query: organelles released by the golgi apparatus that contains digestive enzymes

pos: Golgi apparatus Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1897 by the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi and named after him in 1898. Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways. It is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set of glycosylation enzymes that

pos: Eukaryote flattened vesicles (cisternae), the Golgi apparatus. Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down most biomolecules in the cytoplasm. Peroxisomes are used to break down peroxide, which is otherwise toxic. Many protozoans have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole, which mostly contains water and primarily maintains its osmotic pressure. Mitochondria are organelles found in all but one eukaryote. Mitochondria provide energy to the

pos: Endomembrane system vesicle travels to contains a marker on its cytosolic surface. This marker corresponds with the proteins on the vesicle traveling to the membrane. Once the vesicle finds the membrane, they fuse. There are three well known types of vesicles. They are clathrin-coated, COPI-coated, and COPII-coated vesicles. Each performs different functions in the cell. For example, clathrin-coated vesicles transport substances between the Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane. COPI- and COPII-coated vesicles are frequently used for transportation between the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that are used for intracellular digestion. The main functions of

pos: Golgi apparatus Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1897 by the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi and named after him in 1898. Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways. It is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set of glycosylation enzymes that

pos: Golgi apparatus apparatus is in the formation of proteoglycans. Enzymes in the Golgi append proteins to glycosaminoglycans, thus creating proteoglycans. Glycosaminoglycans are long unbranched polysaccharide molecules present in the extracellular matrix of animals. The vesicles that leave the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the "cis" face of the Golgi apparatus, where they fuse with the Golgi membrane and empty their contents into the lumen. Once inside the lumen, the molecules are modified, then sorted for transport to their next destinations. Those proteins destined for areas of the cell other than either the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi apparatus are moved through

pos: Golgi apparatus face cisternae, and enzymes catalyzing later modifications are found in "trans" face cisternae of the Golgi stacks. The Golgi apparatus is a major collection and dispatch station of protein products received from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Proteins synthesized in the ER are packaged into vesicles, which then fuse with the Golgi apparatus. These cargo proteins are modified and destined for secretion via exocytosis or for use in the cell. In this respect, the Golgi can be thought of as similar to a post office: it packages and labels items which it then sends to different parts of the cell or

pos: Endomembrane system central role in producing, processing, and transporting biochemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. Its membrane is the site of production of all the transmembrane proteins and lipids for most of the cell's organelles, including the ER itself, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, secretory vesicles, and the plasma membrane. Furthermore, almost all of the proteins that will exit the cell, plus those destined for the lumen of the ER, Golgi apparatus, or lysosomes, are originally delivered to the ER lumen. Consequently, many of the proteins found in the cisternal space of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen

pos: Endomembrane system evolved from outer membrane vesicles the endosymbiotic mitochondrion secreted. This OMV-based model for the origin of the endomembrane system is currently the one that requires the least amount of novel inventions at eukaryote origin and explains the many connections of mitochondria with other compartments of the cell. Endomembrane system The endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles. In eukaryotes the organelles of the endomembrane system include: the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles,

pos: Endomembrane system Endomembrane system The endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles. In eukaryotes the organelles of the endomembrane system include: the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, endosomes, among others. The system is defined more accurately as the set of membranes that form a single functional and developmental unit, either being connected directly, or exchanging material through vesicle transport. Importantly, the endomembrane system does not include the membranes of chloroplasts or mitochondria, but might

pos: Endoplasmic reticulum Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII. COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and COPI marks them to be brought back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations. A second method of transport out of the endoplasmic reticulum involves areas called membrane contact sites, where the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions: In most cells

pos: Lysosome rough endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes are imported from the Golgi apparatus in small vesicles, which fuse with larger acidic vesicles. Enzymes destined for a lysosome are specifically tagged with the molecule mannose 6-phosphate, so that they are properly sorted into acidified vesicles. Synthesis of lysosomal enzymes is controlled by nuclear genes. Mutations in the genes for these enzymes are responsible for more than 30 different human genetic disorders, which are collectively known as lysosomal storage diseases. These diseases result from an accumulation of specific substrates, due to the inability to break them down. These genetic defects are related to several

pos: Chief cell the amount of calcium in the blood. Parathyroid tissue seems to have a low turn-over rate. Gastric chief cells are epithelial cells which are found within the gastric unit or gastric gland, and form the base of the gastric unit. The gastric chief cell has an extensive network of lamellar rough endoplasmic reticulum organized around the nucleus. The gastric chief cell also contains many large secretory vesicles filled with digestive enzymes in the apical cytoplasm. Parathyroid chief cells make up the majority of the parathyroid gland along with adipocytes and oxyphil cells. Parathyroid chief cells have large amounts of organelles

pos: Endomembrane system of proteins and phospholipids. As polypeptides intended to be membrane proteins grow from the ribosomes, they are inserted into the ER membrane itself and are kept there by their hydrophobic portions. The rough ER also produces its own membrane phospholipids; enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids. The ER membrane expands and can be transferred by transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system. The Golgi apparatus (also known as the Golgi body and the Golgi complex) is composed of separate sacs called cisternae. Its shape is similar to a stack of pancakes. The number of these stacks

pos: Golgi apparatus ARFs. Treatment of cells with BFA thus disrupts the secretion pathway, promoting disassembly of the Golgi apparatus and distributing Golgi proteins to the endosomes and ER. Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1897 by the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi and named after him in 1898. Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus resides at

pos: Endomembrane system varies with the specific function of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is used by the cell for further protein modification. The section of the Golgi apparatus that receives the vesicles from the ER is known as the cis face, and is usually near the ER. The opposite end of the Golgi apparatus is called the trans face, this is where the modified compounds leave. The trans face is usually facing the plasma membrane, which is where most of the substances the Golgi apparatus modifies are sent. Vesicles sent off by the ER containing proteins are further altered at the Golgi

pos: David D. Sabatini in 1966 for studies on protein translation by ribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulum membranes. Sabatini's research has focused on the mechanisms by which proteins are targeted to different organelles within the cell. His early work studied co-translational targeting of ribosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum and helped establish the hypothesis that signal peptides direct protein traffic to cellular compartments. He later focused on trafficking from the Golgi apparatus to secretory vesicles and to the plasma membrane and in particular the mechanisms that address membrane proteins to the different surface domains of epithelial cells for which he employed viral infected epithelial monolayers.

