrophilic white blood cells causing a condition

neg: Bone and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes. This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the circulation. Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way. As well as creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the major sites where defective or aged red blood cells are destroyed. °Determined by the species, age, and the type of bone, bone cells make up to 15 percent of the bone. Growth factor storage

neg: Schmidt sting pain index categorized into Pain Level 1 generally is five minutes or less. Since many small bees are categorized into a pain level of 1, it should be noted that the most toxic polypeptides in bee venom are melittin, apamin, and MCD peptide. Melittin is the main toxin of bee venom, and it damages red blood cells and white blood cells. Apamin is a neurotoxin that augments polysynaptic reflexes. MCD peptide destroys mast cells. Feeling only slight pain, Schmidt has described the sting of the Anthophorid bee, categorized into Pain Level 1, as "almost pleasant, a lover just bit your earlobe a

neg: Myelofibrosis number of all blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells may show abnormalities including bizarre shapes, such as teardrop-shaped cells, and nucleated red blood cell precursors may appear in the blood smear (leukoerythroblastic reaction). Normally, mature red blood cells in adults do not have a cell nucleus, and the presence of nucleated red blood cells suggests that immature cells are being released into the bloodstream in response to a very high demand for the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells. Immature white cells and platelets (large megakaryocytes) are also seen in

neg: Histamine animals. A non-infectious form of foodborne disease, scombroid poisoning, is due to histamine production by bacteria in spoiled food, particularly fish. Fermented foods and beverages naturally contain small quantities of histamine due to a similar conversion performed by fermenting bacteria or yeasts. Sake contains histamine in the 20–40 mg/L range; wines contain it in the 2–10 mg/L range. Most histamine in the body is generated in granules in mast cells and in white blood cells (leukocytes) called basophils. Mast cells are especially numerous at sites of potential injury — the nose, mouth, and feet, internal body surfaces, and blood vessels.

neg: Management of ulcerative colitis a patient. An initial concern is hepatotoxicity. Mercaptopurine inhibits the production of white blood cells generally. Because this makes the body more susceptible to infection, patients need to watch for infections. Vaccinations are critically important, particularly the yearly flu shot and periodic pneumonia immunizations. Vaccine response is best if given prior to initiation of immunosuppressive medications, and patients on immunosuppressives should also be should use caution when receiving vaccines containing live virus. Frequent blood cell counts are also recommended during administration of mercaptopurine. The drug may be toxic to bone marrow, where many blood components are made. If there is

neg: Blood cell specific roles in the human immune system. WBCs constitute approximately 1% of the blood volume. White blood cells are divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes, distinguished by the presence or absence of granules in the cytoplasm. Granulocytes include basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, and mast cells. Agranulocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes. The condition of having too few white blood cells is leukopenia, while having too many is leukocytosis. There are individual terms for the lack or overabundance of specific types of white blood cells. The number of white blood cells in circulation is commonly increased in the incidence of infection. Many hematological cancers

neg: Humorism of red blood cells (the "blood"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the "phlegm"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the "yellow bile"). Hippocrates is the one usually credited with applying this idea to medicine. One of the treatises attributed to Hippocrates, "On the Nature of Man", describes the theory as follows: The Human body contains blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. These are the things that make up its constitution and cause its pains and health. Health is primarily that state in which these constituent substances are in the correct proportion to each

neg: Lymphocytic pleocytosis Lymphocytic pleocytosis Lymphocytic pleocytosis is an abnormal increase in the amount of lymphocytes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is usually considered to be a sign of infection or inflammation within the nervous system, and is encountered in a number of neurological diseases, such as pseudomigraine, Susac's syndrome, and encephalitis. While lymphocytes make up roughly a quarter of all white blood cells (WBC) in the body, they are generally rare in the CSF. Under normal conditions, there are usually less than 5 white blood cells per µL of CSF. In a pleocytic setting, the number of lymphocytes can jump to

neg: Innate immune system species including plants, birds, fish, and some species of invertebrates. All white blood cells (WBCs) are known as leukocytes. Leukocytes differ from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, their function is similar to that of independent, single-cell organisms. Leukocytes are able to move freely and interact with and capture cellular debris, foreign particles, and invading microorganisms. Unlike many other cells in the body, most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone

neg: Bone Mechanically, bones also have a special role in hearing. The ossicles are three small bones in the middle ear which are involved in sound transduction. The cancellous part of bones contain bone marrow. Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Progenitor cells such as the hematopoietic stem cell divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to white blood cells, and erythroblasts which give rise to red blood cells. Unlike red

