query: the results of dehydration reactions can be reversed by

pos: Dehydration reaction Dehydration reaction In chemistry, a dehydration reaction is a conversion that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule or ion. Dehydration reactions are common processes, the reverse of a hydration reaction. Common dehydrating agents used in organic synthesis include sulfuric acid and alumina. Often dehydration reactions are effected with heating. The classic example of a dehydration reaction is the Fischer esterification, which involves treating a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a dehydrating agent: Two monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, can be joined together (to form sucrose) using dehydration synthesis. The new molecule, consisting

neg: Azeotropic distillation component cannot be fully purified by distillation. To obtain the pure material one must "break the azeotrope", which involves a separation method that does not rely on distillation. A common approach involves the use of molecular sieves. Treatment of 96% ethanol with molecular sieves gives the anhydrous alcohol, the sieves having adsorbed water from the mixture. The sieves can be subsequently regenerated by dehydration using a vacuum oven. In organic chemistry, some dehydration reactions are subject to unfavorable but fast equilibria. One example is the formation of dioxolanes from aldehydes: Such unfavorable reactions proceed when water is removed by azeotropic

neg: Amphibolic a protein into amino acids or a triglyceride into fatty acids or a disaccharide into monosaccharides are all hydrolysis or catabolic reactions. Second, oxidation reactions involve the removal of hydrogens and electrons from an organic molecule) and anabolism(the biosynthesis phase of metabolism in which smaller simple precursor are converted to large and complex molecule of the cell. Anabolism has two classes of reactions, which are dehydration synthesis reaction, this type involves the joining of smaller molecules together to form larger, more complex molecules. This occurs through dehydration synthesis reactions. These are the most common ways smaller organic molecules can be

neg: Okadaic acid with several unusual reactions is what allows for the formation of the functionality of okadaic acid. Carbon deletion and addition at the alpha and beta position comprise the other transformations present in the okadaic acid biosynthesis. Carbon deletion occurs by way of a Favorskii rearrangement and subsequent decarboxylation. Attack of a ketone in the growing chain by enzyme-bound acetates, and subsequent decarboxylation/dehydration results in an olefin replacing the ketone, in both alpha and beta alkylation. After this the olefin can isomerize to more thermodynamically stable positions, or can be activated for cyclizations, in order to produce the natural product. To

neg: Phenylboronic acid with BBr, followed by hydrolysis form phenylboronic acid. Aryl halides or triflates can be coupled with diboronyl reagents using transition metal catalysts. Aromatic C-H functionalization can also be done using transition metal catalysts. The dehydration of boronic acids gives boroxines, the trimeric anhydrides of phenylboronic acid. The dehydration reaction is driven thermally, sometimes with a dehydration agent. Phenylboronic acid participates in numerous cross coupling reactions where is serves as a source of a phenyl group. One example is the Suzuki reaction where, in the presence of a Pd(0) catalyst and base, phenylboronic acid and vinyl halides are coupled to produce

neg: Hydrothermal liquefaction in the form of HO (dehydration) and CO (decarboxylation). These reactions result in the production of high H/C ratio bio-oil. Simplified descriptions of dehydration and decarboxylation reactions can be found in the literature (e.g. Asghari and Yoshida (2006) and Snåre et al. (2007)) Most applications of hydrothermal liquefaction operate at temperatures between 250-550C and high pressures of 5-25 MPa as well as catalysts for 20–60 minutes, although higher or lower temperatures can be used to optimize gas or liquid yields, respectively. At these temperatures and pressures, the water present in the biomass becomes either subcritical or supercritical, depending on the

neg: Addition reaction Addition reaction An addition reaction, in organic chemistry, is in its simplest terms an organic reaction where two or more molecules combine to form a larger one (the adduct). Addition reactions are limited to chemical compounds that have multiple bonds, such as molecules with carbon–carbon double bonds (alkenes), or with triple bonds (alkynes). Molecules containing carbon—hetero double bonds like carbonyl (C=O) groups, or imine (C=N) groups, can undergo addition, as they too have double-bond character. An addition reaction is the reverse of an elimination reaction. For instance, the hydration of an alkene to an alcohol is reversed by dehydration. There

neg: 1,6-Hexanediol 1,6-Hexanediol 1,6-Hexanediol (HOCH(CH)CHOH) is a colorless crystalline solid that melts at 42 °C and boils at 250 °C. It is soluble in water and is hygroscopic. 1,6-Hexanediol is prepared industrially by the hydrogenation of adipic acid. Laboratory synthesis can be done by reduction of adipic acid with lithium aluminium hydride, however, since it is cheaply and commercially available, it is usually not synthesized in the laboratory. As 1,6-hexanediol contains the hydroxyl group, it undergoes the typical chemical reactions of alcohols such as dehydration, substitution, esterification. Dehydration of 1,6-hexanediol gives oxepane, 2-methyltetrahydropyran and 2-ethyltetrahydrofuran. Corresponding thiophene and pyrrolidone can be made

neg: Intermediate moisture food The water is replaced by the humectant, which results in a lowered water activity for the food product. Osmotic dehydration process results in two way mass transfer in regards to the moisture lost and the solids gained, with moisture loss being much greater than the addition of solids. Advantages of osmotic dehydration include low processing temperatures, short drying times, and 20-30% lower energy consumption than typical dehydration processes. Sugar is used as the humectant for candied intermediate moisture fruits, and salt is used for intermediate moisture vegetables and fish. Additionally, a mixture of humectants can be formulated to manipulate the

neg: Basic metabolic panel of a CHEM-7 are tests for: These levels, taken as a set, can be rapidly performed to indicate several common acute conditions requiring immediate specific medical treatment, such as dehydration/hypovolemia, water intoxication (which can present with similar symptoms to dehydration but requires the opposite treatment), diabetic shock (either ketoacidosis, hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia), congestive heart failure, renal failure or liver failure, various substance overdoses or adverse reactions, and others. A Chem-7 is thus a vital tool when attempting to stabilize a patient. Calcium (Ca) is often considered part of the BMP, though, by definition, it is not part of the CHEM-7.