pos: Berkeley body vesicles budding off the Golgi apparatus or the endoplasmic reticulum. They were discovered in 1980 by Novick and Schekman, of the Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Berkeley. Berkeley body Berkeley bodies are organelles unique to the yeast cell "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", with a secretory mutation in the genes sec7 and sec14. The function of the organelle lies in the CTV (cytoplasm to vacuole targeting) pathway, which is a transport pathway for certain vacuolar hydrolases to be degenerated. The Berkeley body acts as the transport medium from the cytoplasm to the vacuole within this pathway. Studies have shown that Berkeley bodies

pos: Cellular compartment Cellular compartment Cellular compartments in cell biology comprise all of the closed parts within the cytosol of a eukaryotic cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. These compartments are often, but not always, defined as membrane enclosed regions. The formation of cellular compartments is called compartmentalization. Both organelles, the mitochondria and chloroplasts (in photosynthetic organisms), are compartments that are believed to be of endosymbiotic origin. Other compartments such as peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus are not of endosymbiotic origin. Smaller elements like vesicles, and sometimes even microtubules can also

pos: Endomembrane system sorts the products of its processing and sends them to various parts of the cell. Molecular identification labels or tags are added by the Golgi enzymes to help with this. After everything is organized, the Golgi apparatus sends off its products by budding vesicles from its trans face. Vacuoles, like vesicles, are membrane-bound sacs within the cell. They are larger than vesicles and their specific function varies. The operations of vacuoles are different for plant and animal vacuoles. In plant cells, vacuoles cover anywhere from 30% to 90% of the total cell volume. Most mature plant cells contain one large

pos: Endomembrane system drinking). In phagocytosis, cells engulf large particles such as bacteria. Pinocytosis is the same process, except the substances being ingested are in the fluid form. Vesicles are small membrane-enclosed transport units that can transfer molecules between different compartments. Most vesicles transfer the membranes assembled in the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, and then from the Golgi apparatus to various locations. There are various types of vesicles each with a different protein configuration. Most are formed from specific regions of membranes. When a vesicle buds off from a membrane it contains specific proteins on its cytosolic surface. Each membrane a

pos: FAM214A cytoplasm, and 4.3% for the secretory vesicles and endoplasmic reticulum. This protein most likely does not undergo a significant number of post-translational modifications due to the lack of signal peptide sequence predicted by NetNGlyc and NetOGlyc on the ExPASy web server. This is because much of the intracellular machinery performing post-translational modifications requires the protein to move through organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Without a signal peptide sequence, the protein generally does not leave the nucleus, which was predicted by PSORT II as described above. A SAPS analysis of this protein was performed against the swp23s.q

pos: Lysosome for the lysosomal system. Upon leaving the Golgi apparatus, the lysosomal enzyme-filled vesicle fuses with a late endosome, a relatively acidic organelle with an approximate pH of 5.5. This acidic environment causes dissociation of the lysosomal enzymes from the mannose 6-phosphate receptors. The enzymes are packed into vesicles for further transport to established lysosomes. The late endosome itself can eventually grow into a mature lysosome, as evidenced by the transport of endosomal membrane components from the lysosomes back to the endosomes. As the endpoint of endocytosis, the lysosome also acts as a safeguard in preventing pathogens from being able to

pos: Golgi apparatus TGN is the final, from which proteins are packaged into vesicles destined to lysosomes, secretory vesicles, or the cell surface. The TGN is usually positioned adjacent to the stack, but can also be separate from it. The TGN may act as an early endosome in yeast and plants. There are structural and organizational differences in the Golgi apparatus among eukaryotes. In some yeasts, Golgi stacking is not observed. "Pichia pastoris" does have stacked Golgi, while "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" does not. In plants, the individual stacks of the Golgi apparatus seem to operate independently. The Golgi apparatus tends to be larger and

pos: Golgi apparatus the Golgi cisternae towards the "trans" face, to a complex network of membranes and associated vesicles known as the "trans-Golgi network" (TGN). This area of the Golgi is the point at which proteins are sorted and shipped to their intended destinations by their placement into one of at least three different types of vesicles, depending upon the signal sequence they carry. Though there are multiple models that attempt to explain vesicular traffic throughout the Golgi, no individual model can independently explain all observations of the Golgi apparatus. Currently, the cisternal progression/maturation model is the most accepted among scientists, accommodating many

pos: Dynamin Dynamin Dynamin is a GTPase responsible for endocytosis in the eukaryotic cell. Dynamin is part of the "dynamin superfamily", which includes classical dynamins, dynamin-like proteins, Mx proteins, OPA, mitofusins, and GBPs. Members of the dynamin family are principally involved in the scission of newly formed vesicles from the membrane of one cellular compartment and their targeting to, and fusion with, another compartment, both at the cell surface (particularly caveolae internalization) as well as at the Golgi apparatus. Dynamin family members also play a role in many processes including division of organelles, cytokinesis and microbial pathogen resistance. Dynamin itself is a

neg: Acrosome Acrosome The acrosome is an organelle that develops over the anterior half of the head in the spermatozoa (sperm cells) of many animals including humans. It is a cap-like structure derived from the Golgi apparatus. Acrosome formation is fully completed 5–10 years after testicular maturation. In Eutherian mammals the acrosome contains digestive enzymes (including hyaluronidase and acrosin). These enzymes break down the outer membrane of the ovum, called the zona pellucida, allowing the haploid nucleus in the sperm cell to join with the haploid nucleus in the ovum. This shedding of the acrosome, or acrosome reaction, can be stimulated "in

neg: Orchid mycorrhiza eventually takes on the properties of endoplasmic reticulum surrounded by Golgi apparatuses. The presence of these organelles is indicative of their purpose, which is thought to be the excretion of digestive enzymes into the interficial space between the peloton and the plant membrane to digest the fungal cells. Once the fate of the peloton is decided, and degradation and digestion are to occur, a secondary membrane forms around the fungal peloton which is essentially a large vacuole which will allow the isolated degradation of the peloton. Additionally peroxisomes accumulate within the digestive plant cells and undergo exosytosis into the newly

neg: Plasma cell on light microscopy. They have amphophilic cytoplasm and an eccentric nucleus with heterochromatin in a characteristic cartwheel or clock face arrangement. Their cytoplasm also contains a pale zone that on electron microscopy contains an extensive Golgi apparatus and centrioles (EM picture). Abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum combined with a well-developed Golgi apparatus makes plasma cells well-suited for secreting immunoglobulins. Other organelles in a plasma cell include ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria, and the plasma membrane. Terminally differentiated plasma cells express relatively few surface antigens, and do not express common pan-B cell markers, such as CD19 and CD20. Instead, plasma cells are identified through