neg: White blood cell the neutrophils. Unlike neutrophils, monocytes are able to replace their lysosomal contents and are thought to have a much longer active life. They have the kidney shaped nucleus and are typically agranulated. They also possess abundant cytoplasm. Some leucocytes migrate into the tissues of the body to take up a permanent residence at that location rather than remaining in the blood. Often these cells have specific names depending upon which tissue they settle in, such as fixed macrophages in the liver, which become known as Kupffer cells. These cells still serve a role in the immune system. The two commonly

neg: Neisseria meningitidis as possible, but not to wait for the results before initiating antibiotic therapy. A small amount of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is sent to the laboratory as soon as possible for analysis. The diagnosis is suspected, when Gram-negative diplococci are seen on Gram stain of a centrifuged sample of CSF; sometimes they are located inside white blood cells. The microscopic identification takes around 1–2 hours after specimen arrival in the laboratory. The gold standard of diagnosis is microbiological isolation of "N. meningitidis" by growth from a sterile body fluid, which could be CSF or blood. Diagnosis is confirmed when the organism

neg: Bone marrow failure from volunteer donors who agree to let doctors draw blood stem cells from their blood or bone marrow for transplantation. Blood that is taken straight from collected blood stem cells is known as peripheral blood stem cell donation. A peripheral stem cell donor must have the same blood type as the patient receiving the blood cells. Once the stem cells are in the patient’s body through an IV, the cells mature and become blood cells. Before donation, a drug is injected into the donor, which increases the number of stem cells into their body. Feeling cold and lightheaded, having numbness

neg: Primaquine various kinds of blood cells, including loss of red blood cells, methemoglobinemia, and loss of white blood cells. Primaquine is lethal to "P. vivax" and "P. ovale" in the liver stage, and also to "P. vivax" in the blood stage through its ability to do oxidative damage to the cell. However, the exact mechanism of action is not fully understood. Primaquine is well-absorbed in the gut and extensively distributed in the body without accumulating in red blood cells. Administration of primaquine with food or grapefruit juice increases its oral bioavailibity. In blood, about 20% of circulating primaquine is protein-bound, with

neg: NADPH oxidase instantaneously, where as the vascular enzyme produces superoxide in minutes to hours. Moreover, in white blood cells superoxide have been found to transfer electrons across the membrane to extracellular oxygen, while in vascular cells the radical anion appears to be released mainly intracellularly. Superoxides are crucial in killing foreign bacteria in the human body. Consequently, under-activity can lead to an increased susceptibility to organisms such as catalase-positive microbes, and over-activity can lead to oxidative stress and cell damage. Excessive production of ROS in vascular cells causes many forms of cardiovascular disease including hypertension, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke. Atherosclerosis

neg: Nanorobotics alongside white blood cells. Recruiting inflammatory cells or white blood cells (which include neutrophil granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, and mast cells) to the affected area is the first response of tissues to injury. Because of their small size, nanorobots could attach themselves to the surface of recruited white cells, to squeeze their way out through the walls of blood vessels and arrive at the injury site, where they can assist in the tissue repair process. Certain substances could possibly be used to accelerate the recovery. The science behind this mechanism is quite complex. Passage of cells across the blood endothelium, a

neg: Circulatory system Circulatory system The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. The circulatory system includes the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

neg: Bacterial pneumonia the lung with inhalation, though they can reach the lung through the bloodstream if other parts of the body are infected. Often, bacteria live in parts of the upper respiratory tract and are continuously being inhaled into the alveoli, the cavities deep in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Once inside the alveoli, bacteria travel into the spaces between the cells and also between adjacent alveoli through connecting pores. This invasion triggers the immune system to respond by sending white blood cells responsible for attacking microorganisms (neutrophils) to the lungs. The neutrophils engulf and kill the offending organisms but

neg: Plateletpheresis of blood. If all of the incidentally collected white blood cells are transfused with the platelets, substantial rejection problems can occur. Therefore, it is standard practice to filter out white blood cells before transfusion by the process of leukoreduction. Early platelet transfusions used a filter to remove white blood cells at the time of transfusion. It takes a trained person about 10 minutes to assemble the equipment, and this is not the safest or most efficient means of filtration because living white blood cells can release cytokines during storage and dead white blood cells can break up into smaller fragments

neg: Gender inequality is a natural difference also in the relative physical strengths (on average) of the sexes, both in the lower body and more pronouncedly in the upper-body, though this does not mean that any given man is stronger than any given woman. Men, on average, are taller, which provides both advantages and disadvantages. Women live significantly longer than men, though it is not clear to what extent this is a biological difference - see Life expectancy. Men have larger lung volumes and more circulating blood cells and clotting factors, while women have more circulating white blood cells and produce antibodies faster.