neg: Nitrile the cyanohydrin reaction. Because of the polarity of the organic carbonyl, this reaction requires no catalyst, unlike the hydrocyanation of alkenes. O-Silyl cyanohydrins are generated by the addition trimethylsilyl cyanide in the presence of a catalyst (silylcyanation). Cyanohydrins are also prepared by transcyanohydrin reactions starting, for example, with acetone cyanohydrin as a source of HCN. Nitriles can be prepared by the dehydration of primary amides. In the presence of ethyl dichlorophosphate and DBU benzamide converts to benzonitrile: In a related dehydration, secondary amides give nitriles by the von Braun amide degradation. In this case, one C-N bond is cleaved. The

neg: Ether elevated temperatures (about 125 °C). The reaction is catalyzed by acids, usually sulfuric acid. The method is effective for generating symmetrical ethers, but not unsymmetrical ethers, since either OH can be protonated, which would give a mixture of products. Diethyl ether is produced from ethanol by this method. Cyclic ethers are readily generated by this approach. Elimination reactions compete with dehydration of the alcohol: The dehydration route often requires conditions incompatible with delicate molecules. Several milder methods exist to produce ethers. Nucleophilic displacement of alkyl halides by alkoxides This reaction is called the Williamson ether synthesis. It involves treatment of

neg: Breeding for drought stress tolerance Breeding for drought stress tolerance Breeding for drought resistance is the process of breeding plants with the goal of reducing the impact of dehydration on plant growth. In nature or crop fields, water is often the most limiting factor for plant growth. If plants do not receive adequate rainfall or irrigation, the resulting dehydration stress can reduce growth more than all other environmental stresses combined. Drought can be defined as the absence of rainfall or irrigation for a period of time sufficient to deplete soil moisture and cause dehydration in plant tissues. Dehydration stress results when water loss from the

neg: Boroxine boroxines are produced from their corresponding boronic acids by dehydration. This dehydration can be done either by a drying agent or by heating under a high vacuum. A more recent synthesis of trimethylboroxine involves the reaction of carbon monoxide with borane (BH) and lithium borohydride (LiBH) as a catalyst: Trimethylboroxine is used in the methylation of various aryl halides through palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions: Another form of the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reaction exhibits selectivity to aryl chlorides: Boroxines have also been examined as precursors to monomeric oxoborane, HB≡O. This compound quickly converts back to the cyclic boroxine, even at low temperatures.

neg: Piranha solution atomic oxygen reaction initiates significant "unraveling" of the local bonding structure, which in turn allows a wide range of aqueous reactions to affect previously impervious carbon atoms. Further oxidation, for example, can convert the initial carbonyl group into carbon dioxide and create a new carbonyl group on the neighbouring carbon whose bonds were disrupted: The carbon removed by piranha solution may be either original residues or char from the dehydration step. The oxidation process is slower than the dehydration process, taking place over a period of minutes. The oxidation of carbon exhibits itself as a gradual clearing of suspended soot

neg: Bioconjugation be introduced by incorporating unnatural amino acids via the Tirrell method or Schultz method. They will then selectively condense with an alkoxyamine and a hydrazine, producing oxime and hydrazone derivatives (shown in the first and second reactions, respectively, in Figure 6). This reaction is highly chemoselective in terms of protein bioconjugation, but the reaction rate is slow. The mechanistic studies show that the rate determining step is the dehydration of tetrahedral intermediate, so a mild acidic solution is often employed to accelerate the dehydration step. The introduction of nucleophilic catalyst can significantly enhance reaction rate (shown in Figure 7). For

neg: Terminal dehydration sprays There can be a fine line between terminal sedation that results in death by dehydration and euthanasia. Studies have shown that for terminally ill patients who choose to die, deaths by terminal dehydration are generally peaceful, and not associated with suffering, when supplemented with adequate pain medication. All ages may feel sudden head rushes, dizziness, and loss of appetite, as well. Members of the Buddhist Sokushinbutsu sect of Japan historically practiced a form of self-mummification which in part was achieved by the forgoing of all food and liquid until death. In the Netherlands, debate has broken out about terminal

neg: Methylthiomethyl ether Methylthiomethyl ether In organic chemistry a methylthiomethyl (MTM) ether is a protective group for hydroxyl groups. Hydroxyl groups are present in many chemical compounds and they must be protected during oxidation, acylation, halogenation, dehydration and other reactions to which they are susceptible. Many kinds of protective groups for hydroxyl groups have been developed and used in organic chemistry, but the number of protective groups for tertiary hydroxyl groups, which are susceptible to acid-catalyzed dehydration, is still small because of their poor reactiveness. They can be easily protected with MTM ethers and recovered in good yield. To introduce an MTM ether

neg: Solid oxide electrolyser cell low operating costs. However, the greatest disadvantage is the high operating temperature, which results in long start-up times and break-in times. The high operating temperature also leads to mechanical compatibility issues such as thermal expansion mismatch and chemical stability issues such as diffusion between layers of material in the cell In principle, the process of any fuel cell could be reversed, due to the inherent reversibility of chemical reactions. However, a given fuel cell is usually optimized for operating in one mode and may not be built in such a way that it can be operated in reverse. Fuel cells

neg: Porphyry copper deposit of young, buoyant slabs can result in the production of adakitic lavas via partial melting. Alternatively, metasomatised mantle wedges can produce highly oxidized conditions that results in sulfide minerals releasing ore minerals (copper, gold, molybdenum), which are then able to be transported to upper crustal levels. Mantle melting can also be induced by transitions from convergent to transform margins, as well as the steepening and trenchward retreat of the subducted slab. However, the latest belief is that dehydration that occurs at the blueschist-eclogite transition affects most subducted slabs, rather than partial melting. After dehydration, solute-rich fluids are released from the

neg: Methacrylonitrile monoethyl ether. The polymerization of MeAN is carried out in tetrahydrofuran (THF) with the disodium salt of polyethylene oxide (PEO). MeAN is also commercially produced by the vapor-phase reaction of isobutylene with ammonia and oxygen in the presence of a catalyst. Acetonitrile, hydrogen cyanide and acrolein are known by-products. It is used in the preparation of homo- and copolymers, elastomers, coatings and plastics. It can be used as a replacement for acrylonitrile in similar reactions. MeAN can also be synthesized by dehydration of methacrylamide or from isopropylene oxide and ammonia. MeAN can undergo electropolymerization, if it is submitted to electroreduction

neg: 4-Ipomeanol group after protonation, which converts the leaving group from OH to HO. HO is a weaker base than OH and can thus undergo substitution reactions with weakly basic nucleophiles. This reaction occurs following a SN2 mechanism, as 4-IPO is a secondary alcohol. Dehydration of the at the pentanone substituted alcohol group is also possible, following an E1 reaction mechanism. This reaction is acid-catalyzed and results in the loss of a water molecule. Like with the SN1 reaction, protonation of the leaving group is required first. Water then is eliminated, leaving behind a carbocation, which leads eventually to alkene formation. Furthermore,

neg: Alkene halide or alkyl sulfonate ester (such as a tosylate or triflate). When an alkyl halide is used, the reaction is called a dehydrohalogenation. For unsymmetrical products, the more substituted alkenes (those with fewer hydrogens attached to the C=C) tend to predominate (see Zaitsev's rule). Two common methods of elimination reactions are dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides and dehydration of alcohols. A typical example is shown below; note that if possible, the H is "anti" to the leaving group, even though this leads to the less stable "Z"-isomer. Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via dehydration, in which case water is lost

neg: Thiolactone Thiolactone Thiolactones are a class of heterocyclic compounds in organic chemistry. They are analogs of the more common lactones in which an oxygen atom is replaced with a sulfur atom. The sulfur atom is within the ring system and adjacent to a carbonyl group. Thiolactones can be prepared by dehydration of thiol-containing carboxylic acids. Thiolactones can be hydrolyzed back to the thiol acids under basic conditions. β-Thiolactones can be opened by reaction at the 4-position via S2 nucleophilic reactions. The most common thiolactone, homocysteine thiolactone is produced biochemically from homocysteine and it may play a role in protein damage. The