neg: Golgi apparatus attach various sugar monomers to proteins as the proteins move through the apparatus. Owing to its large size and distinctive structure, the Golgi apparatus was one of the first organelles to be discovered and observed in detail. It was discovered in 1898 by Italian physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of the nervous system. After first observing it under his microscope, he termed the structure as "apparato reticolare interno" ("internal reticular apparatus"). Some doubted the discovery at first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an optical illusion created by the observation technique used by Golgi. With the

neg: Golgi apparatus to the extracellular space. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in lipid transport and lysosome formation. The structure and function of the Golgi apparatus are intimately linked. Individual stacks have different assortments of enzymes, allowing for progressive processing of cargo proteins as they travel from the cisternae to the trans Golgi face. Enzymatic reactions within the Golgi stacks occur exclusively near its membrane surfaces, where enzymes are anchored. This feature is in contrast to the ER, which has soluble proteins and enzymes in its lumen. Much of the enzymatic processing is post-translational modification of proteins. For example, phosphorylation of oligosaccharides

neg: Golgi apparatus more numerous in cells that synthesize and secrete large amounts of substances; for example, the antibody-secreting plasma B cells of the immune system have prominent Golgi complexes. In all eukaryotes, each cisternal stack has a "cis" entry face and a "trans" exit face. These faces are characterized by unique morphology and biochemistry. Within individual stacks are assortments of enzymes responsible for selectively modifying protein cargo. These modifications influence the fate of the protein. The compartmentalization of the Golgi apparatus is advantageous for separating enzymes, thereby maintaining consecutive and selective processing steps: enzymes catalyzing early modifications are gathered in the "cis"

neg: Fatty acid synthesis two fatty acids combine with glycerol and the third alcohol group is phosphorylated with a group such as phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid is formed. Phospholipids form the bulk of the lipid bilayers that make up cell membranes and surround the organelles within the cells (e.g. the cell nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus etc.) Straight-chain fatty acids occur in two types: saturated and unsaturated. Much like β-oxidation, straight-chain fatty acid synthesis occurs via the six recurring reactions shown below, until the 16-carbon palmitic acid is produced. The diagrams presented show how fatty acids are synthesized in microorganisms and list the enzymes

neg: Menkes disease the cell membrane to maintain copper concentrations in the cell. The protein is normally found in the Golgi apparatus, which is important for modifying proteins, including enzymes. In the Golgi apparatus, ATP7A protein provides copper to certain enzymes that are critical for the structure and function of bone, skin, hair, blood vessels, and the nervous system. One of the enzymes, lysyl oxidase, requires copper for proper function. This enzyme cross-links tropocollagen into strong collagen fibrils. The defective collagen contributes to many of the aforementioned connective tissue manifestations of this disease. If copper levels become excessive, the protein will travel to

neg: Gene expression to direct proteins to where they are supposed to be. In prokaryotes this is normally a simple process due to limited compartmentalisation of the cell. However, in eukaryotes there is a great variety of different targeting processes to ensure the protein arrives at the correct organelle. Not all proteins remain within the cell and many are exported, for example, digestive enzymes, hormones and extracellular matrix proteins. In eukaryotes the export pathway is well developed and the main mechanism for the export of these proteins is translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum, followed by transport via the Golgi apparatus. Regulation of gene

neg: Cell (biology) specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound. There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles. Many cells also

neg: Cisterna synthesis occur. Mature cisternae reach the final stage where cargo proteins are sent to transport carriers and finally the cisternae disassemble. Cisterna A cisterna (plural cisternae) is a flattened membrane disk of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. A Golgi stack may contain anywhere from three to twenty cisternae, but most contain about six cisternae. Golgi cisternae can be separated into four classes; cis, medial, trans, and TGN (trans-Golgi network). Each cisternae class contain different enzymes working within it. This helps to prevent any redundant enzymatic activity. Almost all cisternae in the Golgi apparatus present multiple stacking. There are only

neg: Cisterna Cisterna A cisterna (plural cisternae) is a flattened membrane disk of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. A Golgi stack may contain anywhere from three to twenty cisternae, but most contain about six cisternae. Golgi cisternae can be separated into four classes; cis, medial, trans, and TGN (trans-Golgi network). Each cisternae class contain different enzymes working within it. This helps to prevent any redundant enzymatic activity. Almost all cisternae in the Golgi apparatus present multiple stacking. There are only eight instances in which the stacked characteristic has been lost. Cisternae pack and modify proteins and polysaccharides. Biosynthetic cargo proteins travel

neg: Endoglycosidase H detergents like Triton X-100, n- Octylglucoside, or zwitterionic detergents. Endoglycosidase H (Endo H) is commonly used by cell biologists to monitor posttranslational modification in the Golgi apparatus. Most proteins destined for the cell surface are translated by ribosomes into the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and translocated into the Golgi. Upon entering the ER a molecule containing 14 sugar subunits is linked en bloc to an asparagine in a selective manner by the enzyme oligosaccharyl transferase. It is this oligosaccharide molecule which is modified by a series of enzymes as the protein moves through the different compartments of the Golgi apparatus.

neg: Acrocoelus Acrocoelus Acrocoelus is a genus of alveolates. This genus was named in 1999 by Fernández "et al". The species in this genus are fusiform with an apical anterior concavity and a longitudinal groove. There are two anterior flagellae directed backward. The flagellae arise from parallel basal bodies in a flagellar pocket. The single nucleus has a single nucleolus. The cell wall is a trilaminate pellicle with subpellicular microtubules and a micropore. The cytoplasm contains a single, branched mitochondrion with tubular cristae, a supranuclear Golgi apparatus and large amounts of glycan granules. There are three types of secretory organelles present. Type

neg: Dendrobranchiata a foregut, a midgut and a hindgut, and is situated dorsally. The foregut begins at the mouth, passes through the oesophagus, and opens into a sac which contains the grinding apparatus of the gastric mill. The hepatopancreas feeds into the midgut, where digestive enzymes are released, and nutrients taken up. The hindgut forms faecal pellets, which are then passed out through the muscular anus. The circulatory system is based around a compact, triangular heart, which pumps blood into three main arteries. Excretion is carried out through the gills, and by specialised glands located at the base of the antennae, and