neg: Leukemia are important in the blood clotting process. This means people with leukemia may easily become bruised, bleed excessively, or develop pinprick bleeds (petechiae). White blood cells, which are involved in fighting pathogens, may be suppressed or dysfunctional. This could cause the patient's immune system to be unable to fight off a simple infection or to start attacking other body cells. Because leukemia prevents the immune system from working normally, some patients experience frequent infection, ranging from infected tonsils, sores in the mouth, or diarrhea to life-threatening pneumonia or opportunistic infections. Finally, the red blood cell deficiency leads to anemia, which

neg: Red blood cell thus much more common than the other blood particles: there are about 4,000–11,000 white blood cells and about 150,000–400,000 platelets per microliter. Human red blood cells take on average 60 seconds to complete one cycle of circulation. The blood's red color is due to the spectral properties of the hemic iron ions in hemoglobin. Each human red blood cell contains approximately 270 million of these hemoglobin molecules. Each hemoglobin molecule carries four heme groups; hemoglobin constitutes about a third of the total cell volume. Hemoglobin is responsible for the transport of more than 98% of the oxygen in the body

neg: Dendritic cell and licenses them to efficiently induce CD8 memory T cells, which are also able to be expanded a second time. For this activation of dendritic cells, concurrent interaction of all three cell types, namely CD4 T helper cells, CD8 T cells and dendritic cells, seems to be required. As mentioned above, mDC probably arise from monocytes, white blood cells which circulate in the body and, depending on the right signal, can turn into either dendritic cells or macrophages. The monocytes in turn are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells can be generated in vitro from

neg: Coltivirus the virus, and it becomes infectious for life. The adult tick then transmits the virus to humans through a bite, where it infects bone marrow cells. The virus replicates in those bone marrow cells, which disrupts the development and replication of leukocytes (white blood cells), eosinophils, and basophils. Because of this, thrombocytopenia could also a potential result. Erythrocytes, which are enucleated red blood cells, seem to be infected while they are erythroblasts, their nucleated precursor stage. The virus stays in these red blood cells without harming it for up to four months. Here, it is protected from the immune system's

neg: Bone bone marrow where hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula. The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution that a bone experiences within long bones such as the femur. As far as short bones are concerned, trabecular alignment has been studied in the vertebral pedicle. Thin formations of osteoblasts covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces, known as trabeculae. Within these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. Trabecular marrow is composed

neg: Circulatory system of the horse capacity of the muscular system far exceeds the capacity of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen. Blood is made up of red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes), as well as plasma. Produced in bone marrow, red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen to tissue and removing carbon dioxide, all via hemoglobin. White blood cells are used for defense against pathogens in the immune system. Plasma suspends the blood cells, contains clotting factors, and contributes to the greatest volume of blood. The heart and blood vessels contain approximately of blood in a horse, which equates to about

neg: Glycogen store roughly 100–120 grams of glycogen. In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1–2% of the muscle mass) and the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg stores roughly 400 grams of glycogen. The amount of glycogen stored in the body—particularly within the muscles and liver—mostly depends on physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells, white blood cells, and glial cells in the brain. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo. Approximately 4

neg: Transient myeloproliferative disease of circulating white blood cells. Also like TMD, these Down syndrome (no GATA1 mutation) individuals exhibit hepatomegaly, abnormal liver function tests, and jaundice. However, these abnormalities are usually more frequent and/or severe in TMD. Furthermore, enlarged spleen, fluid accumulations in body cavities, and leukemia cutis (i.e. a rash due to the infiltration of platelet precursor cells into the skin) occur in ~30, 9, and 5%, respectively, of TMD cases but are rarely observed in individuals with Down syndrome (no "GATA1" mutation). The blood of individuals with TMD may contain grossly malformed blast cells, giant platelets, and fragments of megakaryocytes which

neg: Human body of function. The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others. The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The

neg: Wandering cell phagocytes in the early stages of acute inflammation. Eosinophils: Eosinophils are white blood cells that are found in the lamina propria of the GI tract, and at sites of allergic reaction and parasitic infection. Basophils: Basophils are white blood cells that are similar to mast cells in having vasoactive agents released in response to an allergen. Monocytes: Monocytes are white blood cells that will give rise to all the phagocytes of the mononuclear phagocytic system (see Ross et al., pg. 110, and Table 5.4, pg. 112). In CT, they give rise to macrophages (histiocytes). Wandering Cells are probably amoeboid when