neg: Benzenesulfonic acid chemistry". Benzenesulfonic acid exhibits the reactions typical of other aromatic sulfonic acids, forming sulfonamides, sulfonyl chloride, and esters. The sulfonation is reversed above 220 °C. Dehydration with phosphorus pentoxide gives benzenesulfonic acid anhydride ((CHSO)O). Conversion to the corresponding benzenesulfonyl chloride (CHSOCl) is effected with phosphorus pentachloride. It is a strong acid, being almost fully dissociated in water. Benzenesulfonic acid and related compounds undergo desulfonation when heated in water near 200 °C. The temperature of desulfonation correlates with the ease of the sulfonation: The alkali metal salt of benzenesulfonic acid was once used in the industrial production of phenol. The process,

neg: 4-Ipomeanol (20), is firstly by undergoing elimination of a ketone group, followed by again dehydration in combination with GSH conjugation. The dihydrohydroxyfuran adduct can also undergo dehydration in combination with GSH conjugation in a similar way as the Michael adduct, which results in a bis-GSH pyrrole adduct (19). Furthermore, the dihydrohydroxyfuran can dehydrate and form a mono-GSH pyrrole adduct (17). Distribution of 4-IPO across tissues shows the same patterns for intravenous, oral and intraperitoneal injection and peak concentrations are achieved one to two hours after administration. By then most of the 4-IPO will be located in the lungs, followed by liver,

neg: Deep-focus earthquake solution of deep-focus earthquakes. Dehydration reactions of mineral phases with high weight percent water would increase the pore pressure in a subducted oceanic lithosphere slab. This effect reduces the effective normal stress in the slab and allow slip to occur on pre-existing fault planes at significantly greater depths that would normally be possible. Several workers suggest that this mechanism does not play a significant role in seismic activity beyond 350 km depth due to the fact that most dehydration reactions will have reached completion by a pressure corresponding to 150 to 300 km depth (5-10 GPa). Transformational faulting, also known

neg: 6-Deoxyerythronolide B synthase which produced a 5-keto macrolide instead of the usual 5-hydroxy macrolide. Since then, deletion or inactivation (often via introduction of point mutations) of many active sites to skip reduction and/or dehydration reactions have been created. Such modifications target the various KR, DH, ER active sites seen on different modules in DEBS. In fact, whole modules can be deleted in order to reduce the chain-length of the polyketides and alter the cycle of reduction/dehydration normally seen. In one of the first reorganizations of DEBS, a copy of the terminal TE was placed at the end of each module in separate trials,

neg: Woodward–Hoffmann rules may undergo intersystem crossing, radiationless decay, or relax to an unfavorable equilibrium geometry before the excited-state pericyclic process can take place. Thus, many apparent pericyclic reactions that take place under irradiation are actually thought to be stepwise processes involving diradical intermediates. Nevertheless, it is frequently observed that the pericyclic selection rules become reversed when switching from thermal to photochemical activation. This can be rationalized by considering the correlation of the first electronic excited states of the reactants and products. Although more of a useful heuristic than a rule, a corresponding generalized selection principle for photochemical pericyclic reactions can be stated:

neg: Terminal dehydration Terminal dehydration Terminal dehydration is dehydration to the point of death, potentially as a suicide method. Some scholars make a distinction between "terminal dehydration" and "termination by dehydration". Courts in the United States generally do not recognize prisoners as having a right to die by voluntary dehydration, since they view it as suicide. During terminal dehydration, the usual symptoms of dehydration, such as headache and leg cramps, can occur. Unlike many other suicide methods, it cannot be accomplished impulsively. However, a "point of no return" can eventually be reached at which, should it be desired to abort the terminal dehydration,

neg: 2013 Huang Case in Qatar family was even at the Huang's home the night before Gloria's death, where they say that they witnessed Gloria walking around and sitting with the family. While the death certificate indicated that the causes of death as "cachexia and dehydration," an independent review performed by a US pediatric forensic pathologist questioned the determination. The formal definition of cachexia is the loss of body mass that cannot be reversed nutritionally. Cachexia can produce symptoms such as weight loss and muscle atrophy, which often looks similar to starvation, and can be caused by a range of conditions, including congestive heart failure and

neg: Diabetes in dogs also cause false negative or positive urine ketone test results. Hyperglycemia means more of a risk for dehydration. Hypoglycemia, or low blood glucose, can happen even with care, since insulin requirements can change without warning. Some common reasons for hypoglycemia include increased or unplanned exercise, illness, or medication interactions, where another medication potentiates the effects of the insulin. Vomiting and diarrhea episodes can bring on a hypoglycemia reaction, due to dehydration or simply a case of too much insulin and not enough properly digested food. Symptoms of hypoglycemia need to be taken seriously and addressed promptly. Since serious hypoglycemia can

neg: Swern oxidation ion to give the sulfur ylide 7. In a five-membered ring transition state, the sulfur ylide 7 decomposes to give dimethyl sulfide and the desired carbonyl compound 8. When using oxalyl chloride as the dehydration agent, the reaction must be kept colder than −60 °C to avoid side reactions. With cyanuric chloride or trifluoroacetic anhydride instead of oxalyl chloride, the reaction can be warmed to −30 °C without side reactions. Other methods for the activation of DMSO to initiate the formation of the key intermediate 6 are the use of carbodiimides (Pfitzner–Moffatt oxidation), a sulfur trioxide pyridine complex (Parikh–Doering oxidation)

neg: Photoactivatable fluorescent protein had been partly cloudy, the red sample had been exposed to sunlight through the south-facing windows. Many PAFPs have been engineered from existing fluorescent proteins or identified from large-scale screens in the wake of Kaede's discovery. Many of these undergo green-to-red photoconversions, but other colors are available. Some proteins take part in irreversible photoconversion reactions while other reactions can be reversed using light of a specific wavelength. Unlike other fluorescent proteins, PAFPs can be used as selective optical markers. An entirely labeled cell can be followed to assess cell division, migration, and morphology. Very small volumes containing PAFPs can be

neg: Nitroethylene reports that highlight its instability, however, it has been found to be stable as a standard solution in benzene for at least 6 months when stored in a refrigerator (-10 °C). Nitroethene can be produced by reacting nitromethane with formaldehyde or paraformaldehyde (a polymeric form) to form 2-nitroethanol, which can then undergo an E2 acid-catalyzed dehydration reaction. Alternatively, nitroethene may be produced via thermal dehydratation of 2-nitroethanol in the presence of phtalic anhydride. Nitroethylene is a very electron deficient molecule. As a result, nitroethylene usually acts as the electrophile in reactions. Nitroethylene is capable of reacting spontaneously at temperatures as

neg: Sulfuric acid to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with sodium acetate, for example, displaces acetic acid, , and forms sodium bisulfate: Similarly, reacting sulfuric acid with potassium nitrate can be used to produce nitric acid and a precipitate of potassium bisulfate. When combined with nitric acid, sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion , which is important in nitration reactions involving electrophilic aromatic substitution. This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols. When allowed