neg: Microtubule organizing center itself appears to function as the main MTOC for microtubule nucleation and spindle organization during plant cell mitosis. The MTOC reorients itself during signal transduction, primarily during wound repair or immune responses. The MTOC is relocalized to a position between the edge of the cell and the nucleus in cells like macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. Organelles like the Golgi apparatus aid in the reorientation of the MTOC which can occur rapidly. Transduction signals cause microtubules to grow or contract, as well as cause the centrosome to become motile. The MTOC is located in a perinuclear position and contains the

neg: Kinetoplastida eukaryotic and possess normal eukaryotic organelles, for example the nucleus, mitochondrion, golgi apparatus and flagellum. Along with these universal structures kinetoplastids have several distinguishing morphological features such as the kinetoplast, sub-pellicular microtubule array and the paraflagellar rod. The kinetoplast, after which the class is named, contains the mitochondrial genome and is a dense DNA-containing granule within the cell's single mitochondrion. The structure is made up of a network of concatenated circular DNA molecules and their associated structural proteins along with DNA and RNA polymerases. The kinetoplast is found at the base of a cell's flagella and is associated to the

neg: Phycodnaviridae reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus by host-encoded glycosyltransferases. PBCV-1 glycosylates its major capsid protein independently by encoding most of the enzymes necessary for constructing the complex oligosaccharides, which then attach to the major capsid protein of PBCV-1 to form the glycoprotein. Therefore, the glycosylation of the major capsid protein of PBCV-1 happens independently of the ER and Golgi apparatus in host cells. The first known viral protein that functions as a potassium-selective ion channel was found in PBCV-1. The protein (called Kcv) consists of 94 amino acids and is encoded from a small open reading frame (ORF) (ORF A250R) in

neg: Viroporin SARS-CoV E protein, which forms a pore that integrates membrane lipids whose polar head groups influence ion selectivity. Loss of membrane polarization can promote viral yields through a variety of mechanisms that operate throughout the viral life cycle. In enveloped viruses, viroporins are not highly concentrated in the viral envelope, but nevertheless their presence may promote viral entry into the cell; the influenza A virus provides a well-studied example. Viroporins in the membranes of organelles such as the Golgi apparatus can influence those organelles' internal environments, which can modulate protein trafficking of viral proteins or protect the proteins from the

neg: Microorganism visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. The nucleus is an organelle that houses the DNA that makes up a cell's genome. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) itself is arranged in complex chromosomes. Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome. Like bacteria, plant cells have

neg: Acroplaxome contains structural proteins including keratin 5, F-actin and profilin IV. Acroplaxome Spermatozoa develop in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. During their development the spermatogonia proceed through meiosis to become spermatozoa. Many changes occur during this process: the DNA in nuclei becomes condensed; the acrosome develops as a structure close to the nucleus. The acrosome is derived from the Golgi apparatus and contains hydrolytic enzymes important for fusion of the spermatozoon with an egg cell. During spermiogenesis the nucleus condenses and changes shape. Abnormal shape change is a feature of sperm in male infertility. The acroplaxome is a structure found

neg: Camillo Golgi reticular apparatus). Recognising them to be unique cellular components, he presented his discovery before the Medical-Surgical Society of Pavia in April 1898. After the same was confirmed by his assistant Emilio Veratti, he published it in the "Bollettino della Società medico-chirurgica di Pavia". However, most scientists disputed his discovery as nothing but a staining artefact. Their microscopes were not powerful enough to identify the organelles. By the 1930s, Golgi's description was largely rejected. It was only firmly established after 50 years of its discovery, when electron microscopes were developed. Golgi, together with Santiago Ramón y Cajal, received the Nobel Prize

neg: Golgi apparatus development of modern microscopes in the 20th century, the discovery was confirmed. Early references to the Golgi referred to it by various names including the "Golgi–Holmgren apparatus", "Golgi–Holmgren ducts", and "Golgi–Kopsch apparatus". The term "Golgi apparatus" was used in 1910 and first appeared in the scientific literature in 1913, while "Golgi complex" was introduced in 1956. The subcellular localization of the Golgi apparatus varies among eukaryotes. In mammals, a single Golgi apparatus is usually located near the cell nucleus, close to the centrosome. Tubular connections are responsible for linking the stacks together. Localization and tubular connections of the Golgi apparatus

neg: I-cell disease I-cell disease Inclusion-cell (I-cell) disease, also referred to as mucolipidosis II (ML II), is part of the lysosomal storage disease family and results from a defective phosphotransferase (an enzyme of the Golgi apparatus). This enzyme transfers phosphate to mannose residues on specific proteins. Mannose 6 phosphate serves as a marker for them to be targeted to lysosomes within the cell. Without this marker, the proteins are instead excreted outside the cell—the default pathway for proteins moving through the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes cannot function without these proteins, which function as catabolic enzymes for the normal breakdown of substances (e.g. oligosaccharides, lipids,

neg: Fluorescence loss in photobleaching there is incomplete loss of fluorescence, then there is not continuity between the organelles. Instead, these organelles are compartmentalized and therefore closed off to the transfer of any photobleached fluorophores. Continuity of the Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and nucleus have been verified using FLIP. Two of the other, less frequently employed uses of FLIP are to determine how proteins are shuttled from the Cytoplasm to the Nucleus and then determine the rate at which this shuttling occurs. To determine what portions are involved and when in the shuttling process they are involved, continuous scans are observed. The sooner a part

neg: Endomembrane system begins in the endoplasmic reticulum, but is completed in the Golgi apparatus. The situation is similar in mammals, with the exception of the first few steps in ether lipid biosynthesis, which occur in peroxisomes. The various membranes that enclose the other subcellular organelles must therefore be constructed by transfer of lipids from these sites of synthesis. However, although it is clear that lipid transport is a central process in organelle biogenesis, the mechanisms by which lipids are transported through cells remain poorly understood. The first proposal that the membranes within cells form a single system that exchanges material between its

neg: Glycosaminoglycan that GAG synthesis, unlike proteins or nucleic acids, is not template driven, and dynamically modulated by processing enzymes. Based on core disaccharide structures, GAGs are classified into four groups. Heparin/heparan sulfate (HSGAGs) and chondroitin sulfate/dermatan sulfate (CSGAGs) are synthesized in the Golgi apparatus, where protein cores made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum are posttranslationally modified with O-linked glycosylations by glycosyltransferases forming proteoglycans. Keratan sulfate may modify core proteins through N-linked glycosylation or O-linked glycosylation of the proteoglycan. The fourth class of GAG, hyaluronic acid, is not synthesized by the Golgi, but rather by integral membrane synthases which immediately secrete the