neg: Leukostasis chronic malignant hematological diseases. Leukostasis, also known as symptomatic hyperleukocytosis, is a life-threatening complication of various leukemias characterized by an excess of white blood cells in the bloodstream. Hyperleukocytosis is arbitrarily defined as greater than 100,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood. The condition is characterized by abnormal aggregation and clumping of white blood cells in the blood vessels resulting in impaired blood flow and delivery of oxygen to the body's cells. The brain and lungs are the two most commonly affected organs. Leukostasis most commonly occurs with acute myeloid leukemia. Hyperleukocytosis/leukostasis occurs more commonly, and at lower white

neg: Lymph node such as the paraaortic lymph nodes and the tracheobronchial lymph nodes. There are no lymph nodes in the central nervous system, which is separated from the body by the blood-brain barrier. The primary function of lymph nodes is the filtering of lymph to identify and fight infection. In order to do this, lymph nodes contain lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, which includes B cells and T cells. These circulate through the bloodstream and enter and reside in lymph nodes. B cells produce antibodies. Each antibody has a single predetermined target, an antigen, that it can bind to. These

neg: Bovine malignant catarrhal fever maintenance, and shedding. Entry occurs through the sheep's nasal cavity and enters into the lungs where it replicates. The virus undergoes a tropic change and infects lymphocytes, also known as white blood cells, which play a role in the sheep's immune system. In the maintenance stage the virus remains on the sheep's lymphocytes and circulates the body. Finally, during the shedding stage, the virus undergoes another change and shifts its target cells from lymphocytes to nasal cavity cells, where it is then shed through nasal secretions. This discovery undoubtedly puts scientists on the right track for developing a vaccine –

neg: Caladrius Biosciences If this balance is restored by increasing the number of regulatory T cells than the body will, according to the theory, stop attacking beta cells. Research participants undergo a three-part procedure. First, blood is drawn from the patient and the Treg cells are isolated and separated. Second, those Treg cells are used to manufacture a significant volume of additional Treg cells. Last, the manufactured Treg cells are mixed back into the drawn blood and returned through an IV to the person's body (See graphic below). One key benefit of this process is that it uses the person's own blood supply

neg: Gleich's syndrome the proliferation of eosinophil precursor cells and are thereby responsible for the eosinophilia. It is suggested that most forms of Gleich's syndrome are due to a similar aberrant T cell mechanism and are a subtype of lymphocyte-variant eosinophilia. Gleich syndrome has a good prognosis. Attack severity may improve with steroid treatment. Gleich's syndrome Gleich's syndrome or episodic angioedema with eosinophilia is a rare disease in which the body swells up episodically (angioedema), associated with raised antibodies of the IgM type and increased numbers of eosinophil granulocytes, a type of white blood cells, in the blood (eosinophilia). It was first described

neg: The Inner Life of the Cell The Inner Life of the Cell The Inner Life of the Cell is an 8.5-minute 3D computer graphics animation illustrating the molecular mechanisms that occur when a white blood cell in the blood vessels of the human body is activated by inflammation (Leukocyte extravasation). It shows how a white blood cell rolls along the inner surface of the capillary, flattens out, and squeezes through the cells of the capillary wall to the site of inflammation where it contributes to the immune reaction. When teaching biology, professors will often generate 3D animations to demonstrate certain concepts to their students in a

neg: Chemotherapy marrow and leading to a decrease of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Anemia and thrombocytopenia may require blood transfusion. Neutropenia (a decrease of the neutrophil granulocyte count below 0.5 x 10/litre) can be improved with synthetic G-CSF (granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor, e.g., filgrastim, lenograstim). In very severe myelosuppression, which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow stem cells (cells that produce white and red blood cells) are destroyed, meaning "allogenic" or "autologous" bone marrow cell transplants are necessary. (In autologous BMTs, cells are removed from the person before the treatment, multiplied and then re-injected afterward; in "allogenic"

neg: White blood cell used categories of white blood cell disorders divide them quantitatively into those causing excessive numbers (proliferative disorders) and those causing insufficient numbers (leukopenias). Leukocytosis is usually healthy (e.g., fighting an infection), but it also may be dysfunctionally proliferative. WBC proliferative disorders can be classed as myeloproliferative and lymphoproliferative. Some are autoimmune, but many are neoplastic. Another way to categorize disorders of white blood cells is qualitatively. There are various disorders in which the number of white blood cells is normal but the cells do not function normally. Neoplasia of WBCs can be benign but is often malignant. Of the various