neg: Aromatization 283 °C, the melting point of the zinc chloride catalyst, the reaction has a ΔG of −1090 kJ mol. Non aromatic rings can be aromatized through a variety of simple transformations. Dehydration allows the Semmler-Wolff transformation of 2-cyclohexenone oxime to aniline under acidic conditions. In applying redox processes, 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) and an acid catalyst has been used to synthesise a steroid with a phenanthrene core by oxidatation accompanied by a double methyl migration. In the process, DDQ is itself reduced into an aromatic hydroquinone product. Redox reactions involving transition metals can also be used to produce aromatic systems which then

neg: Amikacin dehydration, fever, and sepsis, as well as those taking antiprostaglandins. The toxicity usually reverts once the antibiotic course has been completed, and can be avoided altogether by less frequent dosing (such as once every 24 hours rather than once every 8 hours). Amikacin can cause neuromuscular blockade (including acute muscular paralysis) and respiratory paralysis (including apnea). Rare side effects (occurring in fewer than 1% of users) include allergic reactions, skin rash, fever, headaches, tremor, nausea and vomiting, eosinophilia, arthralgia, anemia, hypotension, and hypomagnesemia. In intravitreous injections (where amikacin is injected into the eye), macular infarction can cause permanent vision loss.

neg: 2,2,5,5-Tetramethyltetrahydrofuran by the mycelium of "Tuber borchii", a mushroom similar to the truffle. The compound can be prepared by treating 2,5-dimethylhexane-2,5-diol with sulfuric acid. TMTHF reacts with benzene in the presence of triflic acid to form 1,1,4,4-dimethyltetralin and symmetric tetramethyloctahydroanthracene. This and other similar reactions can be used for the selective preparation of derivatives of naphthalene, anthracene, and tetracene, and other fused-ring aromatic hydrocarbons. TMTHF undergoes photolysis by UV; in aqueous solution, the products are mainly methane, ethane, and 2-hydroxy-2,5,5-trimethyltetrahydrofuran. The dehydration of TMTHF yields alkenes like 2,5-dimethyl-2,4-hexadiene and 2,5-dimethyl-1,5-hexadiene. Reaction with fluorine substitutes it for all hydrogen atoms to yield

neg: Chemical reaction dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue and slow process can yield single crystals. The latter can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts. Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to

neg: Alexander Dianin Catalysed dimerisation of acetone via an aldol condensation is well known, and yields diacetone alcohol and (by dehydration) mesityl oxide in both acidic and basic conditions. The "in situ" generation of mesityl oxide adds another reactive olefin to the mixture. In cases where an olefinic moiety can interact with a phenolic hydoxyl group (tyupically as a result of "ortho"-substitution), rapid cyclisation reactions producing flavans and chromans occur. This is the source of Dianin's compound in the mixture, and Dianin subsequently demonstrated that the compound can be produced in much greater yield by reacting phenol with mesityl oxide directly. Later work

neg: Decarburization which the metal will be used. It is thus both something that can be done intentionally as a step in a manufacturing process, or something that happens as a side effect of a process (such as rolling) and must be either prevented or later reversed (such as via a carburization step). The decarburization mechanism can be described as three distinct events: the reaction at the steel surface, the interstitial diffusion of carbon atoms and the dissolution of carbides within the steel. The most common reactions are: also called the Boudouard reaction Other reactions are Electrical steel is one material that

neg: Bath salts (drug) cold fingers, Hallucinations, paranoia, and panic attacks. News media have reported reactions that include violent behavior, heart attack, kidney failure, liver failure, suicide, an increased tolerance for pain, dehydration, and breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue. Contrary to popular belief, investigators found no connection to bath salts in the Miami cannibal attack. Visual symptoms similar to those of stimulant overdoses include dilated pupils, involuntary muscle movement, rapid heartbeat, and high blood pressure. MDPV and other synthetic cathinones cannot be smelled by detection dogs and are not detected by typical urinalysis, though they can be detected in urine and hair using gas

neg: Ketoacidosis of pyruvate, and can cause unchecked ketone body production (through fatty acid metabolism) potentially leading to dangerous glucose and ketone levels in the blood. Hyperglycemia results in glucose overloading the kidneys and spilling into the urine (transport maximum for glucose is exceeded). Dehydration results following the osmotic movement of water into urine (Osmotic diuresis), exacerbating the acidosis. In alcoholic ketoacidosis, alcohol causes dehydration and blocks the first step of gluconeogenesis by depleting oxaloacetate. The body is unable to synthesize enough glucose to meet its needs, thus creating an energy crisis resulting in fatty acid metabolism, and ketone body formation. Ketoacidosis

neg: Suicide methods as causing less suffering and pain and being more peaceful than physician-assisted suicide. Other sources, however, have noted very painful side effects of dehydration, including seizures, skin cracking and bleeding, blindness, nausea, vomiting, cramping and severe headaches. There can be a fine line between terminal sedation that results in death by dehydration and euthanasia. A suicide attack is an attack in which the attacker ("attacker" being either an individual or a group) intends to kill others and intends to die in the process of doing so (e.g. Columbine, Virginia Tech and 9/11). In a suicide attack in the strictest sense,

neg: Alkene via the E1 mechanism. For example, the dehydration of ethanol produces ethene: An alcohol may also be converted to a better leaving group (e.g., xanthate), so as to allow a milder "syn"-elimination such as the Chugaev elimination and the Grieco elimination. Related reactions include eliminations by β-haloethers (the Boord olefin synthesis) and esters (ester pyrolysis). Alkenes can be prepared indirectly from alkyl amines. The amine or ammonia is not a suitable leaving group, so the amine is first either alkylated (as in the Hofmann elimination) or oxidized to an amine oxide (the Cope reaction) to render a smooth elimination possible.

neg: Supercritical water oxidation less like a polar solvent. As a result, the solubility behavior is "reversed" so that chlorinated hydrocarbons become soluble in the water, allowing single-phase reaction of aqueous waste with a dissolved oxidizer. The reversed solubility also causes salts to precipitate out of solution, meaning they can be treated using conventional methods for solid-waste residuals. Efficient oxidation reactions occur at low temperature (400-650 °C) with reduced NOx production. SCWO can be classified as green chemistry or as a Clean Technology. The elevated pressures and temperatures required for SCWO are routinely encountered in industrial applications such as petroleum refining and chemical synthesis.