neg: Acroplaxome Acroplaxome Spermatozoa develop in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. During their development the spermatogonia proceed through meiosis to become spermatozoa. Many changes occur during this process: the DNA in nuclei becomes condensed; the acrosome develops as a structure close to the nucleus. The acrosome is derived from the Golgi apparatus and contains hydrolytic enzymes important for fusion of the spermatozoon with an egg cell. During spermiogenesis the nucleus condenses and changes shape. Abnormal shape change is a feature of sperm in male infertility. The acroplaxome is a structure found between the acrosomal membrane and the nuclear membrane. The acroplaxome

neg: Mannose 6-phosphate receptor residue within the oligosaccharide. This forms a phosphodiester: Man-phosphate-GlcNAc. Once the phosphodiester has been formed the lysosomal enzyme will be translocated through the Golgi apparatus to the "trans"-Golgi. In the "trans"-Golgi a phosphodiesterase (EC 3.1.4.45) will remove the GlcNAc residue exposing the mannose 6-phosphate tag, allowing the lysosomal enzymes to bind to the CI-MPR and the CD-MPR. The MPR-lysosomal enzyme complex is translocated to a pre-lysosomal compartment, known as an endosome, in a clathrin-coated vesicle. This targeting away from the secretory pathway is achieved by the presence of a specific sorting signal, an acidic cluster/dileucine motif, in the cytoplasmic tails

neg: Labyrinthula secretes digestive enzymes for absorptive nutrition. These enzymes can be surface-bound or secreted into the medium to help the digestion of organic substances. Individual cells use the ectoplasmic net for movement by gliding inside it. They move in all directions, but they tend to go towards the periphery of the ectoplasmic net to enlarge the net and thus increase its surface area. Despite the lack of cell wall of the ectoplasmic net, each individual cell is surrounded by a cell wall located close to the cell membrane and composed of a single layer of Golgi-derived circular scales, which overlap over

neg: Actin which can bind actin and is implicated in the spatial distribution of chloroplasts in the cell; KAM1/MUR3 that define the morphology of the Golgi apparatus as well as the composition of xyloglucans in the cell wall; NtWLIM1, which facilitates the emergence of actin cell structures; and ERD10, which is involved in the association of organelles within membranes and microfilaments and which seems to play a role that is involved in an organism's reaction to stress. Nuclear actin was first noticed and described in 1977 by Clark and Merriam. Authors describe a protein present in the nuclear fraction, obtained from "Xenopus

neg: Alex B. Novikoff in which organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria and other cell debris were degraded by autolysis in the cytolysomes. Then the following speaker de Duve correctly identified that these organelles were lysosomes, and named them autophagic vacuoles, and he introduced the term "autophagy" for the process of such intracellular digestion. In 1962 he established for the first time the functional relationship between ER, Golgi and lysosomes. He specifically showed that smooth-surfaced derivatives of the ER fused with the Golgi membranes and the Golgi membranes in turn fused with lysosomes. He was the first to show that this GERL is

neg: Transmembrane channels Transmembrane channels Transmembrane channels, also called membrane channels, are pores within a lipid bilayer. The channels are formed by large protein complexes that run across the membrane. They cross the cell membrane, connecting the cytosol, or cytoplasm, to the extracellular matrix. Transmembrane channels are also found in the membranes of organelles including the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and lysosomes. Transmembrane channels differ from transporters and pumps in several ways; channels are not as selective as transporters and pumps, differentiating solutes primarily by size and ionic charge. Channels perform passive transport of materials also known as

neg: Neurodegeneration neurons by alpha-synuclein is due to a defect in the machinery that transports proteins between two major cellular organelles – the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus. Certain proteins like Rab1 may reverse this defect caused by alpha-synuclein in animal models. Recent research suggests that impaired axonal transport of alpha-synuclein leads to its accumulation in the Lewy bodies. Experiments have revealed reduced transport rates of both wild-type and two familial Parkinson's disease-associated mutant alpha-synucleins through axons of cultured neurons. Membrane damage by alpha-synuclein could be another Parkinson's disease mechanism. The main known risk factor is age. Susceptibility genes including

neg: Jennifer Lippincott-Schwartz Lippincott-Schwartz utilized advanced imaging techniques to reveal a more accurate picture of how the peripheral endoplasmic reticulum is structured. Their findings may yield new insights for genetic diseases affecting proteins that help shape the endoplasmic reticulum. Additionally, Lippincott-Schwartz's laboratory demonstrated that Golgi enzymes constitutively recycle back to the endoplasmic reticulum and that such recycling plays a central role in the maintenance, biogenesis, and inheritance of the Golgi apparatus in mammalian cells. Within Lippincott-Schwartz lab, current projects include several cell biological areas. For example, protein transport and cytoskeleton interaction, organelle assembly and disassembly, and cell polarity generation. There are also projects

neg: Polykrikos taeniocysts, mucocysts and plastids have been observed from different members within the taxon. Cytoplasm of "Polykrikos" is characterized by numerous rough endoplasmic reticulum nets, Golgi complexes and vacuoles. "Polykrikos" are known to produce ejectile organelles, the extrusomes. One of them is a nematocyst formed in zooids. Another extrusome found within the organism is rod-shaped taeniocyst which is distally located to nematocyst and was earlier mistakenly considered as a nematocyst-precursor. Together these organelles are forming taeniocyst-nematocyst complex that is thought to be the best synapomorphy for "Polykrikos" clade. Golgi-derived vacuoles are shared by both organelles and supply each with molecules needed

neg: Transmembrane channels concentrations resulting in the symptoms typical of the disease. Additional disorders resulting from malfunctions in ion channels include forms of epilepsy, cardiac arrhythmia, certain types of periodic paralysis and ataxia. Transmembrane channels Transmembrane channels, also called membrane channels, are pores within a lipid bilayer. The channels are formed by large protein complexes that run across the membrane. They cross the cell membrane, connecting the cytosol, or cytoplasm, to the extracellular matrix. Transmembrane channels are also found in the membranes of organelles including the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and lysosomes. Transmembrane channels differ from transporters and

neg: Microtubule with their plus-ends outwards towards the cell periphery (as shown in the first figure). In these cells, the microtubules play important roles in cell migration. Moreover, the polarity of microtubules is acted upon by motor proteins, which organize many components of the cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. Nucleation is the event that initiates the formation of microtubules from the tubulin dimer. Microtubules are typically nucleated and organized by organelles called microtubule-organizing centres (MTOCs). Contained within the MTOC is another type of tubulin, γ-tubulin, which is distinct from the α- and β-subunits of the microtubules themselves. The