neg: Kupffer cell Kupffer cell Kupffer cells, also known as stellate macrophages and Kupffer-Browicz cells, are specialized macrophages located in the liver, lining the walls of the sinusoids. They form part of the mononuclear phagocyte system. Their development begins in the yolk sac where they differentiate into fetal macrophages. Once they enter the blood stream, they migrate to the fetal liver where they stay. There they complete their differentiation into Kupffer cells. Apart from clearing any bacteria, red blood cells are also broken down by phagocytic action, where the hemoglobin molecule is split. The globin chains are re-utilized, while the iron-containing portion, heme,

neg: Parallel-plate flow chamber cellular mechanics on the benchtop. Many researchers used parallel-plate flow chambers to investigate the dynamic adhesion between leukocytes (white blood cells) and endothelial cells (blood vessel lining cells) under definite shear stress. In particular, some studies have been carried out to study leukocyte receptor-ligand interactions. Interactions between cell receptors (selectins and/or integrins) and their ligands mediate rolling and are believed to play an important role in leukocyte adhesion. Moreover, many researchers used parallel-plate flow chambers to provide shear stress and to mimic the environment of cancer cell growth outside of the body. It is a versatile tool in understanding the

neg: Polyclonal B cell response infectious diseases is very important for the survival of the organism, in particular, and the species, in general. This is achieved by the host by eliminating the pathogen and its toxins or rendering them nonfunctional. The collection of various cells, tissues and organs that specializes in protecting the body against infections is known as the immune system. The immune system accomplishes this through direct contact of certain white blood cells with the invading pathogen involving an arm of the immune system known as the cell-mediated immunity, or by producing substances that move to sites "distant" from where they are produced,

neg: Plateletpheresis that can still stimulate a dangerous response from the immune system. In addition, simple filtration can lead to increased risks of infection and loss of valuable platelets. Newer, more advanced thrombapheresis machines can filter white blood cells during separation. For example, with marginally acceptable whole blood (white blood cells: < 10,000/mm³; platelets: > 150,000/mm³), a dose (3×10) of platelets comes with about 2×10 white blood cells. This can seriously damage the patient's health. A dose of single-donor platelets prepared using latest filters can contain as little as 5×10 white blood cells. There are two types of manual platelet apheresis. Platelet-rich

neg: Allergy or agricultural, and there is a higher rate of allergic disease in urban populations versus rural populations, although these differences are becoming less defined. Alterations in exposure to microorganisms is another plausible explanation, at present, for the increase in atopic allergy. Endotoxin exposure reduces release of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IFNγ, interleukin-10, and interleukin-12 from white blood cells (leukocytes) that circulate in the blood. Certain microbe-sensing proteins, known as Toll-like receptors, found on the surface of cells in the body are also thought to be involved in these processes. Gutworms and similar parasites are present in untreated drinking water

neg: Band cell or inflammation in the body. Blood reference ranges for neutrophilic band cells in adults are 3 to 5% of white blood cells, or up to 0.7 x10/L. An excess may sometimes be referred to as bandemia. Band cell A band cell (also called band neutrophil, band form or stab cell) is a cell undergoing granulopoiesis, derived from a metamyelocyte, and leading to a mature granulocyte. It is characterized by having a curved but not lobular nucleus. The term "band cell" implies a granulocytic lineage (e.g., neutrophils). Band neutrophils are an intermediary step prior to the complete maturation of segmented neutrophils.

neg: Karyotype applied after cells have been arrested during cell division by a solution of colchicine usually in metaphase or prometaphase when most condensed. In order for the Giemsa stain to adhere correctly, all chromosomal proteins must be digested and removed. For humans, white blood cells are used most frequently because they are easily induced to divide and grow in tissue culture. Sometimes observations may be made on non-dividing (interphase) cells. The sex of an unborn fetus can be determined by observation of interphase cells (see amniotic centesis and Barr body). Six different characteristics of karyotypes are usually observed and compared: A

neg: CD8+ cell first step occurs in the bone marrow, where hematopoietic stem cells are made into lymphoid progenitor cells. These lymphoid progenitor cells will then move to the thymus, where they will be made into naïve CD8+ T cells. These naïve CD8+ T cells will then move into the blood and circulate around the body. CD8+ T cells are characterized by a CD8 protein on their cell surface that functions to recognize and bind infected cells. The CD8 protein is composed of a CD8α and CD8β chain; Each CD8 protein has a molecular weight of around 34 kDa. Infected nucleated cells will