neg: Instant soup helps them retain their nutritional value, texture, and flavor. Furthermore, as the food remains rigid during dehydration, subliming water creates holes where the evaporated ice crystals used to be. This allows freeze-dried foods such as vegetables to retain their shape without shrinkage, and these foods rehydrate completely when water is added to the mix that fills the voids left by the subliming water. Due to the reduced water content of the freeze-dried foods that inhibit the growth of microorganisms and prevents enzymatic chemical reactions, these foods are considered shelf-stable and can be kept safe from spoilage for years by preventing

neg: Cyanamide The main reaction exhibited by cyanamide involves additions of compounds containing an acidic proton. Water, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen selenide react with cyanamide to give urea, thiourea, and selenourea, respectively: In this way, cyanamide behaves as a dehydration agent and thus can induce condensation reactions. Alcohols, thiols, and amines react analogously to give alkylisoureas, "pseudothioureas," and guanidines. The anti-ulcer drug cimetidine is generated using such reactivity. Related reactions exploit the bifunctionality of cyanamide to give heterocycles, and this latter reactivity is the basis of several pharmaceutical syntheses such as the aminopyrimidine imatinib) and agrichemicals Amitrol and hexazinone. The hair-loss treatment

neg: Piranha solution in particular, elemental carbon in the form of soot or char. This second and far more interesting process can be understood as the sulfuric-acid boosted conversion of hydrogen peroxide from a relatively mild oxidizing agent into one sufficiently aggressive to dissolve elemental carbon, a material that is notoriously resistant to room-temperature aqueous reactions. This transformation can be viewed as the energetically favourable dehydration of hydrogen peroxide to form hydronium ions, bisulfate ions, and, transiently, atomic oxygen: It is this extremely reactive atomic oxygen species that allows piranha solution to dissolve elemental carbon. Carbon allotropes are difficult to attack chemically because

neg: Primary cell batteries achieve very long storage time (on the order of 10 years or more) without loss of capacity, by physically separating the components of the battery and only assembling them at the time of use. Such constructions are expensive but are found in applications like munitions, which may be stored for years before use. Attempts to extend the life of primary cells, for example by recharging alkaline batteries, meet with variable results. Third-party devices are manufactured and represented as being able to recharge primary cells. The internal chemical reactions of a primary cell are not easily reversed by externally applied

neg: Paal–Knorr synthesis conditions involved prolonged heating of strong acids to drive dehydration which occurred over a period of several hours. Microwave-assisted Paal–Knorr reactions have been demonstrated to occur on time scales measured in minutes and in open flasks at room temperature. The Knorr pyrrole synthesis, reported by Knorr in 1884 is the synthesis of a substituted pyrrole from an amino-ketone and a ketone. Also reported by Knorr is a synthesis of pyrazoles from 1,3-dicarbonyls and hydrazines, hydrazides, or semibicarbazides. This synthesis occurs via a condensation mechanism similar to the Paal-Knorr, however if a substituted hydrazine is used, it results in a mixture

neg: Dehydration reaction of two monosaccharides, is called a disaccharide. The process of hydrolysis is the reverse reaction, meaning that the water is recombined with the two hydroxyl groups and the disaccharide reverts to being monosaccharides. In the related condensation reaction water is released from two different reactants. In organic synthesis, there are many examples of dehydration reaction, for example dehydration of alcohols or sugars. Other examples of dehydration synthesis reactions are the formation of triglycerides from fatty acids and the formation of glycosidic bonds between carbohydrate molecules, such as the formation of maltose from two glucose molecules. Dehydration reaction In chemistry, a

neg: Acquired non-inflammatory myopathy the putative deficiency state because false-positive results can occur. Treatment for acquired noninflammatory myopathy is directed towards resolution of the underlying condition, pain management, and muscle rehabilitation. Drug induced ANIMs can be reversed or improved by tapering off of the drugs and finding alternative care. Hyperthyroidism induced ANIM can be treated through anti-thyroid drugs, surgery and not eating foods high in Iodine such as kelp. Treatment of the hyperthyroidism results in complete recovery of the myopathy. ANIM caused by vitamin D deficiency can easily be resolved by taking vitamin supplements and increasing one's exposure to direct sunlight. Pain can be

neg: Cocamidopropyl betaine of about 30%. Typical impurities of leading manufacturers today: The impurities AA and DMAPA are most critical, as they have been shown to be responsible for skin sensitation reactions. These by-products can be avoided by a moderate excess chloroacetate and the exact adjustment of pH value during betainization reaction accompanied by regular analytical control. CAPB has been claimed to cause allergic reactions in some users, but a controlled pilot study has found that these cases may represent irritant reactions rather than true allergic reactions. Furthermore, results of human studies have shown that CAPB has a low sensitizing potential if impurities

neg: Carbonyldiimidazole CDI can act as a carbonyl equivalent in the formation of tetronic acids or pulvinones from hydroxyketones and diketones in basic conditions. An alcohol treated with at least 3 equivalents of an activated halide (such as allyl bromide or iodomethane) and CDI yields the corresponding halide with good yield. Bromination and iodination work best, though this reaction does not preserve the stereochemistry of the alcohol. In a similar context, CDI is often used in dehydration reactions. As CDI is an equivalent of phosgene, it can be used in similar reaction, however, with increased selectivity: it allows the synthesis of asymmetric

neg: Elementary reaction reaction. This rate expression can be derived from first principles by using collision theory for ideal gases. For the case of dilute fluids equivalent results have been obtained from simple probabilistic arguments. According to collision theory the probability of three chemical species reacting simultaneously with each other in a termolecular elementary reaction is negligible. Hence such termolecular reactions are commonly referred as non-elementary reactions and can be broken down into a more fundamental set of bimolecular reactions, in agreement with the law of mass action. However it is not always possible to derive overall reaction schemes but solutions based on

neg: Dehydration skin and respiratory tract. In humans, dehydration can be caused by a wide range of diseases and states that impair water homeostasis in the body. These occur primarily through either impaired thirst/water access or sodium excess. Dehydration occurs when water intake is not enough to replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing, urination, and perspiration, or other causes, including diarrhea and vomiting. Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also carries the risk of osmotic cerebral edema if rehydration is overly rapid. The term dehydration has sometimes been used

neg: Pharmacokinetics of estradiol found to be 20%. Factors which may contribute to inter- and intraindividual variability with transdermal estradiol include skin location and thickness; hair follicle density; solvent (alcohol) evaporation; skin dehydration, ambient temperature, and humidity; and reservoir size. Estradiol patches are associated with local skin reactions and such as irritation in 14.2% of individuals (with reservoir patches), mild-to-moderate erythema (redness) in 50 to 60% of individuals, and allergic reactions due to cutaneous sensitization. Up to 5% of people using reservoir patches may discontinue therapy due to skin reactions. Visible adhesive residues are also often left by estradiol patches following their removal. Vaginal

neg: Capnellene intramolecular aldol condensation, formed the third ring and a simple dehydration reaction yielded the target capnellene. Since the first synthesis, many investigators have successfully assembled capnellene and its derivatives. Approaches to this synthesis are diverse, and include central steps such as annululation, olefin metathesis, radical cyclization, and trapping reactions. The most heavily cited synthesis in the literature involves two key intermediates formed by a Stille reaction, the palladium-catalyzed coupling of vinyl triflate with vinyl stannane. The readily prepared trimethylcyclopentanone can be converted into vinyl triflate, which is coupled with vinylstannane in the first palladium-catalyzed step to yield the desired divinyl