neg: Nucleotide sugars metabolism Nucleotide sugars metabolism In nucleotide sugar metabolism a group of biochemicals known as nucleotide sugars act as donors for sugar residues in the glycosylation reactions that produce polysaccharides. They are substrates for glycosyltransferases. The nucleotide sugars are also intermediates in nucleotide sugar interconversions that produce some of the activated sugars needed for glycosylation reactions. Since most glycosylation takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus, there are a large family of nucleotide sugar transporters that allow nucleotide sugars to move from the cytoplasm, where they are produced, into the organelles where they are consumed. Nucleotide sugar metabolism is particularly

neg: Fatty acid metabolism Fatty acids (mainly in the form of triglycerides) are therefore the foremost storage form of fuel in most animals, and to a lesser extent in plants. In addition, fatty acids are important components of the phospholipids that form the phospholipid bilayers out of which all the membranes of the cell are constructed (the cell wall, and the membranes that enclose all the organelles within the cells, such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus). Fatty acids can also be cleaved, or partially cleaved, from their chemical attachments in the cell membrane to form second messengers within

neg: Plasmodium to the ER in other eukaryotes. Proteins are trafficked from the ER to the Golgi apparatus which generally consists of a single membrane-bound compartment in Apicomplexans. From here proteins are trafficked to various cellular compartments or to the cell surface. Like other apicomplexans, "Plasmodium" species have several cellular structures at the apical end of the parasite that serve as specialized organelles for secreting effectors into the host. The most prominent are the bulbous rhoptries which contain parasite proteins involved in invading the host cell and modifying the host once inside. Adjacent to the rhoptries are smaller structures termed micronemes that

neg: Plasmodium falciparum and are secretory organelles that produce proteins and enzymes essential for nutrient uptake and immune evasion processes. The apical complex, which is actually a combination of organelles, is an important structure. It contains secretory organelles called rhoptries and micronemes, which are vital for mobility, adhesion, host cell invasion, and parasitophorous vacuole formation. As an apicomplexan, it harbours a plastid, an apicoplast, similar to plant chloroplasts, which they probably acquired by engulfing (or being invaded by) a eukaryotic alga and retaining the algal plastid as a distinctive organelle encased within four membranes. The apicoplast is involved in the synthesis of lipids

neg: Digestive enzyme these enzymes include: Digestive enzyme Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining In the human digestive system,

neg: Trypanosoma brucei brucei" comprises a species complex that includes: "T. brucei" is a typical unicellular eukaryotic cell, and measures 8 to 50 μm in length. It has an elongated body having a streamlined and tapered shape. Its cell membrane (called pellicle) encloses the cell organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and ribosomes. In addition, there is an unusual organelle called the kinetoplast, which is made up of numerous circular DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and functions as a single large mitochondrion. The kinetoplast lies near the basal body with which it is indistinguishable under microscope. From the basal body arises a

neg: Cochlosoma oblong. The nucleus is situated near the centre of the body. A parabasal apparatus, composed of a golgi complex and a single parabasal fiber, can be found near the anterior side of the nucleus. Double membrane bound organelles similar to hydrogenosomes are present in the cytoplasm. Cochlosoma species are often distinguished by their differences in size and the presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules. Little is known about "Cochlosoma" life cycles and much of what is known has been observed in "C. anatis". Reproduction occurs by longitudinal binary fission in the trophozite stage. A pseudocyst stage has been recorded and

neg: Glycoside hydrolase and extracellular enzymes that are largely involved in nutrient acquisition. One of the important occurrences of glycoside hydrolases in bacteria is the enzyme beta-galactosidase (LacZ), which is involved in regulation of expression of the "lac" operon in "E. coli". In higher organisms glycoside hydrolases are found within the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus where they are involved in processing of N-linked glycoproteins, and in the lysosome as enzymes involved in the degradation of carbohydrate structures. Deficiency in specific lysosomal glycoside hydrolases can lead to a range of lysosomal storage disorders that result in developmental problems or death. Glycoside hydrolases are

neg: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency genetic conditions, a blocked pancreatic duct, or prior infection. The exocrine pancreas is a portion of this organ that contains clusters of ducts (acini) producing bicarbonate anion, a mild alkali, as well as an array of digestive enzymes that together empty by way of the interlobular and main pancreatic ducts into the duodenum (upper small intestine). The hormones cholecystokinin and secretin secreted by the stomach and duodenum in response to distension and the presence of food in turn stimulate the production of digestive enzymes by the exocrine pancreas. The alkalization of the duodenum neutralizes the acidic chyme produced by the

neg: Human digestive system the duodenum. (The enzymes that digest polysaccharides, by contrast, are primarily produced by the walls of the intestines.) The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive enzymes. The major proteases, the pancreatic enzymes which work on proteins, are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. Elastase is also produced. Smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are secreted. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase. The precursor zymogens, are inactive variants of the enzymes; which avoids the onset of pancreatitis caused by autodegradation. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by

neg: Endomembrane system apparatus and then prepared for secretion from the cell or transport to other parts of the cell. Various things can happen to the proteins on their journey through the enzyme covered space of the Golgi apparatus. The modification and synthesis of the carbohydrate portions of glycoproteins is common in protein processing. The Golgi apparatus removes and substitutes sugar monomers, producing a large variety of oligosaccharides. In addition to modifying proteins, the Golgi also manufactures macromolecules itself. In plant cells, the Golgi produces pectins and other polysaccharides needed by the plant structure. Once the modification process is completed, the Golgi apparatus

neg: I-cell disease GlcNAc phosphotransferase, which phosphorylates mannose residues to mannose-6-phosphate on N-linked glycoproteins in the Golgi apparatus within the cell. Without mannose-6-phosphate to target them to the lysosomes, the enzymes are transported from the Golgi to the extracellular space, resulting in large intracellular inclusions of molecules requiring lysosomal degradation in patients with the disease (hence the name of the disorder). Hydrolases secreted into the blood stream cause little problem as they are deactivated in the neutral pH of the blood. It can be associated with N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase (GNPTA). In a case report, I-cell disease was complicated by severe dilative cardiomyopathy (DCM). Though

neg: Corneocyte makes the skin drier. The intercellular lipid layer helps prevent the loss of natural moisturizing factor by sealing the outside of each corneocyte. Although stratum corneum is mostly composed of corneocytes, other supporting structures are present in the extracellular matrix to assist in the function of stratum corneum. These include: Lamellar bodies are tubular or ovoid-shaped secretory organelles derived from the Golgi apparatus of keratinocytes in the upper part of stratum spinosum. From the site of production, lamellar bodies migrate to the top of the stratum granulosum and then into the intercellular domain of the stratum corneum to extrude their