neg: Corona discharge oppositely charged plates. The free radicals and ions generated in corona reactions can be used to scrub the air of certain noxious products, through chemical reactions, and can be used to produce ozone. Coronas can generate audible and radio-frequency noise, particularly near electric power transmission lines. Therefore, power transmission equipment is designed to minimise the formation of corona discharge. Corona discharge is generally undesirable in: In many cases coronas can be suppressed by corona rings, toroidal devices that serve to spread the electric field over larger area and decrease the field gradient below the corona threshold. Corona discharge results when

neg: Formic acid participate in addition reactions with alkenes. Formic acids and alkenes readily react to form formate esters. In the presence of certain acids, including sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids, however, a variant of the Koch reaction occurs instead, and formic acid adds to the alkene to produce a larger carboxylic acid. An unstable formic anhydride, H(C=O)−O−(C=O)H, can be obtained by dehydration of formic acid with N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide in ether at low temperature. Some alchemists and naturalists were aware that ant hills give off an acidic vapor as early as the 15th century. The first person to describe the isolation of this substance (by

neg: Molecular scale electronics to migrate and eventually close the gap by a thin filament, which can be broken again when carrying a current. The two levels of conductance imitate molecular switching between a conductive and an isolating state of a molecule. Another encountered artifact is when the electrodes undergo chemical reactions due to the high field strength in the gap. When the voltage bias is reversed, the reaction will cause hysteresis in the measurements that can be interpreted as being of molecular origin. A metallic grain between the electrodes can act as a single electron transistor by the mechanism described above, thus resembling

neg: Feline panleukopenia as by fleas. It may be spread to and by cats, minks and ferrets and can be spread long distances through contact with bedding, food dishes, or even by clothing and shoes of handlers of infected animals. It is not, however, contagious or contractable by humans. Like all parvoviruses, FPV is extremely resistant to inactivation and can survive for longer than one year in a suitable environment. The virus primarily attacks the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, causing internal ulceration and, ultimately, total sloughing of the intestinal epithelium. This results in profuse and usually bloody diarrhea, severe dehydration, malnutrition, anemia,

neg: Petroleum seep of the overlying and adjacent rocks. A secondary cause of overpressure is fluid expansion, due to changes in the volume of solid and/or fluid phases. Some examples include: aquathermal pressuring (thermal expansion), clay dehydration reactions (such as anhydrite) and mineral transformation (such as kerogen to oil/gas and excess kerogen). There are two types of seep that can occur, depending on the degree of overpressure. Capillary failure can occur in moderate overpressure conditions, resulting in widespread but low intensity seepage until the overpressure equalizes and resealing occurs. In some cases, the moderate overpressure cannot be equalized because the pores in the

neg: Nitrile dehydration of aldoximes (RCH=NOH) also affords nitriles. Typical reagents for this transformation are triethylamine/sulfur dioxide, zeolites, or sulfuryl chloride. Exploiting this approach is the One-pot synthesis of nitriles from aldehyde with hydroxylamine in the presence of sodium sulfate. Aromatic nitriles are often prepared in the laboratory from the aniline via diazonium compounds. This is the Sandmeyer reaction. It requires transition metal cyanides. Nitrile groups in organic compounds can undergo a variety of reactions depending on the reactants or conditions. A nitrile group can be hydrolyzed, reduced, or ejected from a molecule as a cyanide ion. The hydrolysis of nitriles RCN

neg: Mantoux test by the healthcare personnel causing inflammation to the area. Another source of false positive results can be allergic reaction or hypersensitivity. Although rare, (about 0.08 reported reactions per million doses of tuberculin), these reactions can be dangerous and precautions should be taken by having epinephrin available. Reaction to the PPD or tuberculin test is suppressed by the following conditions: This is because the immune system needs to be functional to mount a response to the protein derivative injected under the skin. A false negative result may occur in a person who has been recently infected with TB, but whose immune

neg: Chemical reaction network theory complex chemical reactions by Rudolf Wegscheider (1901), development of the quantitative theory of chemical chain reactions by Nikolay Semyonov (1934), development of kinetics of catalytic reactions by Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, and many other results. Three eras of chemical dynamics can be revealed in the flux of research and publications. These eras may be associated with leaders: the first is the van 't Hoff era, the second may be called the Semenov–Hinshelwood era and the third is definitely the Aris era. The "eras" may be distinguished based on the main focuses of the scientific leaders: The mathematical discipline "chemical reaction network

neg: Hydronium reactions involving , it is possible to calculate "k"("T") for each of these reactions. By multiplying these "k"("T") by the relative abundances of the products, the relative rates (in cm/s) for each reaction at a given temperature can be determined. These relative rates can be made in absolute rates by multiplying them by the []. By assuming for a dense cloud and for a diffuse cloud, the results indicate that most dominant formation and destruction mechanisms were the same for both cases. It should be mentioned that the relative abundances used in these calculations correspond to TMC-1, a dense molecular

neg: Tree sort worst-case: When the tree resembles a linked list (degenerate tree). This results in a worst case of time for this sorting algorithm. This worst case occurs when the algorithm operates on an already sorted set, or one that is nearly sorted, reversed or nearly reversed. Expected time can however be achieved by shuffling the array, but this does not help for equal items. The worst-case behaviour can be improved by using a self-balancing binary search tree. Using such a tree, the algorithm has an worst-case performance, thus being degree-optimal for a comparison sort. However, trees require memory to be allocated

neg: Prato reaction by pi stacking. Just as in other fullerene reactions like the Bingel reaction or Diels-Alder reactions this reaction can be reversed. A thermal cycloelimination of a pyrrolidinofullerene with a strong dipolarophile such as maleic acid and a catalyst such as Wilkinson's catalyst or copper triflate in 1,2-dichlorobenzene at reflux 8 to 18 hours regenerates the pristine C fullerene. The dipolarophile is required in a 30 fold excess and traps the ylide driving the reaction to completion. The N-methylpyrrolidine derivative reacts poorly (5% yield) and for a successful reaction the nitrogen ring also requires substitution in the α-position with methyl, phenyl

neg: Dehydration Dehydration In physiology, dehydration is a deficit of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers. Most people can tolerate a three to four percent decrease in total body water without difficulty or adverse health effects. A five to eight percent decrease can cause fatigue and dizziness. Loss of over ten percent of total body water can cause physical and mental

neg: Superflare ammonium and other chemical indicators of combustion. There is no evidence that nitrate concentrations can be used as indicators of historic solar activity. When energetic protons enter the atmosphere they create isotopes by reactions with the major components; the most important of these is carbon-14 (C), which is created when secondary neutrons react with nitrogen. C, which has a half-life of 5,730 years, reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide which is taken up by plants; dating wood by its C content is the basis of radiocarbon dating. If wood of known age is available the process can be reversed.

neg: Abiogenesis reactions in seawater. According to Melvin Calvin, certain reactions of condensation-dehydration of amino acids and nucleotides in individual blocks of peptides and nucleic acids can take place in the primary hydrosphere with pH 9-11 at a later evolutionary stage. Some of these compounds like hydrocyanic acid (HCN) have been proven in the experiments of Miller. This is the environment in which the stromatolites have been created. David Ward of Montana State University described the formation of stromatolites in hot mineral water at the Yellowstone National Park. Stromatolites survive in hot mineral water and in proximity to areas with volcanic activity.

neg: Metamorphism prograde and retrograde metamorphism. Prograde metamorphism involves the change of mineral assemblages (paragenesis) with increasing temperature and (usually) pressure conditions. These are solid state dehydration reactions, and involve the loss of volatiles such as water or carbon dioxide. Prograde metamorphism results in rock characteristic of the maximum pressure and temperature experienced. Metamorphic rocks usually do not undergo further change when they are brought back to the surface. Retrograde metamorphism involves the reconstitution of a rock via revolatisation under decreasing temperatures (and usually pressures), allowing the mineral assemblages formed in prograde metamorphism to revert to those more stable at less extreme

neg: Dacite plate is subducted under continental crust, the subducted slab partially melts and interacts with the upper mantle through convection and dehydration reactions. The process of subduction creates metamorphism in the subducting slab. When this slab reaches the mantle and initiates the dehydration reactions, minerals such as talc, serpentine, mica and amphiboles break down generating a more sodic melt. The magma then continues to migrate upwards causing differentiation and becomes even more sodic and silicic as it rises. Once at the cold surface, the sodium rich magma crystallizes plagioclase, quartz and hornblende. Accessory minerals like pyroxenes provide insight to the history

neg: Monoterpene halomon. In addition to linear attachments, the isoprene units can make connections to form rings. The most common ring size in monoterpenes is a six-membered ring. A classic example is the cyclization of geranyl pyrophosphate to form limonene. The terpinenes, phellandrenes, and terpinolene are formed similarly. Hydroxylation of any of these compounds followed by dehydration can lead to the aromatic p-cymene. Important terpenoids derived from monocyclic terpenes are menthol, thymol, carvacrol and many others. Geranyl pyrophosphate can also undergo two sequential cyclization reactions to form bicyclic monoterpenes, such as pinene which is the primary constituent of pine resin. Other bicyclic

neg: Michaelis–Menten kinetics While the first prediction is well established, the second is more elusive. Mathematical analysis of the effect of enzyme-substrate unbinding on enzymatic reactions at the single-molecule level has shown that unbinding of an enzyme from a substrate can reduce the rate of product formation under some conditions, but may also have the opposite effect. As substrate concentrations increase, a tipping point can be reached where an increase in the unbinding rate results in an increase, rather than a decrease, of the reaction rate. The results indicate that enzymatic reactions can behave in ways that violate the classical Michaelis-Menten equation, and

neg: Electron ionization ion from non- dissociative results. Due to the higher energy supplied by 70 eV electrons other than the molecular ion, several other bond dissociation reactions can be seen as dissociative results, shown by the blue arrow in the diagram. These ions are known as second-generation product ions. The radical cation products are then directed towards the mass analyzer by a repeller electrode. The ionization process often follows predictable cleavage reactions that give rise to fragment ions which, following detection and signal processing, convey structural information about the analyte. Increasing the electron ionization process is done by increasing the ionization efficiency.

neg: Food drying Food drying Food drying is a method of food preservation in which food is dried (dehydrated or desiccated). Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water. Dehydration has been used widely for this purpose since ancient times; the earliest known practice is 12,000 B.C. by inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation (air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying), although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process and ensure more consistent results. Many different foods can be prepared

neg: Space medicine in the body as a result of differences in pressure between the body spaces and the ambient atmospheric pressure. Air filled spaces include the middle ears, paranasal sinuses, lungs and gastrointestinal tract. One would be predisposed by a pre-existing upper respiratory infection, nasal allergies, recurrent changing pressures, dehydration, or a poor equalizing technique. Positive pressure in the air filled spaces results from reduced barometric pressure during the depressurization phase of an EVA. It can cause abdominal distension, ear or sinus pain, decreased hearing, and dental or jaw pain. Abdominal distension can be treated with extending the abdomen, gentle massage and

neg: Gerbil limbs or a fractured spine (for which there is no cure). A common problem for all small rodents is neglect, which can cause the gerbils to not receive adequate food and water, causing serious health concerns, including dehydration, starvation, stomach ulcers, eating of bedding material, and cannibalism. Between 20 and 50% of all pet gerbils have the seizure disorder epilepsy. The seizures are thought to be caused by fright, handling, or a new environment. The attacks can be mild to severe, but do not typically appear to have any long-term effects, except for rare cases where death results from very

neg: Antioxidant keep them at an optimum level. The reactive oxygen species produced in cells include hydrogen peroxide (HO), hypochlorous acid (HClO), and free radicals such as the hydroxyl radical (·OH) and the superoxide anion (O). The hydroxyl radical is particularly unstable and will react rapidly and non-specifically with most biological molecules. This species is produced from hydrogen peroxide in metal-catalyzed redox reactions such as the Fenton reaction. These oxidants can damage cells by starting chemical chain reactions such as lipid peroxidation, or by oxidizing DNA or proteins. Damage to DNA can cause mutations and possibly cancer, if not reversed by DNA

neg: Chemistry solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware. Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically

neg: Nucleosynthesis isotope abundances and comparing those results with observed abundances. Isotope abundances are typically calculated from the transition rates between isotopes in a network. Often these calculations can be simplified as a few key reactions control the rate of other reactions. Tiny amounts of certain nuclides are produced on Earth by artificial means. Those are our primary source, for example, of technetium. However, some nuclides are also produced by a number of natural means that have continued after primordial elements were in place. These often act to create new elements in ways that can be used to date rocks or to

neg: Aniline reaction approaches, aryl halides can be aminated with aqueous or gaseous ammonia The chemistry of aniline is rich because the compound has been cheaply available for many years. Below are some classes of its reactions. The oxidation of aniline has been heavily investigated, and can result in reactions localized at nitrogen or more commonly results in the formation of new C-N bonds. In alkaline solution, azobenzene results, whereas arsenic acid produces the violet-coloring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into quinone, whereas chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts (especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium

neg: 1-Deoxynojirimycin This results in the product 1-DNJ. In the "Streptomyces subrutilus" species, a secondary pathway branching from the manojirimycin precursor results in 1-deoxymanojirimycin via dehydration and reduction of the isomer. However, "Bacillus subtilis" does not produce 1-deoxymanojirimycin despite the presence of the manojirimycin precursor. Azasugar biosynthesis in "Commelina communis" involves C1-C5 cyclisation of the original D-glucose precursor without the subsequent inversion. 1-Deoxynojirimycin 1-Deoxynojirimycin (DNJ), also called duvoglustat or moranolin, is an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, most commonly found in mulberry leaves. Although it can be obtained in small quantities by brewing an herbal tea from mulberry leaves, interest in commercial production has led

neg: Pyruvate kinase deficiency is called 'dehydration at cellular level'. This is how a deficiency in pyruvate kinase results in hemolytic anaemia, the body is deficient in red blood cells as they are destroyed by lack of ATP at a larger rate than they are being created. The diagnosis of pyruvate kinase deficiency can be done by full blood counts (differential blood counts) and reticulocyte counts. Other methods include direct enzyme assays, which can determine pyruvate kinase levels in erythrocytes separated by density centrifugation, as well as direct DNA sequencing. For the most part when dealing with pyruvate kinase deficiency, these two diagnostic techniques