neg: Dinoflagellate "Karlodinium micrum" have acquired other pigments through endosymbiosis, including fucoxanthin. This suggests their chloroplasts were incorporated by several endosymbiotic events involving already colored or secondarily colorless forms. The discovery of plastids in the Apicomplexa has led some to suggest they were inherited from an ancestor common to the two groups, but none of the more basal lines has them. All the same, the dinoflagellate cell consists of the more common organelles such as rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lipid and starch grains, and food vacuoles. Some have even been found with a light-sensitive organelle, the eyespot or

neg: Albert Claude Doctor of Medicine degree in 1928. Devoted to medical research, he initially joined German institutes in Berlin. In 1929 he found an opportunity to join the Rockefeller Institute in New York. At Rockefeller University he made his most groundbreaking achievements in cell biology. In 1930 he developed the technique of cell fractionation, by which he discovered the agent of the Rous sarcoma, components of cell organelles such as mitochondrion, chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosome and lysosome. He was the first to employ the electron microscope in the field of biology. In 1945 he published the first detailed structure of

neg: Coccolithophore cell and surround the nucleus, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and other organelles. Each cell also has two flagellar structures, which are involved not only in motility, but also in mitosis and formation of the cytoskeleton. In some species, a functional or vestigial haptonema is also present. This structure, which is unique to haptophytes, coils and uncoils in response to environmental stimuli. Although poorly understood, it has been proposed to be involved in prey capture. The life cycle of coccolithophores is characterized by an alternation of diploid and haploid phases. They alternate from the haploid to diploid phase through syngamy

neg: Digestive enzyme Digestive enzyme Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining In the human digestive system, the main sites

neg: ATP7A In the small intestine, the ATP7A protein helps control the absorption of Cu(I) from food. After Cu(I) ions are absorbed into enterocytes, ATP7A is required to transfer them across the basolateral membrane into the circulation. In other organs and tissues, the ATP7A protein has a dual role and shuttles between two locations within the cell. The protein normally resides in a cell structure called the Golgi apparatus, which modifies and transports newly produced enzymes and other proteins. Here, ATP7A supplies Cu(I) to certain enzymes (e.g. peptidyl-α-monooxygenase, tyrosinase, and lysyl oxidase) that are critical for the structures and functions of brain,

neg: Protein subcellular localization prediction Protein subcellular localization prediction Protein subcellular localization prediction (or just protein localization prediction) involves the prediction of where a protein resides in a cell, its subcellular localization. In general, prediction tools take as input information about a protein, such as a protein sequence of amino acids, and produce a predicted location within the cell as output, such as the nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, extracellular space, or other organelles. The aim is to build tools that can accurately predict the outcome of protein targeting in cells. Prediction of protein subcellular localization is an important component of bioinformatics based prediction of

neg: Golgi apparatus are dependent on microtubules. In experiments it is seen that as microtubules are depolymerized the Golgi apparatuses lose mutual connections and become individual stacks throughout the cytoplasm. In yeast, multiple Golgi apparatuses are scattered throughout the cytoplasm (as observed in "Saccharomyces cerevisiae"). In plants, Golgi stacks are not concentrated at the centrosomal region and do not form Golgi ribbons. Organization of the plant Golgi depends on actin cables and not microtubules. The common feature among Golgi is that they are adjacent to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites. In most eukaryotes, the Golgi apparatus is made up of a series of

neg: Christian de Duve repeated the estimation. This led to a hypothesis that a membrane-like barrier restricted rapid access of the enzyme to its substrate, so that the enzymes were able to diffuse after a few days. They described the membrane-like barrier as a "saclike structure surrounded by a membrane and containing acid phosphatase." An unrelated enzyme from the cell fraction had come from membranous fractions which were definitely cell organelles. In 1955, de Duve named them "lysosomes" to reflect their digestive properties. That same year, Alex B. Novikoff from the University of Vermont visited de Duve's laboratory, and successfully produced the first hard

neg: Glycosyltransferase GDP-mannose, GDP-fucose, and CMP-sialic acid. The phosphate(s) of these donor molecules are usually coordinated by divalent cations such as manganese, however metal independent enzymes exist. Many glycosyltransferases are single-pass transmembrane proteins, and they are usually anchored to membranes of Golgi apparatus Glycosyltransferases can be segregated into "retaining" or "inverting" enzymes according to whether the stereochemistry of the donor's anomeric bond is retained (α→α) or inverted (α→β) during the transfer. The inverting mechanism is straightforward, requiring a single nucleophilic attack from the accepting atom to invert stereochemistry. The retaining mechanism has been a matter of debate, but there exists strong evidence

neg: Golgi apparatus compartments and is a collection of fused, flattened membrane-enclosed disks known as cisternae (singular: "cisterna", also called "dictyosomes"), originating from vesicular clusters that bud off the endoplasmic reticulum. A mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks of cisternae. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack; however, in some protists as many as sixty cisternae have been observed. This collection of cisternae is broken down into "cis", medial, and "trans" compartments, making up two main networks: the "cis" Golgi network (CGN) and the "trans" Golgi network (TGN). The CGN is the first cisternal structure, and the

neg: Human digestive system starts to work on breaking down fats. Lipase is further produced in the pancreas where it is released to continue this digestion of fats. The presence of salivary lipase is of prime importance in young babies whose pancreatic lipase has yet to be developed. As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis. Saliva also contains a

neg: Alex B. Novikoff discuss their results. In 1955, now confident that the membranous particles were cell organelles, de Duve gave a hypothetical name "lysosomes" to reflect their digestive properties. That same year, after visiting de Duve's laboratory, using his own histochemical protocol Novikoff successfully produced the first real images (electron micrographs) of the new organelle. In 1965 with de Duve, he confirmed the location of the hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes. Novikoff further established the importance of lysosomes in diseases. "It is largely due to Novikoff's bold and imaginative use of morphological techniques," de Duve praised him, "that lysosomes have come to be recognized

neg: Digestive enzyme digestive enzymes: Pancreatic juice, composed of the secretions of both ductal and acinar cells, is made up of the following digestive enzymes: Pancreas's exocrine function owes part of its immaculate function to bio-feedback mechanisms controlling secretion of its juice. The following significant pancreatic bio-feedback mechanisms are essential to the maintenance of pancreatic juice balance/production: The following enzymes/hormones are produced in the duodenum: Throughout the lining of the small intestine there are numerous brush border enzymes whose function is to further break down the chyme released from the stomach into absorbable particles. These enzymes are absorbed whilst peristalsis occurs. Some of

neg: Turkeypox virus coding for transcription factors) occurs. Late viral genes are now being transcribed (most encode for structural proteins, enzymes and transcriptions factors) and are then translated. The concatameric intermediates produced earlier are now resolved into double strand DNA and packaged in the late viral proteins to produce and immature virions (IV). The immature virions mature through an unknown mechanism that may involve processing by the Golgi apparatus in the cell. They are now mature virions that are release from the cell by either lysing the cell or budding out from the membrane. It is through budding that they acquire their envelope.