neg: 4-Ipomeanol secondary alcohols can undergo oxidation reactions. This results in the formation of a ketone. 4-IPO can be isolated from sweet potatoes infected with the fungus "Fusarium solani". However, it can also be synthesized from the commercially available chemical diethyl 3,4-furandicarboxylate. Partial hydrolysis of diethyl 3,4-furandicarboxylate (I) with an equimolar quantity of NaOH results in the monoester 4-(ethoxycarbonyl)furan-3-carboxylic acid (II) occurs. This is followed by decarboxylation by heating with a copper powder yielded ethyl 3-furoate (III). The Claisen condensation is used to form ethyl 3-furoylacetate (IV). By reacting with propylene oxide, lactone (V) is formed. Decarboxylation is achieved by gently heating

neg: Breeding for drought stress tolerance to some plant species being able to recuperate after brief drought periods. A proper timing of life-cycle, resulting in the completion of the most sensitive developmental stages while water is abundant, is considered to be a dehydration escape strategy. Avoiding dehydration stress with a root system capable of extracting water from deep soil layers, or by reducing evapotranspiration without affecting yields, is considered as dehydration avoidance. Mechanisms such as osmotic adjustment (OA) whereby a plant maintains cell turgor pressure under reduced soil water potential are categorised as dehydration tolerance mechanisms. Dehydration avoidance mechanisms can be expressed even in the absence

neg: Dehydration is incapable of standing or thinking clearly), emergency attention is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with continuing assessment of electrolyte status; complete resolution is the norm in all but the most extreme cases. Dehydration In physiology, dehydration is a deficit of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers. Most people can

neg: Epistemic feedback quality, then epistemic feedback could be a positive factor to periodically report areas which need improvement. The risk comes when the feedback temporarily slants the evaluation of quality so that long-term performance is hindered by distortion in the way results were measured. Some methods to compensate for epistemic feedback are to use a "double-blind study" or to conduct secret surveys to quietly check the results. Also, "controlled experiments" can be used, where the outcome is adjusted for the placebo effect of reactions to unchanged parameters. Additionally, longitudinal studies, re-assessing the results over a long period of time, can reduce the

neg: Eye color for a plausible argument stating that some eyes can or do change, based on chemical reactions and hormonal changes within the body. Studies on Caucasian twins, both fraternal and identical, have shown that eye color over time can be subject to change, and major demelanization of the iris may also be genetically determined. Most eye-color changes have been observed or reported in the Caucasian population with hazel and amber eyes. Carleton Coon created a chart by the original Martin scale. The numbering is reversed on the scale below in the (later) Martin–Schultz scale, which is (still) used in physical anthropology.

neg: Properties of water the two carbon atoms bonded together in the carbon-carbon double bond, resulting in an alcohol. When addition of water to an organic molecule cleaves the molecule in two, hydrolysis is said to occur. Notable examples of hydrolysis are the saponification of fats and the digestion of proteins and polysaccharides. Water can also be a leaving group in S2 substitution and E2 elimination reactions; the latter is then known as a dehydration reaction. Water contains hydrogen in the oxidation state +1 and oxygen in the oxidation state −2. It oxidizes chemicals such as hydrides, alkali metals, and some alkaline earth metals.

neg: 2,2-Dimethoxypropane tissue. 2,2-Dimethoxypropane 2,2-Dimethoxypropane (DMP) is an organic compound with the formula (CH)C(OCH). A colorless liquid, it is the product of the reaction of acetone and methanol, according to the equation below: DMP is commonly used as a water scavenger in water-sensitive reactions. Upon acid-catalyzed reaction, DMP reacts quantitatively with water to form acetone and methanol. This property can be used to accurately determine the amount of water in a sample, alternatively to Karl Fischer method. DMP is specifically used to prepare acetonides: Dimethoxypropane is an intermediate for the synthesis of 2-methoxypropene. In histology, DMP is used for the dehydration of

neg: 2,2-Dimethoxypropane 2,2-Dimethoxypropane 2,2-Dimethoxypropane (DMP) is an organic compound with the formula (CH)C(OCH). A colorless liquid, it is the product of the reaction of acetone and methanol, according to the equation below: DMP is commonly used as a water scavenger in water-sensitive reactions. Upon acid-catalyzed reaction, DMP reacts quantitatively with water to form acetone and methanol. This property can be used to accurately determine the amount of water in a sample, alternatively to Karl Fischer method. DMP is specifically used to prepare acetonides: Dimethoxypropane is an intermediate for the synthesis of 2-methoxypropene. In histology, DMP is used for the dehydration of animal

neg: Wellman–Lord process Wellman–Lord process The Wellman–Lord process is a regenerable process to remove sulfur dioxide from flue gas (flue-gas desulfurization) without creating a throwaway sludge product. In this process, sulfur dioxide from flue gas is absorbed in a sodium sulfite solution in water forming sodium bisulfite; other components of flue gas are not absorbed. After lowering the temperature the bisulfite is converted to the sodium pyrosulfite which precipitates. Upon heating, the two previously described chemical reactions are reversed, and sodium pyrosulfite is converted to a concentrated stream of sulfur dioxide and sodium sulfite. The sulfur dioxide can be used for further reactions

neg: Human factors in diving safety precipitate an unrecoverable chain of events, as normally adequate reactions are found to be insufficient, and fail to rectify the situation as expected. Furthermore, some conditions such as injuries, dehydration or illness may physiologically predispose the diver to other conditions such as decompression sickness, hypothermia or barotraumas. Examples: Personal strength and fitness vary amongst people. Furthermore, they vary with time for the same person, and although the underwater environment reduces the effects of gravity, there are other factors which can make activity more strenuous, such as viscous drag, increased work of breathing and adverse water movements. Mental abilities also affect

neg: Freeze-drying of the product and makes them ideal for ready-to-eat instant meals. Due to the low processing temperatures and the minimization of deterioration reactions, nutrients are retained and color is maintained. Freeze-dried fruit maintains its original shape and has a characteristic soft, crispy texture. Since the main method of microbial decontamination for freeze drying is the low temperature dehydration process, spoilage organisms and pathogens resistant to these conditions can remain in the product. Although microbial growth is inhibited by the low moisture conditions, it can still survive in the food product. An example of this is a hepatitis A outbreak that

neg: Polymyxin domains that sequentially operate on the growing chain by adding the next residue and extending the chain through peptide-bond formation and condensation reactions. The final steps involve a thioesterase domain at the C-terminal of the last module to cyclize the molecule and liberate the chain from the enzyme. Polymyxins are used to neutralize or absorb LPS contaminants in samples, for example in immunological experiments. Minimization of LPS contamination can be important because LPS can evoke strong reactions from immune cells, distorting experimental results. By increasing permeability of the bacterial membrane system, polymyxin is also used in clinical work to increase