neg: Chromatolysis observed, however the extent varies. The number of autophagic vacuoles and lysosomal structures often increase during central chromatolysis. Changes can also occur in other organelles such as the Golgi apparatus and neurotubules. However, the exact significance of these changes is currently unknown. In neurons receiving axonal transection, central chromatolysis is observed in the area between the nucleus and the axon hillock following... Peripheral chromatolysis is much less common, but has been reported to occur after axotomy and ischemia in certain species. Peripheral chromatolysis is essentially the reverse of central chromatolysis, in which the disintegration of Nissl bodies is initiated at

neg: Satellite glial cell and not very dense, and it is associated with adhesion molecules, receptors for neurotransmitters and other molecules, and ion channels, specifically potassium ion channels. Within individual SGCs, there is both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, but the latter is much less abundant. Most often the Golgi apparatus and the centrioles in an SGC are found in a region very close to the cell’s nucleus. On the other hand, mitochondria are found throughout the cytoplasm along with the organelles involved in autophagy and other forms of catabolic degradation, such as lysosomes, lipofuscin granules, and peroxisomes. Both microtubules and intermediate

neg: Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryotes () are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea). Eukaryotes belong to the domain Eukaryota or Eukarya. Their name comes from the Greek εὖ ("eu", "well" or "true") and κάρυον ("karyon", "nut" or "kernel"). Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, and in addition, some cells of plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Unlike unicellular archaea and bacteria, eukaryotes may also be multicellular and include organisms consisting of many cell types forming different kinds of tissue. Animals and plants are the most familiar eukaryotes. Eukaryotes

neg: Biological membrane of specialized plasma membranes can separate cell from external environment: apical, basolateral, presynaptic and postsynaptic ones, membranes of flagella, cilia, microvillus, filopodia and lamellipodia, the sarcolemma of muscle cells, as well as specialized myelin and dendritic spine membranes of neurons. Plasma membranes can also form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveolae, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion, and cell junctions. These types of membranes differ in lipid and protein composition. Distinct types of membranes also create intracellular organelles: endosome; smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum; sarcoplasmic reticulum; Golgi apparatus; lysosome; mitochondrion (inner and outer membranes); nucleus (inner

neg: Stimulus (physiology) to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response. Chemoreceptors and mechanorceptors, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine. The digestive system is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or enteric nervous system alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and

neg: MST4 MST4 Serine/threonine protein kinase MST4, also known as mammalian STE20-like protein kinase 4 (MST-4), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "MST4" gene. The product of this gene is a member of the GCK group III family of kinases, which are a subset of the Ste20-like kinases. The encoded protein contains an amino-terminal kinase domain, and a carboxy-terminal regulatory domain that mediates homodimerization. The protein kinase localizes to the Golgi apparatus and is specifically activated by binding to the Golgi matrix protein GM130. It is also cleaved by caspase-3 "in vitro", and may function in the apoptotic

neg: Peripheral myelin protein 22 expression is relatively low in the central nervous system of adults. Like other membrane proteins, newly translated PMP22 protein is temporarily sequestered to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus for post-translational modifications. PMP22 protein is glycosylated with an N terminus-linked sugar and co-localized with the chaperone protein calnexin in the ER. . After the protein is transported to the Golgi apparatus it can then become incorporated in the plasma membrane of the cell. In humans, the PMP22 gene is located on chromosome 17p11.2 and spans approximately 40kb. The gene contains six exons conserved in both humans and rodents, two

neg: Nanocapsule the nanocarrier, the better the delivery properties and the solubility of the nutraceuticals; the nanocarrier is able to enter the bloodstream easier if smaller. Lipid or polymer-based (natural biodegradable) are used for encapsulation for nutraceuticals. Types of polymers used include collagen, gelatin, and albumin. Relatively new research involves the encapsulation of digestive enzymes within a non-toxic polymer shell. The enzyme filled nanoshell has been proven in lab mice to absorb ethyl alcohol from the bloodstream, therefore resulting in reduced blood alcohol levels. It has been concluded that the particles act as organelles, which proposes other benefits to enzyme therapies. This

neg: Positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus a variety of organelles, often the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but also including membranes derived from mitochondria, vacuoles, the Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, plasma membranes, autophagosomal membranes, and novel cytoplasmic compartments. The replication of the positive-sense ssRNA genome proceeds through double-stranded RNA intermediates, and the purpose of replication in these membranous invaginations may be the avoidance of cellular response to the presence of dsRNA. In many cases subgenomic RNAs are also created during replication. After infection, the entirety of the host cell's translation machinery may be diverted to the production of viral proteins as a result of the very high affinity

neg: Uropod (immunology) packed adhesion and signaling proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins. Several cell organelles are present in the rear of the cell to aid in quick and efficient movement, including the microtubule-organizing center, the golgi apparatus, and the endoplasmic reticulum. Mitochondria also localize near the uropod to efficiently deliver ATP to ATP-dependent actomyosin contraction. This redistribution of cell contents towards polarized structures is also important for cell activation, cell communication, and apoptosis, and thus uropod formation plays a crucial part in these functions. Though research is ongoing, many cell signals and mechanisms are known to play a part in uropod formation and retraction.

neg: Protein subcellular localization prediction in databases. Examples include the multi-species database Compartments, FunSecKB2, a fungal database; PlantSecKB, a plant database; MetazSecKB, an animal and human database; and ProtSecKB, a protist database. Protein subcellular localization prediction Protein subcellular localization prediction (or just protein localization prediction) involves the prediction of where a protein resides in a cell, its subcellular localization. In general, prediction tools take as input information about a protein, such as a protein sequence of amino acids, and produce a predicted location within the cell as output, such as the nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, extracellular space, or other organelles. The aim is to